Bagging in Textiles

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Textile Progress
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Bagging in Textiles
N. G. Şengöz
Online Publication Date: 01 January 2004

To cite this Article: Şengöz, N. G. (2004) 'Bagging in Textiles', Textile Progress,
36:1, 1 — 64
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BAGGING IN TEXTILES
Downloaded By: [2008 Thammasat University] At: 08:10 4 August 2008
N.G. Şengöz*
1. OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
Bagging is a three-dimensional residual deformation, seen in used garments, which causes a
deterioration in the appearance of the garment. The places it is seen during wear are elbows,
knees, pockets, hips, and heels. The common factor in all of these parts of garments is the
force exerted on that area of the fabric from the moving parts of the body. When the fabric
covering that part of the body feels this force for a long time and feels it repeatedly, the
fabric deforms and starts to take the form the force is trying to give to it. The force coming
from the human body is in the transverse direction to the fabric’s plane and the deformation
which occurs is spatial. This prolonged and repeated deformation causes the fabric to
change its shape, and it usually takes a dome shape, like a part of a sphere, so it is a three-
dimensional complex deformation that is very different from the other kinds of deformation
seen in textile materials.
In the dictionaries, in its simplest meaning, deformation is defined as a change in form.
When a deformation has to be studied, factors such as the amount of the deformation, the
extreme point of the deformation, the recoverability of the deformation, the residual amount
of the deformation, and the mechanism of the deformation should be investigated. This
means that parameters such as bagging height, volume, shape, and anisotropy are the main
characters of fabric bagging behaviour where no structural breakdown occurs. Since now,
these factors have mostly been the main subjects of fundamental engineering experiences.
From the engineering point of view, deformation is studied in any kind of material, textiles
being our concern. Since all these materials meet human needs in daily life, a wide range of
research, from spacework to foods, are all included in the fundamental engineering
investigations, and research were done in the past and will continue to be done in the future.
When we take a closer look at the deformation research done in textile materials, we see
that it has been carried out for a long time on fibres, yarns, fabrics and all of the semi-
finished forms of them in the production state, and also the garment form that is the final
form of usage. Even though many important points have been elucidated, there are still
many things to be worked on. With the help of developments in the fundamental theories,
the definition of the problems has become easier, and with the help of improvements,
especially in computer technology, the solution of the complex problems has become robust,
eventually research showing a rapid development.
1.2 Importance of Bagging

All fabrics (apparel, medical, technical) are subjected to various forces during their use
in daily life. These forces may be in the form of pressure, stress, impact, puncture, etc.
Fabrics can absorb these forces up to a certain extent in their composition and, when the
force is lifted, the fabric can recover and take its original shape if the force has acted in
*Author’s Current Address: Afyon Kocatepe University Usak Engineering Faculty, Textile Engineering
Department, Bir Eylül Kampüsü 64100, Usak-TURKEY sengozgonul@hotmail.com.
2 Textile Progress
the elastic deformation region of the fabric. Since the elastic recovery of fabrics decreases
with time, and since fabrics possess viscoelastic properties and show creep-relaxation
behaviour, in some cases, they are prevented by these factors from recovering, cannot
overcome the deformation and cannot revert to their original shape. As a result, a
permanent or plastic deformation in the fabric occurs.
1.3 Positive Perspectives

In some cases, a deformation is a requirement, as in a felted hat – the shape is what we would
call a deformed shape when compared with a flat fabric. In a hat made from woven fabric, the
fabric is cut and sewn to take the shape of the head, and in a knitted hat, it is easier because the
yarns can move relative to each other to make the knitted fabric take the shape of the head.
Also, in some technical usages, three dimensional fabrics are produced just in the shape
in which they will be used. This is important for the end-use mechanical performance of
some industrial fabrics. Possessing a special shape may be regarded as some kind of a
deformation in our understanding of fabric. Since these are not our concern, they will not be
dealt with here. The purpose of mentioning them is to show that, in some cases, a deformed
shape is needed; it is not a fault, but it will be regarded as a fault in the rest of the text.
The important thing is that no force is involved in the above explanations. In the meaning
of bagging, the application of an external force is necessary, and that is why a change in the
form happens.
1.4 Negative Perspectives

The phenomenon of bagging, encountered in used garments and seen at elbows, knees,
pockets, hips, and heels, is a good example of permanent spherical deformation of fabrics
under stress during wear. After the application of prolonged static or repeated force from
the moving parts of the human body, the fabric loses its dimensional stability and cannot
recover, and permanent residual deformation takes place in the form of a dome – like part
of a sphere. Because the appearance of the garment is distorted and because this appearance
is important from the aesthetic point of view in the daily use of the garment, such a subject
involves a quality factor and must be studied. Bagging occurs with the loss of elastic energy
of fabric with wear time, so gradually the shape deteriorates, and this deteriorated shape
and the deformed fabric together is perceived as a kind of garment fatigue behavior by
people. On the one hand, we want the fabric to stretch and conform to the body and give
dynamic comfort to the person wearing if when the body moves; on the otherhand, there are
many material and structural factors that prevent the fabric presenting the same behaviour
all the time. Even if there is not any structural breakdown in a garment, bagging detracts
from its appearance during wear in such a way that it is perceived as an unwanted fault.
A fabric’s permanent spatial deformation behaviour depends on the fibre properties of the
material, as well as yarn thickness, fabric density and weave, and also the fabric construction
properties, namely yarn and fabric parameters. The elastic deformation of the fibres, the
viscoelastic deformation of the fibres, stress relaxation due to fibre viscoelastic behaviour,
and the friction between fibres and yarns in the fabric structure are all important in bagging
of fabrics. These can be grouped into three components – elasticity, viscoelasticity
and frictional forces. Permanent spatial deformation behaviour, what we call bagging, can
be characterized by parameters such as bagging height, volume, shape, and anisotropy. In
subjective judgements of bagging, its degree can vary from one person to another, from one
Bagging in Textiles 3
garment to another, and from one fabric surface pattern to another. These will be explained
later in the text.
2. DEFINITION AND TYPES OF DEFORMATION

2.1 Definition
As stated previously, deformation is a change in form. This form can be in any kind
and there may be many factors affecting it. The purpose of research is to determine
what these factors are and, with the knowledge obtained, to take control of the occasions
and improve the mechanisms of achieving our goal of overcoming or minimizing bagging.
So, knowing the various deformation types and the differences between them are important.
2.2 Deformation Types

Lloyd [40] and Amirbayat and Hearle [3] have grouped the deformations seen in fabrics as
the following cases:
(i) In-plane deformations: These are the kinds of deformation where a fabric, initially
aligned in one plane, is deformed in its own plane. When the force is applied parallel
to the fabric plane, every point in the fabric is affected in the same way by this force
and shape deterioration is the same in every point. Tensile properties in either the
warp or the weft directions are mentioned in this group. No transversal displacement
of the fabric plane is seen in this kind of deformation – see Fig. 1(a).
(ii) Uniaxial bending: The fabric displaces perpendicular to its own plane and bends to
form a curve leading to a circle by the extention of this curve. Good examples for
research in this subject are buckling, drape, the forms that the fabric takes and loses
during daily wear of a garment, the forms that a curtain takes and loses, and the
rolling and opening of a fabric sheet – see Figures 1(b1) and 1(b2).
(iii) Torque in the fabric plane: This is the moment occurring in the fabric sheet when
force couples acting in opposite directions are applied to the fabric sheet from each
side of the sheet and where a twist is also seen in the fabric sheet. In this case, every
point of the fabric feels a different force, is exerted to a different moment, and shows
different inner displacements, in general. Case (iii) is very different from Cases (i) and
(ii) in this sense – see Fig. 1(c).
(iv) Conforming to a spherical surface: This is the case when the fabric is forced to
conform to a spherical surface, and, as a result, bagging occurs. In this case, recovery
is mostly not achieved and some permanent spatial deformation is left on the fabric,
like a part of a sphere. In this kind of deformation analysis, forces are defined as
hydrostatic, which means they are equal in different angles starting from the same
centre. In research, the elbow, knee, pocket, hip, and heel areas of garments, and the
top area before the curvature begins in the drape analysis, are good examples of this
kind of deformation – see fig. 1(d ).
According to Konopasek [36], there are six kinds of continuum models in mechanics of
fibre assemblies, and the deformation in each kind can be written as below:
Fibres and yarns are deformed tensile or torsional (1:1);
Fibres and yarns are deformed bending in their plane (1:2);
Fibres and yarns are deformed bending and torsional in space (1:3);
Fabrics are deformed tensile and shear in their plane (2:2);
4 Textile Progress
Fig. 1 Different kinds of deformation seen in fabrics. (a) In-plane deformation of a fabric; (b1) Uniaxial
bending of a fabric in a roll; (b2) Uniaxial bending of a fabric on a surface; (c) Torque in the fabric
plane; (d ) Conforming of a fabric to a spherical surface
Fabrics are deformed tensile, shear and bending in space (2:3);

Fibres and fibre assemblies are deformed complex in space (3:3).
The numbers in the first column state the independent variables and the numbers in the
second column state the dependent variables. There are three kinds in both of them, but
their combination is named in six groups because, when worked with one independent
geometric variable, the deformations in the other directions are not also neglected. The
information about these interdependencies has to be obtained separately and worked in a
one-dimensional problem rather than in a three-dimensional problem.
Mack and Taylor [43] handle fabric deformation by the concept of ‘fit’. This concept
concerns a sphere as a prescribed surface and examines how the weft and warp yarns would
cover this area when laid over, still making intersections. They derive differential equations
for the geometry occuring. They give mathematical definitions of the different paths the yarns
would follow on the surface. In Fig. 2, woven fabric fitted to a spherical surface with different
mathematical definitions is seen. The pictures are modified to emphisize the path the yarns
are making. With those equations, the fitting of a continuum material to spheres, cones,
Fig. 2 Woven fabric fitted to a spherical surface with different mathematical definitions (Mack and
Taylor [43], modified)
toroids, and spheroids is possible. In their work, Mack and Taylor assume that the woven
fabric is made up of inextensible yarns, and that the fabric is perfectly shearable and flexible.
Heisey and Haller [31] computerised Mack and Taylor’s work using numerical analysis
techniques, and were able to cover surfaces where the mathematical definition of the surface
was hard to make. The coordinates of the fabric which will fit the surface are coded like a
map and no restrictions are made about the surface. Their assumptions are the same as
Mack and Taylor’s. Their work is also based on the shear properties of the fabric. It is
concluded that the in-plane deformation occuring in the fabric is achieved by the shear and
the bending characteristics of the fabric.
Van West et al. [69] stated that a half-sphere is a good basis for both theoretical and
experimental studies and they applied differential geometry successfully. They modelled the
path of the yarns covering a half-sphere and when their drawing from the model coincided
with the real photograph, there was a good correlation between the fabric and the graphical
simulation — but the distances between the yarns are not equal to each other. The positions
of the yarns can be compared, but at particular points they cannot.
Heisey et al. [30] later used this concept in the area of garment patterning. The human
body resembles some parts of a sphere as seen in double curvature. The algorithm they used
is concerned with how a fabric regarding a plane-like shape would fully cover this area
without tension. These are all concerns of the subject of garment patterning. The only
problem they met is the physical properties of the fabric. In their work, the warp yarns are
no longer parallel with each other, but they come to the same meeting point at the top of the
curve, like the meridians on the earth.
Aono et al. [5] also did some work on the concept of garment patterning. Their
assumptions were the same as the earlier researchers. Their mathematical definitions were
more precise, their numerical analysis methods were wider, the surfaces to be fitted were
more undulating, computer simulation was easier, and no point was left uncalculated on the
surface to be fitted. The lay of the warp yarns were also like the meridians.
Terzopoulos et al. [63] worked on elastically deformable models. They wanted to simulate
the same movement on the computer screen. They applied differential equations to rigid
curves, surfaces, and solids as a function of time, so that the textile material was dynamic
around them like a flag flying in the wind on the screen of the computer. Also this concept
was used in computer technology by Ascough et al. [6], to improve the movement of a skirt
flying as one turns around, on the computer screen.
6 Textile Progress
Ramgulam [54] presented a new fitting algorithm to fit woven fabric onto a complex
surface. This algorithm could be applied to any surface which was able to be described
numerically or analytically. It was based on differential geometry, but was much stronger
and faster than the earlier developed traditional kinetic model-based algorithms. This
algorithm allowed more flexible initial conditions. The new one was compared with the
earlier ones and seen visually that the newly developed software models the actual fit of the
woven fabrics correctly. It was indicated that in-plane shear deformation occurs in woven
fabrics when they are forced to conform to a spherical surface, and that this is the most
important factor governing this behaviour. The fabric shears until its critical shearing angle,
and then wrinkling begins. The limiting shear angle is different in every fabric.
2.3 Differences Between Deformation Types

Different kinds of deformation are examined differently in fabric mechanics. As seen in
Case (i), in-plane deformations are when the material is in its elastic zone in a force–elongation
diagram (Fig. 3). If the force is increased, then the process can go up to tearing, but now the
small forces are taken into consideration for all the cases mentioned above. The difference in
Case (ii) is that the fabric takes a different shape all by itself when a force is exerted but there is
no mention of lateral stress. When the fabric takes a shape special to itself, it still behaves in its
elastic zone and no pressure is exerted on it. Case (iii) is a force couple partial condition but the
deformation effect occurring in the fabric is still in the elastic zone. The fabric can recover to
its initial state. The fabric is behaving freely in all these three cases but in Case (iv) it is not.
There, the fabric is under compulsion by a force transversal to its plane. This kind of a
deformation takes place in the permanent deformation zone of the material.
In Cases (i), (ii) and (iii), the fabric fully recovers after the force is lifted, but in Case (iv),
the recovery of the fabric is partial and a certain amount of permanent spatial deformation is
left on the fabric. In Case (iv), the material’s frictional and viscoelastic properties start to
show themselves. The fabric responds to these deformations by shearing.
Although in all four deformation types, the warp and weft yarn groups keep their parallel
positions within the group, in the concept of fit, these two yarn groups change their paths to
cover the double curvatured surface of a sphere and this path is mathematically defined.
Three-dimensional fabrics are produced with this concept and the mathematical definitions
are used in computer simulations.
Fig. 3 A general force-elongation diagram

Fundamental engineering investigations are usually made for a continuum, but textile
material are not continuous. A yarn is composed of single fibres, a fabric is composed of
single yarns by their intersections, and mainly all the fibres, yarns and fabrics have very
different characteristics from one another. However, in the studies of yarn and fabric
mechanics, they are considered as a continuum and examinations are done according to
those theories. Even though this is the case, very realistic mathematical definitions are
concluded when research is done according to them [57].
There are some assumptions about the physical structure of the textile material. The
behaviour of both the natural and synthetic fibres under stress has been subject to many
researches. The fibres show fairly complex deformations in their microstructures. With
the help of twist, fibres come together and take the form of yarn; then they reach a
macrostructure [40] and the situation starts to become more complex, since the fibres, which
have finite lengths, have come together and created an endless structure. In any continuum,
there are small particules that make up the molecular structure, but in textile materials there
exist large macrostructures, up to many times greater than those of the molecular structure.
This makes the use of the continuum concept difficult. For example, if one wants to measure
the percentage of extension between two points, it can be infinitely small in a continuum,
and so that the diffusion of the extension percentage is constant along the continuum. But in
the case of textile materials, there is the macrostructure and the smallest structure that can
be taken will still possess so many macros, and this will make us think that the diffusion of
the extension percentage is not constant along the material. The important thing to be
assumed here is up to what extent the textile material can be considered as a continuum and
the known theories can be applied; and beyond which point the textile material has to be
considered as a non-continuum and different theories are needed.
The main factors giving the yarn its complexity in deformation are fibres with finite
lengths turning into an infinite structure, the internal pressures occurring with twist that
holds the fibres together, and the frictional forces occurring between the fibres.
The main factors giving the fabric its complexity in deformation are more strict. When
the yarns take the form of a fabric, the occasion becomes more complex because the yarns
have to intersect with other yarns as a requirement of the macrostructure. Intersecting is
formed by the yarns going over and under each other, both in the horizontal and the
vertical direction; so a structure as a plane is constructed. The main factors giving the
fabric its complexity in deformation are the inversion from a linear continuous structure to
a planar continuous structure, and the internal strain added by the intersections of the
yarns. In this case, factors coming from the yarns are also added to the factors belonging
to the fabric.
This phenomena becomes more complex still when the fabric takes the form of a garment,
because the planar ensemble is separated by cutting, then it is put together by sewing and it
becomes a three-dimensional non-continuous structure. The main factors giving a garment
its complexity in deformation are inversion from a planar continuous structure to a spatial
non-continuous structure, cutting and sewing again (along a stitch line with a sewing
thread), and exposure to different strains and movements persistently coming from the inside
because there is a human there. The factors existing in the fabrics add up to the factors
belonging to the garment.
When moving from fibre to yarn, from yarn to fabric, from fabric to garment, in every
step there is the continuity from finite structure to linear continuous structure, from linear
continuous structure to planar continuous structure, from planar continuous structure to
8 Textile Progress
spatial non-continuous structure. Every step shows a more complex deformation behaviour
than the former, so the investigation of deformation gets harder at every step.
Chapman and Hearle [18] defined how the textile material takes various shapes during the
production stages and how the deformation phenomena gets more complex as this proceeds.
A single fibre would have natural curves on it, but every fibre follows a migrating helical
path in the yarn along the twist. In the fabric, there is the crimp that originates from the
underlaying and overlaying movement of the yarns. In addition to all of these complexities,
in bagging, there is the force acting on the fabric in the vertical direction to the fabric plane.
3. DEFINITION OF BAGGING
As mentioned before, bagging is a three-dimentional, permanent, spatial, spherically shaped
deformation explained in Case (iv). The finished fabric is in its plane form and, when a force
perpendicular to its plane is applied, spatial deformation occurs which is called bagging.
The planar continuous structure is deformed by a spatial stress and this imposes a difference
in the material: the force is distributed planar in the fabric, but the application is spatial.
The difference in their characters is the first thing that makes this subject complex.
Deformations can recover either fully or partially. The theories are precise where the
recovery is full but they need to be developed for the conditions where it is not full. In a
condition such as bagging, recovery is not full; there is permanent deformation and this is
the second thing that makes this subject complex.
In research, a textile material which possesses a non-continuous structure is assumed to be
a continuous structure, logically this is a contradicting situation. The contrast between a
continuous and a non-continuous structure is the third thing that makes this subject complex.
3.1 Basic Theories and Methods

In this section, elasticity, elastic theory, viscoelasticity, creep-relaxation, inverse relaxation,
plasticity, membrane theory, plate and shell theories, elastica theory, finite element analysis,
energy methods, and shear property are explained briefly.
Almost every material shows some measure of elongation when a force acts upon it, but
if the same material recovers fully after the force is lifted, it is said that this material is ‘elastic’.
Elastic behaviour means that there is no permanent deformation in the material. In an elastic
material, strain is simply a function of change in shape. If a textile material shows elastic behaviour,
it is also called elastic [48]. In general, there are elastic and non-elastic material kinds [53].
In engineering, there are some cases that the mechanical method of approach is not
sufficient to solve. Then, elasticity theory, which a different method of approach, is needed. In
some cases, deeper work of elasticity theory is also needed. The main application of elastic
theory is to study the deformation of bodies in which all its three dimensions possess equal
importance. For instance, the forces in cylinders or the forces acting upon rollers in bearings
can only be solved with elasticity theory. But, elasticity theory cannot explain the intimate
strength changes in shafts and bars. As Postle and Norton [50, 51] stated, mathematical
elasticity theory had undergone many changes, mainly in tensor notation, linear deviations
from geometric and material being, and numerical analysis. Lloyd [40] has stated that the
easiest way to handle mechanical properties is with the elasticity theory. Linear elasticity
makes for an easier understanding of the complex situations in real textile material behaviour.
But, the isotropic assumption in this theory is insufficient in some cases, and another
formulation which is anisotropic is required. This formulation is required to define non-linear
elasticity, viscoelastic models and elastic behaviour both related to time and to history.
If recovery is not full in a material, then behaviour which is not elastic takes place
and strain is related both to the change in shape and to its differential equation according to
time [53]. In this case, the Young’s modulus starts to change and superposition principles are
applied to the strain properties [15]. Some material behave as elastic solids, whereas others
behave like flowing liquids; in some cases this is true for very small elongations. These kinds
of material do not deform constantly under constant force. If the material is forced to a
constant deformation, then the force needed to keep it in this shape gets less. This kind of
material is called viscoelastic [46, 48].
‘Creep’ is increases in elongation under constant force, and ‘relaxation’ is decreases in force
at constant elongation [15]. If, in successive relaxation experiments the relaxation modulus is
constant, then this is called ‘linear viscoelasticity’ [53]. If elongation and elongation rate are
very small, and the force–elongation relationships according to time can be defined with
differential equations and stable constants, then the material is called ‘linear viscoelastic’ [47].
In their work, Nachane and Sundaram [47] studied ‘inverse relaxation’ in polymeric fibres.
In this case, after some amount of elongation the material is pulled again, and if the material
feels some force, this force increases with time, first a fast increase, then some decrease, then
comes to a constant after a long time. There is a late response mechanism in this material
and inverse relaxation is taking place. In many studies, materials having an amorphous
construction (leather, textiles, etc.) show mostly viscoelastic behaviour and some evidence
which supports the theory that plastoelastic mechanism changes into viscoelastic mechanism
is gained. A membrane is a perfectly flexable plate, and it does not have bending rigidity.
In membrane theory, the membrane deformations take place in-plane of the material [10].
‘‘Plate and Shell Theories’’ are also concerned with deformations in materials, but their
difference is that in these theories, one dimension of the material under study has a different
importance than the others. The material then takes the form of a plate or a shell, in which
case the thickness is much smaller than the other dimensions. When the thickness of the so
called shell is compared with the smallest deflection radius, it is assumed to be very small [65].
According to small deformation (deflection) theory, elongations which results in membrane
elongation because of strain are regarded as normal. These may be eliminated and are very
small according to thickness [17]. In large deflections, small-strain theory, which gives
displacements as much as the thickness, is used. The displacements are small according to
plate dimensions. In real large-deformation theory, double curvatures cause extensions at the
surface and they also cause finite membrane elongations to occur. When deformation takes
place, it is considered that the elements that are in the vertical direction to the plate or the
shell are not deformed, but keep their initial forms. When the perpendicular force component
is compared with the others, it is assumed that it causes forces which can be excluded [57]. The
thin shell theory is used in the areas of aerospace, maritime (ships, submarines, etc.), pressure
pipes, water tanks, locomotives, steam pots, energy production stations, space work
(spaceshuttles), petroleum production, parachutes, construction (concrete work), etc.
because there are forces with the lateral stress and hydrostatic approach. Also, deflection
problems of conical and spherical shells are solved with this theory.
The deflection measurement generally used in thin elastic shell theory is the difference of
the bending tensors taken separately before and after the deformation of the surface [50, 51].
The theory of the thin elastic shell substances has been developed to include deflection,
plasticity, creep, breakage, sandwich construction, and fibre reinforced composites. As
Postle and Norton [50, 51] stated, since Love [17], it had been worked on this theory to be
developed how, to include the deflection and elongation effects combined; so every problem
10 Textile Progress
is searched and solved over and over again. When the mechanical model of a fabric is
constructed, the mathematics of the model and the physics of the matter should be in
coordination with each other. This point is very important for the limiting factors because,
from model to model, the limiting factor may be different. Postle and Norton [50, 51] studied
fabric deformation in the relaxed state, without any strain or stress on it, and chose their
equilibrium states freely in the Riemann space. In the model they created, it is possible to
define all the mechanical responses that could occur in any elastic fabric. If the components
of the tensor that shows the properties of the material can be contingent upon the
environmental factors, then aging, humidity, thermal effects, etc. can also be modelled there.
Both the elasticity theory and the plate and shell theories study the behaviour of the
material in the elastic zone. There seem to be some missing points for large extension and
large elongation percentages which takes place in the viscoelastic zone of the material
behaviour. Even though the theories are not perfect for textile materials, it has been possible
to calculate nearly precisely the strain and shear deformation in plain woven fabrics [42].
Postle and Postle [52] have stated that the Thin Shell Theory was able to solve most of the
complex problems in engineering applications but that this theory was not modelled enough
to be applied to textile materials under stress. In textile materials, the strain applied can be
very small but the extensions it causes can be very large, and these deformations can have
highly non-linear characteristics. In their work, they developed non-linear mathematical
methods for both elastic and non-elastic fabric behaviour, in order to solve the problems of
fabric crease, wrinkle, and fold. The non-elastic mechanisms of the fabric involve the
viscoelasticity of the fibre and the inter-fibre friction, and these properties determine the
ability of the fabric to recover after creasing, wrinkling and folding. The recovery period of a
fabric is also important from the point of view of its performance during wear.
‘Elastica’ theory studies large elongations with small extension percentages. For some
fabric deformations, small deformation theory seems to be sufficient, but for textile material
in general, the approach of large elongation and extension percentages is needed [40, 41].
The elastica theory for one dimension includes these points: (i) The differential geometry of
the curves in space and the deformation measures derived from them; (ii) The equilibrium
equations of the forces and the moments acting upon the differential element of the curve;
(iii) The equations relating the strains and the moments with the deformation measures;
(iv) Numerical analysis methods.
In the elastica theory, the fabric is treated as a surface in space that includes the same four
points in one dimension. When it has been defined in every coordinate, we get a vector zone
from the unit vectors that are tangent to the surface and to the coordinate lines, from the
unit vectors which are tangent to the surface but perpendicular to the coordinate lines, and
from the unit vectors which are perpendicular to the surface and to the coordinate lines.
From here, we get the metric tensor of the surface. There is also published work with
geodesics [52].
In fabrics that are large continuous constructions, degree of freedom can be infinite; but
to study the system and its deformations requires a limited number of degrees of freedom.
‘Finite Element Analysis’ is the formulation of the required equations in the small units that
are able to represent the whole system, and each of them possesses a limited number of
degrees of freedom; then the equations of the small units are brought together and the whole
system is defined. This has been worked with matrixes and there are also computer programs
that have been developed for this purpose [40]. Finite element analysis is a kind of numerical
analysis.
The extension method of the Finite Element Method is appropriate for use with small
extension percentages and for linear elasticity. The fabric is regarded as a two-dimensional
continuous structure and is divided into small pieces that have tip points called ‘knots’.
Every knot has a special degree of freedom. Element e would be existing somewhere in the
x–y plane and having i–j–k knots; also u and v would be elongations in the x and y
directions. The elongations u and v are called membrane deformations.
Furthermore, when the shape function is added, the distribution of unknown
extensions from a known function can be approximately calculated. The non-linear
behaviour generally seen in fabric deformation – non-linear material properties, large
elongations and extension percentages – requires some modifications in the fundamental
theory. Time elapses are used in the ‘step-by-step increase’ method of Finite Element
Analysis for viscoelastic materials. There are different areas of application for the Finite
Element Analysis in textiles. This method can be used in yarn mechanics, and fabric
structure and mechanics, besides thermal isolation problems, chemical diffusions, dyeing,
etc.; also in finding the shape of air-filling textile materials such as sails, and in ballistic
experiments [42].
Energy methods are commonly used in deformation research in textile materials. The
deformation occurring at every point of the construction is defined by the density of the
deformation energy. In order to obtain the density of the deformation energy, special yarn
and fabric properties have to be eliminated, special deformation geometry has to be
assumed, and special energy methods have to be used. Postle and Norton [50, 51] were able
to define the recovery behaviour according to time with the formulae they developed.
In fabrics, certain extensions are not responded by yarn elongation, but responded by
relative turning at the intersection points of the yarns. This is called shear, and Chapman
and Hearle [18] state that it is strongly believed that fabrics cover double curvature surfaces
by their shear property. Hearle et al. [29] state that the definition of bending in complex
situations is much harder. Shear property plays the most important role in both plate and
shell bending. Many other researchers have done much detailed research into shear rigidity
and determined that shear behaviour plays the most important role in fabric deformation.
Fabric shear behaviour has been studied in many different cases such as constructions
working with air (parachutes, sails, etc.), conveyer belts, geotextiles, sewing of garments,
fabric handle and drape, and covering of double curvature surfaces. Kawabata et al. [32]
defined the total shear deformation as a combination of two-sided strain and shear
deformation. Shear elongation is a perpendicular shortening as a result of a regular
elongation in one dimension. So, the area and the thickness of the material stays constant.
Shear force is the perpendicular force acting along one group of yarns in the fabric; thus this
has to be equalized by an equal and opposite force, and for equilibrium a force couple has to
occur.
In practical experiments, the fabric is kept under constant force while the shear force is
increased. Compressive force occurs much more slowly, and at the end causes bending.
Kawabata et al. [32] state that, compared to strain deformation, a fabric shows very little
resistance to shear deformation. When freely put on a double curvature surface, the top part
of the fabric where the drape has not started yet, can easily cover that part. Generally,
fabrics are subject to large deformations, and under those conditions the combination of
both strain and shear deformations is seen. For example, when the knee is bent, the fabric
deformation at the knee is a result of double curvature strain and shear. Furthermore,
deformations are finite. Bassett and Postle [11] state that in shear studies, it is assumed that
12 Textile Progress
the constructive lines are straight before and after deformation and angles and strain forces
have not changed. An aluminium foil cannot cover a double curvature surface and is a good
example of not deforming in its own plane. But, woven fabrics can do this, and knitted
fabrics can cover double curvature surfaces very well because of their different elongation
characteristics.
Asvadi and Postle [8] did a numerical study, considering linear viscoelastic theory, on
viscoelastic responses and friction forces in woven wool fabrics, which show shear
deformation at large extensions. They state that the conformability of the fabric when it is
being sewn, the ability of the fabric to keep the shape given to it, and the recovery after
wrinkle, have to be estimated. These properties can be defined by the determination of the
mechanical properties at the later stages of bending and shear deformations. In such
deformations, most fabrics show some amount of behaviour that is not elastic, such as fibre
viscoelasticity and friction between fibres. The mechanics of deformation in textiles is much
affected by the shear properties.
3.1.1 Defining Bagging by Membrane Theory

According to Lloyd [40], when a flat sheet is deformed in its own plane and no transverse
displacement occurs, this means planar deformations are taking place. Strains can be
modelled and appropriate mechanical properties formulated and measured. The membrane
strains that develop in the plane of the sheet are also called in-plane strains. Even in
transverse displacements, there are in-plane strains occuring in the sheet material. In tension
membranes, there are transverse displacements of the fabric, but the bending stiffness of the
fabric is negligible [40]. Extended methods of the membrane theories are applied to the
problems in this case. Fabric is a membrane material which can bend to a cylindrical curved
surface without deformation [11]. But the fabric has to fit doubly-curved surfaces in a
garment, so it will deform in its plane or buckle and fold.
Amirbayat and Hearle [2] consider the fabric as a membrane and solve the problem with
membrane strains. They state that in the complex buckling of flexible sheet material,
membrane strains occur and they are very important. In double curvature over small
areas, membrane strains are occuring. They state that solving these kinds of problems with
membrane strains is more important than solving them with conventional shell theory.
3.1.2 Defining Bagging by Plate and Shell Theory

Womersley’s [73] work is considered to be the first step in the general evaluation of strain–
elongation relations in fabrics. In his paper, he is the first to apply differential geometry to
study fabric deformations under stress. Under ideal conditions, the warp yarns of a woven
fabric are parallel to each other, so are the weft yarns, and these two groups of yarns are
perpendicular to each other when intersected. Under any kind of a stress, they bend and
their newly deformed condition can then be defined by a curved-coordinate system.
Womersley has given the general equilibrium equations of a fabric that is stretched from the
sides and is under pressure, as in the hydrostatic approach which is perpendicular to the
fabric surface, with these assumptions: (i) The fabric is a thin lamina; (ii) The yarns are
regular, fully bendable and non-elongating, with round cross-section; (iii) The fabric
structure changes very slowly; this means that the changes in the fabric construction when
the force is applied are very small and they are the same in consecutive units; (iv) The fabric
cannot stand shear forces; in this case, only the strains occuring in the yarn will be taken into
consideration; (v) Intersections are stable, they do not slip; in this case, when the size of one
d1 : Diameter of the warp yarn

d2 : Diameter of the weft yarn
Dð¼ d1 þ d2 Þ: Fabric thickness
p1 : Distance between the centres of two warp yarns
p2 : Distance between the centres of two weft yarns
h1 =2: Distance between the centre of a warp yarn and the fabric axis
h2 =2: Distance between the centre of a weft yarn and the fabric axis
y1: The angle between the warp yarns and the fabric axis
y2: The angle between the weft yarns and the fabric axis
l1 : Length of a warp yarn between two weft yarns
l2 : Length of a weft yarn between two warp yarns
c1 ¼ l1 =p2 1: Crimp of a warp yarn
c2 ¼ l2 =p1 1: Crimp of a weft yarn
Fig. 4 Ideal fabric geometry according to the bendable yarn model of Peirce [49]
unit and the change occurring at the surface by the changes at the axis are compared, the
quantities are very small.
The fabric construction with these assumptions and the real fabric construction are
very different because the assumptions are made in order to develop a theory for a
fundamental model and most of the fabric properties which make the fabric behaviour
complex, such as elasticity, viscoelasticity, friction, compression of yarns, are not taken
into consideration.
Womersley took Peirce’s [49] fabric geometry as the basis in his work. In Fig. 4, Peirce’s
ideal fabric geometry according to the bendable yarn model is illustrated.
When we move one intersection aside, and inspect perpendicular to the fabric axis,
we get:
h1 ¼ fl1 ðd1 þ d2 Þy1 g sin y1 þ ð1 cos y1 Þðd1 þ d2 Þ ð1Þ

p2 ¼ fl1 ðd1 þ d2 Þy1 g cos y1 þ sin y1 ðd1 þ d2 Þ ð2Þ
Similar equations apply to h2 and p1. When D ¼ d1 þ d2 ¼ 1, fabric thickness becomes a

unit measure. Then, the equations become,
h1 ¼ fl1 y1 g sin y1 þ ð1 cos y1 Þ ð3Þ

p2 ¼ fl1 y1 g cos y1 þ sin y1 ð4Þ
Also from Fig. 4, it is deduced that h1 þ h2 ¼ D ¼ d1 þ d2 ¼ 1, which is a fundamental relation

between fabric constants. Even if the distances p1 and p2 change after deformation, l1 and l2
distances do not change because it is assumed that the yarns do not elongate.
When the fabric is in the deformed state, the yarns are taken as the curves of a curved-
coordinate system. The warp yarns perform the v ¼ constant curves and weft yarns perform
14 Textile Progress
u ¼ constant Point A : ðu; vÞ

u þ du ¼ constant Point B : ðu þ du; vÞ
v ¼ constant Point C : ðu þ du; v þ dvÞ
v þ dv ¼ constant Point D : ðu; v þ dvÞ
o : Angle between the two yarn groups
Fig. 5 A bent fabric surface. Womersley [73]}
the u ¼ constant curves; therefore u changes along the warp yarns, and v changes along the
weft yarns. A bent fabric surface is seen in Fig. 5.
AB and DC correspond to warp yarns; dv is proportional with the number of warp yarns
between AB and DC and because p1 is the distance between consecutive warp yarns along
u ¼ constant curve, after deformation it becomes,
ds ¼ p1 dv ð5Þ
and in the similar way, along the v ¼ constant curve, it becomes,
ds ¼ p2 du ð6Þ
In this case, one unit of fabric surface is defined as:
ds2 ¼ p22 du2 þ 2p1 p2 cos o du dv þ p21 dv2 ð7Þ
Since p1 and p2 are dependent variables, any fabric surface is defined as:
ABCDðareaÞ ¼ p1 p2 sin o du dv ð8Þ
The warp and the weft yarns intersect and cause tensions between themselves. From
Fig. 5, this relation can be written as Eq. (9) because the yarns are considered to be pure
bending;
T1 sin y1 ¼ T2 sin y2 ð9Þ
T1 : Tension in warp yarns
T2 : Tension in weft yarns
Since the components of T1 and T2 in the fabric surface are F1 and F2, then;
F1 tan y1 ¼ F2 tan y2 ð10Þ

F1 tan y1 = tan y2 ¼ F2 ð11Þ
F2 ¼ wF1 ; w ¼ tan y1 = tan y2 ð12Þ
If w can be written in w( p1,l1,l2) form and p1 is known in terms of u and v, this proportion can
be calculated everywhere on the fabric surface.
P : Pressure applied perpendicular to the fabric

dS : Area of the piece
P dS : Force applied to the piece
Fig. 6 Forces occuring in the fabric
When a force is applied in a perpendicular direction to the fabric plane and the
equilibrium equations are written for the fabric, it is seen that these do not depend upon
the assumptions of the yarn’s non-elongation and pure bending, but they depend upon the
absence of shear forces and the smallness of the construction.
The forces occuring on a piece of fabric which is bordered with
u 1=2du; u þ 1=2du; v 1=2dv; v þ 1=2dv
curves are seen in Fig. 6, where,
F1(u, v) ¼ Strain in warp yarns at Point (u, v)
F2(u, v) ¼ Strain in weft yarns corresponding the above strain at Point (u, v)
When the static equilibrium is considered on this piece of fabric, since the P force is
equalized with the strain in the yarns, then these equilibrium equations should be written:
F1 ðu þ 1=2du; vÞdv F1 ðu 1=2du; vÞdv þ F2 ðu; v þ 1=2dvÞdu
ð13Þ
F2 ðu; v 1=2dvÞdu ¼ PdS
If n is a unit vector which is perpendicular to the surface at Point (u, v) [37], then
!
P ¼P! n ð14Þ
When Equations (8) and (14) are substituted in Equation (13):
F1 ðu þ 1=2du; vÞdv F1 ðu 1=2du; vÞdv þ F2 ðu; v þ 1=2dvÞdu
ð15Þ
F2 ðu; v 1=2dvÞdu Pn p1 p2 sin o du dv ¼ 0
When F1 and F2 are defined as partial differentials, then,

F1 ðu þ 1=2du; vÞdv F1 ðu 1=2du; vÞdv ¼ @F1 =@u du ð16Þ
F2 ðu; v þ 1=2dvÞdu F2 ðu; v 1=2dvÞdu ¼ @F2 =@v dv ð17Þ

Then, we would get,
@F1 =@u þ @F2 =@v P n p1 p2 sin o ¼ 0 ð18Þ
If a is the unit vector in the warp direction and b is the unit vector in the weft direction, then
a, b and n make the coordinate system of the three. The vector equation of equilibrium can
be solved by multiplying a, b, and n scalars in turn.
! ! !
F 1 ¼ F1 !a ; F 2 ¼ F2 b ð19Þ
16 Textile Progress
can be written. Then the equations take this form:

@F1 =@u þ ab @F2 =@v þ F2 a @b=@v ¼ 0 ð20Þ

@F2 =@v þ ab @F1 =@u þ F1 b @a=@u ¼ 0 ð21Þ
F2 n @b=@v þ F1 n @a=@u ¼ P p1 p2 sin o ð22Þ
k1 is the curvature of the v ¼ constant curve in the tangential way, and
k2 is the curvature of the u ¼ constant curve in the tangential way, so
n @a=@u ¼ p2 k1 ; n @b=@v ¼ p1 k2 ð23Þ
Then the equation takes this form,
F2 p1 k2 þ F1 p2 k1 ¼ P p1 p2 sin o ð24Þ
and this equation is similar to the equilibrium equation of a foam [73].

If the surface were flat, then the measures b @a/@u and a @b/@v would be related to the
curvature of the u and v curves with these equations:
b @a=@u ¼ p2 =r1 sin o ð25Þ

a @b=@v ¼ p1 =r2 sin o ð26Þ
Here
r1 ¼ curvature radius of u curve
r2 ¼ curvature radius of v curve
When the surface is not flat, r1 and r2 become the curvature radii that are perpendicular
to the tangent surface, and this means it is the radius of the geodesic arc. Geodesic
curvatures are generally shown as g and g0 , so the equilibrium equations take this form:
@F1 =@u þ cos o @=@vðw F1 Þ wF1 g0 p1 sin o ¼ 0 ð27Þ

cos o @F1 =@u þ @=@vðw F1 Þ þ F1 gp2 sin o ¼ 0 ð28Þ
F1 ðk1 =p1 þ wk2 =p2 Þ ¼ P sin o ð29Þ
In these equations, w and p2 are the known functions of p1, so the three functions of
equilibrium contain three unknowns which are F1, p1 and o. In this case, k1, k2 and g, g0 are
dependent upon p1, p2 and o. The forces that occur at a special deformation and the pressure
in the normal direction which will keep the system in equilibrium can be calculated from
Equation (29), even it will be hard. It seems that working with coefficients will be simple [73].
Kilby [33] studied the planar stress–strain relations in a woven anisotropic fabric. He
considered the influence of the fabric anisotropy on fabric mechanical behaviour. In his
work, he considered the fabric as an anisotropic elastic lamina. He derived a coefficient that
he called the generalised modulus of the fabric, which shows the fabric’s tensile modulus in
the test direction. He worked mainly with small strains.
Kirk and Ibrahim [34] stated that if the primary requirement from a fabric is performance,
then the available stretch level of the fabric should be 20–30%; but if the primary
requirement from a fabric is comfort, then the available stretch level should be 25–40%. The
fabric tries to be in agreement with the body’s movements by sliding over the skin, leaving
some space between the body and the clothing, and by stretching. Fabric stretching causes
fabric bagging when the double curvature parts of the body are concerned.
Postle and Norton [50, 51] later used the application of differential geometry in fabric
deformation. These researchers used tensor analysis to determine the woven fabric finite
deformation, and defined four tensor areas: (i) Tensor area for fabric extension percentage;
(ii) Tensor area for normal curvature of the fabric surface; (iii) Tensor area for yarn bending in
the fabric surface; (iv) Tensor area for yarn twist in the fabric surface. They drew curved
coordinates according to Cartesian coordinates (x1, x2, x3) of the three-dimensional Euclidian
space. They developed parameters to provide a coordinate system on the fabric surface and
these are also constant as coordinate lines. If the points of the fabric are marked to infinity,
then with a single system all the points of the fabric can be defined easily. These are called
‘convected coordinates’; and if the warp or the weft way is taken as the axis, then they are called
‘weave coordinates’. In Postle and Norton’s work, the first and the last forms of the fabric are
simply evaluated as being positioned in two different spaces. The differences between the
tensors of these two positions are defined as the deformation occuring.
Some researchers were not concerned with the top area of the fabric where the drape did
not start yet when the fabric was bent to conform to a spherical surface, or with the very top
part of the fabric when it is thrown in an uncontrolled way to make three-fold buckling
[32, 50, 51, 57]. They developed some models and described the uniaxial and biaxial tensile
behaviour and shear behaviour of plain woven fabrics. They also calculated the lateral yarn
compression and fibre slippage during tensile deformation by using some general graphical
analysis methods and empirical calculations. If the fibre viscoelasticity is included in the
model it will then be improved. They stated that bagging deformation is composed of biaxial
tensile and shearing deformation, and that this kind of deformation is finite [32]. Some
carried out their work to model the energy of the fabric and drew force diagram of the fabric
similar to the contour lines in Moiré topography [76].
Bassett and Postle [9, 11] took the concept of covering a three-dimensional surface with a
fabric in a different way and studied how the fabric would cover such a surface with warp
and weft yarns keeping their parallel positions relative to each other when force is applied on
them. They did work to combine the subjects of fabric sewability, garment appearance and
fabric drape, with fabric properties such as shear rigidity, shear hysterisis, bending rigidity
and bending hysterisis. They tried to determine the relations between fabric elongation,
shear and bending properties, and behaviour in conditions of sewing and deformation in
use. The term ‘a deformed state’ has two aspects. One is the study of the in-plane forces
reproduced by the applied external forces and how these in-plane forces are distributed in
the fabric plane; the other aspect is the study of the changes in the shape of the fabric, which
can be planar, spatial or curvature. They state that a fabric having a membrane structure can
cover only a cone without deformation (a cylinder is a cone having its top located at
infinity). The behaviour of such a fabric can be calculated from the fabric’s bending
parameters for various intersecting angles; but in different parts of a garment, a fabric has to
be able to cover the double-curvature surfaces, so it will either deform in its plane, or crease,
or buckle. In the theoretical approach of Bassett and Postle [9], there is the Elasticity Theory
on one side, where the elongations and elongation percentages are small and the material is
linear isotropic, and the Finite Element Analysis on the other side. This method showed a
parallel improvement with the developments in computers, and was adopted by Lloyd [40,
41] to succesfully solve some problems in textile technology.
Bassett and Postle [9, 11] in their work considered the fabric as a web of rod elements and
evaluated the fabric as if divided into small squares. The forces act as force couples in the
way they study the problem. The force couples equilibrate each other when they are vertical
18 Textile Progress
to each other, but when they have an angle between them they make themselves work.
Bassett and Postle [9, 11] laid a circular piece of fabric on a half-sphere to comform to a
spherical surface. Here, the friction between the fabric and the surface it covers is not taken
into consideration. The top part of the sphere covers the whole surface very well but towards
the bottom, drapes occur. Equal weights were hung at the bottom of the fabric, and as they
were hung, the part that covered the sphere surface at the top increased. In this work, it was
considered that the rod elements did not elongate but the network changed shape according
to the shear forces. The stress and strain distributions in the fabric were calculated by a
numerical method developed by the researchers. The approximation of the fabric was like a
flexible net-like grid of ‘ball-jointed’ rod elements. The forces, extensions, and shears were
calculated by an iterative method. The main focus of their work was on the mechanical
behaviour of isotropic fabrics.
The points Pu,0 and P0,v take place at the side planes of the coordinate plane when the
quarter of the sphere is studied. Point P1,1 is the intersection point of P1,0 and P0,1 which is
one intersection away. All the other Pu,v points can be found the same way. It is considered
that there is no elongation between the elements in the network when the shear angles are
calculated. The shear angle at the point Pu,v can be calculated as euv fufv (in terms of
radians). Here, fu is the f-coordinate of Pu,0 and fv is the f-coordinate of P0,v. The shear
force couple in every element can be calculated only if it is taken as a function of the shear
angle. If it is taken as an effect of shear, tensile and bending properties, a very complex
situation comes about. Since there are weights hanging along the bottom intersections, the
force acting upon every element can be calculated. When the limiting factors are taken into
consideration, the unknown forces at the bottom edge intersections can be found by solving
the equilibrium equations. When all the calculations belonging to the bottom edge are
finished, then one can move to the next inner row, and consecutively, can come up to the
point P0,0 and exactly find the force distribution. If yarn elongation is important, then first,
the force–elongation characteristics of the fabric used are worked out. Then, starting from
the bottommost edge, the calculations are redone. If the geometry of the system comes out
differently because of the elongations, then the force distribution comes out differently also.
The relation between the weights hanging at the bottom and the curved surface covering the
the top was investigated in terms of angle f, but no sufficient relation was found. The most
important solution found was: When the fabric was first laid on top of the sphere, from the
point of preventing the bending at the edges, the effect of yarn elongation is only 1% and the
amount of weight needed to prevent bending at a specific angle of f, if elongation is
eliminated, is found to be directly proportional to the fabric’s shear resistance. This result
confirms the idea that the fabric takes three-dimensional forms according to its shear
resistance. The data found to date show that fabrics that gain double curvature, create high
pressing forces in themselves, even though the studies were done at low loadings. This may
seem contradictionary but the results obtained reflect this conclusion [9, 11].
3.2 Mechanism of Bagging

Amirbayat and Hearle [3] stated that fabric’s drape and comformability properties are those
that make it different from other layered materials. They found that the limiting
assumptions of the plate and shell theories are not sufficient for investigating the three-
fold buckling of textile materials, both for the terms used and the methods used. Calladine
[17] has made an assumption emphasizing the interaction between bending and extension,
but the application of this assumption to buckling textile material is not perfect because it
considers elastic theory depending upon small elongation–small displacement and plastic
theory depending upon large elongation–large displacement. Calladine [17] is not concerned
with complex buckling where recovery is possible after large elongation–large displacement.
This is the difference between membrane deformation and bending deformation outside the
membrane. At a single curvature, many layers of the material behave the same; but at double
curvature, they behave very differently. The buckling shapes are various in these cases
because double curvature needs in-plane elongations. A plane-like sheet covers the double-
curvatured surface like a map of the spherical world laid flat on a sheet of paper. There is no
force applied from outside. On the contrary, textile materials and elastic materials can
behave according to membrane extensions and, if there is a force application from outside,
they can conform to them.
3.2.1 Elastic Effects

In garment production, there are areas of the body such as the shoulders where a surface
with double curvature has to be covered, and this is achieved in the fabric’s direction of
shear rigidity. Lindberg et al. [39], Hearle et al. [29], Amirbayat and Hearle [2, 3], and many
others, proved in their works that the relation between drape constant and bending rigidity
improves if shear strength is taken into consideration. Amirbayat and Hearle [2] examined
the recoverable bending of flexible fabrics under small forces, but did not examine the
unrecoverable deformation of rigid material under large forces. They state that in three-fold
buckling, two of the buckles occur in the middle layers and one buckle occurs at the side
layer. They assumed that there was a smooth passage from one to the other, but there is a
strict separation between them because the layers are sensitive to the diffusion of energy.
They state that the viscoelastic properties and creep-relaxation properties of a fabric play a
role at the conformed top part, the behaviour becomes very complex and mainly the fabric is
pushed to take the form of a different shape.
Shanahan et al. [57] in their work state that there is a considerable cooperation between
the bending, shear and tensile parameters of the fabric and if their constants were to be
calculated then the degree to which they affect each other could be worked out. But Bassett
and Postle [11] in their work considered the elongation, shear and bending features
independently of each other. Shanahan et al. studied the fabric elastic behaviour at complex
deformations. They concentrated on drape in their work and considered the fabric as a two-
dimensional continuum. They worked with this consideration and studied the behaviour of
the material in the linear elastic area. They emphasized that there are large-elongation large-
deformation conditions in textile materials, and for both isotropic and elastic material there
are non-elastic, non-linear and time-dependent relations. Even at small strains, textile
materials will show viscoelastic and frictional slides. That is why the deformation that takes
place is non-linear, cannot fully recover and is time-dependent in character. Also, they
suggest that a three-dimensional full analysis has to be done including the fabric thickness.
It is stated that at large elongations, the force–elongation relations are not elastic,
non-linear, and show time-dependent differences and irregular recoveries.
3.2.2 Viscoelastic Effects

Amirbayat and Hearle [3] state that the main reason for not studying this subject earlier was
that some of the assumptions in applied mechanics are not in agreement with textile materials.
Textile constructions are not continuous; they are made up of smaller pieces. They are not
isotropic and linear, they show hysteresis and they are time-dependent in their responses.
20 Textile Progress
In general, their viscoelastic properties are not taken into consideration. In complex buckling,
very complex deformations occur as a result of large elongations and displacements. The
reason why this subject is studied now is that, in the last fifty years, there is an increase in the
use of man-made fibres and advances in the production methods of textiles. As a result of
these, the experiences and the trial–error methods that were exercised before can no longer be
used; and they were very expensive and time consuming. Also, new application areas of
textiles have been invented such as geotextiles, aerotextiles etc. A different performance from
the modern fabric is expected. As a result of developing computer technology and its
application in textile investigations, work that symbolises the behaviour of the fabric in usage,
even when the fabric is at the design stage, has improved a lot [44].
Zhang et al. [80] studied the decaying of internal energy in fabrics when they
macroscopically examined the physical mechanism of fabric bagging and the components
of stress during bagging. They also looked at the energy changes occuring when the fabric is
repeatedly bagged. They developed a test method and abstracted three mechanical criteria
for objectively evaluating fabric bagging, which are residual bagging height, bagging fatigue,
and bagging resistance. Bagging fatigue also includes the ability of elastic recovery, and
bagging resistance also includes the ability to resist deformation. If we name them in
deformation energy terms, then we can say elastic and viscoelastic energy of the fibres and
plastic deformation which results from frictional slippage between fibres and yarns. They
found from the results that fabric bagging is closely related to the viscoelasticity of fibres and
frictional restrictions in the fabric construction. They were able to predict the fabric bagging
fatigue behaviour and residual bagging height from fundamental fibre–yarn mechanical
properties and fabric sturctural parameters. They investigated the relations between the
mechanical criteria and fibre–yarn–fabric parameters, both theoretically and experimentally.
They found that the ability of the fabric to resist bagging decreased with time and that the
decrease had an exponential behaviour. They state that during the bagging process, there is
a kind of fatigue behaviour of the textile material. The work of loading in the first five cycles
of the bagging test was measured. They included the elastic energy in the fabric and the
hysteresis energy, which includes the viscoelastic energy and the plastic energy. The energies
decayed with the cycle of deformation. Then they calculated the three mechanical
parameters to describe the fatigue process. Different fibre compositions and weave
structures among the fabrics yielded to different mechanical behaviour between the fabrics.
They tried to predict the bagging performance from fibre–yarn properties and fabric
structural features and to find the relation between these two sets of parameters. They also
developed a test method for subjective evaluation, they took photographs of the bagged fabric
samples, and conducted some psychophysical perceptual tests. They found that subjective
perceptions depend mostly on fabric residual height, and the residual bagging shape is also
an important stimuli; the shape is related to fabric anisotropy. They found a high correlation
between using the photographs and the real bagged fabric samples. In their later researches,
they use image information [80].
4. TEST METHODS FOR BAGGING

4.1 Methods Related to Bagging in International Standards
It has previously been stated that the studies done of deformation in woven fabrics also
included those where the force was applied to the fabric’s plane in the vertical direction and
there was displacement where the recovery was not full. Deformation under hydrostatic
forces and ball-penetration were used in bursting strength tests. Some researchers worked
according to these principles. Their works are summarized here.
Sommer [59] in his work used the Schopper bursting strength apparatus (DIN 53861,
Parts 1-2-3, 1970) [22]. He worked with different weaves and different compositions
(including rubber), both for woven and knitted fabrics. He evaluated the bursting strength
pressure as the main value. This researcher considered that the fabric attained a spherical
shape at bursting. According to DIN 53861, Parts 1-2-3, it also is considered that the dome
occurring in a bursting strength tester is spherical. Zurek and Bendkowska [85] proved that a
circular piece of fabric makes an elliptic dome when bursting in the apparatus.
The ball-penetration test of ASTM Standard D231-62 revised to D3887-96, D3786-01,
D3787-01 [7]; and TS 7126 [67] exerts a force on a 12.5 cm. diameter knitted fabric with a
2.54 cm. polished steel sphere at a constant speed of 305 mm/min until the ball penetrates the
fabric by tearing. The force at tearing is evaluated. In their work, Scardino and Ko [56] used
three-dimensional fabric which had yarns intersecting at 608 and measured their extension,
shear and bursting deformations in this apparatus. They also did the same measurements with
two-dimensional fabric and compared the two groups. They found that the force distribution
in the three-dimensional fabric when deformed was more even than that in the two-
dimensional fabric. Also they found that, at the same force measurement, the three-
dimensional fabric was deformed permanently but the two-dimensional fabric was torn.
In the literature, we meet a Chinese standard, FJ 552. 6-85 [25, 80, 82]. Even though this
standard was not seen in preparation of this text, it is understood from the literature that it
describes the bagging behaviour by means of bagging height or bagging volume, and wear
trials are also used as a subjective method in experimental investigations.
In British Standards, there is a standard regarding the woven fabric’s resistance to sagging
during wear, BS 4294 [16]. The Turkish Standard TS 6071 [66] is a translation of this
standard. Sagging is the stretch deformation occuring in the fabric in daily usage. It is
different from bagging, but is sometimes confused with bagging.
4.2 New Methods Developed

The kinds of tests we see in the standards and most of the researches which will be explained
in Section 5, work with, a sphere pressing against the fabric, either woven or knitted. This
pressing sphere method is the one which is mostly used. Another method for measuring
bagging behaviour is the wearer test. This method is subjective and is also used by some of the
researchers to confirm the test method they had developed. Another method is using the
KES-FB apparatus, used by one research worker and which will be explained in the next
sections. In that research, bagging behaviour of the fabric was determined by the variables in
the KES-FB apparatus.
This is a different point of view in bagging studies. An image processing method was also
used by one group of researchers. This method was then compared with visual tests done on
several people, and proved useful for determining the bagging of garments. It can be used
both before the fabric is sewn into a garment and after the garment has been used for a
period of time. All of these methods will be explained in detail in later sections.
4.3 Other Similar Aspects

Williams [72] in his work with parachutes found out that the inner volume of a parachute
changes very little because of the elongation of the parachute fabric. In his work, he
considered the fabric as a membrane with linear elongation. Ericksen et al. [24] applied
22 Textile Progress
longitudinal force to the parachute fabric produced from the synthetic fibre Kevlar 291
(single-ply plain woven) and measured extension and examined the changes occurring in the
fabric geometry. When the fabric reached a specific extention, they removed the force, cut
the fabric and took photographs of the cross-section. From these photographs, the changes
in the fabric geometry and yarn cross-section could be seen. They postulated that when the
fabric first starts to feel the force, yarn bending is responsible for the elastic behaviour, but
as the force gets stronger, bending turns to elongation, and when the force is extreme, yarn
elongation is mainly responsible. The effects of bending and elongation in the yarn cross-
section were very clearly detected in their work. The weft density of this parachute fabric was
much higher than the warp density.
There has also been work done with deformations under pointed forces. Shanks [58]
studied the dynamics of coarse nets by means of Finite Element Analysis. The unit area of a
net is much larger when compared with that of a fabric. These kinds of nets are used as life
protecting vests in airplanes or guards around rotating elements of machines. In these cases,
the nets serve as energy absorbers and as mechanisms that distribute the energy throughout
their own constructions. During usage, the construction of the net has to minimize the
maximum dynamic effect and should not be defective within its own body. Also, in nets that
experience strain at high levels, such as tennis rackets or squash rackets, there has to be
minimum contact time between the net and the object touching it, and the energy absorbed
by the net has to be at the lowest. Shank’s assumptions were such as these: (i) The elements
have no bending rigidity and twist, which means when under stress there is no inclination to
untwist; (ii) There is pretension given to the net before impact. This is to prevent any crimp
that could occur and to guarantee to start the experiments with the same tension every time;
(iii) The intersection points are fixed, they do not shear. This cannot be true for textile
materials; (iv) The boundary line is also fixed; no slippage occurs there; (v) The material used
is linear elastic and is uniform throughout the net; but in cases of large extentions, we can
mention geometrical irregularity.
Another approach to deformation is the deformation under pointed forces. Ballistic
studies are good examples for these. Roylance et al. [55] applied dynamic finite element
analysis, which was developed for single fibres, to model woven surfaces. Their main
purpose was to improve the performance of bullet-proof vests. In their research, they found
that the ballistic event cannot be treated separately from the construction effect, and that
there is a high correlation between the fibre’s ballistic strength and the ballistic strength of
the fabric woven from that fibre. When it was first studied in the case of a fibre, at the impact
of the bullet, the axial elongation waves, which are independent of the velocity of the impact,
get away from the impact point. Following these waves, the fibre material starts to flow
towards the impact point. Also, waves opposite to these axial waves start to propagate from
the point of impact; they propagate slowly and slow down the flow of the material. Since the
movement of the material is impeded, every time a wave comes, it vibrates. The most
important difference between the fibre and the fabric is that there is interaction between the
axial waves and the opposite waves because there are fibre intersections in the fabric. In
every intersection, an opposite wave is reflected, the magnitude of the main wave decreases,
and the elongation behind the wave increases. At this point, the geometry of the fabric is
very important.
When a signal which is perpendicular to the surface is studied, only a proportion of the
force applied to a certain intersection is passed to the next intersection. Here, the difference
between the continuous material and non-continuous material becomes obvious. The total
energy passes through every point at the same amount in a continuum where conductance
is perfect, but in a non-continuum the signal goes back and forth between intersections so as
to decrease. At the beginning the signal is effective at one point, but as it is propagating in
wave form, it is distributed to a wide area. In a non-continuum, the density of the energy and
related extension proportions decrease if factors of the reflectance of energy and the turning
of energy into some other kind are not considered. Another difference between the
continuum and a non-continuum is this: In a non-continuum, it takes a long time for a signal
to propogate and it has a fading character; on the contrary, in a continuum, the signal keeps
all the properties it had when it left its main source, in every point [55].
There are other researchers working on ballistic impact such as Leech [38], Montgomery
et al. [45], Cunniff [19, 20] and Lloyd [40]. Lloyd [40] among these applied finite element
analysis to fabric deformation and also used this for ballistic impacts, regarding the time of
impact as a cone.
5. RESEARCHES ON BAGGING
Many experimental investigations have been done on bagging but fundamental investiga-
tion of bagging progresses slowly. One reason for this is that the deformation during bagging
is large and three-dimensional. Another reason is that there are practical difficulties in
measuring linear and nonlinear, elastic and viscoelastic, anisotropic and frictional properties
of textile materials.
5.1 Researches with Woven Fabrics

Lindberg et al. [39] made a pioneering study of how a woven fabric covers curved surfaces.
They looked at the problem from the garment-making point of view. They state that
mechanical properties such as buckling, in-plane compression and shearing are needed in a
fabric to make a garment from it, but there have to be upper and lower limits for these
requirements. Also in garment making, a flat fabric is turned into a three-dimensional shell
and this feature bears relation with mechanical properties. The ‘formability’ property of a
garment is introduced in their work. The fabric has to retain the form given to it, which
means the fabric has to be set to keep that form, and they explain that stitching with
overfeed gives the fabric what it needs to be set. Dimensional stability is discussed according
to garment production steps later in their paper.
They indicate that a garment is designed to cover the human body, so its shape resembles
a body. There are curved regions in the body; for the fabric to take that curved shape, it has to
behave like a shell rather than a membrane. In garment production, a plane-like fabric is
turned into a three-dimensional shell which has to keep its form and has complex curvatures.
When fabric is turned into a cylinder, simple bending takes place. But when it turns into a
spherical form or a saddle, distortion of the surface elements are needed. A spherical surface
can be formed by extension forces or compression forces. When a fabric is placed in a ring
and pressed by a half-sphere, extension forces take place. Biaxial stresses also will be taking
place, pressure being constant, and the height of the deformed spherical part will be deter-
mined by the biaxial extensibility of the fabric. When a fabric is woven to fit the spherical
surface, then compression forces take place. Compressibility, in such a case, is determined
by the compressibility of the fabric in various directions. They also emphasied the
importance of the bending, shear, and extensibility of a fabric by experiments and by theories.
In the photograph they present, a piece of wire gauze has been formed into a half-
spherical shape, and by using simple analysis they have calculated the average diagonal
24 Textile Progress
extension and circumferential compression of the gauze. But, they did not relate this to the
stress distribution that could occur in a similarly deformed fabric [39].
Eeg-Olofsson [23] worked on the subject of defining the shaping ability and what he called
‘comfortability’ of texile fabrics and similar materials. The necessary conditions for a fabric
to conceal cylinders, cones, and spheres were studied. The idea of comfortability, which is
the ability of a rectangular structure to conceal a spherical structure, was studied. In this
work, shaping ability is calculated from strains and compressions of the fabric. The
researcher did experiments with rubber fabric, and tried to calculate comfortability from the
force exerted and the tensile strength of the fabric obtained by tensile tests.
Fleissig [26] developed an apparatus to measure the permanent deformation in knees,
elbows, and hips. In this apparatus, a piece of round fabric is pushed with a sphere of the
same diameter. The strains in the warp and weft yarns of the fabric pushed with the spherical
surface were studied according to membrane theory. He also made some assumptions as
follows: (i) The fabric is a homogeneous isotropic membrane with a neglectable constant
thickness; (ii) The dome formed when pressed with the sphere is big enough to almost equal
the radius of the clamping circle; (iii) Bending moments and shearing forces can be neglected
at every point of the membrane; (iv) The membrane is fitted to the clamping circle as a hard
fit; (v) The external force applied by the sphere is continuous, constant and perpendicular to
the fabric at every point. In other words, the force application is assumed to be hydrostatic;
(vi) The frictional forces between the membrane and the spherical surface can be neglected.
The intention here was to deform the fabric both in the warp and the weft directions and to
study the behaviour of that part which is in the clamped area. When studying the tensile
strength of the fabric, only one, the warp or the weft, direction is taken into consideration,
but in a work such as this, both of them are taken into consideration in order to wrap up the
sphere. The researcher included the deformations which he assumed to be similar to
Hookian Laws. So it is proved by these experiments that yarn elasticity is very important at
the very top of the curvature where the strain is the maximum. The maximum dome takes
place at the maximum strain.
Yokura et al. [76] emphasized the tendency of a fabric towards bagging. As stated
before, bagging is seen after a force perpendicular to the fabric’s plane is applied to the
fabric, so the fabric loses its dimensional stability and cannot recover fully. They
developed an objective evaluation method for predicting the bagging propensity of woven
fabric. They used the increasing bagging volume to measure this bagging propensity. The
researchers named the volume of the dome occurring after the force application as the
‘bagging tendency’. They studied the volume which was formed by constant load resulting
in shear deformation. They also measured the mechanical properties of the fabrics. They
statistically examined the correlations between the bagging volume and the fabric’s
mechanical properties.
They placed the sample fabric on a half-sphere which had a 14 cm. diameter, clamped the
chucks, loaded with a square frame, waited for five hours, and left it to recover for 19 hours. In
their experiment, load was equally distributed along the warp and the weft directions. They
name the creep occurring after repeated shear deformation under constant tension ‘dynamic
creep’; and the creep under tension ‘static creep’. Bagging shape was not taken into
consideration. They also tried to symbolize the ‘sweaty’ and the ‘normal’ stages of usage by
keeping the humidity and the temperature high at the sweaty stage. In the statistical evaluation
to predict the bagging volume, they used multiple regression analysis to the variables
they obtained from the KES-FB system. The results were in accordance with 500 hours
of wearing tests they did before with the same fabrics and derived empirical equations for the
bagging propensity in terms of mechanical properties [76].
They worked with two groups of woven fabrics: one group of stretch fabrics with deve-
loped elastic properties, the other of classical fabrics with normal elastic properties. The stretch
fabric group consisted of fabrics made up of PE (textured) yarns and polyurethane yarns. The
classical fabric group consisted of fabrics made up of wool yarns, PE (spun) yarns and W/PE
(spun) blend yarns. For the stretch fabrics group, the bagging volume gave a high correlation
with the hysteresis behaviour in uniaxial tensile strength, bending rigidity and shear
deformation in small angles, depending much on inter-fibre and inter-yarn frictions. For the
classical fabric group, the residual bagging volume gave a high correlation with the dynamic
creep strain and rate values. They also found that in the fabrics mentioned, the residual bagging
volume is correlated more on time dependent deformation, i.e. the viscoelasticity of the
material. In different kinds of deformation, fabric mechanical behaviour is correlated with this
approach and one is able to identify possible relationships. In this approach, the roles of fibre
mechanical behaviour and yarn–fabric structural characteristics are not involved. The
correlation between bagging volume and mechanical properties of the fabric was investigated
statistically to predict the bagging propensity of woven fabrics from their mechanical properties
obtained from the KES-FB system. The three-dimensional shapes of the bagged fabrics, in other
words the bagging volume, were measured by Moiré topography, which is a system mainly used
in map drawing. The volume can be calculated from the contour waves in that method. It was
conceived that bagging in the stretch fabrics depended on the friction between fibres and yarns
when compared to the classical fabrics group, but that bagging in the classical fabrics group
depended on the deformation over time when compared to the stretch fabrics group [76].
Şengöz [62] studied this subject from the point of view that bagging is a quality factor and
determined how much bagging there would be when the fabric is in its plane form, before
being sewn into a garment. The permanent deformation behaviour of a woven fabric was
studied by model experiments analytically. The researcher used a universal tensile testing
machine, and hollow cylinder and square frames to press the woven fabric. The curved
surface of a half-sphere was pushed on a woven fabric which had a surface contact to form a
spread force in between the half-sphere and the fabric. The resistance of the fabric to the
forces that occur under this force and the permanent deformation conditions were examined.
In her study, she worked with one kind of fabric but changed the experimental parameters
many times, aiming to define the combination of parameters that would clearly determine
the permanent deformation of a fabric. One other aim was to work out a suitable test
method and to make it a standard laboratory test. It would be a great convenience to work
out the relationship between different parameters by regression equations, so as to be able to
define one parameter in terms of another and thereby interpret the force, which is very hard
to calculate, exerted by the body on the fabric. This work carries importance for examining
the effects of viscoelastic properties in different kinds of deformation on permanent
deformation, and the formation and the alteration of these effects relative to time and
pressure; also, to design a fabric which maintains suitable usage performance or to
determine the suitable usage conditions of a woven fabric by improving permanent
deformation geometry and mechanics. The experiments were done in the laboratory by
symbolizing the different forces acting upon a woven fabric during usage. For example,
experiments such as applying a pointed force to a vertical fabric, pulling the fabric between
jaws, grabbing it with jaws, or leaving a weight on it, are the commonest and such tests are
all important to survey how the force is distributed in the fabric by such applications.
26 Textile Progress
However, when the fabric is forced to take the shape of a spherical surface, it is equally
important to know the force distribution.
Şengöz [62] in this work aimed to find out the deformation occurring when a spatial force
is applied perpendicular to the fabric plane and the permanent deformation related to time.
She developed a test method to succeed in these aims. Since there are too many independent
variables acting upon deformation in experimentation, these variables were tried and the
different behaviours of the fabric studied. A combination most suitable for a standard test
method was aimed for, with the help of the graphical and statistical analysis.
The fabric used was 100% cotton, plain weave, warp and weft yarn count being the same
(Ne 30/1), the total number of yarn ends 52, being a square fabric, soft finished, sanforized,
and white. A universal tensile testing machine was used in the compression mode for the
experiments. The machine was computer-aided. The kind of experiment to be done,
the selection of the parameters suitable for the test, the limitations of the experiment, the
sensitivity of the experiment, the repeat number of the experiment, can all be programmed in
the computer, and the test can be started from the computer. A photograph of the universal
testing machine is seen in Fig. 7 and the testing principle is drawn schematically in Fig. 8 [62].
In the daily usage of the fabric, it deforms to form a dome and exhibits spatial behaviour,
and this behaviour includes a third dimension in the ‘z’ axis. Spatial pressing can only be
achieved by a hollow frame where it is possible to hold the fabric from the sides. Another
sample holder was placed at the top and held the fabric firmly with the help of the screws
placed at regular distances away from each other. Also, the friction between the sample
holder surface and the fabric was increased by sticking extra fabric over the holder surfaces.
This sample of fabric, which was held freely and firmly in space, could be pressed easily with a
half-sphere. When the half-sphere acted upon the fabric, the fabric moved downwards and
elongated the rest of the fabric in its direction. This design is both similar and not similar to
the daily usage of a fabric because, although at the elbows and at the knees the fabric would
seem to be acting freely, the continuity of the fabric is interrupted with the seams, because it
was cut before with the curvatures of the arm, the leg, etc. So in reality the fabric exhibits a
limited behaviour. To resemble the most realistic form in the experiments and to achieve the
highest permanent deformation possible, it was decided to work with a limited fabric area
held in the sample. The deformation depending on the different independent variables is
Fig. 7 Photograph of the universal testing machine

Fig. 8 Schematic drawing of the testing principle of Şengöz [62]
performed in this limited area. Another reason why such a construction was chosen is that the
fabric has to be laid on the same frame for a second time to measure the permanent
deformation. At this time, the measurement has to be done exactly at the same point where
the deformation was done at the first time. The screw points helped to find the same
deformation point easily. The possibility of deforming from one point and measuring the
permanent deformation from a different point was eliminated. The fabric distance from the
cut point to fit the screw until the fabric sample body was sufficient to hold the fabric firmly
in place and eliminate any slippage [62].
The dimension of the frame is an independent variable in this experiment. The dimensions
of the circular frames used are given in Table 1. It was desired to make the area increases to
be about double from one frame to the next and to study the deformations accurately, so it
was decided to work with five frames.
It was thought that square frames with a side length the same as the diameter of the
circular, would also be worth to try, so that a more realistic daily usage of the fabric could be
symbolized and also a basis for comparison could be created. A photograph of all the frames
is given in Fig. 9. Since we do not know where the force distribution ends in-plane of a fabric
in its daily usage, this kind of an approach will be symbolizing both the limited and the
Table 1
Frame Diameter and Sample Fabric Area
Diameter (cm) Area (cm2)
4 12.566
6 28.274
8 50.266
12 133.098
16 201.062
28 Textile Progress
Fig. 9 Photograph of all the frames
unlimited behaviour of it, so the effect of the frame shape was thought to be helpful at this
stage. The dimensions of the square frames used in these experiments are given in Table 2.
The idea of keeping the area increase nearly double is still maintained in the square frames.
The difference here is that, while the force distribution is constant at the edges of a circular
frame, it is different in a square frame because when we go to the corners we move a longer
distance and this obviously affects the force distribution at the edges. Its importance was
found very clearly after statistical analysis.
A half-sphere pressing from above was thought to be suitable since just this part will be in
contact with the sample fabric, and it was designed with a suitable attachment to be easily
connected to the machine. The dimensions of the spheres used in these experiment is an
independent variable.The diameters of the half-spheres were 2, 4, and 8 cm. The surface
characteristic of the sphere is also important, and, in order to resemble the small amount of
friction between the skin and the fabric and to allow the yarns to elongate, brass material
with an even surface was chosen. The weight of the half spheres is not important since they
are held by the machine and are only used to press the fabric.
Another centralizing frame was constructed to ensure that the pressing comes from
exactly the centre and to measure the permanent deformation repeatedly from the centre
after some relaxation time of the fabric. A photograph of the spheres and the attachment
used are shown in Fig. 10.
It was questionable whether the fabric should be pressed until a specific load or until a
specific displacement, and so pre-experiments were carried out with constant loads and
constant displacements. It was finally decided to take the displacement as an independent
variable and to keep the load as a dependent variable because it would then be possible to
calculate the force exerted by the body on the fabric with the help of regression equations
derived from later statistical analysis. The specific load and the specific displacement where the
Table 2
Square Frame Side Length and Sample Fabric Area
Side Length (cm) Area (cm2)
4 16
6 36
8 64
12 144
16 256
Fig. 10 The spheres and the attachment used in the experiments
fabric starts to tear were calculated and it was decided to work with 2.3, 3.6, 4.9, 6.2, and
7.5 mm displacements confidently, without tearing the fabric. Also, the amount of pre-tension
to be applied to the fabric before the experiment starts was decided to be 0.1 N [62].
The rate of pressure exertion is also important. A sudden impact is more effective than
a gradual one. The rate is also an independent variable, but in the pre-experiments five
different rates were tried and 60 mm/min was decided on because this rate gives enough time
for the yarns in the fabric and for the fibres in the yarns to change their places and take a
new deformed shape. In the rest of the experiments, this rate was used all the time.
The tests were done in two separate groups, one being the half-sphere pressing the fabric
up to the specific displacement and immediately going back, and the other being holding the
sphere pressed into the fabric at the specific displacement for three minutes, which is long
enough for a spatial deformation to occur. Immediate release or waiting came out as an
independent variable also.
Repeated force exertion at the same point is important and is also an independent
variable. It is started by being pressed from the smallest displacement measurement and is
pressed to one longer in every cycle. In the other group, it is started from the second smallest
displacement measurement and is pressed in cyles until the longest. At the last step, it is
directly pressed until the longest displacement measurement.
Relaxation time is an important independent variable also. One group was relaxed for one
hour and the other group was relaxed for forty-eight hours.
The number of repeats for one group of testing conditions was tried with five, ten and
fifteen repeats and the results were compared with t-tests. Sufficient results were achieved
with ten repeats, so from then on ten repeats were used for each group of testing
conditions.
Şengöz [62] tried many different combinations of many different parameters affecting
fabric bagging testing. Hydrostatic pressures and spread loads were both considered in the
experiments done. The results were evaluated with both statistical and graphical methods,
regression equations were derived, and the relations between parameters were stated, so that
it became possible to reach an unknown value with values in hand.
The notations in the regression equations are as follows:
Fa ¼ Load needed to deform up to a specific displacement
a ¼ Displacement
30 Textile Progress
Fig. 11 Load vs displacement curve
h1 ¼ Residual bagging height after one hour relaxation time

h48 ¼ Residual bagging height after forty-eight hours relaxation time
The regression equation derived for the load dependent variable according to the
displacement independent variable is:
Fa ¼ 0:455 þ 5:247
a 4:304
a2 þ 1:515
a3 0:206
a4 þ 0:012
a5 ð30Þ
As seen from Fig. 11, the polinomial equation was derived for this relation. The polinomial
equation had a correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.9957, which explains the relationship well.
The regression equations derived for the residual bagging height of the deformed dome
dependent variable according to the displacement independent variable are given for one-
hour relaxation time and 48-hours relaxation time, separately:
h1 ¼ 0:222 þ 0:362
a 0:120
a2 þ 0:014
a3 ð31Þ
equation had a correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.8099, which also explains the relationship well.
Fig. 12 Residual bagging height (after one-hour of relaxation time) vs displacement curve
h48 ¼ 0:810 þ 0:771

a 0:215
a2 þ 0:019
a3 ð32Þ
As seen from Fig. 13, the polinomial equation was derived for this relation. The
polinomial equation had a correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.8044, which also explains the
relationship well.
Fig. 13 Residual bagging height after 48-hours of relaxation time vs displacement curve
The one-hour relaxation time values were compared with 48-hour relaxation time values.
It was seen that at one hour relaxation, the fabric had not yet completed its recovery
hysteresis curve, but at 48-hours relaxation time, the fabric had completed its recovery
hysteresis curve. The two sets of values had a high correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.8086 so it
was decided to work with one-hour relaxation time values because they were higher, and this
can also be seen from Fig. 17. When we relate the load and the residual bagging height at
one-hour relaxation time and derive the regression equation between them:
F ¼ 4:518 þ 21:690
h1 þ 40:999
h21 ð33Þ
equation had a correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.7892, which also explains the relationship
well.
Experiments were also done to continue pressing the fabric up to tearing as in the ball
penetration tests and they were statistically studied, but they are not included here.
The load and residual bagging height parameters are dependent variables in this
experiment. The combination of alternatives which would give the best explanation of
residual bagging for the independent variables in this experiment was also searched for;
statistical and graphical analysis was done for every kind of combination. Graphical
presentations were used especially where no regression equations were derived and how the
phenomenon behaves was studied from these.
As previously stated, there were two kinds of frames, the circle and the square and five
different frame dimensions, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 16 cm. In Fig. 15, these two parameters are
examined together for residual bagging height. As seen from this figure, the square frame
with 6 cm dimension gave the highest residual bagging height value.
32 Textile Progress
Fig. 14 Load vs the residual bagging height (after one-hour of relaxation time) curve
Fig. 15 Residual bagging height vs frame shape and dimension
There were three different sphere dimensions and there were five different displacement
measurements, 2.3; 3.6; 4.9; 6.2; and 7.5 mm. The results of 2.3 mm displacement were
eliminated because they were too small to be interpreted and the recovery behaviour of the
fabric was unsatisfactory. So we see the rest, four displacement measures, in Fig. 16. In this
figure, these two parameters are examined together for residual bagging height. As seen from
this figure, the sphere with 2 cm dimension at 7.5 mm displacement gave the highest residual
bagging height value.
There were five different pressing speeds, 20, 30, 60, 120, and 180 mm/min and there were
two different relaxation times, 1 and 48 hours. In Fig. 17, these two parameters are examined
together for residual bagging height. As seen from this figure, the 60 mm/min rate at one
hour relaxation time gave the highest residual bagging height value.
There were two different pressing types, immediate release and waiting for three minutes,
and there were five different pressing cyles, starting from 1 up to 5. In Fig. 18, these two
parameters are examined together for residual bagging height. As seen from this figure,
Fig. 16 Residual bagging height vs sphere dimension and displacement
Fig. 17 Residual bagging height vs pressing rate and relaxation hours
Fig. 18 Residual bagging height vs pressing type and pressing cycle

34 Textile Progress
waiting for three minutes at the fifth cycle gave the highest residual bagging height value.
The immediate release values were compared with waiting for three minutes values. The two
sets of values had a high correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.8090 and, since the difference
between immediate release and waiting for three minutes was small, it was decided to work
with immediate release.
The best combination which gave the highest residual bagging height in a sample fabric
was concluded as [62]:
Independent Variable Alternative
Shape Square
Frame Dimension 6 cm
Half-sphere Dimension 2 cm
Displacement Measure 7.5 cm
Pressing Rate 60 mm/min
Time Immediate
Cycle 5
Relaxation Time 1 hour
Repetition 10 times
In this work, permanent deformation is regarded as a quality factor and a standard test
method that can be worked in a laboratory regularly to figure out the permanent
deformation beforehand in a fabric which is to become a garment has now been developed.
The interesting point here is that square frames gave more definitive general results than the
circle frames which were used by all the other researchers. Also, as the load applied to the
fabric to be deformed is chosen as a dependent variable, when the other factors are known it
will be easy to reach this unknown value. This kind of approach is easy to relate to daily life
because, in any one of the used garments, when the permanent deformation is measured, the
force applied from the human body to the fabric to cause it to deform when using that
garment can easily be calculated with the help of the regression equations given previously.
Zhang et al. [77, 78] also examined the bagging behaviour of woven fabrics. They developed a
test method using an Instron tensile machine. They clamped the fabric sample in a circular
holder and deformed it repeatedly by loading it from the centre, using a steel ball. The relative
residual bagging height was measured after five load cycles. They obtained a loading curve for
the first cycle and the residual bagging height over five cycles. But during these tests they
emphasized some other ideas. One was bagging resistance, which is the load work in the first
cycle, and the other is bagging fatigue which is the difference of the load work between the first
and the last cycles. They predicted the woven fabric bagging height to be a function of bagging
resistance and bagging fatigue by using multiple regression analysis. In their work they also did
some subjective assessments. They developed a model for predicting the rating values. They
used only the residual bagging height as the independent variable in predicting the rating
values. They found that during the deformation process, fabric strain behaved as a nonlinear
function of bagging height.
They clamped the specimen in a circular ring and had a pre-tension load to keep the fabric
flat. The fabric was bagged to a pre-determined height, then returned to its original position
on the Instron. This pushing was repeated five times in succession. They measured the non-
recovered bagging height of each of the cycles under the same pre-tension load. They did
fifteen cycles of repeated bagging deformation to find out the fabric energy changes. At the
end of the fifteenth cycle, the elastic energy still in the fabric was approximately 35–50% of
the initial internal energy of the fabric [77, 78]. When a single fibre’s relaxation time was
measured, it was found to be longer than a single fibre’s relaxation time in a fabric that had
bagged. This means that the relaxation of fibre stress during the bagging process is faster
than that of the single fibre when averaged. They state that if the strain in the fibres is larger,
the stress relaxation is faster.
Kisilak [35] studied spherical fabric elongation under cyclic stresses where, in a garment,
they are mostly seen, at the knees and the elbows. He developed a new modified apparatus
and a new method to test the spherical deformation of woven fabric. With the algorithm
developed, he was able to calculate the elongation of the warp and the weft yarns. So the limit
stress a yarn can take could also be calculated. When a garment is worn, the shape of it keeps
changing; these changes are due to the elasticity and the viscoelasticity of the fibres. These
changes are temporary, but if the stress is too large or if it lasts too long then they are not.
Permanent or irreversible deformations occur. It was aimed to develop an algorithm to
calculate the deformation of flat textiles under dynamic loads. The procedure developed
seems suitable for predicting the quality of fabric from the properties of the constituent fibres.
The steps followed by this researcher were: (i) Testing the tendency of textiles to spherical
deformation with an artificial joint, similar to DIN 53860 [21]; (ii) Testing the tendency
of textiles to spherical deformation on the modified apparatus with an artificial joint;
(iii) Developing a new modified apparatus and a new method for testing spherical
deformation of textiles. Different methods were used to fix the samples, trying to provide
better imitations of wear. Also, exceptional wearing conditions of a garment, such as humid
and warm, were also tried [35].
In this experiment, a sphere was fixed to a computer-controlled dynamometer (Instron
6022), trying to create laboratory conditions which were similar to that of wearing the
garment in daily life. The size of the sphere was close to the size of the elbow, and the size of
the circularly fixed fabric sample was close to the size of the model of the sleeve. The base of
the fabric holder was fixed in the lower jaw. The sample stayed between two rings which
were fixed with a threaded clamp. The sphere was made of polished metal, and was fixed to
the upper jaw from where it pressed fabric. In this way, the simulation of the fabric strain at
the knee and the elbow was achieved. The diameter of the fabric sample used was 78 mm;
the inner diameter at the clamp was 61 mm. The diameter of the sphere was 48 mm. The test
procedure went as follows: Cyclic loading was carried out. The sphere pressed the fabric with
100 N for 15 minutes then was lifted and touched the surface of the fabric with 0.6 N for
again 15 minutes. This was repeated five times, then was relaxed for 3 hours. Then the cycle
was repeated two more times. The final relaxation was for 15 min. The test takes 13 hours.
The computer records the forces and the sphere shifts every time deformation occurs. The
fabric is spherically broken at the end. The load is also increased gradually at the end until
fibre breakage occurs, the force values and the sphere movements being recorded every 20
seconds [35].
In the graphical picture given in Kisilak’s experiments, the deformed fabric was drawn. There
seems to be sharp changes between the conical part and the straight part. There is the truncated
cone and a spherical cap at the edge. The surface area of the truncated cone and the surface area
of the spherical cap are calculated and added together. The surface area of the fabric sample
before deformation is subtracted from this sum. This difference is divided by the surface area
before deformation and the result is expressed as a percentage. In every cycle, this area
elongation is recalculated and the evaluation is carried out according to these values. In the
experiments, 100% wool and 45/55 wool/polyester fabrics were used because these are worn
36 Textile Progress
as daily standard suits in business life. There were two different weaves; they were woven and
finished under controlled conditions, and they all had equal weights per unit area [35].
It was found that the twill wool fabric had the greatest spherical elongation and the plain
blend fabric had the smallest spherical elongation; the differences in elongations were the
same, regardless of the duration of testing; the first loading cycle was the one that affected
the length of elongation. Elongation decreased during the three hours of relaxation, but it
never recovered fully. In analysing the spherical loading until breakage, theoretical
calculations referring to a thread going through the sphere centre were made. It was found
that the plain blend fabrics were the firmest and the wool twill fabrics were elongating the
most. It was concluded that the deformation in the 100% wool fabric was greater than the
wool/polyester blend. The explanation of this point was because of the structural changes in
individual fibres. The deformations in the twill fabrics were more than the deformations of
the plain fabrics; this shows the effect of the weave. Twill weave has less yarn interlacings per
unit area than plain weave which means there is less reactive force to the deformation
process. As the researcher states, 100% wool fabrics have more relaxation than blends and
this is because of their structure [35].
Abghari et al. [1] developed a new test method to investigate woven fabric bagging
deformation and they used a real time data acquisition and strain gauge technique. While
the fabric was deformed by bagging, they also measured the tensile deformations in the warp
and weft directions.
They used bagging resistance, bagging fatigue, residual bagging height and residual
bagging hysteresis to characterize the fabric bagging behaviour and also simulated it with
Finite Element Analysis.
As a result of their experiments, they found that the bagging load, work, hysteresis,
residual hysteresis and fatigue are highly linearly correlated with corresponding parameters
in the warp and the weft directions. They obtained an empirical relationship between
residual bagging height and bagging fatigue and resistance, which proved that the new test
method was able to evaluate the bagging behaviour of woven fabrics. By using Finite
Element Analysis, they were able to show that the theoretical model predicts and simulates
the bagging behaviour of woven fabrics. In the theoretical analysis, the residual bagging
height, bagging load and tensile forces in the warp and the weft directions are linearly
correlated with the corresponding parameters in this new test method. They state that all the
methods in the literature measure the fabric bagging load while a constant tension is applied
to the fabric sample. It was stated that biaxial tension and shearing played an important role
in fabric bagging, and the stress distribution in isotropic and anisotropic fabrics is related to
the bagging force’s internal stresses in the fabric section. This was theoretically investigated
and it was found that the internal stresses distributed non-uniformly between the warp and
the weft yarns for an anisotropic fabric. In their work, they were measuring the bagging
force distribution between the warp and the weft yarns experimentally [1].
In the apparatus developed in the above research, a fabric sample is placed in a
rectangular clamp with inner dimensions of 24 and 17 cm. There are four jaws that precisely
pretension the clamped fabric sample. The exact magnitude of the fabric pretension is
controlled and determined with two load cells which are connected to the two horizontal
jaws. There are two other jaws which can be moved in the plane of the fabric, under a screw
control system. There is a third load cell attached to the upper jaw of the bagging tester and
the speed and the direction of this jaw can be controlled for cyclic loading. A steel sphere
with various diameters is fixed to this load cell. When the sphere contacts the fabric sample
and exerts a pressure on the clamped fabric, the vertical load cell measures the compression
force, i.e. the bagging force, and the other two load cells measure the tensile forces along the
warp and the weft directions. In the experiment, 5 cyclic loadings were done and diagrams
and hysteresis curves drawn for the warp and weft tensile forces and the bagging force. They
used woven twill worsted and plain cotton/polyester shirt fabrics in their research. The
sphere pressing rate was 4 mm/min, bagging height was set to 30 mm, the sphere contacted
the fabric at the maximum pressure at each cycle for 5 min, then recovered for 2 min.
The cyclic loading was done 5 times and the whole cycle was repeated 5 times, resulting in
25 bagging deformations. Ten fabric samples of each kind were used.
They measured the maximum load and corresponding work of loads and percentage
hysteresis at the first and the last cycles for weft, warp and bagging directions, and then
bagging resistance, bagging fatigue and residual bagging height were calculated according to
Zhang’s test method. They introduced a new parameter named the ‘residual hysteresis’ for
warp, weft and bagging directions. They calculated this parameter by finding the difference
between the % hysteresis in the first cycle and the % hysteresis in the last cycle, dividing it
by the % hysteresis in the first cycle, and multiplying by 100. They suggest that this parameter
indicates the percentage of residual internal energy of the fabric during bagging deformation.
For theoretical simulation, they used non-linear visco-elastic and numerical calculation in
finite element analysis. They calculated the compressional bagging force, tensile forces along
the warp and the weft directions for different bagging cycles, and residual bagging height,
and then compared them with the experimental results. The maximum bagging force in
the first and the last cycle correlated linearly with the maximum force in the warp and the
weft directions for all fabrics, and these had correlation coefficients of r2 ¼ 0.97 and 0.83,
respectively. This shows that the maximum bagging force distributes between the warp and
the weft yarns, but is non-uniformly distributed, and anisotropic fabric properties are
involved during bagging deformation. The work of the bagging load in the first and the last
cycle correlates linearly with the work of loads in the warp and the weft directions for all
fabrics and these have correlation coefficients of r2 ¼ 0.9 and 0.83, respectively. This shows
that fabric deformation is different in bagging, warp and weft directions, non-linearly. The
bagging hysteresis in the first and the last cycles correlates linearly with corresponding
parameters in the warp and the weft directions for all fabrics, and the correlation coefficients
are r2 ¼ 0.78 and 0.93, respectively. This shows that all the fabrics are well deformed and
the residual energy of bagging deformation is well distributed along the warp and weft
directions. It also shows that shear deformation has occurred, particularly in the last cycle,
and stress relaxation was created in the warp and weft yarns. The residual bagging hysteresis
is linearly correlated with corresponding parameters in the warp and the weft directions
and the correlation coefficient is r2 ¼ 0.9. This shows that this new parameter of bagging
deformation, which demonstrates the non-recovered stored fabric energy, is highly
correlated with corresponding parameters along the warp and the weft yarn directions.
It can be noted that the non-recovered work of loads or the frictional and viscoelastic
components of the fabric during bagging deformation had decayed in the last cycle. The
relationships between fabric bagging fatigue and tensile fatigue in the warp and the weft
directions are linearly correlated with each other (r2 ¼ 0.83) and it can be concluded that the
residual elastic stored energy in the fabric due to the fatigue process of fabric bagging is
distributed in two principal warp and weft directions. The residual bagging height correlates
linearly with bagging fatigue for all the fabrics with correlation coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.98, 0.99
and 0.99 respectively. This shows that the residual bagging deformation in the twill structure
38 Textile Progress
is more sensitive to fatigue performance than the plain structure. The viscoelastic behaviour
and the frictional effect of worsted fabrics may have influence on fatigue performance of
those fabrics. The relationships between the residual bagging height and bagging resistance
are non-linearly correlated with each other for all the fabrics, and the correlation coefficients
are r2 ¼ 0.99, 0.99 and 0.97, respectively. It can be explained as the bagging resistance is
mainly related to work of load at the first cycle and it represents the ability of fabric to resist
bagging deformation at the initial stage, so the residual bagging height and bagging
resistance are non-linearly correlated with each other. The bagging fatigue and bagging
resistance are non-linearly positively correlated with each other for all the fabrics, with
correlation coefficients of r2 ¼ 0.99, 0.98 and 0.99, respectively. This shows that as the initial
energy of the fabric, which reflects both elastic and the initial viscoelastic, frictional energy
increases, the fabric bagging fatigue increases. It may be said that correlation coefficient of
bagging fatigue and resistance for shirt fabrics are much higher than those for worsted
fabrics. This shows that the viscoelastic–frictional component of the wool component and
twill structure of worsted fabrics may have influence on the experimental results [1].
Multiple regression analysis for residual bagging height was done with bagging fatigue
and bagging resistance. An equation was obtained and the correlation is seen to be highly
significant, with r2 ¼ 0.83 (p < 0.001). It can be concluded that the residual bagging height is
affected by the combined influence of bagging fatigue and resistance. The residual bagging
height obtained by the new fabric bagging tester is linearly correlated with simulation results
(r2 ¼ 0.8) and also with the finite element analysis results of tensile forces in the warp and
the weft directions. The bagging forces during fabric bagging simulation are linearly
correlated with experimental values (r2 ¼ 0.68, 0.76 and 0.74, respectively). These results
also indicate that the FEM simulation of woven fabric as a non-distructive method is
reliable and permissible. From the experimental results, different parameters including,
load, work, hysteresis at the first and the last cycles for three different bagging, warp and
weft directions were calculated and also the bagging behaviour of the woven fabrics’ four
physical criteria (bagging fatigue, bagging resistance, residual bagging height and residual
bagging hysteresis) were characterized and measured. The experimental results show that
the bagging load values are in the range of 50–100 N. It was also found that the bagging
load, work, hysteresis, residual hysteresis and fatigue are highly linearly correlated with
corresponding parameters in the warp and the weft directions. The experimental and FEM
simulation results of their research show that the bagging behaviour of woven fabrics can
be predicted in terms of bi-axial tensile properties under low-stress fabric mechanical
conditions [1].
5.2 Researches with Knitted Fabrics

Thomas [64] developed an apparatus to perform the so called Celanese bagging test for
knitted fabrics. He used an Instron tensile tester, and tensile stretch and recovery principles
are the fundamentals used in this test. A circular fabric sample of 10 inch diameter was
clamped between the two plates of an extensometer, and an 8 inch diameter testing area was
left. Repeated loads were then applied to the circular fabric sample, loads changing from
0.5 to 15 lb for two minutes, but keeping a 15 lb force for one minute. At the end of this
time, the load was reduced to 0.5 lb and the ‘growth’ occuring immediately in the sample
fabric was recorded. The load was lifted for one minute. After this time, again 0.5 lb force
was applied to the circular fabric sample between the clamps. The ‘distortion’ occurring
immediately in the fabric was recorded. The ‘recovery’ occurring immediately was obtained
from the immediate growth and the immediate distortion values. Knitted fabrics were used
in the tests. Thomas had the fabrics made into garments. Two or three garments made from
different fabrics were worn at least once a week. After wearing for 28 and 32 hours, the
garments were given back and they were subjectively evaluated according to the standard
AATCC ranking board. Ranking (1) was severe which was considered to be failing; Ranking
(2) was moderate; and Ranking (3) was slight. He correlated the results from the wear trials
and the results he obtained from the Instron loading tests, which were immediate recovery
data. If the immediate recovery values were greater than 59%, this was regarded as
satisfactory; if they were between 53–59%, this was regarded as borderline, which means the
fabrics may or may not bag during wear, depending on the wearer and the nature of the
construction of the fabric; if they were less than 53%, this was regarded as unsatisfactory.
Fabric construction and the wearer’s fit and size also affected the bagging severity, but their
effect on garment performance was not so clear.
Yaida [74] has worked with immediate recovery values in percent to evaluate the bagging
in knitted fabrics. He made a similar apparatus to the Celanese bagging tester and worked
with four sample of each knitted fabric. They were of 8 inch diameter. First, 0.5 lb force was
applied on the fabric as a pretension. The Instron then cycled between 0.5 lb and 15 lb for
two minutes at 200 mm/min. Then the half-sphere was held on the fabric at 15 lb for one
minute, then went back to the 0.5 lb gauge length. Then it was totally lifted and held for one
minute; afterwards the half-sphere came back to the 0.5 lb gauge length. It was attempted to
find the relation between the immediate recovery value in percent and the density,
compressive modulus and thickness of the fabrics. There was no relation between the
immediate recovery value in percent, and the density and compressive modulus. But there
was correlation between the immediate recovery value in percent and thickness.
Uçar et al. [68] studied the bagging of a set of knitted fabrics in their work. The fabrics
they used varied in design, tightness factor, and blend ratio. They determined the residual
bagging height from the tests they did, and they mechanically characterized the fabrics using
the KES-FB system. They worked out the relations in between and concluded that, by using
the standard KES-FB test, the bagging height could be predicted for knitted fabrics without
doing any additional bagging tests for them. They also did some subjective analysis. They
explained that bagging occurs in apparel fabrics during sitting or squatting for a long time,
or from repeated movement. Bagging is the result of dimensional stability missing or lack of
recovery when repeated and long lasting force is applied on the fabric. Fabric mechanical
properties, such as ease of recovery and loss of energy with use, are very important in fabric
bagging. These mechanical properties also reflect the resistance to deformation. Mechanical
properties of fabrics depend on their fabric parameters, yarn parameters, and relaxation
state.
During bagging, the sample fabric was subjected to a complex pattern of loading. They
measured the tensile, shear, and bending properties of their sample fabrics. The fabrics’
diameter was 135 mm, the inner diameter of the clamp being 56 mm. The pressing sphere was
steel and had a diameter of 48 mm. The displacement measurement was 21 mm, the rate of
pressing was 20 mm/min and then the pressing sphere returned to its original position. The
sample fabric waited for two minutes under zero load to recover, then the non-recovered
bagging height was measured. They chose most of their testing parameters similar to Zhang’s
[77, 80]. Their bagging heights were different because they worked with knitted fabric and
Zhang worked with woven fabric. They expressed the residual bagging height as a percentage
by dividing the non-recovered bagging height by the predetermined bagging height.
40 Textile Progress
The researchers used a bivariate correlation analysis to find the relation between the
residual bagging height they obtained from their experiments and the fabric mechanical
properties they obtained from the KES-FB tests. For plain knitted fabrics, they found a
negative correlation, which means that as the elastic restraint and frictional resistance (fabric
rigidity) against deformation increases, the residual bagging height decreases. When the
tightness factor of a plain knit increases, fabric rigidity also increases because of increased
inner pressure, resulting in an increase in the loop curvature, causing the fabric to behave
more like a spring. This kind of a fabric finds it easier to recover than a slack one. For
double knitted fabrics, they found a positive correlation, which means that as the elastic
restraint and frictional resistance (fabric rigidity) against deformation increases, the residual
bagging height increases. The double fabrics have more crosslinkages and this structure
makes them rigid to deformation. Also, more intricate and longer linkages makes the knitted
fabrics less recoverable because there is more inner friction in the fabric, so the residual
bagging height increases [68].
A regression equation was obtained where residual bagging height is determined in terms
of shear rigidity, hysteresis of shear force at 5 degrees, bending rigidity and hysteresis of
bending moment. For the subjective assessments, it was stated that it is important to know
where the fabric will be used so that the tests will be done according to those conditions. For
example, compression wear in medical textiles was evaulated with the residual bagging
height. The researchers took photographs of the fabric they were testing when the fabric was
still on the bagging apparatus, after two minutes of recovery time. Afterwards, people were
asked to rank and rate these photgraphs. The researchers included bending and shear
parameters in the model they developed to predict the rating values. One reason for doing
that was to take in the influence of gravity upon the knitted fabric. Another reason was the
different relation between the fabric tightness and the residual bagging height seen in the
plain knitted and the double knitted fabrics. Bending and shear properties are very
important factors to the drape of weft knitted fabrics. It is well known that when the rigidity
decreases, the drape of the fabric increases. It was concluded that the KES-FB system gives
data that can be used to predict the bagging behaviour measures needed for fabrics that are
different in fibre type, fabric structure, and yarn size. Fabric properties such as handle and
sewability can be derived from the KES-FB system. The work shows that by measuring
shear and bending properties of a fabric, bagging properties can be evaluated and a formula,
explained above, can be derived. Using the KES-FB system needs less effort in determining
the bagging behaviour because no apparatus need be set up for the experiment. Subjective
analysis showed that when fabric rigidity increases, the impact of bagging on appearance is
more severe [68].
5.3 Researches with both Woven and Knitted Fabrics

Wegener and Scoulidis [71] symbolized some conditions met in daily life in an apparatus
they developed to determine the curvature elasticity. They measured the force to make
curvature in a deformed fabric and the distance withdrawn vertically from the plane of the
fabric. They did not use these values for evaluation; instead they calculated relative values of
the shape the fabric formed in the jaw (as did Sommer [59] in some bursting strength tests).
Linear curvature strength and curvature elongation were the relative values used. Woven
and knitted and rubber construction fabrics were utilised in their work. They named their
apparatus ‘curvature tester’. They derived some regression equations and discussed the
effects of testing parameters on curvature magnitudes.
Grünewald and Zöll [27] developed an apparatus similar to the moving human arm. It was
an artificial arm with an elbow joint. They sewed a fabric in a tubular form, drew the tube-like
fabric onto this arm, where the tubular fabric represented the sleeve or the trouser leg, bent
the arm in a suitable way, keeping the fabric in this bent form for five hours, which means
static strain on the fabric, then the arm was straightened and the fabric recovered for
10 minutes this way. The fabric was taken out and the bagging height at the elbow region
measured on a different, straight horizontal tube. Garments sewn from the same fabric were
given to people to be worn for fifty days, but every five wear days the garments were assessed.
The degree of bagging was measured in the laboratory and, if it was below 5 mm, the
garments were worn more by the people after being cleaned and pressed. At the assessment,
three independent persons examined the garments and said if they could still be worn and
were acceptable (not bagged at all or just a little which means the fabric remained
dimensionally stable) or unacceptable. The results achieved by the tests in the laboratory and
the results achieved by the wear trials correlated highly, even though the test method did not
include any cycles and the wearer trials included repeated motion. Also, the limits of the
wearable and unwearable regions could be derived. They worked on both woven and knitted
fabrics. The Zweigle type bagging tester is designed on the Grunewald and Zöll principle.
Strazdiené and Gutauskas [60] studied biaxial punch deformation in anisotropic textile
materials. To evaluate the textile punch deformation, the authors tried to find a new
criterion. Their other aim was to find the effects of the anisotropy of the material on the
forming shell, and they also attempted to find the strain distribution in the forming shell.
They used X-ray diffraction analysis, and were able to study the friction at the sample and
punch contact. They state that this friction has much effect on the punching process
parameters. They found out that the anisotropic shell forming in the punching process had a
complicated geometry. They suggest that this does not confirm the earlier presumption
about rotating surfaces. The friction in the contact zone is what makes the geometry
complicated. They applied the punch both dry and lubricated. After the X-ray diffraction
analysis, they found that with the dry punch, which has a high friction coefficient, the
structural changes at the top of the shell can be neglected. When this is compared with the
lubricated punch, which has a low friction factor, this one has much more structural change.
They relate this behaviour to the crystallinity at the top of the shell [60].
Strazdiené and Gutauskas’s later work [61] is involved with spatial loading of highly
stretchable textiles and the textile materials are orthotropic. Biaxial deformation can either
be membrane or punch. The researchers state that textiles can be affected by forces
perpendicular to their planes during production or usage, and shells occur on their surfaces.
There are three reasons why biaxial deformation is gaining importance recently: (i) The
behaviour of the textile material under usage circumstances is reliably simulated (ii) Test
methods are realized with very simple experiments and the results are reliable when the
tearing location and character in the sample is studied; (iii) The testing methods are
universal: that is, by doing a single test many properties of the textile material are obtained
such as strength, properties creep or relaxation parameters, etc.
The researchers state that in most of the earlier investigations concerning biaxial
deformation, the test material was assumed to be isotropic and the surface of the shell which
was formed in the deformation was axisymmetric. When it is a membrane deformation, the
shell forming has a kind of a segment of a sphere; but when it is a punch deformation, the
shell forming has a kind of a segment of a sphere and a cut of a cone added together. In their
research, they studied shell formation phenomena in textiles when there is very high
42 Textile Progress
orthotropy in them. In their work, they compared the punch and the membrane biaxial
deformation types of textile materials, which are both spatial. Punch tests were done with
disc-shaped samples having a radius of 28.2 mm, cut from knitted and woven fabrics, with
different orthtropy levels. For the punch size, a radius of 9.5 mm was used. They did the
membrane tests with an HDR-type hydrorelaxometer which they designed and manufac-
tured themselves [61].
In membrane deformation, load is transmitted to the textile material by compressed air or
liquid through a rubber membrane so possesses a hydrolic character. In punch deformation,
the textile sample is loaded with a rigid sphere. The shape of the shell-forming will be related
to the size of the punch (radius of the punching sphere divided by the radius of the textile
material) and to the textile material’s orthotropy level. Since most textile materials behave
more or less orthotropically, the uniformly distributed pressure in the membrane
deformation will not form a kind of a segment of a sphere, it will form a non-axisymmetric
surface. It will look like an ellipse because the stresses in the meridian direction and in the
circumferential direction will be different and will depend on the geometry of the shell
formed and on the the internal pressures in the textile material. When two perpendicular
lines are taken in the directions of the main axes, they will be different by the radii of their
curvatures, the maximum difference being at the top of the shell. Zurek and Bendkowska
[85] had done a similar study and confirmed that the distorted sample was not like a part of a
sphere. In the case of a punch deformation, the part of the sample fabric covering the
punching sphere will be taking its shape, but starting where the sample fabric is not touching
the sphere any more, the shape will be like a concave curve until the clamps. The effect of
friction can be seen when the contact region of the punching sphere and the sample fabric is
analyzed from the point of view of local displacements in the fabric. There are small
deformations at the contacting region but the sample fabric is deformed in two directions
because it is under biaxial tension. Starting from the line where the fabric leaves the
punching sphere, the sample fabric is under uniaxial tension and that depends on the
orthotropy level of the fabric. In order to describe the shape of the shell formed there, if two
lines are generated, they will be concave at different levels. They conclude that besides the
information of the affecting force and the deformed height, additional information about the
parameters of thin-shell geometry are also needed, which are mainly anisotropy details,
stress distributions, and time dependent changes. They also conclude that the warp direction
in woven fabrics and the wale direction in the knitted fabrics are deformed less [61].
5.4 Researches with Nonwovens and Technical Textiles

Villard and Giraud [70] studied the behaviour of reinforcements made from geotextile sheets
under pressure. They state that there is an increase in geotextiles used under roads and rails
that are built on weak or collapse-risking ground. Since the possibility of damage or break-
down increases at those places, geotextiles serve to decrease this possibility, but the three-
dimensional behaviour of such membrane geotextiles under pressure needs to be examined.
They model this behaviour with anisotropic and non-elastic behaviour and this does not
depend on the kind of loading. They introduce an original finite element calculation and
compare it with analytical solutions of some other cases. For more complex cases of
reinforcement, they suggest a horizontal sizing nomograph and some practical solutions.
They conclude that promoting the sheet reinforcement along a single direction such as the
production direction is to be preferred. It is emphasized that behaviour under pressure is
very important for the end-use mechanical performance of the industial fabrics.
Anand et al. [4] have studied needlepunched geotextiles. Performance characteristics such
as puncture resistance and tensile properties are important in these. Since they are used
as separators, filters, reinforcements and drainage materials, they have to have a

required strength, dimensional stability, and abrasion and puncture resistance to be able
to withstand the forces acting upon them in the long term. They tried to develop
mathematical models to predict the dimensional and functional properties of the
needlepunched geotextiles from the known set of machine parameters. They were able to
predict the puncture resistance from fabric area density and fabric thickness with a
correlation coefficient of R ¼ 0.99 (r2 ¼ 0.98). And also, they were able to predict the puncture
resistance from web area density, needle penetration and punch density with a correlation
coefficient of R ¼ 0.984 (r2 ¼ 0.9683).
Bilişik [14] has investigated the structural properties of textile preforms and composites. He
found that the matrix contribution to tensile strength of composites was reduced before
plastic deformation. He also found that tensile behaviour in the structure completely
depended on individual fibre strength and fibre architecture. Tensile failure causes fibre
breakage. In-plane shear strength was effected adversely by the Z-fibre fraction, but
this supports the interlaminar shear strength of the woven structure. The type of fibre
architecture affected entirely the fracture toughness and crack initiation with crack
propagation in the woven composite. The woven composite shears when the matrix reaches
the ultimate strength limits, then plastic deformation is seen in the structure. Z-fibre fraction
carries the impact energy and distributes in neighbouring regions to prevent the damage
threshold being reached and reduce the damaged area.
Hearle [28] worked on industrial yarns. Nylon is the premium fibre in production of
strong industrial yarns for ropes. It has a low modulus which means it has less resistance
to extension but it has a good recovery from high stresses. Polyester fibres are also used in
high-performance ropes. Linear-polymer fibres can bend without breaking to a great extent.
Deformation analysis was done on ropes with differential geometry. It was assumed that the
planes perpendicular to the axis of the helical structure within each component yarn
remained planar and perpendicular to that axis. Viscoelastic fibre properties were also
important in these analyses.
6. FACTORS EFFECTING FABRIC BAGGING

Zhang et al. [79] studied the influence of fibre–yarn–fabric properties on wool fabric
bagging. Fibres are linked to each other at different compactness, different degrees and kinds
of order, and different degrees of extension, curl and twist in a finished fabric. Bagging is a
large, three-dimension deformation, and the viscoelastic properties of the fibres and the
friction in the textile structure are very important. So, during bagging, the mechanical
behaviour of the fabric is a complex function of fabric parameters. By applying regression
analysis, the relation between the fatigue behaviour of the fabric and the fibre–yarn–fabric
properties can be examined.
In contact between the body and the fabric, bending and compression arises. In this
deformation, some structural changes occur in the fabric which can be listed as: (i) During
shearing, yarn rotation and slippage occur at the interlacings; (ii) During tensile deformation
and shearing, yarn bending and compression occur at the interlacings; (iii) Yarn extension
occurs between the interlacings; (iv) Fibre slippage and extension occur at the yarns in the
interlacing points and between the interlacings.
44 Textile Progress
As the bagging deformation develops in a fabric, the above processes interact with each
other and meet the requirements of the different stages of bagging deformation. There are
many sophisticated structural changes in fabric bagging, but there are three main cate-
gories: elastic, viscoelastic, and plastic. The fibre’s viscoelastic deformation plays the
largest part in the total deformation. Frictional deformation is the slippage between the
fibres and between the yarns, and the rotation of the yarns at the interlacings. Olofsson [48]
says that at large deformations, fibres themselves can be deformed in the plastoviscous range.
The viscoelastic and the plastic energies cannot be distinguished in practice, so in their
studies, they included the recoverable elastic energy and the decaying viscoelastic-plastic
energy as two essential components of the energy involved during bagging. In the
experiments, they took the yarn out of the fabric and measured its tensile property in the
same way as in fabric bagging. The mechanical property of yarns was called the specific
work of deformation, Ywork. The anisotropic feature of the fabric was called the unbalanced
specific work of the yarn (also unbalanced work of the yarn). The ability of the fabric to
resist bagging deformation was called the criterion of bagging resistance W0, the initial
energy of the fabric, W0 is a function of interlacings per unit area of the fabric, fabric
thickness, yarn work, and fabric cover factor. W0 is also a function of the fibre’s initial
modulus, which means that when the fabric’s structural properties are the same, the fibre’s
mechanical properties are the determiners. The decay rate of loss energy is a function of yarn
unbalanced work, and shows the effect of the anisotropy of the fabric. The initial
viscoelastic-plastic energy, Q, is a function of yarn and fabric cover factor, and shows that
the loss energy is determined by the mechanical properties of the yarns and fabric tightness.
Q is also a function of fibre modulus and fabric thickness, which means that these two
factors determine the fabric viscoelastic–plastic energy. The elastic energy, U, is a function of
fabric interlacing, fabric cover factor and yarn work, and shows that the fabric’s elastic
behaviour is determined by the yarn’s mechanical properties and the fabric’s structural
features. U is also a function of fibre initial modulus [79].
They found that the twill wool fabrics have lower specific loading work than the plain
wool fabrics because the twill weave has less interlacings per unit area of the fabric. Among
the twill wool fabrics, there was the gabardine with more than 608 twill angle and the serge
with 458 twill angle. The gabardine had more loading work than the serge. This showed the
effect of the unbalanced weave structure on loading work. In plain wool fabrics, the fabric
with less interlacings had lower specific loading work. The initial energy W0 of the fabric
increases with the blend ratio of polyester, but the decay rate of the specific loading work
with the bagging cycles is not influenced by the blend ratio. The decay rate of the
viscoelastic-plastic energy, d, is constant as the blend ratio changes. This can be explained by
the close recovery properties of wool and polyester. All the values of W0, Q, and U increase
with the increasing blend ratio of polyester. This may be because polyester has higher initial
modulus and higher constant of friction coefficient than wool fibres [79].
When they compared the results, they concluded that when the fibre’s mechanical properties
are fixed, fabric structural properties are the key factors; when the fabric structural properties
are fixed, the fibre mechanical properties are the key factors in determining the fabric bagging
behaviour. The two main cause of fabric bagging behaviour are the stress relaxation of the
fibres, owing to the fibre’s viscoelastic behaviour, and the friction between fibres and yarns,
owing to the frictional restraints in the fabric structure. Fibre–yarn mechanical properties and
fabric structural properties, such as fabric thickness, weight, cover factor and interlacing
points, are the important factors influencing the bagging behaviour of a fabric [79].
6.1 Fibre and Yarn Properties and Parameters

Zhang et al. [82] aimed to study the viscoelastic behaviour of fibres during the bagging of
woven fabrics and to create a mathematical model to simulate bagging while it is tested.
With computational experiments, they determined the elastic modulus E1, viscoelastic
modulus E2, fibre relaxation time t, three weighing coefficients (k3, k4, k5) for different
fabrics with K3, the elastic weighting coefficient; K4, the viscoelastic coefficient; K5, the
frictional coefficient of different fibres. They compared the experimental measurements with
the predicted bagging behaviour of the fabrics and found that the mathematical model
they developed predicted the bagging behaviour with reasonable accuracy. Their results
show that the viscoelastic behaviour of the fibre is very different during bagging in the
different types of fabrics they used. They state that elasticity ratio (E1) is high, viscoelasticity
ratio is low (E2) and relaxation time t is large in nylon and polyester fibres. Also, they state
that elasticity ratio (E1) is low, viscoelasticity ratio is high (E2) and relaxation time t is small
in silk, viscose and cotton fibres. When cotton and wool have the same viscoelasticity level
(E2), then relaxation time t is the determiner in the stress relaxation process. They point out
that fibre viscoelastic behaviour is playing a key role in determining fabric rheological
behaviour in bagging.
Multidimensional deformations occur in a bagging process, and it involves complex
mechanisms of fibre mechanical behaviour and yarn–fabric structural changes. Tradition-
ally, fabric bagging is defined by residual bagging height or bagging volume. In various
kinds of deformation, fabric mechanical behaviour is correlated with some previous
approaches and one is able to identify possible relationships. In these approaches, the role of
fibre mechanical behaviour and yarn–fabric structural characteristics is not involved. From
their earlier work, they found that fabric bagging is the result of two basic causes: one is
stress relaxation due to fibre viscoelastic behaviour, and the other is interfibre and interyarn
frictions. Fibre mechanical behaviour gains importance in determining fabric bagging
behaviour when fabrics have the same construction [82].
In their work which will be explained later [81], they developed a mathematical model on
the basis of rheological mechanisms and intended to simulate fabric bagging from
fundamental fibre mechanical properties and yarn–fabric structural features. Their model
successfully simulated the woven wool fabric’s bagging behaviour and could reflect the
relative contributions of the fibre’s elastic and viscoelastic behaviour and interfibre frictions
which are affected by yarn–fabric structural properties. They did not involve different
fibres in that work [81], but in this work [82], they introduced different fibres in the form
of different fabrics. Relative residual bagging height was obtained. Bagging fatigue, which is
the percentage of loss of energy after repeated bagging deformation in a fabric, is obtained.
Bagging resistance which is the ability of the fabric to resist bagging deformation is in this
order, from the highest: silk fabric, cotton, viscose, polyester, wool, nylon. Residual bagging
height is in this order, from the highest: viscose fabric, silk, polyester, cotton, wool, nylon.
Viscose fabric has the highest residual bagging height and nylon the lowest. Cotton goes up
to 7.5 mm and this result is similar to that of Şengöz [62].
The loading curve in the first cycle was predicted and it showed good agreement with the
experimental results with the wool, silk, and nylon fabrics. For polyester, viscose, and cotton
fabrics, the predicted and the experimental curves showed some deviations. Residual
bagging height over five cycles was also predicted and the predicted and the experimental
curves fitted reasonably well, besides showed the trends in the alterations of residual height
with increasing cycles. So, the model can successfully be used to determine the viscoelastic
46 Textile Progress
behaviour of fibres in fabric bagging. Viscoelastic modulus came out in this order, from the
highest: silk, viscose, wool, cotton, polyester, nylon. Elastic modulus came out in this order,
from the highest: polyester, cotton, viscose, nylon, silk, wool. These results show that in
fabric bagging, the contributions of elasticity and viscoelasticity are different from fibre to
fibre. In synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon, their elastic modulus is much higher
than their viscoelastic modulus. In natural fibres such as wool, silk, and viscose (man-made),
their elastic modulus is lower than their viscoelastic modulus [82]. The relaxation time t is
the highest in nylon fibre (990 seconds), then comes wool (100 seconds) and polyester (90
seconds), the rest having the lowest time (30 seconds). The relaxation time t found in the
experiments is in agreement with the corresponding fabric bagging fatigue. It can be stated
that when the value of the relaxation time t is small, which means the stress relaxation of the
fibre is fast, then the bagging fatigue and the residual bagging height is larger.
The relative contributions of elasticity, viscoelasticity and interfibre friction are different
from fabric to fabric. In the wool and nylon fabrics, elastic components contribute more to
the fabric’s bagging behaviour than the viscoelastic and the frictional components. In the
polyester, silk, viscose, and cotton fabrics, the elastic components contribute less than the
viscoelastic components. Since the relaxation time t is the highest in nylon fibre
(990 seconds), this means that its stress relaxation is very slow and viscoelastic stress
decays very slowly when compared with the other fibres. On the other hand, it means
excellent elastic recovery for that fibre. For the wool and the polyester fabrics, the bagging
behaviour depends on the viscoelastic modulus and the relaxation time of the fibre, and also
on the time of fabric deformation. Cotton, viscose, and silk fabrics have the lowest
relaxation time; this means they have fast stress relaxation. Cotton and wool fabrics have the
same viscoelastic modulus but their relaxation times are different, wool being 100 seconds
and cotton being 30 seconds. This means their stress relaxation rates are different, wool
being slow and cotton being fast. Nylon and polyester fibres have high elasticity ratios and
low viscoelasticity ratios and long relaxation times. Silk, viscose, and cotton fibres have low
elasticity ratios, high viscoelasticity ratios and short relaxation times. Cotton and wool have
the same viscoelasticity, but their relaxation times are different. These results show that fibre
viscoelastic behaviour is very important in defining the fabric rheological behaviour during
bagging [82].
Fibre viscoelasticity, and inter-fibre and inter-yarn frictional forces determine the fabric
bagging deformation. If the fibres were perfectly elastic, residual extension of the yarn would
be caused only by the frictional forces between the fibres and the yarns. But, fibres are
viscoelastic in general, which means that their deformation and recovery behaviour is time
dependent. When a force is applied, extension occurs; this is dependent on the period of
application and on the earlier mechanical history of the fibre. There is not a uniform stress
distribution among the fibres in a yarn. Some may be stretched up to their yield region,
others may not be stretched at all. The viscoelastic behaviour observed can be described
by some other rheological models. Permanent fabric deformation is affected mostly by
inter-fibre friction and creep. Also, a fibre’s viscoelastic property is affected by ageing.
A fibre’s geometrical parameters such as diameter, shape of its cross-section, and crimp are
affected much less [78]. The frictional energy is the result of the relative movement of the
yarns or the fibres, the frictional force between them, and the coefficient of friction at these
points. The force at those points comes from either the forces that occurred in the yarn or
fabric production stages or internal forces arising from fabric deformation itself. During
cyclic deformation of a fabric, hysteresis occurs. The plasticity and the creep effects in the
fibre play an important role as well as the frictional forces arising between fibres and yarns
during deformation. In fabric mechanics, woven fabric bagging has to be studied in terms of
its mechanical properties [78].
6.2 Fabric Properties and Parameters

Zhang et al. [84] did some experiments to investigate the relationship of elasticity and
viscoelasticity of fibres and inter-fibre friction to bagging behaviour. They used wool fabrics
in their tests. They also applied mathematical models to simulate the behaviour of the fabric
under bagging test conditions. With computation experiments, they found the relaxation
time of the fibres t and three weighting coefficients (k3, k4, k5). They worked these in
different wool fabrics woven with different wool fibres and found that the frictional weighting
coefficient k5 ¼ 0.1 and the relaxation time t ¼ 100 seconds were constant for all the wool
fabrics tested. The relative contribution of elasticity, k3 ¼ 0.6 on average, and the relative
contribution of viscoelasticity, k4 ¼ 0.3 on average, have narrow distributions. They state
that the results show the stability of the three weighting coefficients and the fibre relaxation
time, and also that they are not sensitive to structural changes in the fabric. They maintain
the idea that they have achieved a consistent agreement between the experimental results and
the mathematical simulation, and that their model is quite successful in simulating fabric
bagging behaviour with reasonable accuracy. Wool fabrics have many variations in their
structural parameters affected by fabric weave, yarn count, thickness, weight, and cover
factor. Their model gave some deviations in the residual bagging height between the
simulation and the experiment in the first cycle. This may be due to an assumption they
made in determining the fitness of the simulation. The method gives good overall fitness,
when some specific points are not taken into consideration.
Bagging is a result of complex deformations such as tension, shearing, bending, and
compression occuring in different directions. Fabric deformation is not elastic in general;
it is mostly viscoelastic and includes hysteresis. These complexities were determined recently
and as a consequence a mathematical model using the fabric’s mechanical properties to
predict fabric bagging was developed. A textile fabric is generally considered as a continuum
sheet when observed macroscopically, but at the microscopic scale, it is not homogeneous.
The hysteresis behaviour of the fabric is dealt with in their work. The hysteresis behaviour is
not included in any of the elastic mechanic models. So, the mechanics of garment bagging
are studied from both the micro-mechanical and the macro-mechanical point of views.
Micro-mechanics studies how the textile material behaves when it interacts with the material
making it up at the microscopic level. Macro-mechanics studies how the fabric reveals the
effects of the material making it up as its average apparent properties where it is considered
homogeneous [78].
The macro-mechanical problems of apparel fabrics are also divided into two classes:
(i) Free form problems; in this case, fabric stresses are supported by fabric curvature, as in
fabric drape, buckling, and wrinkling: (ii) Form fitting problems; in this case, larger stresses
and prescribed curvatures are involved as in garment bagging.
Multi-directional tensile deformation and shearing deformation are the main causes of
fabric bagging. The effects of fabric bending are insignificant because the thickness of the
fabric is much less than the radius of the knee curvature and the fabric’s other dimensions.
This leads us to the assumption that the fabric is a membrane and a perfectly flexible sheet
and supports only planar stresses. So, in a bagging test, the tensile and shear characteristics
of the textile material have to be evaluated. In laboratory tests for bagging, either the
48 Textile Progress
extension limits are constant or the loading limits are constant. The researchers found that
the biaxial and uniaxial tensile testing load–extension curves were not linear. This was due to
the weave structure and the non-linear tensile behaviour of the textile material itself. In this
curve, the regions where there was resistance to bagging and the ability to recover from
bagging had to be defined. The resistance to bagging is the deformation when a force is
applied to the fabric. The ability to recover from bagging is the elastic recovery when the
force is lifted. So, both the initial tensile modulus of the fabric and the deformation
behaviour near the yield point of the load–extension curve are important. The shear
behaviour of the fabric is related to its extensibility in the bias direction because of its
interlaced construction. When a woven fabric is confronted by a spherical surface, the warp
and the weft yarns shear to take the shape of that surface. So, the tensile deformation of
woven fabrics is a complex situation since the fabric is anisotropic and its modulus changes
with strain. When stress is applied to anisotropic textile materials, both the Poisson effects
and shear deformation occur. The opposite is also true, that shearing stresses causes both
Poisson effects and relative rotation between the warp and the weft yarns. When the
mechanism of garment bagging is studied, the factors that affect elastic recovery from stretch
are very important. In the simulation of bagging, stretch and recovery procedures were
developed. But in this case, there was just the uniaxial stretch [78].
Zhang et al. [83] studied the internal stress distribution of bagged fabrics. They did
theoretical and experimental studies to find the influence of the stress distribution on the
residual bagging deformation of the fabric. They developed a model using the membrane
theory and analysed the stress distributions at different boundary conditions for isotropic
fabrics. They considered different bagging heights and the friction between the fabric sample
and the pressing steel ball. They concluded that there was a non-uniform stress distribution
along the meridian direction, and a non-continuous stress distribution along the hoop
direction. These stresses and the bagging height are important factors affecting the residual
bagging deformation of fabric and cause localised damage. They aimed to study how the
bagging behaviour of the fabric is affected by fabric anisotropy. In their study, they chose
seven directions by using fabric strips and measured the tensile moduli in each of them; from
the relation between the geometrical deformation and the bagging height, they calculated the
strain of the fabric. With the tensile moduli and the fabric strain, they investigated the stress
distribution of an anisotropic fabric. They detected different yarn stresses between the warp
and the weft directions that resulted in different bagging shapes. The reason for this is the
non-uniform stress distribution along the meridian direction and the variations in the tensile
angle y. They also predicted the bagging forces and compared them with the measured
forces; and concluded that the method approximately predicts the trend of the bagging
force.
They found that the fabric’s mechanical behaviour essentially influenced the fabric’s
residual bagging deformation. A fabric can be stretched in several directions at the same
time. If one direction has more extensibility than the others, that direction will feel less load.
The direction which has low extensibility will suffer more load. In order to reach the same
stretch ratio at the bias direction and the warp direction, approximately one tenth or one
hundredth of the force required for the warp is required for the bias. This means that
some of the threads are stretching in the yield region, but others have rigid movements
such as decrimping or shearing rotation. This will result in an unbalanced stress or strain
distribution in the fabric, and the recovery will also be non-uniform, so the bagging shapes
will be different. The mechanisms involved in forming non-uniform shapes is not known.
They investigated the stress distributions of woven fabric during bagging by considering
different boundary conditions, different bagging heights, the friction between the fabric and
the pressing ball, variations in the tensile modulus of the fabric with strain, and fabric
isotropy and anisotropy. With this investigation, the influence of the internal stresses of the
fabric on its residual bagging deformation were also able to be analysed. They worked only
with a fabric radius of 76 mm and a sphere radius of 48 mm. They subjected the fabric
sample to an axial-symmetric deformation by a steel ball. The part of the fabric which is in
touch with the pressing ball forms a spherical corona, and the rest of the pressed fabric
forms a conical section. While the fabric is deformed, it receives the bagging force and
transmits it to the ring clamps. The bagging force induces many internal forces, such as
tension, shearing, and bending, to the fabric in many directions. The bending force is
ignored because the thickness of the fabric is much less that the radius of the pressing ball.
There is a localised bending moment region in the ring clamps [83].
Since the fabric is anisotropic, the internal stresses that occur in the fabric are not axially
symmetric even if the fabric is subjected to axial-symmetrical deformation. The tensile and
the shear internal stresses are balanced by the boundary forces at the ring clamps. No
buckling or torsion behaviour was seen in the bagging tests. The orthotropic plain fabric
used in the tests had symmetrical mechanical properties in the warp and the weft directions.
So it can be concluded that the internal shear stresses should be balanced in the symmetrical
range. So it is just the pressing force that bags the fabric. The assumptions they made are:
(i) They considered the fabric to be an elastic membrane which had no bending rigidity, and
the unit thickness of the fabric was uniform; (ii) The region between the spherical corona
and the conical section was a continuous and smooth surface, so the bagging angle was just a
function of the bagging height; (iii) In the small strain region of the fabric, Hooke’s law
could be applied for the stress–strain relations; (iv) Along the bagging height at any
circumference, the stress distribution in the warp and the weft directions was symmetrical;
(v) The pressing force was p, the pressure at the corona was q, the pressure had an axial-
symmetrical distribution, and it was in the vertical direction. With these assumptions, the
problem becomes similar to the mechanical behaviour of a two-dimensional elastic
membrane in three-dimensional deformation, and this can be analysed by the membrane-
shell theory. The advantage here is the elimination of the bending moment. They describe
fabric bagging as a shell of an elastic membrane. They derived equations to calculate the
stress distribution in the spherical corona and in the conical section with the membrane
theory and the assumptions they had made. Then they applied these equations to calculate
the stress distribution in a wool plain-weave fabric. They applied different boundary
conditions for different applications [83].
In the spherical-corona section, the meridian and the hoop stresses were seen in the
fabric. In the conical section, only the meridian stresses were seen. They say that at the
change of the section, the meridian stress was at a maximum and it decreased at the ring
clamp. At the top of the fabric, the hoop stress was at the maximum and it decreased at
the intersection region. In the meridian direction, both the meridian and the hoop stresses
distributed non-uniformly, but the hoop stress was non-continuous in the meridian
direction. At the intersection region where it was the turning point of the fabric, stress
concentration was seen at the maximum. In an isotropic fabric at equilibrium, bagging
force, the most important component of the internal stresses, is the meridian stress. In all
the areas of the deformed fabric, the meridian stress was always larger than the hoop
stress [83].
50 Textile Progress
In an anisotropic fabric, they assumed that the tensile strength of the fabric in the
meridian direction was balanced with the external bagging force. With the fabric strain e
and fabric tensile modulus in different directions, they could calculate the distribution of
the meridian stress and the bagging force. Also, in the hoop direction, a non-uniform
distribution of the stress concentration was seen. So, when the bagging force was lifted,
this non-uniform distribution caused a non-uniform recovery. If the bagging force was to
be increased, there would be localised structural damage in the fabric at the bursting stage,
and that localisation would be near to the intersection region. If the tensile stresses are in
an off-axial direction, then the stresses in the warp and the weft directions would be
different and would cause shear stress. Non-uniform stress causes different yarn stresses in
different directions, so the yarn elastic recovery was influenced, and it resulted in different
bagging shapes. Effective tensile modulus means the combined effects of the tensile and
shearing deformations in different directions. They also derived equations to calculate the
stress distribution at the spherical corona, at the conical section, and at different
conditions. Their experimental results were higher than the predicted results. If they
calculated the bagging force for the constant tensile modulus under maximum strain, it
came out closer to to the experimental results. At the initial stage, the experimental and the
predicted results were away from each other; they explain this as caused by the change in
the fabric tensile modulus with the fabric strain during the loading process. They also got
high experimental results for polyester-fibre fabric. They explain this as due to the
polyester having less crimps and less friction between the yarns. Another explanation they
made was that, in the bagging test, the fabric was subject to biaxial extension at the
spherical corona region. No Poisson effect occurs there but there are the two tensile
stresses. Another explanation is that the length of the fabric strip in the tensile test is
longer than the effective radius of the fabric clamped at the ring for the bagging test, and
this increases the weak-link effect. Another explanation is that they assumed there was no
slippage at the spherical corona region between the fabric and the pressing ball, but there
may be. They suggest that because the higher stress causes poorer recovery of the fabric, in
high-quality outerwear a smoother lining should be used at the knees or elbows of the
garment. This will reduce the friction between the garment and the skin, and will result in
less bagging deformation [83].
6.3 Production Parameters

By production parameters, we mean the general factors we deal with in production. One
production parameter would be machine adjustments, such as the machine production rate
(which is the speed of the machine), the pressures between adjacent parts of the machine
(which directly affect the produced textile material) and so on. Another production
parameter would be the environmental factors (such as the climatic conditions). Others
would be the technology of the machine in which the studied textile material is produced, the
production direction of the textile material, the finishing parameters, etc. But, in literature,
no research regarding these factors has been found. It is believed by the author that these
points are of equal value to be looked for.
7. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF BAGGING

Zhang et al. [81] studied physical mechanisms during woven fabric bagging by developing a
test method, and also developed some theoretical models in order to analyze the stress–strain
relations in fabrics at different deformation stages. They assumed that the stress–strain
relationships in fabrics comprised three components, and put them in their model. The first
two were elastic and viscoelastic deformation of fibres, and the third was the friction
between fibres and yarns in the fabric. The loading and unloading process in each cycle,
change of bagging force with cycles, relative contributions of the three components in each
cycle, and residual bagging height in each cycle were all predicted by the model when the
fundamental parameters of fibre mechanical properties and yarn–fabric structural features
are specified to the model. They compared the theoretical predictions and the experimental
results and obtained good agreement between them. The fabrics they used were wool with
various structures. The model could sufficiently simulate fabric bagging rheological
behaviour and predict fabric bagging performance. Fibre mechanical behaviour increases
in importance in determining fabric bagging behaviour when fabrics have the same
construction. They developed a mathematical model on the basis of rheological mechanisms
and intended to simulate fabric bagging from fundamental fibre mechanical properties and
yarn–fabric structural features. Their model successfully simulated the woven wool fabric’s
bagging behaviour and could reflect the relative contributions of the fibre’s elastic and
viscoelastic behaviour and interfibre friction, which are affected by yarn–fabric structural
properties [81].
In their rheological model, they described the physical mechanisms of fabric bagging.
The model had three components parallel to each other. There, fibre elasticity is represented
by a spring, fibre viscoelasticity is represented by Maxwell’s unit of a spring and Newton’s
viscous dashpot put in series, and interfibre friction is represented by a frictional element.
These three components have relative contributions which are represented by three
different weighting coefficients. They assumed a linear relationship between stress and strain
during small deformation intervals. Fibre stress was represented by applying Boltzmann’s
superposition principle and there the representation is as a function of the strain history of
the fibres. They specify the fundamental fibre properties, the measured yarn and fabric
parameters and the three weighting coefficients for the model, then the model is able to
simulate fabric bagging behaviour. The model describes fabric bagging behaviour by the
residual bagging height and the peak load in each cycle, the loading process in the first cycle
and the alterations in the three components during repeated bagging [81].
The relaxation time t of the fibre indicates the rate of fibre stress relaxation. The
relaxation time, the elastic modulus and the viscoelastic modulus should be determined
from experimentally measured values of the related fibre, because, in the literature there
is little information about most textile fibres’ viscoelastic behaviour. Also, there may be a lot
of difference in the viscoelastic behaviour of the same kind of fibre, where dyeing
and finishing has affected the viscoelastic behaviour; also there can be differences
from fibre to fibre in different areas of the same fabric. They state that the researches
found in literature deal mainly with simple fabric deformation such as tension, bending, and
shearing. There is very little work done on bagging. Bagging involves three-dimensions,
fibre viscoelasticity, interfibre friction, is subject to repeats, is a rheological process
with nonlinear strain, and is a complex deformation. They indicate that when repeated
deformation occurs in a fabric, the recovery ability of the fabric decreases because the stress
relaxation of the fibre and the frictional restrictions in the fabric construction cause residual
bagging deformation [81].
They point out that many of the fibres have natural crimp before they are spun when
looked at from the microscopic point of view. In the yarn, every fibre follows a migrating
52 Textile Progress
helix. When the yarns are woven into a fabric, they are crimped into a complicated
configuration. So, when the fabrics bag, fibres may be behaving differently, some stretching
to their yielding points, some decrimping during yarn extension between interlacing
points, and some shearing and bending at the interlacing points. At that time, fibres are
experiencing a combination of tension, shearing, bending, and compression forces. So, there
are very complex interactions between elastic and viscoelastic behaviour of fibres and yarn–
fabric constructions. In a spun yarn, the friction between fibres is very important for holding
the fibres together in the yarn. In the woven fabric, the friction between the interlacing yarns
is very important. They assume a linear relation between stress and strain and a following of
Hooke’s law in the small strain region. The average elastic modulus of fibres is related to the
amorphous morphological components of the fibres. Bagging height is a nonlinear function.
The more the cycles, the less the bagging load; the more the cycles, the higher the residual
bagging height. Less bagging load shows the loss of internal energy in the fabric. The
mathematical model is based on fibre elastic and viscoelastic behaviour and interfibre
friction which is time dependent, and is able to simulate fabric bagging fatigue behaviour.
These items are given to the model: (i) The fundamental properties of the fibres; (ii) The
measurable parameters of yarn and fabric structural features; (iii) The geometric relation
between fabric deformation and bagging height. The model predicts fabric bagging
performance during the bagging test and this consists of: (i) Bagging force changes during
the loading and unloading process in each cycle; (ii) Changes in bagging force with cycles;
(iii) Relative contributions of the elastic, viscoelastic and frictional force components in each
cycle; (iv) Residual bagging height in each cycle [81].
They developed a mathematical model from their rheological model to obtain a
quantitative description of the physical mechanism. There are five aspects of the bagging
force being a non-linear function of the parameters: (i) Fibre parameters are the
fibre’s average elastic modulus E1, average viscoelastic modulus E2, relaxation time t, and
inter-fibre frictional coefficient m; (ii) Yarn and fabric structural parameters are the ratio of
yarn curvilinear length to its projected length C1, yarn count C2, fabric density C3, and the
fabric’s interlacing density per unit area Z; (iii) Fabric strain efab geometric parameters of the
test which are the radius of the pressing steel ball r0, the radius of the fabric sample R0, and
the bagging angle a0; (iv) Empirical coefficients Y1 and Y2, where Y1 is the fibre-strain
coefficient which estimates the influence of the yarn structure on the fibre strain, and Y2 is
the fabric tensile force coefficient which estimates the effect of fabric anisotropy on the
bagging force. These coefficients represent the factors that influence the bagging force and
can be analysed quantitatively; (v) Weighting coefficients (k3, k4, k5) which are the relative
contributions of elasticity and viscoelasticity of the fibres, and inter-fibre friction to the
bagging force, consecutively [81].
8. COMPUTER SIMULATION MODELS OF BAGGING

Başer [13] developed approximate solution computer programs with several mathematical
models to predict the spatial deformation occurring in fabrics, which are mainly perpen-
dicular to the fabric plane. In one of these models, it was assumed that the deformation
occurs because of the elongation of the yarns, and in another an approximate solution was
obtained on a model depending on the fabric geometry assuming large deformations [12].
These mathematical models were worked into different computer programs with different
assumptions [13]. In these programs, the kind of deformation occuring with the effect of a
spatial force acting upon a fabric placed on a square frame was studied. The main
assumptions here were the yarn elongation, the intersection angles between the yarns staying
at 908, and during the deformation period, as a consequence of yarn elongation, a shape like
a pyramid having occurred. So the force needed for deformation was calculated with the
computer program named ‘gnyn01.bas’ and presented in Appendix 1.
The conditions that these computer programs symbolize in general are represented in
Fig. 19.
L0 : The side length of the square frame in which the fabric is placed
N : The number of the warp yarns in the frame
M : The number of the weft yarns in the frame
N/2 : The number of the warp yarns to the middle point of the the frame
j : The warp indices
i : The weft indices
Fig. 19 Top view of the fabric laid on the frame to be deformed. Başer [13]
The fundamentals of the geometric assumptions of the computer program are shown in
Fig. 20(a), (b) and (c). qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
As will be seen in Fig. 20(b), Ln=2 ¼ ðL0 =2Þ2 þ D2 and sina ¼ D can be determined. So,
Ln=2
j l0j
¼ ð34Þ
N=2 L0 =2
j
l0j ¼
L0 ð35Þ
N
2j
lj ¼
Ln=2 ð36Þ
N
j : The sequence of any warp yarn

l0j : The initial length of any one of the warp yarns
lj : The length of any one of the warp yarns after deformation
54 Textile Progress
Fig. 20 Geometric assumptions forming the fundamentals of the computer programs

(a) Distribution of the pressing force
(b) Position at the perpendicular cross-section after deformation
L0 =2: The length until the middle point of the frame side
Ln=2 : The length of the yarn until the middle point of the frame side after deformation
(c) Comparison between before and after deformation (Top view)
So, Equations (34)–(36) can be written, and all the warp yarns starting from the edge of the
frame until the middle point can be determined.
For the weft yarns, with the help of the i indices, similar formulas can be obtained. If,
P : Total pressing force
Pj : The force occuring in the warp yarns
Pi : The force occuring in the weft yarns
Tj : The strain occuring in the warp yarns
Ti: The strain occuring in the weft yarns
then from Fig. 20(a), Equations (37)–(40) can be written:
Tj ¼ lðlj l0j Þ=l0j ¼ lðlj =l0j 1Þ ð37Þ

!
X
N=2 X
N=2
Pj ¼ Tj sin a ¼ lj ðlj =l0j 1Þ sin a ð38Þ
j¼1 j¼1
Fig. 21 Fabric geometry of Peirce [49]

c : Elongation proportion of the fabric
l : Final length
l0 : Initial length
c ¼ ðl l0 Þ=l0 ¼ ðl=l0 Þ 1
!
X
M=2 X
M=2
Pi ¼ Ti sin a ¼ li ðli =l0i 1Þ sin a ð39Þ
i¼1 i¼1
P ¼ 4ðPj þ Pi Þ ð40Þ
The application of this yarn elongation assumption was done in the computer program
‘gnyn01.bas’ in Appendix 1 and the calculated P force was written by the program. Then,
Coulomb friction was applied as the friction coefficient m ¼ 0.3, and the force was
recalculated and rewritten with the friction force included [13].
In the computer program ‘gnyn10.bas’, given in Appendix 2, the crimp in the yarns is
taken into consideration and the fabric geometry of Peirce [49] is applied with a bending
assumption. This assumption is explained in Fig. 21.
Here, since,
l0j : Warp length

lj : Deformed warp length
then
l0j/(M/2): Unit warp length (as seen in Peirce geometry)
lj/(M/2): Unit of the deformed warp length
In Fig. 22, the geometric assumption made is drawn out.
Fig. 22 The geometric assumption

56 Textile Progress
Fig. 23 The geometric assumption according to Başer’s [12] approximate theory
Here, we can write,

s0j ¼ l0j = cos yj ð41Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
h0j ¼ s0j 2 l0j 2 ð42Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
According to Peirce’s theory, yj ¼ 2cj is approximately true in the case of deformation, so
we can obtain the situation in Fig. 23. In this way, such a phenomenon is turned into a bending
problem with the application of Başer’s [12] approximate theory, and assuming that no yarn
elongation takes place, on this basis the computer program was worked out.
Here, since there is no yarn elongation, s0j ¼ constant, and Equations (43) and (44) can be
written:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hj ¼ s0j 2 lj 2 ð43Þ
h0j hj ¼ The amount of bending ð44Þ
The force at bending, the pressure at the unit yarn length, is obtained from the differences in
the heights can be written as follows:
P0 ¼ P01 P02 ¼ 12ðEIÞj ðh0j hj Þ=l0j 3 ð45Þ
The strain force occurring in the deformed fabric plane with the application of this force will
be as:
Tj ¼ Poj =2
sin yj cos yj ð46Þ
Along both of the warp and the weft yarn groups, the same process is carried out and the
total force is calculated; then the effect of friction is included and the total force is again
calculated.
The pressing force formed by the unit yarn lengths, as described above, are added with the
method of numeric integration,
X
N=2
Fj ¼ Tj ð47Þ
j¼1
X
M=2
Fi ¼ Ti ð48Þ
i¼1
From here, the total pressure is calculated:

P ¼ 4 sin aðFj þ Fi Þ ð49Þ
Table 3
Comparison of the Computer Results with the Work of Şengöz
Frame Experimental Results (N) Computational Results (N)

mm Sphere2 Sphere4 Sphere8 gnyn01.bas gnyn10.bas gnyn20.bas
Lo ¼ 4 2.3 – – – 23.64 0.93 3.90
3.6 24.8 38.42 – 89.39 2.04 21.12
4.9 63.44 93.27 – 220.97 5.22 69.83
6.2 63.36 98.24 – 436.47 8.72 152.62
7.5 61.36 98.62 – 749.67 12.88 275.34
Lo ¼ 6 2.3 – – – 10.64 0.64 2.48
3.6 11.83 15.83 – 40.52 2.27 10.02
4.9 36.71 48.46 – 101.26 4.73 28.93
6.2 61.00 83.27 – 202.75 7.82 68.42
7.5 67.09 91.44 – 353.84 11.85 128.67
Lo ¼ 8 2.3 – – – 6.07 0.49 1.87
3.6 6.60 7.28 9.84 23.20 1.80 7.36
4.9 22.71 25.82 30.38 58.20 4.27 19.38
6.2 37.91 42.71 52.13 117.11 7.64 42.95
7.5 58.87 68.66 85.26 205.62 11.30 80.10
Lo ¼ 12 2.3 – – – 2.70 0.32 1.23
3.6 3.32 3.54 5.00 10.34 1.21 4.76
4.9 10.67 12.11 16.38 26.02 2.99 12.17
6.2 16.97 19.88 27.55 52.56 5.86 25.21
7.5 26.15 30.70 43.05 92.70 9.89 46.17
Lo ¼ 16 2.3 – – – 1.53 0.24 0.92
3.6 – – 2.59 5.85 0.92 3.56
4.9 – – 9.83 14.74 2.28 9.05
6.2 – – 14.98 29.81 4.55 18.53
7.5 – – 22.68 52.66 7.88 33.29
In the computer program ‘gnyn20.bas’ given in Appendix 3, the phenomenon is

considered as a problem of elongation þ bending. The maximum yarn shape retention is
assumed to be 50%, and from that point on, it is assumed that elongation will take place,
and when hj < 0.5 h0j, then hj ¼ 0.5 h0j was used. The indices are not shown separately for
the warp and the weft every time, but in each case, both are applied [13].
These computer programs were applied to the experimental results of Şengöz’s work and
the calculations obtained are given in Table 3. The program ‘gnyn01.bas’ was done with the
assumption of elongation; the program ‘gnyn10.bas’ was done with the assumption of
bending; and the program ‘gnyn20.bas’ was done with the assumption of elongation þ
bending, the limit being 50% yarn shape retention. In Table 3, the load results for different
sphere diameters, different displacement values and different frame dimensions are given,
and they are all in Newtons. Both the experimental results and the computer calculations are
in this table.
It is seen in the table that as the displacement value increases with every frame dimension
increase, the load value also increases. The same trend is also seen in the computer
calculations. The program ‘gnyn01.bas’, which assumes elongation, gives very high results.
The program ‘gnyn10.bas’ gives lower results because the phenomenon is described by
bending. The program ‘gnyn20.bas’ gave similar results with the experimental results for
middle-dimension frames. In the column for ‘gnyn10.bas’, the amount of force performed by
bending can be seen. It can be concluded from these results that the programs are logically
correct but require more work to be done upon them.
58 Textile Progress
Yeung et al. [75] aimed to develop a new method to evaluate garment bagging and they
used image processing with different modeling techniques. Garment bagging can be
characterized by bagging height, volume, and anisotropy parameters. It is stated that in the
traditional methods, bagging is evaluated by the height and that this parameter cannot
represent the information given by appearance. In the new method they developed, they
capture images from bagged fabrics by image processing and they abstract criteria to
recognize the bagging height. According to the intensity of the images, they work with eight
criteria and characterize the image features of bagging such as the height, volume, shape,
and fabric surface pattern. Fabric surface pattern is an important parameter because the
human eye can detect whether a garment is more or less severely bagged according to
the pattern on it, so the method they developed also includes this feature. They indicate that
the earlier work done on fabric bagging was on measuring residual bagging height, and
relate this to fabric mechanical properties. They proved that using the photograph is highly
correlated with the real bagged fabric samples in their earlier researches, so they used the
image information in their later research.
Image analysis is applied in many areas in textile engineering – in fibre analysis (crimp,
neps, trash), in wrinkling analysis, in weave pattern identification and fault detection in
woven fabrics. In their work, the reseachers captured digitized images of bagged fabric
samples, the captured images were image processed, the criteria to describe the bagging
appearance was selected, and finally the bagging magnitude from the selected criteria was
recognized [75]. In the photographs, deformation is in two-dimensions, but the uneven
illuminations on the shadings in the photographs makes it perceived in three-dimensions by
the human eye. Also, fabric surface pattern has a reflectance influence in the sample and
causes local variations in intensity images. These intensity variations in the images are
different from fabric to fabric and from warp to weft because of anisotropy. So, when the
intensity changes are measured, then it is possible to evaluate fabric bagging according to
bagging height, bagging shape, bagging volume, bagging anisotropy, and fabric surface
patterns. They used three approaches to model fabric bagging when evaluating the
subjective perception data of the bagging appearance. These were multiple regression, linear
modelling, and neural networks. The regression model achieves a good fit with a correlation
coefficient of r2 ¼ 0.92, the linear model achieves a good fit with a correlation coefficient of
r2 ¼ 0.93, and the neural network achieves a good fit with a correlation coefficient of
r2 ¼ 0.94. So it is concluded that bagging appearance can be predicted from the criteria they
abstracted from the images of the bagged fabrics [75].
9. CONCLUSION
The bagging behaviour in all kinds of fabrics has gained importance throughout recent years
both because it is regarded as a quality factor and because of improving computer technology.
Being a quality factor, fabric bagging is an unwanted fault in the appearance of the garment in
daily use, and still does not have numerical standards to be evaluated. As the computer
technology improves continuously, fabric bagging has been mathematically modelled and
simulated on the computer screen, this will be very helpful in the developments in standards.
In this issue of Textile Progress, a review of fabric bagging has been given by elucidating
the importance, the definition, the test methods, the research work done, the factors affecting,
the mathematical models, and the computer simulations of fabric bagging. It is hoped by the
author that the information gathered here will lead to new developments in the future.
10. FUTURE PROSPECTS

In the research work explained here, it will be noticed that the measurement, characterization,
affecting factors, modelling and simulating work on bagging has been given importance, but
work to prevent bagging in fabrics is missing. How to prevent bagging in fabrics, so to reach
higher quality in the garments has to be searched for. By taking all the fibre, yarn, fabric, and
production parameters, and the usage of the fabric into consideration, the preventing factors
of bagging have to be elucidated. When it becomes evident what kind of factor affects bagging
and how, then computer simulations will also develop, and moving screen images will also be
obtained. Then it will be easier to see on the screen what we have in hand as our starting fibre,
and how we will finish up at the end fabric, by feeding the throughout information for the
yarn, fabric, production, and usage. Also, moving backwards should also be possible; the
required fabric would be designed in the computer and all the factors to achieve that fabric
could be chosen by going back to the yarn parameters, then the fibre parameters, and then the
production parameters, and deciding them one by one. Afterwards, the creation of the ideal
fabric for that usage without bagging would be realized.
With all the information in the research work explained here, it is believed that a full
understanding of fabric bagging has been accomplished and that this will lead to much
newer methods being developed with novel techniques.
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APPENDIX 1
Başer’s Computer Program According to the Assumption of Elongation
10 REM ad:gonul00.bas gnyn01.bas guzama2.bas
20 REM bu program kare çerçeveye gerilmiş kumaşta belirli bir çökmeye
30 REM yol açan kuvveti uzama+sürtünme varsaym yaparak hesaplar
40 PRINT
50 LO ¼ 4:D ¼ .1:M ¼ 105:N ¼ 105:LAMJ ¼ 6038:LAMI ¼ 6038:SURT ¼ .3
60 D ¼ D+.13
70 LII ¼ 0:LJJ ¼ 0
80 LN2 ¼ SQR((LO/2)^2+D^2)
90 SINA ¼ D/LN2
100 FOR J ¼ 1 TO N/2-1
110 LJO ¼ 2*J/N*LO/2
120 LJ ¼ 2*J*LN2/N
130 LJJ ¼ LJJ+(LJ/LJO-1)
140 NEXT J
150 FJ ¼ 2*LAMJ*LJJ*(1+SURT)
160 FOR I ¼ 1 TO M/2-1
170 LIO ¼ 2*I/M*LO/2
180 LI ¼ 2*I/M*LN2
190 LII ¼ LII+(LI/LIO-1)
200 NEXT I
210 FI ¼ 2*LAMI*LII*(1+SURT)
220 P ¼ 2*SINA*(FJ+FI)
230 PRINT P/102

240 PRINT
250 IF D<.74 GOTO 60

260 END
APPENDIX 2
Başer’s Computer Program According to the Assumption of Bending
10 REM ad:gnyn10.bas gonul666.bas gegilme.bas
30 REM yol açan kuvveti eg
gilme+sürtünme varsaym yaparak hesaplar
40 PRINT
50 LO ¼ 4:D ¼ .1:M ¼ 105:N ¼ 105:CJ ¼ .016:CI ¼ .15
60 D ¼ D+.13
70 TETC ¼ SQR(2*CJ):TETA ¼ SQR(2*CI)
80 SURT ¼ .3:EIJ ¼ 5.02/1000:EII ¼ 5.02/1000
90 TOJ ¼ 0:TOI ¼ 0
100 LN2 ¼ SQR((LO/2)^2+D^2)
110 SINA ¼ D/LN2
120 LJO ¼ LO/M
130 FOR J ¼ 1 TO N/2-1
140 LJ ¼ 2*LN2/M
150 HOJ ¼ LJO*SIN(TETC)/COS(TETC)
160 SOJ ¼ SQR(LJO^2+HOJ^2)
170 IF LJ<SOJ THEN HJ ¼ SQR(SOJ^2-LJ^2):GOTO 190
180 IF LJ>SOJ THEN HJ ¼ HOJ/2
190 S1J ¼ SQR(HJ^2+LJ^2)
200 TJ2 ¼ 12*EIJ*(HOJ-HJ)/LJ^3*HJ/S1J
210 TOJ ¼ TOJ+TJ2/(LJ/S1J)+J*SURT*TJ2
220 NEXT J
230 LIO ¼ LO/N
240 FOR I ¼ 1 TO M/2-1
250 LI ¼ 2*LN2/N
260 HOI ¼ LIO*SIN(TETA)/COS(TETA)
270 SOI ¼ SQR(LIO^2+HOI^2)
280 IF LI<SOI THEN HI ¼ SQR(SOI^2-LI^2):GOTO 300
290 IF LI>SOI THEN HI ¼ HOI/2
300 S1I ¼ SQR(HI^2+LI^2)
310 TI2 ¼ 12*EII*(HOI-HI)/LI^3*HI/S1I
320 TOI ¼ TOI+TI2/(LI/S1I)+I*SURT*TI2
330 NEXT I
340 P ¼ 4*SINA*(TOJ+TOI)
350 PRINT P/102
360 PRINT
370 IF D<.74 GOTO 60
380 END
64 Textile Progress
APPENDIX 3
Başer’s Computer Program According to the Assumption of Elongation+Bending

(Limit: 50% Yarn Compression)
10 REM ad1:gnyn20.bas gonul666.bas gegsuuz2.bas
30 REM yol açan kuvveti uzama+eğilme+sürtünme varsaymna göre hesaplar
50 PRINT
60 LO ¼ 4:D ¼ .1:M ¼ 105:N ¼ 105:LAMJ ¼ 6038:LAMI ¼ 6038
70 D ¼ D+.13
80 CJ ¼ .016:CI ¼ .15
90 TETC ¼ SQR(2*CJ):TETA ¼ SQR(2*CI)
100 SURT ¼ .3:EIJ ¼ 5.02/1000:EII ¼ 5.02/1000
120 TOJ ¼ 0:TOI ¼ 0
130 LN2 ¼ SQR((LO/2)^2+D^2)
140 SINA ¼ D/LN2
150 LJO ¼ LO/M
160 FOR J ¼ 1 TO N/2-1
170 LJ ¼ 2*LN2/M
180 HOJ ¼ LJO*SIN(TETC)/COS(TETC)
190 SOJ ¼ SQR(LJO^2+HOJ^2)
200 IF LJ<SOJ THEN HJ ¼ SQR(SOJ^2-LJ^2):GOTO 220
210 IF LJ>SOJ THEN HJ ¼ HOJ/2
220 S1J ¼ SQR(HJ^2+LJ^2)
230 TJ ¼ LAMJ*(S1J/SOJ-1)
240 TJ2 ¼ 12*EIJ*(HOJ-HJ)/LJ^3*HJ/S1J
250 TOJ ¼ TOJ+(TJ2+TJ)/(LJ/S1J)+J*SURT*12*EIJ*(HOJ-HJ)/LJ^3
260 NEXT J
270 LIO ¼ LO/N
280 FOR I ¼ 1 TO M/2-1
290 LI ¼ 2*LN2/N
300 HOI ¼ LIO*SIN(TETA)/COS(TETA)
310 SOI ¼ SQR(LIO^2+HOI^2)
320 IF LI<SOI THEN HI ¼ SQR(SOI^2-LI^2):GOTO 340
330 IF LI>SOI THEN HI ¼ HOI/2
340 S1I ¼ SQR(HI^2+LI^2)
350 TI ¼ LAMI*(S1I/SOI-1)
360 TI2 ¼ 12*EII*(HOI-HI)/LI^3*HI/S1I
370 TOI ¼ TOI+(TI2+TI)/(LI/S1I)+I*SURT*12*EII*(HOI-HI)/LI^3
380 NEXT I
390 P ¼ 4*SINA*(TOJ+TOI)
400 PRINT P/102
410 PRINT
420 IF D<.74 GOTO 70
430 END

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Online Publication Date: 01 January 2004

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1.2 Importance of Bagging

1.3 Positive Perspectives

1.4 Negative Perspectives

2. DEFINITION AND TYPES OF DEFORMATION

2.2 Deformation Types

Fabrics are deformed tensile, shear and bending in space (2:3);

2.3 Diﬀerences Between Deformation Types

Fig. 3 A general force-elongation diagram

3.1 Basic Theories and Methods

3.1.1 Defining Bagging by Membrane Theory

3.1.2 Defining Bagging by Plate and Shell Theory

d1 : Diameter of the warp yarn

h1 ¼ fl1 ðd1 þ d2 Þy1 g sin y1 þ ð1 cos y1 Þðd1 þ d2 Þ ð1Þ

Similar equations apply to h2 and p1. When D ¼ d1 þ d2 ¼ 1, fabric thickness becomes a

h1 ¼ fl1 y1 g sin y1 þ ð1 cos y1 Þ ð3Þ

Also from Fig. 4, it is deduced that h1 þ h2 ¼ D ¼ d1 þ d2 ¼ 1, which is a fundamental relation

u ¼ constant Point A : ðu; vÞ

F1 tan y1 ¼ F2 tan y2 ð10Þ

P : Pressure applied perpendicular to the fabric

Fig. 6 Forces occuring in the fabric

When F1 and F2 are deﬁned as partial diﬀerentials, then,

F2 ðu; v þ 1=2dvÞdu F2 ðu; v 1=2dvÞdu ¼ @F2 =@v dv ð17Þ

can be written. Then the equations take this form:

@F1 =@u þ ab @F2 =@v þ F2 a @b=@v ¼ 0 ð20Þ

and this equation is similar to the equilibrium equation of a foam [73].

b @a=@u ¼ p2 =r1 sin o ð25Þ

@F1 =@u þ cos o @=@vðw F1 Þ wF1 g0 p1 sin o ¼ 0 ð27Þ

3.2 Mechanism of Bagging

3.2.1 Elastic Effects

3.2.2 Viscoelastic Effects

4. TEST METHODS FOR BAGGING

4.2 New Methods Developed

4.3 Other Similar Aspects

5.1 Researches with Woven Fabrics

Fig. 7 Photograph of the universal testing machine

Fig. 8 Schematic drawing of the testing principle of Şengöz [62]

Fig. 9 Photograph of all the frames

Fig. 10 The spheres and the attachment used in the experiments

Fig. 11 Load vs displacement curve

h1 ¼ Residual bagging height after one hour relaxation time

h48 ¼ 0:810 þ 0:771

Fig. 15 Residual bagging height vs frame shape and dimension

Fig. 16 Residual bagging height vs sphere dimension and displacement

Fig. 17 Residual bagging height vs pressing rate and relaxation hours

Fig. 18 Residual bagging height vs pressing type and pressing cycle

5.2 Researches with Knitted Fabrics

5.3 Researches with both Woven and Knitted Fabrics

5.4 Researches with Nonwovens and Technical Textiles

as separators, ﬁlters, reinforcements and drainage materials, they have to have a

6. FACTORS EFFECTING FABRIC BAGGING

6.1 Fibre and Yarn Properties and Parameters

its mechanical properties [78].

6.2 Fabric Properties and Parameters

6.3 Production Parameters

7. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF BAGGING

8. COMPUTER SIMULATION MODELS OF BAGGING

j : The sequence of any warp yarn

Fig. 20 Geometric assumptions forming the fundamentals of the computer programs