If the denominator polynomial is still not adequate, then the It is obvious that the step responses in all three
nses in all three models have
H matrix and the m vector may again be extended by
assuming a matching of the next Markov parameter in the
sequence, and eqns. 6 are solved for the new estimate of e. It
should be noted that an extra time moment may be matched
instead of a Markov parameter by simply extending eqn. 3 to
take account of this. The additional rows in H and m will then
appear as the top instead of the bottom rows.
It should be mentioned that, although the least-squares
method has been extended here by using more time moments
than Markov parameters, it is a simple matter to use more
Markov parameters than time moments by truncating eqn. 3
and extending eqn. 4. However, if any of the poles of the full
system are larger than one in modulus, then it is easy to see
that the Markov parameter sequence grows unbounded
(similar to the time moment sequence when a pole of modulus
less than one exists).’ Consequently, such common systems
usually only require the first few Markov parameters in a
least-squares match, otherwise there could be numerical prob-
lems in solving eqn. 6 owing to ill-conditioning of the equa-
tions.
Example: Consider the third-order system’ given by the trans-
fer function
8s’ + 6s + 2
”) = 4s3 + 13s’ + 1 IS + 2
with poles at -0.25, -1 and -2. It was shown by Lucas
and Beat’ that applying the method of Shoji ef al.’ (time
moments only) to this system resulted in unstable or very bad
approximations when reduced to second-order models.
Expansion of G(s) about s = 0 gives the first six time
moment proportionals (coefficients of SI) as 1, -2.5, 11.25,
-47.625, 193.8125 and -778.9063, respectively, whereas
expansion about s = CO gives the first six Markov parameters
(coefficients of s - j ) as 2, -5, -23.8125, 48.953 and -99.238,
respectively. It is interesting to see what happens to the
+ +
reduced models of the type (do d , s ) / ( e , e’s s’) when
Markov parameters are matched along with the time
moments in a least-squares sense to obtain the denominator
polynomial. The following table gives four reduced models,
where four time moments and j Markov parameters are used
to calculate the denominators, and the numerators are calcu-
lated by matching exactly one time moment and one Markov
parameters; I and J are the relative impulse and step integral
square errors’, respectively:
J do d, e0 e1 I J
0 -0.6667 -0.9333 -0.6667 -2.60 Unstable
1 0.8072 2.0 0.8072 3.6603 2.4%
2 0.6166 2.0 0.6166 2.8523 2.16% 17.1%
3 0.5367 2.0 0.5367 2.5141 4.2%
It is seen that the reduced model with j = 1 is excellent com-
pared to those obtained by least-squares moment matching
only,’ and the impulse responses of the models with j = 2, 3
are also both excellent, although the step responses are prob-
ably not acceptable. This is perhaps to be expected because
Markov parameters influence the initial transient behaviour of
the model and the impulse response reflects this more than the
step response.
In an effort to obtain more acceptable step response
models, the flexibility of deriving the reduced numerator can
be used by matching exactly the first two time moments of the
system. The following table shows the various models which
have the same denominators as those given above, hut the
numerators are calculated by the latter suggestion
i d, d. I J
1 0.8072 1.6425 7.3% 4.14%
2 0.6166 1.3109 1244% 5.27%
3 0.5367 1.1722 15.4% 6.09%
1384
improved significantly at the expense of the impulse responses.
Conclusions: It has been shown that the method of least-
squares moment matching’ for linear system reduction can be
generalised, in a straightforward way, to include Markov
parameters in the algorithm to calculate the reduced transfer
function denominator. The extra flexibility obtained by this
approach has been illustrated by an example. It is seen that
improved models are sometimes possible without having to
resort, for example, to the more computationally demanding
least-squares fitting of ‘shifted’ time moments.’ Although the
general approach of least-squares moment matching for
model reduction remains fairly sensitive to the pole positions
of the system, the suggested extension to include Markov
parameters in the process enhances its effectiveness to cope
with a wider class of transfer functions.
T. N. LUCAS loth June 1991
A. R. MUNRO
Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences
Dundee Institute of Technology
Bell Street
Dundee DD1 IHG, United Kingdom
Refereoees
1LUCAS, T. N., and BUT, I. F.: ‘Model reduction by least-squares
moment matching’, Electron. Lett., 1990.26, pp. 1213-1215
2 SHOJI, F. F., ABE, K., and TAKEDA, H.: ‘Model reduction for a class of
linear dynamic systems’, J. Franklin Inst., 1985,319, pp. 549-558
3 CHEN, c . F., and SHIEH, L. s.: ‘A novel approach to linear model
simplification’, Int. J . Control, 1968,8, pp. 561-570
4 CHUANG, s. c.:‘Application of continued-fraction method for mod-
elling transfer functions to give more accurate initial transient
response’, Electron. Lett., 1970,6, pp. 861-863
5 BISTRITZ, Y.: ‘Mixed complete Pad6 model reduction: a useful for-
mulation for closed loop design’, Electron. Lett., 1980, 16, pp.
563-565
+
PATH LOSS PREDICTION IN
MULTIFLOORED BUILDINGS AT 914MHz
Indexing terms: Radiowave propagation, Losses
Quantitative models are presented that predict the effect of
walls, office partitions, floors, and building layout on path
loss at 914MHz. Average floor attenuation factors (FAF),
4.3% which describe the additional path loss (in dB) caused by
floors between transmitter and receiver are found for up to
32.2% four floors in a typical officebuilding. Average FAFs are
12.9dB and 16.2dB for one floor between the transmission
and receiver in two differentoffice buildings. For same floor
measurements, attenuation factors (AF) arc found to be
1.4dB for each cloth-covered office partition and 2.4dB for
each wncrete wall between transmitter and receiver.
Introduction: The performance of in-building high capacity
wireless communications is limited by path loss character-
istics. Thus, it is important to understand how the physical
surroundings impact the in-building propagation environ-
ment. Several researchers have measured radiowaves in huild-
ings and statistically modelled their result^.'.^ A summary of
path loss, narrowband fading statistics, and RMS delay
spread in many different building types is given in Reference 1.
We present statistical analyses of 914MHz narrow band
path loss measurements inside four buildings, and then classify
the measurements based on the physical surroundings. A sta-
tistical model of the simple form d” is used to relate average
path loss to the log of distance where d is the distance between
the transmitter and receiver, measured in three dimensions,
and n is the mean path loss exponent which indicates how fast
path loss increases with distance (n = 2 for free We
determine values of the parameters n and the standard devi-
ELECTRONICS LETTERS 18fh July 1991 Vol. 27 No. 15
ation U, for classifications of the measured data. When site- The best fit exponent value for all measurement runs in the
specific information such as the nature and number of grocery store is less than two (n = 1.81) with a standard devi-
obstructions between transmitter and receiver are considered, ation of 5.2dB. In the retail department store, mean path loss
we have developed more accurate path loss prediction models. increases with distance slightly greater than free space
(n = 2.18) and there is a spread of 8.7dB about the mean
Measurements and data processing: Narrow band (CW) signal value. The path loss results for the grocery and retail stores
strength measurements were made at 914MHz with a system closely agree with those found in open-plan factory build-
nearly identical to the one used in Reference 3. Our system ings.",'
path loss dynamic measurement range is 120dB which is of
the order of the maximum dynamic range expected for emerg- Table 1 MEAN PATH LOSS EXPONENT n
ing personal communications networks (PCN) which will AND STANDARD DEVIATION U FOR USE IN
soon be deployed within buildings. DISTANCE-DEPENDENT PATH LOSS MODEL
The measured buildings include a typical open-plan grocery O F EQN. 1 BASED ON MEASUREMENTS AT
store, an open-plan retail store, and two partitioned multifloor CARRIER FREQUENCY O F 914MHz
offce buildings. In the two ofice buildings, measurements
n U Number of locations
were made in soft partitioned environments where the only
obstructions were cloth-covered plastic dividers (soft dB
partitions) and concrete walls. We also made measurements
when the transmitter and receiver were on different floors. All buildings :
All locations 3.14 16.3 634
The median signal strength over a distance of 20 1 (6.56 m)
Same floor 2.76 12.9 501
was computed at 201 intervals for each measurement run and 5.1 73
Through 1 floor 4.19
is considered a discrete measurement location for the develop-
Through 2 floors 5.04 6.5 30
ment of path loss models and contour plots. A 201 distance
Through 3 floors 5.22 6.7 30
was chosen so that the fast fading of the envelope caused by
Grocery store 1.81 5.2 89
multipath would not influence the large-scale path loss for a
Retail store 2.18 8.7 137
given measurement track. Our work shows that inside build-
ings, large-scale path loss is uncorrelated at 20 I spacings. Office building 1:
Entire building 3.54 12.8 320
Same floor 3.27 11.2 238
Path loss prediction models: Although the path loss models W. wing 5th floor 2.68 8.1 104
presented here are for CW measurements,' they showed that Central wing 5th 4.01 4.3 118
when individual multipath component amplitudes are uncor- W. wing 4th floor 3.18 4.4 120
related, or phases of individual multipath components are Office building 2 :
independent and identically distributed over [0, 2x), CW and Entire building 4.33 13.3 100
wideband (250 MHz RF bandwidth) path loss measurements Same floor 3.25 5.2 37
are equivalent when averaged over distances of a few wave-
lengths. Thus, it is believed that CW-based models may also
be used to describe average wideband path loss for the same A scatter plot of path loss against T-R separation for offce
environments. Furthermore, work in References 3, 4 and 8 building two measurements is shown in Fig. 1. The mean path
showed virtually no difference in path loss from 900 MHz to loss increases with distance to the 4.33 power. Nearly all mea-
4.0GH.z in several buildings. From References 3, 4 and 8, it surements had multiple obstructions such as floors, concrete
could be logically inferred that the models described in this walls, windows, and soft partitions between the transmitter
Letter could be applied throughout the low microwave bands and receiver. The number of floors between the transmitter
(1-5GHz). and receiver can be seen to severely influence the path loss for
a given T-R separation. Thus, the number of floors has an
(A) Distance-dependent path loss model: A simple distance- impact on the parameter n in the path loss model, and should
dependent path loss model'.' is used to model mean path loss be quantified for accurate path loss prediction.
as a function of distance. (B) Floor attenuation factor (FAF) path loss model: In the
- preceding Section, the path loss in multifloored environments
PL(d)CdBI = P4do)CdBI was predicted by a mean path loss exponent that was a func-
tion of the number of floors between transmitter and receiver.
+ 10 x n x log,o(;) Alternatively, a constant floor attenuation factor (in dB),
130
where is mean path loss, n is the mean path loss exponent, 1201
do is a close-in reference distance, and d is the transmitter-
receiver (T-R) separation distance.
For these data, do = 1 metre and we assume P4d0) is due
to free space propagation from the transmitter to a 1 m refer-
ence distance.
We assume the distribution of path loss about eqn. 1 is
log-normal and determine the mean path loss exponent n and
standard deviation U (in dB) which are viewed as parameters I
that are a function of building type, building wing, and LO ,_,'
number of floors between transmitter and receiver. Linear 30
regression was used to determine the minimum mean square I 10 100
error model parameters n and U as a function of the surround- transmitter - receiver separation, m
FE
ings.
Table 1 summarises the mean path loss exponents, standard Fig. 1 Scatter plot of C W path loss as function of distance in ofice
deviations about the mean for different environments, and the building 2
number of measurement locations (track segments). From Symbols represent number of floors between transmitter and recei-
Table 1, it can be seen that the parameters for path loss ver
prediction for the entire data set are n = 3.14 and a large Notice clustering of data as function of number of floors between
transmitter and receiver
standard deviation of 16.3dB. These parameters may be used _ _ _ _ f = 914MHz n = 4.33 U = 13.3dB
in the model for a first-order prediction of mean signal 0 samefloor
strength when only T-R separation, but no specific building one floor
information, is known, but is unsatisfactory for judicious site 8 twofloors
layout or capacity prediction. A threefloors
ELECTRONICS LE77ERS 18th July 1991 Vol. 27 No. 15 1385

~ --
which is a function of the number of floors and building type, range from 0.92 to 1.57dB for each soft partition and from
may be added to the mean path loss predicted by a path loss 1.99 to 2.45 dB for each concrete wall. The standard deviation
model which uses the same floor path loss exponent for the of the difference between measured and predicted path loss is
particular building type (eqn. 2). 4.1 dB. The soft partition and concrete wall attenuation factor
- model in eqn. 3 explains the deviation of the mean path loss
PL(d)[dB] = PL(d,)[dB] + 10.0 x n(same floor) exponent from free space (n = 2) based on a physical model
that assumes free space propagation with distance and attrih-
utes additional path loss to identifiable physical obstructions
between the transmitter and receiver. The first such attenu-
ation factors were presented in Reference 7 for open-plan
where d is in metres and PI@,) = 31.7dB at 914MHz. Table factory buildings.
2 gives the floor attenuation factors, the standard deviations
(in dB) of the difference between the measured and predicted Conclusion: Fig. 2 shows a scatter plot of measured and pre-
path loss, and the number of discrete measurement locations dicted path loss for all measured locations in the four build-
used to compute the statistics. ings. The predicted values were found using the
distance-dependent path loss model (eqn. 1) for all locations in
Table 2 AVERAGE FLOOR ATTENUATION FACTOR the grocery and retail stores, and all cofloor transmitter and
IN dB FOR ONE, TWO, THREE, AND FOUR receiver combinations in the office building areas that cannot
FLOORS BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND be classified as soft partitioned environments. The floor
RECEIVER IN TWO OFFICE BUILDINGS attenuation factor model (eqn. 2) was used for multifloor loca-
tions in the two olfice buildings. In the soft partitioned
FAF o Number of locations environments in the office buildings, the soft partition and
dB dB
concrete wall attenuation factor model (eqn. 3) was used to
predict path loss. We have found that the distribution of
Office building 1: errors between measured and predicted path loss is log-
Through 1 floor 12.9 7.0 52 normal with a standard deviation of 5.8 dB. By including the
Through 2 floors 18.7 2.8 9 effects of floors, soft partitions, and concrete walls between the
Through 3 floors 24.4 1.7 9 transmitter and receiver, we have reduced the standard devi-
Through 4 floors 27.0 1.5 9 ation of our prediction error from 16.3 dB to 5.8 dB.
Office building 2:
Through 1 floor 16.2 2.9 21 1 3 0 , , , , , , 8 7
Through 2 floors 27.5 5.4 21
Throueh 3 floors 31.6 7.2 21 120

Also presented are standard deviation in dB and number of locations 110 -

used to compute statistics
m 100 -
v
The average floor attenuation factors for an identical v;
number of floors between the transmitter and receiver for the g 90-
-
two buildings differ by 3-8dB. All floors in the two office $ 80-
buildings were made of reinforced concrete. Office building 1 a
was built within the past ten years, and office building 2 is 20 70 -
to 30 years old. Both buildings are longer and wider than they 2
V 60 -
are high and have many windows. Presently, it is unclear what
a
causes the difference between the two buildings although h 50 -
building 1 has exterior walls made of glass. It is interesting to
note that in these buildings the average FAF is not a linear 40
function of the number of floors between the transmitter and
receiver as was found in Reference 9. 30v' ' ' ' " " "
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 I30
measured path loss.dB [866iTI
(C) Soft partition and concrete-wall attenuation factor model:
We consider the path loss effects of soft partitions and con- Fig. 2 Scatter plot of measured against predicted path loss for all mea-
crete walls between the transmitter and receiver for soft parti- surement locations
tioned environments. The measured locations were in modern Prediction error is log-normally distributed with standard devi-
office areas where soft partitions and concrete walls were the ation of 5.8 dB
only obstructions between the transmitter and receiver. We A grocery store
assume path loss increases with distance as in free space V retail store
( n = 2). We then include attenuation factors (AF) for each 0 oflice building 1
partition and concrete wall that lie directly between the trans- 0 office building 2
mitter and receiver. Let p be the number of soft partitions and
q be the number of concrete walls between the transmitter and
In summary, a floor dependent path loss exponent (Table 1)
receiver. The mean path loss predicted by the attenuation may be used to model the effects of the number of floors
factor path loss model is then given by between the transmitter and receiver in conjunction with eqn.
1. Alternatively, the path loss exponent for cofloor propaga-
- tion, along with a floor attenuation factor (Table 2) to account
PL(d)[dB] = 20.0 x loglo for the additional path loss due to floors, may be used to
predict path loss in conjunction with eqn. 2.
+ p x AF(soft partition)[dB] Attenuation factors for plastic covered office partitions and
concrete walls that are located between the transmitter and
+ q x AF(concrete wall)[dB] (3) receiver have been found. With the model in eqn. 3, it is
possible to predict path loss between a transmitter and recei-
Notice that no reference distance is used because free space ver located in the same wing of an office building where indi-
propagation is assumed for all distances. This model is similar vidual office cubicles are separated by cloth-covered plastic
to one proposed in Reference 3 for floors and walls. dividers. For all of our measured data, AF(soft
When all path loss measurements in soft partitioned partitions) = 1.39dB/partition and AF(concrete walls) =
environments are considered, the best fit A F is 1.39dB for 2.38 dB/wall.
each soft partition and 2.38 dB for each concrete wall between This work shows that site-specific information can be used
the transmitter and receiver. When each soft partitioned to predict path loss in buildings with many different obstruc-
environment is considered separately, the attenuation factors tions between the transmitter and receiver with a standard
1386 ELECTRONICS LETTERS 18th July 1991 Vol. 27 No. 15
deviation of 5.8 dB. With more measurements, it is likely that
the models can be refined and expanded to reduce the stan-
dard deviation and predict path loss in many more diverse
environments.
S. Y. SEIDEL 24th May 1991
T. S. RAPPAPORT
Mobile and Portable Radio Research Group
Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uniumsity
Blacksburg, V A 24061, U S A
References
MOLKDAR, D.: ‘Review on radio propagation into and within build-
ings’, IEE Proc. H, 1991,138, (I), pp. 61-73
o m , F. c., and PUDNEY, c. D.: ‘Radio propagation for digital
cordless telephone at 1700MHz and 900MHz’, Electron. Lett.,
1989, 25, (1). pp. 52-53
MOTLEY, A. I., and KEENAN, I. M.: ‘Radio coverage in buildings’, Br.
Telecom. Technol. J., Special Issue on Mobile Communications,
1990, a (1). PP. 1 ~ 4
HAWBAKUI, D. A., and RAPPAHIRI, I. s.: ‘Indoor wideband radio-
wave propagation measurementS at 1.3GHz and 4.OGHz’, Elec-
tron. k r r . , 1990, 26,(21). pp. 18W1802
RAPPAPORT, I. s., SEIDEL, s. Y., and TAKAMIZAWA, K . : ‘Statistical
channel impulse response models for factory and open plan build-
ing radio communication system design’, IEEE Trans., 1991,
COM-39, (9,pp. 794-807
SUDEL, s Y., and RAPPAPORT, T. s.: W)OMHz path loss measure-
ments and prediction techniques for in-building communication
system design’. 416 IEEE Vehicular Technol. Conf., St. Louis,
MO, 21st May 1991
R A P P ~ R T I. , s:‘Characterization of UHF multipath radio chan-
nels in factory buildings’, IEEE Trans., 1989,37, pp. 1058-1069
DEVASIRVATHAM, D. M. I., KRAIN, M. I., and RAPPAFORT, D. A.: ‘Radio
propagation measurements at 850MHz, 1.7GHz, and 4.OGHz
inside two dissimilar ofice buildings’, Electron. Lett., 1990, 26, (7),
pp. 445447
EFFECTS OF PHOTOEXCITED CARRIERS ON
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF QUANTUM-WELL
OPTICAL MODULATORS
Indexing terms: Optical modulation, Modulators, Modulation
The dynamic response of quantum-well optical modulators
in the intrinsic domain is discussed on the basis of a pro-
posed simple model, characterised by the following two pro-
cesses: excitonic response and photoexcitedcarrier
relaxation. The response is found to be enhanced in a certain
region of modulation frequency and optical power density
(quasiresonance phenomena). Comparison between the two
most promising quantum-well materials (InGaAsflnP and
InGaAsflnAIAs) indicates that the former is more liable to be
affected by the photoexcited carriers than the latter.
To date, the authors have demonstrated the optical intensity
modulators using InGaAs/InAlAs multiquantum-well struc-
t u r e ~ . ’ - These
~ devices could be operated at frequencies to
4 0 G H r 3 and this operation was well explained by the con-
ventional equivalent-circuit model based on the parasitic
impedance of the devices. In other words, the dynamic
response observed up to now has been limited by the device
size and has not been limited by the speed intrinsic to the
materials. Undoubtedly, extensions to the intrinsic domain
will be explored in the future by fabricating very small struc-
tures. In the intrinsic domain, optical power is thought to
have crucial effects on the dynamic response of such devices.
In this context, it is important to study the effects of light
power on the intrinsic dynamic response of optical intensity
modulators.
The light transmitted through the modulator, the applied
field which is modulated at an angular frequency of Q, shows
ELECTRONICS LEmERS 18th July 1991 Vol. 27 No. 15
small sidebands and a main mode on the light-frequency axis.
The dynamic response of the modulator is usually defined by
the sideband intensity. When we assume a small modulation
signal F,, this sideband intensity can be expressed using F ,
and the derivative of absorption coefficient a‘(F,) around a
constant bias field F,. The relative dynamic response of the
modulator is thus shown to have the following form:
s(n) = F,,
IF,, I IaYF,)RI
“(FO),
Here, S(R) is normalised so that S(0)= 1. Suffxes 0 and R
imply the angular frequency. The first factor indicates the fre-
quency response determined by the parasitic impedance of the
device. The second factor indicates the frequency response of
the derivative of the absorption coefficient. This is intensified
(or reduced) accordingly as the absorption coefficient is varied
more (or less) effectively by the external field. We concentrate
our attention on the second factor. According to the linear
response theory, the derivative u ’ ( F ) ~is expressed using a
complex admittance
A(R) = ~ ( 0-)iR
1 x(t)t-“ dt
Eqn. 1 is thus found to be S(R) = I A(R)/A(O) .’1 x(t) is the
relaxation function, the response of a when the external field is
varied abruptly at t = 0. The function form of x(t) depends on
the type of relaxation. The model we propose for this relax-
ation is that it involve the following two processes: first, the
response of a due to the change of excitonic state by an abrupt
variation of external field; secondly, the relaxation of a caused
by the change of local field which results from the decay of
photoexcited carriers from the well layer.
The first process (time constant 7 J is induced by the relax-
ation of quantum states of electron and hole and the resultant
excitonic state from a stationary state towards another sta-
tionary state.4 Because this process is not accompanied by the
real carrier transfer, it is undoubtedly much faster than the
second process and determines the fundamental limits on the
modulation speed. However, this subject will not be pursued
further in this Letter.
The second process (time constant 7 J can be evaluated as
follows. In the stationary state, an internal field is generated
by carriers that remain in the well layer. The local field in the
well layer is expressed as the superposition of the external field
and this internal field. The local field thus obtained determines
the a value in this stationary state. When the external field
changes abruptly step-like, the quantum well system relaxes
toward another stationary state. The purpose in the sub-
sequent paragraphs is to calculate the relaxation function &)
for the absorption coefficient owing to this change of external
field.
We take into account the effects of holes on the internal
field, because holes have escaping lifetime much longer than
electrons for our QW materials. This has been verified by our
elaborate calculations. Moreover, it is reasonable to consider
that, in the stationary state, holes accumulate near the inter-
face between a well and a barrier layer. Finally, we study the
optical modulators in which the quantum-well layer is perpen-
dicular to the incident light.
The temporal behaviour of the density of holes n in the well
layer is described by the rate equation
dn
-= _- n + - I
a(F) (3)
dt 7 ( F ) ho
F is the screened local field Fe, - Fin@),where Fe, is the con-
stant external field after it has changed abruptly. The internal
field F&) is a function of time (t), because it is determined by
the temporal behaviour of hole density. I is optical power
density, hw photon energy, and T(F) the lifetime of holes
escaping from the quantum well under the local field. Tunnel-
ling seems to be the dominant mechanism involved in the
disappearance of holes from the well layer. The escaping life-
time of holes against electric field T(F) was calculated from the
1387