-

fUNCliONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

123

A1tern111lve ~IAlement
If A and /J arc two sets such that
XE A X E /J,
then A is called a subset of B.
Not,s: (i) When a is an element of a set A. we write" E A and read as ,0 belongs 10 A' . When O is not an element
of A , we wnte a i! A and read as ·" docs not belong lo A ·.
(ii) The symbol'=> stands for the word ' implies'.
(iii) Null set is a subset of every set.
Equality of two sets: Two sets A and /J are said to be equal if both have same elements and we
write A = B.
Universal set: It is that set which has all the sets under consideration as its subsets.

operations on Sets
(i) Union: Let A and /J are two sets, then ' A union B' , written as Av B, is a set whose elements
INTRODUCTION .
Ill
A complex num
. ber (or a complex quan I .
n y) is an o

bers o an
rdered pair(a, b) ofreal numbers . belong to A or to B or to both.

I (-) - l7
andis
db arc called the real and imaginan, \~
'J Parts
Symbolically,Av/J = {x :xe Aorxe Borxe both A, B} .
The shaded portion in the adjacent figure represents A v B .
. = t-i . nie real nurn . Re(:)= a and m ;. - - 1,
z =a+ ib, where , ' - es ectively, ,.e. . y Note: The symbol ':' stands for the words 'such that' .
denoted by Re (: ) and Im (.) r (; complex plane), t~~ (ii) Intersection : Let A and B are two sets, then ' A
In the Argand plane db the poll1t P(o, h). AvB
intersection B', written as A n B, is a set whose elements belong to
complex number: is r
· epresente Y {a2+b2 2 + b2 both A andB.
. f p thenr = + 0 Symbolically, A n B = {x : x E A and x E B} .
( r.• 01arethepolarco-ordmates o ' db)' 1-1 Also,
1/ • denote -· 0 The shaded portion in the adjacent figure represents A n B.
is called the modulus of z and is
0 Note: An Bis also written as AB.
amplitude of z a = rcose
(iii) Difference: Let A and Bare two sets, then the difference
6 = tan - 1 ~ is called the argument or
A_ Bis a set whose elements belong to A but not to B.
a -) It is noted that
and is denoted by arg (: ) or amp (. · E y non-zero complex number z can be expreSS(d, Symbolically, A - B = {x : x e A but x e B ) .
. 0) . t defined. ver . . .
amplitude ofO(=O+ is no 1 . . O) 1,Jiere e== arg (z). This form 1s called thepo1i The shaded portion in the adjacent figure represents A - B.
z = r (cos e+ , sm - z
. . 0) -1 I (cos e + I 5111 ' I (iv) Complement: Let A be any subset of the universal set
of z, or, modulus-ampl I·t ude form of: . . ih is ca lled the conjugate of the complex:.: S, then s - A 1s · a set contammg
· · those el ernents of S which · do not
0
If 1 = 0 + ib, then the complex numbet I belong to A. We call S-A , written as A' or Ac, the complement of
and is denoted by z. I the set A with respect to the universal set S.
l I The shaded portion in the adjacent figure represents A'.
Clearly, lzl - /-;/,
_ /7/
_ 2 - z:=,
_ Re(_-) ==- (;; +:) , lm(z)=2,·(::-z). ()
v o···t
ISJOID set s: lfh t e sets A andBhave no common
2
element, then they are called disjoint sets. Their intersection is an
Set: A collection of distinct and well defined objects is called a set. empty set, i.e., An B = (j> .
Empty set or null set: A set which has no element is called an empty set or nuU~
denoted by ~-
Subset: If every element of a set A is also an element of set B, then A ·IS ca Iled 'a subs~,
is denoted by A c B or B :::> A.

122
 ' ~ c o Mf'L X VARIABLE
I •f·
125

co,cc =-
"" ; .
• ,i,,, II ,he result, Clflhc re.ii
.
variaMc c 1
alt ! · I . () 111 =-- :r I i_1·. • ,c ~hould follow from the ca 1
'"' \\ hell = 1, cornple,. sm :. co5 .• . '""'" se of the comp" ••obi, by
. _ , h11P"" ,is the etponent'· f c o• have
: . no meaning puttmg
('"l' 1 ,.1 unction f gcomctncal
1

de,. 1..aW for. the Exponential Functio ·

111 . r,'' eel 1h,1t n
., ,<,inl sci 11
~ ; I'
I
is a Cl)fllr l: 1
. 11
•
fl cJlll lJL
... (4)
f~amplr: 4 ,= 1 • /\ : ,- ' .
1
'. 111 rc :11 1hc ong 1.
11 11• , _ - nrc ~ny two complex numb
conta1mni; the points I) ini: ,,11 the· unit circle " «11erc -r -· crs.
cc , rcpc:itcd applicalion of (4), we get
0
. . •. ·alkd a con1plc~ variable. When
r--: e=-' . ez.2 ... ez" = e:.1 + =-2 + ... + z,.
Complex Variable . I -'- 11·1"" ' - 1 "c Zd ...(5)
. , anat,lc<. 1 1en = "( . · - ·t ol. colllP 1' ' Jllllllhcrs) S• we call z a co mp! eno,L
:r and r are real z, = z2 = ... = z = •
"l
(e=r = e"= " - , we get

...
If
oo< .i,m~• " , " "'''" "''" •" " • " '' , I .. (6)

'''""'"" "''
Function of a complex Vari able Je, numbers there
f ,
I 1:uier's exponential Values
Replacing; by iz in ( I ), we get
If for each clement ;(=r-· ;I') of a sci•A o colllP
1 · pJe, ,·anable
0 01 .
corre pond one or more values ol anol 1cr c . _ e'= = I + ~+ -(id +---+
(i·)l ("
1z)• (i- )s
ir( 11 - rrl. then II i called a function of the coinple~ "anable • on 11. , 21. 31· - 4!- +---, + ... tooo
5
the ,et A and \\ e ,11itc z· _4 •
w=f(=)= ll +i1•.
: ,-,,+~,- + ,),_<',+:' ---·1
~
The 101ali11- of , alues of w=f(:) . to all = in A conSlitute
· corresp0nding f another set B of {
,omb<o. Here A ;; .,11,d ,h, domoi" f w"" B ".,11,d <h<""''° "· .
-cos z + ·. l 3.
1 sm z
- )!

Observe that the function w = .f. has two values of ll' for each z "# 0. Similarly, == cos z + i sin z
e'_ ...(7)
.
lfto each value of: in A' there corresp0nds one and only one value of w, then WISS . e-,: =
11. 1 ... (8)
• mgl< " '""" ,ti.,
of,. If""" ,mresP""'" "'" " more " '"" of w foe someo, •d 'I 1 ,z - i sin z
Results (7) and (8) arc known as E cos
ues.
~·."'~'. ti • id m b< • m,oy " '"'' " molfi "'"' f•"'"" of,. Foe " 'mpl,,/(:) :• ~ ,.; From (7) and (8), we get u er s exponential val
,.,/(.)' ii ,re ,mgl<,.J,oi fuoci ,.,,.f,. '•A*!
cos z = .!_ (/ : + e- iz . I . ... (9)
• EXPONENTIAL AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS Note: Results (7) (8) d 2 ), sm z = 2~ (e': - e-•:)
. ' an (9) hold fo I
When 1 is a complex variable, we defin e Usm~ (9), it can be proved that r real as well as complex values of '
• z z2 ,J ~I (1) sm (-z) = - sin z, cos (-z) - -·
e-= I +-+
]! -+
2! -+
3! ... 10 00 (ii) sin2z +cos2 z = I I ,- cos z, tan (- z) =- tan z
...) sm
. (z ± z ) - . , + tan- z -- sec2 z, I + cot2 z -
. zJ 5 1
(
Ill
t 2 - sm z cos z ± - cosec2z
smz = z--+
3! z 7!z +... woo
5!- (iv)cos(z ±z ) - 1 2 cos z, sin z,
I 2 - COS Z 1 COS Z2 + sin
. z1 sm . -z,
l 4 6
cosz = 1-.£..+
2! .£..- z ...IO OO
41 61+
.. ~. (v) tan (z, ± z,) = tan Z1 ± tan z, -
- 1-+ tan z tan z- ·
__ sin z 1 1
Also, 1an. - - - , COi z= - - _ COS Z
cos z Ian , --.-
- sm z , sec : = cos z , Where z'zl' z2 are all complex numbers. 2
 , r noOI< Of' ENGINEEHING MAlt-t~.
Al r -~,

, . 1, a
., 111111nhcr. tht·n one ofttie \
126 va1
I O1,,. :1n. 110 NS or A CO i.ii'! f X VMllAflLf
De Moivre 's T e .
h orem 11 •1n
riJ1",11,,,11~ .
1
1,1
uiFUNC 127
brr (r:i1u1nal o t,ogarithm of a Complex Number
If 11 be an,· real nu111 (l.
_ • ~ . ~ /10J..1!-11111 {1 - J,c a ui, en non-/CIO Comrie~ numhcr r 11 .
+ I sin 0) IS CO- . ~r ,11,· 11 ti , / , ill ,, . [.t'I • ~ • _1 · .er ·• m,,dulus-amplrtude form is
• " ' 1111cc, • ,, ,., - i co, fl t / sin 0 ) (
1. 1f111sa - • or - ••" ., -. con11non,actorbet.. , - = I • "'' · 0 : I C'ls fl • i sin 0). f) = amp(;;)
(n ,so ... , sin 1icrc 1s 110 "'ee" - • 1' I: le' r '"" I : I <"" . 1"'"- n - n ~ 1, 2. ...
·er.' all'11 ''/la
. inl<'~ · . 0+ · · ~d
JI ,d1cr,•r, c/ (' ill .111- nc of rhetn is _cos ,_1 , srn n 8. 11 . Loi! : = Jog I - I . I ·: ~'"" - cos 2mt + i sin 2mt = r)
-· - - - + 10 + 2,m),." o. ± r 1 2
11. lf11= -. r 1 1i,,·,-. '' . O)" has 1nfimte numberofv Su 1he lol!arilhrn of a complex nu b · . ' · ···
q . tll" 11.1:: ,, • u- i s111 a1Ues · - · m er is a multi valued function. when n = 0. we write
I then (c0. (l .. ,,,n 1,cr. 111,·11 (<'11S 'o\ log: = log I: I + Oi.
. . . rion~I 1111 111 ·11
111.1f11 1s an 1rr:i ll This is the principal value of the logarithm of--. ·rh c genera 1va ue 1s
1
8 - 1 <tn 11 · )} "
Log= = log: + 2,mi. 11 =O. ± r. 1 2. ...
iscos11. • .rh<" ) ... ;s,n(-0
·, an•· inrri:r~ '. ,, (-8 ( 0)
1'iotes: (i) If "" · ., ol' - ,,,. + 1 sin _,,
1· con .. n ""
(c<'>0 ,. ,n .. cos(-" O) . 0
j :-111 11 •
Example: (i) = s 2 + ' stn 2= e' (by Euler's formula)
" cos 11 8
mbrr:
.. ofa complri nu . ? + 8)) 1/m Log i = ( I + 411)ni/2, 11 = o ± 1 ± ,
(11) Roots . •. 1J1eore111. + 8) + i sin (-"1!
By Dr ~101,-re > 0) ' "' = /cos (21111 ( 21111 + 8) and
log i = n i/2 (putting 11 = o'). · - · ···
(cose - ,srn ('",r+
::.--
8J+isin - 111
' (ii) -2 = 2 (cos 1t + i sin n) = 2tfU = 2e"; . ir""'
= 2eCl +2n)ni
= cos ,,,
? J.... , (m - I). . Log(-2)=1og2 + (J +2n)ni, n = 0, ± 1, ±2, .. ..
11= 0, ,. -, and log (-2) = log 2 + ni (putting n = 0).

erbolic Functions complex Numbers with Complex Exponents

Hyp , . ble we define I If z be a non-zero complex number and w is any complex number, then z" is defined by
When: is a complex \ana ' h _ = ~ (e= + e-=), sech z = - zw = ew Log:
1 -_ e-=) cos • 2 cosh , '
sinh : = , "( ' ' Example:
sinh z e' -e·' ,..; = e-ilog I = e-<4• + ffi2/2
-
- - c oth z -- -cosh z t' -
r)
J (see previous Ex. (ii)]
=- , tanh z= ~ - e' +e·= ' sinhz ::: ~ = el4• + I ) "'2, n = 0, ± I, ± 2, ...
cosech z sinh z ·, Principal value = e"'2(putting 11 = O).
The fo11owing relations hold: . h , cosh (-z) =cash z
'nh (-z) = -sm -, • BASIC CONCEPTS
(,·) s1·nh o= O.' cosh O-= I, srh - sinh z = e--_
1
(ii) cosh z + sinh z = " • cos All the relevant definitions and theories of the real variable theory with the exception of those which
(iii) cosh2z -sinh21 = 1 essentially depend on the ordering property of real numbers can be generalized without difficulty in the
complex plane.
(iv) sech2z = I - t~nh2z
(v) cr:>sech 2z = cotli2z- 1 . Open and Closed Circular Regions
(vi) sinh (z ±z) = sinh Zr cosh Z2 ± cash Z1 s1nh Z2 Let z0 be a fixed point in the complex plane and , > O, the set of
2 y
(vii) cosh (z,' ± z2) = cosh z1 cash z2 ± s1'nh 2 1 sm
· hz2 points {z : I z - zO I < r} is called the open circular region (or open
ranh z, ±ranh z2 circular disc) having centre at z0 and radius,.

•
(viii) tanh (z1 ± z2) = I+ nh I h In the adjacent diagram, it is represented by the points within
_ la Zr an Z2
Note: In any fonnula connecling circular (trigonometric) fun ctions, rep/ace each circular functklt the circle with centre at z0 and radius r (excluding the points on the
corresponding hyperbolic function and change the sign of every product of two sines. circumference).
The set of points {z : Iz - z 0 I~ r} is called the closed circular - - 1 - - - - - - -.... x
Relations between circular (trigonometric) and hyperbolic functions 0
region (or closed circular disc) having centre at z0 and radius r.
sin iz = i sinh z, cos iz = cosh z, tan iz = i tanh z,
sinh iz = i sin z, cosh iz = cos z, tanh iz = i tan z.
 K OF ENG 11',c:b l 1NG M"-
' ;,.filo O lfil:1.,.
Al~ . ·~
. , "'i1h111 and on the . ~,
• p<llll 1· Cltcll \
~
. ,,,i .
.,....1,.Jl
I
~, I~
~,
ii I ~ ,,•p . TJONS or A COMP1.r x V ARIABLE 129
12s f Uf'I C
· di:1~r:i 111· •
•·r ,hr "·n 111 • 1· l c iih:d a O-lll'IJ.!hh,1 .. Llf'l'lll point
ASr ' '
·nt ~ ~ tl. .
l ' :1 ,, ' ' "th o,,q
A Po'". 1•-o is· said ·r every deleted nhd of. contains at least one point of s•
. .tn he a llmll point of a ,c1 ·<; 1
crrck - fa po 1 113,J111'' o1 0
hood o . 311, • . 1 - from N(=0 : o)J i 1 r-lotr: L11111I p<>inl o f• sci may or may no! ' "' • L -
mcm
h
er o f 1hc ~ct
Neighbour . c1111-.:•11-,, th<'
• ,,.,1 1\ -~1) s ca11 i,
r rcc1<1fl- c \ 1:,11 -1ud1il!' . 1111\' ,\ (-,1 . ~d . irriit of a Function
Anort:11 Cll\' \I -/i) -<1rs1111 J'''• 1 , , ,·. , ,,
13 r , Ill ·
, • ,'il •' . ,.,J :1, .,,/,,/' · I
' L £ bc the domain
~trd i,, ., i:,,. , 1 ,:~• i 1,, ' !-,,· . ,1il11' " " " 1.,et . . ofa function_/{·)
• 'and Zo .__
"'-' a 11
·m1t
· pomt
· of E. Then/{.:) is said to tend to the limit
• · /
d\,'11' · Th,• set .\° 1-. \ l
-,,· d ,, ,icfl''
If.'.' • 1•11"1~
h111 ,,r,' : tends to •o ,f given £ > O, no matter however small. there exists a ii > Osuch that
d ,f- :tll . \ \\l. . . . 35
I.I(:)- / I< r.. V:e N'(z0 ; ii) n £.
·ohbourho0 ' -o . ,,frP.'' '1· . of a set S of compie
nc•~ F r rhc ,~~' .0 r po• 01 . )( I}
'l:otr : ,, , 111 iutcrt et of all interior points ors .11%: where N'(:o; 6) is a deleted 11bd of Zo, i.e.. for all points of I:: satisfying O< lz zol < 6.
1
· nt ' i 1'' I••. . 5 The s Is \ Symbolically we write }~~ f( z) = /.
•or po -. , .11, . ·d 111 · sai,
Intert ,1,,,r) :.- '' · 1 .,,uP111" •~
lex nun . , . .111, ' I
,\ nninl (COOlP
. !" nrd (If:,, c,,n .
)3111111!, · O
. ) Jz. z ~ z,,
,x1sts 3 S d point . f asetSofcomplexnu Example I: l et f(z) ={ .
·n1cnor 0f . I olate ·orpo1nt o lllbers ·r 0, z = z,,
I ·nt(or s [leancxtcn 'In~
Exterior poi 1· 1 ,; s.1iJ10 I n= )of 5. :. Using defi11itio11, show !hat l Jim f(z)= 3z0.
. 0 n,!lt'r ·, 1ier 11a o -f l.o

,\ paint (con,rle~_n_ on,' p0int (OI Solution: Given E > 0, we have to find out 6 > 0, such that
·
3 nlui \ (;ol co .
nt3IOIO-
- S if ever)' nbd of Zo contams . points be Ion .
lfiz) - 3z0 I< E for O< I z - z0 I< 6
arY point . point ofa sel &1n11
Soun d I 3z - 3z0 I < E for O< I z - z0 I < 6
. _ . id r<1 t,e 3 boundal"· · represents an open .· .
_ {- . I z I < J } , tt i.e..
Apoint_-o,s sa t,elon~ing ro 5. . 5 defined by 5 - - . c1rcu11, I z - z0 I < E/3 for O< I z - z0 I < 6.
i.e.,
also paints not ·der the ; d . So, ifwe choose 6 = E/3, our definition is satisfied, since
Example: Con'.' d radius J. . f5
t1 0 no1n 311 • !Ill o · · fs E
haring centre at i;nt ofSis an interior po; "" I are boundary pomts o . l/(z)- 3z0 1< E for O< I z- z 0 \ < -3 .
(1) Each pO I : no on die circle I _I I ted) point of S.
(ii) The paints ~' .':_an exterior (or ,so a Hence the result.
I int I - , i,
(iii) T 1e Po d sets Existence of Limit
d Unbounde d 'f there exists a constant k > 0 such th y
sounded an b sis said to be bounde h1 set Sis said to be unbounded. aq: In real variables, x • x0 implies that x tends to x0 along the real line,
Jex num er k > o then t e . . . either from left or from right. In complex variables, z • z0 implies
A set S of comp . ts no such constant ' 'f II its points lie wtthm a circle of sufficie,1 that z tends to z0 along any path in the complex plane, straight or
..., E S If there ex1s b uoded t a . b n"1
v: . els set is said to be o le the set I z I < I ts ounded. . curved since the two points representing z and z0 can be joined by an
In other wor ' a b oded. for examp ,
. it is called un ou ' infinite number of curves.
radius. Otherwise, fi h words 'for all · · If there exist two paths, say CI and C2 such that
Note: Thesymbol "t/' s1ands or I e
Jim f( z) * Jim f (z) 0
Open and Closed Sets . . .d be an open set. For example, the set d:6 z -t ~ ~-+ :o
. . ·or points is sat o I . I . .
A set containing entrrely the mten . . r points So open circu ar region :s an Of!! along cl along C2
. . tains only the mteno . ,
/zl<r is an open set smce rt_con . . the boundary points is said to be a closed[
Aset containing the mtenor P?mts as
11
w;
as . e it contains the interior points as 11ti then Jim f(z) does not exist.
example, the set defined by I z I 5 r ts ~ cl~se set St11C
z• ZQ

boundary points. So, closed circular region is a closed set. See the following example:
Aclosed and bounded set is said to be a compact set. [WB.U.T. 2002]
Example 2: Prove that lim does not exist.
,.... ozI
Connected Set z x-iy
. . . . .
b · · d b finite numberofr z =x - iy and - = ---:- ·
An open set S 1s said to be connected 1fany two of its pomts can e JOllle Ya .
15 Solution: Let z = x + iy z x+ 1y
line segments all ofwhose points belong to the set S. For example, the set S ={z : Iz I< I} aCl'C
set.
 s or /I coMPLEX VARIABL E.
~ r1otl
130 ( ·.-
rroof: We first suppose that llm 131
,-,,. f{z) txl
f hCll given £ > 0, there exists a 6 > 0 st,,
( ,,. I (11(.1, ."l + iv (x,y)) such that 1/(1 1- 11,
·1 - (a + ib)I < twh
1(11(r.)') - a) + I v(x,y) - b) I < E Wh encvcrO <lz - z ·I ,twhencvcrO
- < Iz z I< -
- I 11( r, .1') - a I $ I{ 11(x, y) _ a) + 1{v(
. enever O< lz 1)1 o - o o,
. ths hence lim .::. does not exist x,y) - b )I <
-z1o ,-o.
-
-= , dit1,·r~nt pa • , ~o : .
311 11 . I jv( ) / I E whenev 0
n ius ,lim
~• .::.- has different ,·alu~, test whether a complex number I i
' ~
511ndar y, x, y - 7 < E whenever o< I er < I z - zoI < u.
•
- I . b . used to I t' ff . s a 1·
fhUS
r
:~~. u(x,y)=a and r Z-zoI < 6 (': l lm I (·: IRe z lS lzl)
, ~~ v(x, y) = b
The abo,·e definiticin of limit can on~ •,. •al \'ariables, the cva ua ion o nntts can I... 'lliit-~
. ti . ca<e o r<• ue Ob , z S I z I)

~
111 1
it cannot be used to detenmne I :\ s " ·· lai Jinl II (x, y) =a and r "' '
bv using the followinc theorems: . r/rell ii is 1111iq11e.
. - - fi · ,Jer1srs ;.e,, .
p _d -t( ln,~11 ) ( ,.,i ....1m<x,.,,, v(x, y) = b.
Theorem I: ifthl' limit of" ,u,cflOI ·
conversely, let lim u(x,y) = a and 1·
Proof: If possible. let lirn J (:) = /2. ( ., , y) -> ( 'o, Yo )
1m(,,,
(,.,, .... V (X y) = b
lim
~, f(:) = 11 and , ~:..
there exist 61 > 0, 62 > 0, such that Lim •Yo) ' '

however sn1a11,
0
0 , .... ,. u (x, y) = a and lim
Then ci,·en £ (> 0). no matter O<I : - =o I< 1 i.e.,
- If (:) - /1I< r)2. whenever O<I• - • I< 6 . Then given E > 0, there exist O> 0 ' .... :. v(x, Y) = b.
_ _ I < r)2, whenever - -o 2
6
and I v(x, y) - b I < E/2 whenever o< 'I z - 'z 2I><00such thatj u(x, y ) - a I < E/2 h
If (-) 12 • r6 6 } then Let 6 = min {6 06 2· w enever O< I z-z I< 6
and b"' mitl I I' 2 ' I• 2l O I
- I'f(-)- 1 ) - {!(z) - 12)1 :. 1/(z)-/l=l{u(x
Let I/, - II I -
- ~ If (: ) - Iii + lf(z) - lzl
l - I =1{u(, y) +1v(x,
.
y))-(a + ib)I
< rJZ + rJ2 = E, whenever O< I z - z0 I < 6. x, y)- a) + '{v(
SI u(x,y) - a I+ I x, y) - b}I
. . •ve number, it follows that 112 - /1 I= 0 i.e., f, '= 1 < E/2 I v(x, y)- b I
11
Since E is any arbitrary sma P
05111
- 1·
+ E/2 = E whenever o< I
Hence }~~f(z) = l = a +ib. z- zo <6
This completes the proof. . f a complex variable z and I t
Theorem 2: Let/(:) and g(:) are 1wo funcuons o e
Jim J(:) = I and _1!!1! g(z) = Ill, then This completes the proof.
J

Example 3: Evaluale lim ~

~ -f~ • ..

, .... , z-1 ·
(i) lim {a/(z) ±bg(z) ) = al :l: bm (a, bare constants)
=-- ~ Solution: Here z • I, but z ct 1

(ii) ,1~(/(z) g(z) ) = Im , 1 - I = (z -1) (z2 + z + I)

z -1 z-l =z2+z+ I.
Let z = x+ iy. :. x • I
and (iii) Jim {f(z) } = !_ , provided m-t 0. z2 +z + I = (x + . )2 , y • Oas z • l.
: ->:. g(z) Ill Now, 1Y + (x + iy) + I
The above results constitute the rules for evaluation of limits and can be proved easily fromt = (x2 - I +2ixy) + (x + iy) + I
definition of limit of a function of a complex variable. ' = (x2 + X - I + \) + i(y + 2xy
The following theorem indicates a connection between the limit of a function of a comp'.( z- + z + 1 • 3 as x • 1,y • 0 ).
variable and limits of real valued functions of two real variables. 3
. Theorem 3: Letf(z) = u(t, y) +iv (x, y), z = x + iy and z0 = x0 + iy0. Let rhef unctionf be defa, Z I [By Theorem 3J
Hence lim - -- = 3
:-+I z - I
ma domam E except possibly at the poinl z0in£. Then
lim f(z) =I =a + ib Using Theorem 3' the fiOII owing
. formulae can be proved easily.
:• :,i

ifand only if lim 11 (x. y) = a and lim v (x, _11 = b.

l.r.,1•J• /.'c ,.' o) (.t.y)-11.,;,.,1;,)
 01- /1''
, ,15
I\ lEX18CX1K or r NGINEEHING MI\TltEMI\TiCS
.' 1•· ,r,111!'/iollS.r(z) anti g(z)
~~
132 .
( I// 1/11 . we define .
11' 111 o/fz) I· i,g(z). a. Ii arc co d "' £ und 133
Formulae ) ,(") n.11u111., . con1in1ui
;ii : g " u., Q/ zoE £. th
(i) Jim :· = a' (ii) Ji 1_1! , in : = , 111 a ( I( .
.··)((: )l g(: ). fll'OVrded g(z) en
: -.i (Ill. I ~ () ur ,
(ii·) li111 b' = b' rcrll 5: Leif (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x e ul.io C()nr;n
tiii) Jim C\1~: =,.,,, Cl : _. a
: • t: ,r1,ro111011.< ot =n ifand only ifthe re;/1 he defined . uou.1arz~
. .- ,11/1 . functio rn .i,1,n
:,,:II·' 0 f· t,ctJ(z) be continuous at n., urx. y, e nhd of rh
(") Jim Joe : = loc 11 ~ proo · . ' o· ' und vrx e PDint z _
! -"Cl ... .._ •
jvcn c > 0, there exists a 6 > ·YJ ure co r '' - x,01, . . iy1 Then
Note: Limit~of c0mpk x functions arc fomially the 53111c as those of real functions. ' I •f11Cil g 0 such th n inuou., (x '
1{11(x.y)+ iv(x, y)) -{u( at lf(z)-/( r,Y,I,
xo, Yo)+ iv(x Zoll<: t wh
Continuity at a Point
Let £ be the domain of a function/(:) and =o E £. Then/(: ) is said to be continuous at 20 if gi
(x-x o•Yolll < £ )2 ; enever ~- zJ < 6.
0
no matter however small. there: exists a 6 > Osuch that "Ctih l{ u(x,y) - u(xo,Yo))+ i {v(x),y - v(x {y - yJ <oi,
If(:) - /(: ) I< f. V : E N (: ; 6) 0 £, i.e.. for all points of E satisfying lz- zol < 6_ O, ( o•Yo)) l< t
0 0 ., if· x -x0)2 + {y- Y )2
So, it is clear that/ (:) wi ll be continuous at :0 if and only if _J~i~ f (z) = f(z0). • ,0 i •nlil'' ,r . 0 < 62,
. I j111pheS
~o te: A function/is continuous 31 =o if and only if the following three conditions hold: i ,ire1 I 11(x, y) - 11(Xo, Yo) I< E and I v(x )
,y - v(xo,Yo) I< E

(i) f (: 0) is defined.
(ii) Jim f( z) exists,
: -l ::0
·,· ~,i,uever (x -xo)2 + (y
f his shows that both u(x, y) and v(x )
2 2
- Yo) < 6 •
[ :. I Re -1< I I
• - z , !Im z Is I z 1
1
'Y are contin
,·, conversely, suppose that both u(x,y) and v( uous at (x0•Y)o ·
(iii) - ~ - / (:) = J<=ol•
- ~
Then given E > 0, we can find Ot > 0 and 6 > x,Y) are continuous at(x 1
0
Continuity in a Region I u(x,y) - 11 (xo, Yo) I< E/2 whe 2 such that o•Yo,•
never (x - x \2 + 2
A functionf(z) is said to be continuous in a certain region R of the complex plane if it is conr
I v(x, y)- v(xo, Yo) I < E/2 whenever (x _ xOJ)2 + (y-
(y Yo)2 < 61
every point of R. tnuoUs, and O
. Example 4: (i) The function/ (z) = 3z2 + 2z is continuous at z = z0, since by Theorern 2 . 1/ Cz) - /(zo) l =l{u(xy)
'
+ IV
· cX y)} - y/ <62l
_ I{ ' - (u(x y ) + .v(
- u(x,y) - u(x y )) . o• o r xo, Yolll
prev10us formula (i), we have (,)~ < o• o +1(v(x, y) - v(x
lim f (z) = Jim (3z2 + 2z) = 3 lim / + 2 lim z = 3z.; + 2Zo = f (Zo) -lu(x,y) - u(x )I
o• Yo + lv(x y) v(
· o,Yolll
z• ;;, z • Zo : .... Zo , .... Zo • < E/2 + E/2 = E · - xo,Y0)1

whenever (x.- x0)'· + (y - yo)2 < 62' where 62 -_ 'mm

. {6 2 6 2
But the function/ (z) = { 3z2 + Zz, z t Zo is not continuous at z = z0 since 1 2
0, z= Zo So, given E > 0, there exists O> 0 sueh that If(z) '-f z).
Hencef (z) is continuous at W ( o)I < E whenever I: - zOI< 6•
2
lim f(z) = 3i:i + 2Zo t f (Zo )· This completes the proof.
.: -+ :o
(ii) Also the fu nction/(z) = 3z2 + 2z is continuous in the region I z I~ 1 as the function/(z)i Example 5: Prove that f (z) _ 1 [Z.
ofthe complex plane). - z is continuous in the emirecomplex plane (i.e.. at every point
continuous at each point z = z0 in the region I z I~ I. [by(rll
Solution: Let J(z) = u(x, y) + IV
. (X, y)·, z -_X + iy.
Theorem 4:
(a) (i) The f unctions z, z,Re z, Im z, Iz I and /z/are continuous in the entire complex ~IIJ :. [z\2= x2+y2.
sides we get u( ) _ 1
Now,! (zl = I z 2 gives u(x y) + · ( ) - , ,
, , ' . real and imaginary
iv x, Y - x- +Y"· Equating . parts from both
for all real x th ~
(i.e.,at every poir1t ofthe complex plane). +
' x, Y - x- Y- and
. v (x
.•y) - O.· mce u x, Y an ,,x,y) are contmuous
s· ( ) d ., · • of x, y
functmns
(ii) The polynomial 'Y, ereiore f (z) ts contmuous mthe entire complex plane (by Theorem5).
P (z) =C/' +C/ 1 • 1 + ... +C,,
where C(l C,, · ·· • Cn are cor11plex constans.
t 1·s continuous
· · complex plane{tt,I
· tJ1e entire
111 ·
every poilll of !he complex plane).
 I (r I) ~ i(y -. I ) 12 < ( H 135
Example 6: sc 1/rc ,ic_fi11i1ion <f /imil to 1,,,0,,,, 11,,11
_: +I .
I : - (I - i ) 12 ~ (~ J
(i) ,lim : = -=-'<I (i1) lim --:- "' }I
... ,,, : • : - I ji' '
l=- (1- i) I< ~
1 ,, er,
6'
,,11,11•
(iii) lim {: + i(: + :)) = / + i. ,r' ·
;-1 -, . en f > 0, there exists O= E
. ~,v - ). 0
Solution: (i) Observe that .,, Sll• - 6 such thaq I
i)i <:'. fi. ,zt i(z .. ~
I: - ~ I = I : - ;., I = I: - : 0 I <£, whenever I: - =o I < E. . (1 d fin 't'1on 1·Im { Z + i(z + -
1
' )f - (I + ) I < E, whenever
c by c I I
So, given E > 0. there exists 6 = E > Osuch that I. 11,11c , , - - 1-; z)l = 1+ I.,
I: - ~ I < E. whenever I: - :01< I\.
iplc 7: Prove that lim (z1 +2Z+J) =-1
Therefore. by definition lim z = ~ . (Proved) £(:tn z• -J+,
;-+ :0

soiotion: Let/(z) = z2 + 2z + l ,z=x+.

(ii) Let/(z) = : =+ _1 . Note that/(z) is defined at every point of the complex plane exc . J(:) = (x + iy)2 + 2(x + iy) + 1= , 'Y
z-1 ept at l \ l .. X--y2 +2x +1 + ·(2
v lim u(x,y) = Jim , xy+ 2y) -
So, for: ~ i, we have N01 • (<..,·J-> C- 1.ll t,.yi • ,-1.1, (x2 - y2+2x -u+iv.
+ l) = (-1~ ,
I/ (z) - 2i I= I' 2
+ _1 - 2i
z -1
I= I (: +z-1
i) (: - i) - 2i I= I z - i I< E, for O< I z _ 1. 1
°'E.
Jim
(,..,J -> (-1. I)
v(x,y) = lim (
(,.,>--,1-1.11 2xy +2Y) =2 -(-l
- l- +2 (-1) + 1=-l
) ·I+ 2-1= 0
Therefore, gi·, en E > 0, there exists 6 = E > 0 such that So, by Theorem 3, we have Jim (z2 + ·
, ..,_1+ ; 2z + l) = -t.
1/(z) - 2i I< E, whenever 0 < I z - i I< 6.
. z2 ti .
i\Uernative: By using Theorem 2(,') and previous fonnu .
Hence, by definition lim
:. • i
f (z) = 2i, i.e., hm---:-
:--+ r z-l
= 2i. lim . (z2 + 2z + J) = (- J + .)2 la(,), we have
, -,-1 +, I + 2(-J +I'+ -
'I J - (-1 + it 1)2 - '
(iii) Letz=x + iy Note: L1m1ts of complex functions ar ~ - ,- = - 1
e onnally the same as th
I {z + i(z + z)} - ( I + i) I= I {x + iy + i(x + iy + x - iy)} - (I + i) I l ose of real functions
= I (x + iy + 2ix) - (I + i) I Example 8: Evaluate Jim Z +2z + 2 ·
= I (x - I)+ i(2x +y- I) I , -.-,., z2 +2i
= I (x - I) + i {2(x - I) + (y + I)} I
Solution:
S Ix - I I + I 2(x - I) + (y + I) I
Now, z2 + 2z+ 2 = (z + J)l-i2 -
2 , - ~+ 1-ij~ + Jt')
I {z+i(z+ z)}-(1 +i)jSjx-ll + 2 lx - l i+l y + I I z + 21 = z2 - J +2i + J - , I,
- z--{l - 2i -l )
E E 2
= z - (I - 2i + ;2) = z2 _ (I - ,)2
= JIx-1 I+I y + I I< 3 · -6 + -2 = E,
= (z + J - 1) (z _ J +i)
E E Jim z2
. + 2z + 2 = Jim (z+ I - 1)(zt
. I+ i) I ·
whenever, lx- 1 1< 6, ly+ l l<z z->-l+ i z2 +2i (
, _,_,+ , z +l- i)(z-l+i) , ...lim z+ +1
-1 .. z-l +i

-I+ i + J+ i i
~J.(1J)
2i i(-1-i) 1
i.e., whenever, (x - 1)2 + (y + 1)2 < min (( -1 +i - J+ i -2+ 2/ -1 +/ (-!)' -i' =2 (1- i).
 oMPLEX VARIABLE
or- AC
ris
fl O
137

~
1 ·l ., h /(z) - /(OJ
136 coses z
ffOill
and 2, we
11cr, i.I'.' cone Uuc t at • 0 as z • Oalong any radius vector but not
) . ,.;,,.
Re/: does noI '· · , ' ,nan
(hat /im -1-1 • r-,;J . , •1fl) ) ·
E
xample :
9 Prove --o -
·
/.1' -I
) _ ,. and l=I = · ~ ·' 1
s,..1 o,n ~' _ J (0 does not exist.
. Re(: - .
. . Let.-=x+ i_r .. . 1·-- 0 · then
Solution. x-a.xis. 1.e.. · ., )jlll z XJ y(y - ix) .fl 0)
oalong lhe x - lini - ·
=-''' 11 fe 11: If./(z) = •
X + y z
2 , z ,._ 0 and f (OJ "" 0. then show that !J....z) - f • O as z -+ ()
Letz • Re (: )= \ini ,"f - ,-ol.rl
lim-- 1-n ,1x· (\); f;JP• di//SI' vector but not as z • 0 in any manner.
,-o 1:1 -1 011_1' r(I. : Herc,
\' . ii -
Now , lim -I
,-0-1.,
.\' = lim :..: •1~•-
•-•· x
. . (- 0 " -
I #8 501~11on (z) -/(0)
z
= {x3 ~(y-~-o}-~
x = ,( - hm
Iim -;- .. _.o~ f X + )' x+ I)'
Also, lim -I
,-0-1.r ,-o- - . [ ·: /(Q) = Q, Z = X + iy]

Re(:) does not exist. ,,

Hence. ~i~ 1T ( ) , nol exisl. ...(I)

~
1 Im : dose f(z) - f{O) C0 ·d the following two case~: . I th 1· -
Letz •
11 ~o --1
I= ,r tO) = 0' thenP,ovethat - -z ~o asz '! C "" 1" o,Ioag
~
·. ·milarly. . can be proved 1ha1 : sc · /(0) "'Y ""'""'""'•
-ix3mx '·'•' oag ' me Y- ""•so' • 0 , • 0.
Not,. s, .I oand; '
1
r y'(x +iy , :cl 1
x6-+.m2x2
f(z)-z = - -,, [Puttingy=mxin(l )]
- x~ + •y Oin a11)' ma1111e1:
Examp le JO: if/(z) - rasz 2
bul no -imx
d ·us ,•ector } J
O
nyra 1 . ) - = x4 + m2
• 0 .• Here,
along SolutJo 0) {~ 2(x +1)' _ 0 · x +iy
• Oas z • 0 (i. e. , x • 0), since m ~ 0.
( ·: UQ)
!Ji!_::jj_. = x' + )'
z 2. Letz • Oalongthecurvey=x-3,soz
case . .J ] • Q ~ x--.o.
_!!-; ··{II /(z) _ f (0) = -1x . X
6
z x + X6
= -'+y' -mx' soz • 0~x-¼0
. x
0 cases: ; e., along the line Y - [Putting y "" x3 in (I)]
. the followmg tw
Consider Oalong any ra
dius vector, .
=--
• t:
Case I : Let z--) xm2x2 2
[Putting y = IIU: in Ul ( ·:
f( z) - f(O) - ~ x • HO)
- x'+m
z
m2x
- ---rT
- I+ nr X 0). ll From Cases I an ' z
0 d 2 we conclude that !J.z) - f (O) • Q as z • Oalong any radius vector but not
(·e., x •
•
o as z • O '·
.J-x soz •
o~ x • · asz • 0 1.n any manner, i.e.,
Case 2•. Let z • oalong
the curve, - '

/(z)-/(0) = : ·\ [Puttingy2 ""Xin(IJ Jim f (z) -z f (O) does not exist.

,-.o
z X tX ExampIe 1 ·
2· For what values ofz, the following functions are continuous?
z +2
2 (i)f (z) = z2 + 2z + 1 1
(ii) f (z) = cosec z - ~ ·
f (z) - f (OJ • ~ as z • 0 (i.e., x • O).
2

L
 p ClN••
0 or A COMPLEX VARlll8LE
- o, or.
~
I • 1 I ): . ,1 11 111111 : I.cl /(2 ) -.. 1,(, ~i ,
1 - o. .,... - •• ,.
136
" J1, 11 _: ' 2= '
• I- = - 1. ' l. '.'I• .:v lv(.t. Y ). Then
139

S
,_o\ution:
. ,111111
.,,111 11 1•x pl:illl• cx,cpt :, -
• -t :
.......:---:--:1
1' nt'll , • ,.,,1111' l .
ji1 th<
- .
= 0, 1. C. , Z "" Q u(x,YI ,, ~?· ''·Y> "' rri.o,
11)((;) -- - ·- ~--
'· + •"I'"' - \I .,-c - d1Cll -_ SIil ;
tint1(1\l!i \
' \lt •
•l1~ 1
' . ... .
co1111nt1•
1\1 l\l .
• - ,10 • i, ,11
, , (\"Ill
except :,t ; -
-
,m, " -
-
0, :!: I
t
r(J. .
rl = 0. \f(x. y).
I .
. ( t. y)"' ((J_ ()) <·: n~o ... i.O/
1~~
..,i
.f(:l ,; I :.- . plane . •:l:1 Ill"' p I r = 111.r. 11en x ~ 0 implies(· )
- - "' : "" . th•' ,-,,n,p • '· 11 . ···Y ~<o. o1.
·)"' co;r, - : 1,-r.: 111 ••
t ii) ((- . •f' ,, 1 ' . 110I {!,\ ISi lim -....:2'._ _ lim Xt1t t
\ . . OIi; ('I' . ; \' r/01'•'
,-1 ,. . c~1111n11
" ·' :___.-:
...-:---.1 r ,-,ox 2 +y2 - .,.... o~ = lim -.:!!._
o.f ,- h11r /i,u, 1: + .r ·) ~ (0, 0). _, -,o · m X r-,0 1+,,/
, . fn>1'1• I • 1-
1icS (X· ' ·I
. Ao1111P ,
=-
.
E ample 1. · /1/
l Jt,11 I • : •
·-wr. l .1·· . ~ (·: ' +mi
. . Let _,- - .. ~ - . ! _1 )).2
s o\unon- : r' - Ji1n .: + m ·' 1 ~I
. h has ditTercnt values for different m. Thus .
~ - .~ • (.1 wh1c • 11m 11(x y ) d . .
\in1 :+r l . us at (0' 0). Consequentlyfi.z) is. not (.,.
0 nunuo y)--,(0.01 • oes not exist and hence 11(x . y) 1s
. ~-' l-\ .
,A (·: contin
not c Example 16: Show 1ha1 uous at z = 0 (by Theorem 5/.
l (Z -z)
/(z) = 2/j;f•l 1'0
~
d•fferent m.
"'(1+,ir
1
.s contin11011s at z = 0. ' ! 0 , Z=O
I Solution: Let z =x+ iy.

l
Jues for exist.
d' fferent ra . . does not
which has ' double 111n1t J,mctiol1 /(z)= ~iy){(x+iy)-(x-iy)} xy 2
Hence the 1t,at the -~ =--=--+i-2._
-pie J4: 5t,011•
£x3u• J x/
...:.-=--;, fior z 10 21 vx· + y2 ,Jx2+ y2 ,)xi+ y'
i +l = u(x, Y) + i v(x, Y), when z 1' 0, i.e., (x, y) 1' (0, 0)
f (z) "' x fior z ::: 0
0 '
[We.o.t
where u(x,y)= ~ and v(x y)= ~
vx· + y2 ' ,)xi + y2 .
Also,
0.
f - "'
. uous. a ._Now, I f(z) = 0, when z = O, i.e. , (x,y) =(O, O).
is contm 2
u (0, 0) = 0, v(O, 0) = O.
Solutton.
1/(z) -f(O) I"' la 3.lJ' -O

Puttin~x, 1 l u(x, y) -u(0, 0)1= ,/x2 I :y2 -01 = i rcos 8sin81

· ' eI
"' 3 Ir cos esm-
[ y = r sine,,
(Putting x = r cos 8, y = r sin 8, r > 0)
~<E
2

~ < E, for ✓ X -r y 3 r Jx
:5 = + y2 < E, whenever ,/x2 + y2 < E.
!> 3r = 3✓X- -r )'
E I v(x, y) - v(O , 0) I = I✓x2y2+ y2 - 0 \ = Ir sin2 8 I
II there exists a 6 = 3> 0, such thaq/~
. E> O no ma
tter however sma • . (Putting x = r cos 8, y = r sin 8, r > 0)
Therefore, given ' d finitionf (z) is contmuous al z=I
~
' z • z - 0 I < Hence by e 1 o.
• .
. . o.rthefio/lowing Ju net1011.
<6, 1.e., I. ·1y at origm
:5 r = Ji+ y2
< E, whenever Ji+ y2 < E.
< E, whenever ✓x- 1- Y So, given E > 0, no matter however small, there exists a o= E > 0 such that
1
Examp1e 15.· Test the cont111u1 I u(x, y) - u(0, 0) I < E and Iv (x, y) - v (0, 0) I < E,

l
xy fior z t- 0 whenever (x - 0)2 + (y- 0)2 < 02.
f(z) = x2 + )'
--z· This shows that both u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous at (0, 0). Consequently/(z) is continuous
a , for: =0 at z = 0 (by Theorem 5).
 140

Ill DIFFERENTIABILITY
-· 1 :-.'"m ,,1 -' 1.·~,o,rk, ,.ni.,M~: .,nJ l~t 11 ~ de-fined in t r -.
lcl w = /(: ) l>< ' •Ull'I<·• • IUN'""'" - ...b,i
fimlpomt:0 , lfth< 1,11111 "1
/1 _1_f~ l
i.illl - l un - - ' -
~l •\'/}- IX~ + "; )
•• • ,...:._.._ (I

'h- t..,lt,I ,' J .,t ....

••
7,---.;-
\r ,l ,, 't \'t,)
lim t t - x. Ht 1, J
·-·, ( \ ~ ) ( . J~
"
l1 t , -
1 -' {
. ~...,i.i - r~J
'~

~olt: ThC JCfl' ' I11

'
.,,•·)al " •
•· • • '-·
1.:in i1f~ol;,c"(1t1c.-r1 a ~foll,•,,:,.;
(<:.... ~\ j(:~ 1 , , • • r=,""=
.. ...m
f' r---u ,=J.lun, ,. - --
L.\ :. -- - ',I"' -t- l • -v•,t:.;, _. V<,

, , ,, \ 11ppt>!>f thul ! .l > • ly, then! .:0 ,. ~ it, (r• ti _ ll u)

. /(:_,,,/:I-/(: I
hrn - · \ ,!J i lt, ltl•ftl ( I):
A - \1 Ji
ur
[nmP'" I: Um,:,,,,. dtfimmm, find Jhe dt'rw,,rwi· oj j (: 1

!,Olurioa:

I"~
d, I.•.,
_;_:-0 1,m •: . ,:, ) f :. -..:.i,)
luu - · -- - : • =.:
,;, .. - .:.i
..- lime - .:11 1 (·: :,~ Jim 1 1
)o
. ,:,,
·" ;(✓ ,; - , · · '·'• ,·) \ 'll ii

Sc;lt : A fu:i1.'IIJn f c:l mav t-c d1ffcr~1ll1:il'tk .11 -··'" :v· but I : 1:1 1
mJ) nol be differa uiable at z.. Set6,
') '
J,11
(:
..I V\, J \ ,
;
=
~.i
I \ ln
.\'o
):
~
(.>)
, ••
follilw10( c~11mpft
f,umpl< l: ,,,.,,.,,,hal/ 1:/ : "J1/f<'Mll:Jblc ns·ry·where. bw g(:J If (z)I =l:J 1, ..,>!t,
~, n:rn(:
. • • 1zlis nuI t ri
);-1wJ t \ti1fo llt>ws lhal,'(i.•J " . at 3 point 1 -
l1Jerentittblc 1• 0 1,~
difj,·rc·mwble ""' '•1 ... ,,1 '• • 0.u· !11• 0 . .... cgttfrom:(1 1, o - ·<o .,.. Yo~ . ,v uen
Solutio n: Fint part: L<1 z be any fo.t:c1 r oun in die <.:ompJe" plane.
0
11'(0'1= lim ld
• Li ,' 1 •. ,
· ... I • "' 11 · I • •
-· = ~~ ~
+ , ( - •

rhen. + / '2.:,1= :~ , ~ . --- .. ., • bJt1n 1 ,1 ~xbt (sec: E.xa.m. 2. Art. J.4).

= lim 1=1 U, n\' ir-,
.. • .i i. nowhere d'ft'
- ' t rrnt iabk ihoui!h/ t•J - - is C\ . h d-~ .
Thto, t 6· 1/ ·· . ... - • CfY\\ ere 11 ,e-renuable
So,/ t: I : is ditTcrcnt1:ibJc in 1he t·111ire compk., pl.inc.• 11.i!, at cve,y point of the,. 111 • · a 1,mctw,,I f: ) n· difft>rt>11tiahle ma puu.l
· , "'V
• I IIt'll ll u· c:unluu,ou$
. u t ! fl ·
plwe). Proof: I et fl:) be d1lfocmiahk JI z,
\". ,y. . o 1ltenf' (·)
"'O - hlim:~ .f(~l-
~ _ /(.:.,/
_
. !lnd fio11c.
exists .
S«ond p11r1: Lei =n 'c. .; 'J',:, (1- 0) t-c :i.n\' fixed ,x,rnt :ind :
h r.: ;: I ' \\ (.' nave ... -of)
l\o~-. g'(:~) - lin, ~\;)-~(;,,) hm ,:1- f:,I
1-;,, ~ ~

/ (:>- / (:o) = (~ - ~,) / (: ) - JU, ! .

:: - ~:,
 142 I -- - i rc:, -{ c:~ >1 f ,~)
,I
l '1th ;
liill ( •<' : - •<' I ,I·
/I; 1 ./ ( :<> 1 ('." lloth the I'

'
lim I /1:1- 11:. Ii ,/ ,cc h : = - scch : 1anh • ,I
(i rl ,n, cLh ·
: 111111 I' 1 d: - ,I·

11
"(l I 1:,1
• ,i,tJlllll°'li~ :ll =o· c: ,lc .J : Shu11· 1/111I_{(:J does 1101 erw
.
• l ~) 1~ l ~ .,~ 11111 1 I
lim
so1u1ion: Let : = x + iy. :. f(·) = · (lll}W refl'. where/(./ Rt (;J
~ ~ f(:)=.f(:,,).;• . . . , coniinuity of a function at a point · · Re(:) = x. • = Llr + 16y.
11 0
1
This completes the pr('\' ,,,n,'·'
. ·ru,· ,n ~.-nrr;i · ' · ~
: dn. f'(;:) =
'1 '
lim /(;_+ :)- /(:)
·• t,.
_ r+ _
= hm _ _ r .c
~ ot<": Con,er-r C'lf th1'- th('\"ri:n - i·••\31''". :it :11· z ' • x+10. y
0

nccc,sanh• imp!,. that the fun,11•'" h•'"""'"''t1ll'. ~ t·it•'il\Cilt:

' '" = lim --.:___
The follo11 ing example pr,'"· _ ·..
.. ·th';1 I l- 1 • I I. 0 I< E .
0
' ' ' O.x + i y ·
Example 3: Con~1der tl1c ,un, ._ I; I, f . w 1encvcr - - ·
consid~r 1hc following two cases:
, ()1 - \1 -
Here. /(:) l
s· r' 0•'.11ch 1hal,r 1· - 0 I < 0o · ca c I: 6.: - Llr + i6y • 0 along x-axis ' r.e
. .. uy
• = 0 and o.x - >O.
o. ~eiven r > 0. there e\1>1' ' r whcnc'" •
, t:1 .f tOl ' · f '(•)
• -- 1•Im -6 x = hm (I) -
.\,-o 6.)(, l\1 - ,0 - 1
. · · 31. " 0.
Hence/(.:)= : is.con11nu0u,
_ ftOl . · : -0 "liin.::. ~ hich does not exist
. (see Example 2 4 _ case 2: 6.: = r + it.y • 0 alongy - aim, . tu = 0 and t:,,y • 0.
· ,.e.,
11
. ~ :
(( 1 c l 1 1 n . - - .~o -' ''"q
But/'(O) = ,1!!),
I :-0 ·" :-0 · · ~I J'(z) = lim ~= lim O = O
4 y• O it:,,y O) • O •

rariables hold good for the function of a c Since the values in Case I and Case 2 are d'ffi
I erent' so/'(•)
• does not exist
. anywhere
Fo rmulae
I. All the result of differential c3lculu ofrea
5
1
~ ExamP e
• I •5: Prove
_ t hat I
IIe
• • derivative
_ off M - - d
• - Z oes 1101 exist at any point; ·

variable .
f( = z = x- iy ' t:,,z =tu +1t.y
Solution. Let z - x + ry .. f(z) . and/(z + t.z) = x .,. tu- i(y- t,.y).
(i) !!_ (:.) = I, !!_ (c) = 0 (c is 3 complex constant) So, /'(z)= lim z+ o.x)-/(z) Ii x+o.x-i(y+t.y) (• •·)
. ,• o t. • m " ')
' • ,• o t.x + it:i. y
d: d:
f'(z) = lim 6.x - i6.y
(ii) !!.. c:.·l = ,i="· ' A: • O t:,,x+it:,,y.
d: d -1 l
.. . d . d -) _ . • _ (tan z) = - , . etc. Consider the following two cases:
(111) dz (sin z) =cos:, d: (cos. - --sin-· d: I+ z· Case I: 6z = t.x + it.y • 0 along x-axis , ;.e. , uAy = oand u.
,.:i: • 0.
(·: 6:rt:0)
f'(z) = Jim t.x = lim (I) =1.
d d d 4..r-+O fl.x ai-+o
(iv) -{af(z) ±bg(~)I = a-f(:)±b7-g(:)
dz d: • Case 2: 6z = /!.x + i!!.y • 0 along y- axis, i.e., t:,,x =oand t:,,y • o.
d d d
(v) - If (z) g(z)I
dz
= f( z)- g(: ) +g(:)-
dz
d /(:)
: /
(-i/!.y)
'(z) = 11·m - . - = lim (-1) =- 1
AJ•• O y 1/::, 4 y• O
(·: t,.yt:O)

d d
_ d {J(z)} g(z)d2 f( z) -f(z)dg(z) . Since the limit is not unique, we conclude thatf'(z) does not exist anywhere.
(v1) -d - () = { }i ' , provided g(z) i- 0. Example 6: If f(z) = lzi 2, prove that f (z) is continuous everywhere but the derivative off (z)
z g z g(z)
only at the origin. (M-402//4)
2. Fonnulae for differentiation for hyperbolic functions: Solution: First part: Let/(z) = u(x, y) + iv (x,y); z = x + iy.

(lJ -d sm
. hz = cosh z (i1) iz cosh z =si~ z iz 12 =x2 + y2.
dz
 MPLEX VARIABLE
rAco
1,,tAWEMATlC:9 ,,,r,O
A TEXTBOOK or t NGINCffliNO " • ,, ,1,1fcrc11li,1I ca/culu, can O L.
1
11c 1,1111/.1 ciokcn 10 I1c an open region nIY"" 'UCcc11fu/ly d 145
1
144 I I') = I_:• ,.:. I,,,,,,·II''",, • I . I
re""'" cxc USIVC y.
. 111 iuch we 1h I ••eloped •flhc
a I hcnccror1h domain of dcfrn11,·on f
(• r) ' ,,. ( · · ', , .: and 1'(r y )
_ - 'f'' c,u ·. 1 1·d, wcgc111(1, 1·) - J- · ' ·• "O ,r,•11 " T
·'"' . 1i,eorcm. M. V. a nd Taylor's lhcu,
only eon o a
Ilda func1ion, defined in
'o"· ((: 1-, - n.,r1,fn1mlx •~•~ c. . ~Ir,. so/(:) i ,o111 inuouscvel)l\\,h·S 11c s d f cm have
al and 1magin30 ,- 11f 1 ,. 1,,r all re, , · ~ l ~,, Ill' on 1hc or er properry o re,11nu,nL- no cnmp/c,
Equaling re u funr111>n · fl. 11'' , 11:1 • I . . uc11 counrcr ,,.,11
re con11nuo ., ,.,,, 11 J(·) ,,, : is ana yt1c m lhe enrire com ,. 11ncc 1hey dqicnd
u(.r. I) and 1{r. .r) 3 . d - = r • ii'. ,11111/llr: - plcx plane bur 1/fzJ , I .
n,~rem 5. Art. 3A) .. /,( an, fi,rd po1nl ai1 - • •
f, 1.5.). . !ZI is nowhere analytic (see
- r ,. no . , / 1=
rcond part: Lr1=0- 0 · • ) /:/· - ;, ,_,1~· d 5;ngular Points
/(:)- J(~ :: lilll ~ ,· an . .
ow. f'<=o)= 1~m ~ · ., - ~ ··{IJ diflarY . 01131y11c at a pomt z0, then z is call d
r . J(:) ,s . d . o e an ordin .
O . .11 oll _ ,hen z0 1s ca 11e a smgular point or . ary Point of/l·J 0th . .
_ .... fr . 1hc~ d so - ~ z • x ~ x0.
Firsi supposetbal: -.• _.o
- • (r .. ,..)-(.10 .o
..-ir) =.r - .r0 an • o P'11•;','.,,1y1ic al •r\ction: If/(z) is analytic a1 z and/ (a s)mgularity of/(z). • . erw1se, if/ (z)
- -o . . 0 . ill1· of 11 u O 1 o " 0, !hen z ·
p zero . () We know that/(z) = / z 12 is nowh . . ois called a uro of/()
From (1). we ha,·c • . : ,i) . (.r-.io)(x + x0 ) c1:i111plc, I ere d1fferen11able ex,,,.,, I - z.
~ :: l1111 _ r, . . -•y 3 z - 0 (see Ex. 6,
I ' (-·o)= lim . .
,l -.lo
'- ' ·1 .lo ; 5). . t _"' Ois a smgulanty of/ (z),, I z 12
_.,
1 JI,·. the polll • I•
0,
= lim (.r+,i;,J
-) -_-3:-1• is analytic in every finite region excep1atz--
_ ,. So __ ..
=Xo.,. Xo =2ro (iil /(• z+ · ••--11ssingulari1yof/(z)
- " 0 is a zero of/(z).
Next suppose that: =Xo - (r. !hen . ) _ i'" _J' ) and so : ~ : 0 ==> Y ~ Yo·
- - - = (x - ir)-(Xo + (l'o - v o 1
,irr•'•1 • •
• -o O • r:un ct1on
Again from (J): (y _ y )(y +y0 )
·re r
, : :
(.r,; +y·)-(,i;, +Yo):: Jim 0
~.~-"--~
entl · analyric at every point of the complex plane then/(z) is called an entire
.
fun Ii
15
I '(:0 ) = ,Jim
-.i.
·c _ , )
I )' )o
,- 1(y- Yo) lff(!) rxamP 1e.• ff' sin z, cos z are entire functions. c on.

= Jim - i(y +Yo) 1fffl CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS (C-R EQUATIONS)

·-~
=- %
2
, . d'fli eniiable al a point z0 = x0 + !Yo when
From (2) ~d (3) ii fo/Jows thal~(:): /:r_isn~I ~ / :ve get from (1 ),
at;~ . . ., (Necessary conditions for a function to be differentiable):
1beoren 7 .1 . (; ,1 . diffi .
-J(r + = u(x, y1 + 1v x, Yi 1s I erenhab/e at apoint z ,, x + iu th h . . .
one ofx andy0 1s non-zero. When x0 - Yo - 0, ,.e.. -o • 1//(:I- · 01 _ _ h . . o o ~ () en I epama/ derrva111·es
0 qi ' r 1, erists and ux - v>' uy - -vx at I e pomt x0 + 9'o ,, (x() Yr/
d.f!i . bl
_ = lim -~ =!1m
111 -0 --z -o , II , I )
/ '(0) = lim ~z_ - t I Proof: Le1/(z) be I erentra eat Zo = xo +IJo, i.e..f'(zr) exists. So,
:-,0 :-0 :-10 z . -.o
Therefore, the derivalive off(z) = /z/1 exisrs only al lhe origin. !J:}- /(7.o) rends to a definite limit as z-) z0 in any manner. y
z- Zti
• ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS . Compute this limit along horizontal and vertical lines that pass
• forms an elegant· and powerful melhod in solving many
· func110ns problems i ough1/ic point z0 = (x0, y0).
The theory of analytic .
. . and science,
engmeermg . for example problems ans· mg
· m· heaIconducrion, fluid dynamics' electros · Case I: Limit along the horizontal line through z0 = (x0, y ), i.e.,
0
etc. =J'o·
Here, tJ.z = z-z0 =x+ %-(x0 +iJo) =x- x0 =ar. - 0 + - - - - - -• X
Definition Ony= Yo= z =x + iJo = x0 + (x - x0) +%
A funclion / (z) is said to be analytic (or regular or bolomorpbic) at a point z0 if/ (z) is dilferentia/1 = Xo + 6x + %= (xo+Ax,Yo)
in some nbdN (zg).
. /(z) - f (1.g ) . l . .
If/ (z) is differentiable in an open region (or open set) R, then f(z) is said to be analylk (« l1m '----'-.::.... = hm - ( f(x0 +Ax+ 1y0 )-f(x0 + l)'o)}
,..,,. z -1.g ~, ... oAx
regular or bolomorphic) in R.
Notes: (1) The analytic properly is the properly in an open region.
 A TE 1f'! 01< or E N GI NE E RINO MIil HCM or /I coMl'L X VARIAOI.E
Aries~ ,or-1 S
148 c'
T Iii R (S11/ficle111 contl/t/0 1
f h''''' . ivf,,, 149
·1 -I 11(.,·. _, ) ' n ·(x. y) u·here - "/1111, ,;,,,, ,, h
Differentiability
..... 1
. . , , ,-,- ()
I .., .1 -
•.
. • X ~ •
;11110//S " 1 "/JOII II (xr, YrJ u11t1 ("
I .. diffi
'Y If liJ r,/J ,1, .,,.,,,,;,,hi.,):
C'onsidt>r the following two c:i~< - · . 1 , 11 .: ., -:i,.i~. ' .. • • 11 11
0 .,, ,() - l1 :i,. .,01 (. · . l ti f . / 1/,e(_' " Pu,11 I
,I ,1fl ·) !,old o l ., ,, ) ti' ' 1<'11 ( : ) l.f differ., . «1tcl1y.R1e,,, v um! v c:cisl
=
Casl' I : Lt>t = x • ~1 ,,:_ () - (, I d• •
" , I', . . . s: ( i) The con_ ir 1011s stated in Thcor
flltuh/ ,
e "' =,,
"
- r,.
Clflr, Pq
•
der ivw ,ve., II
""''""' II /c. YI
~
LI
v r
v (x. YI,
•
u / r:. YI
((h + iO) - f (O) = Jim .!L_ = I :-,,,fr. diflc rcn11abil1ty. cm k arc kn ' 'Y,., •
li 1n :--I + ;o - O A O /, . ni.,.,n d, lh, .
I tl I
(ii) If/(:} sallslies the condit ions Slated i C auchy-Ri,m ann cn n dilio n• for
" - 0 ••,1,,nc- th<= line .1' :: x. ( I) or (2) o f Theorem 7. See Th n Theorem k 31 •
. 0-' 1" - e followin ·o· •hcn /'1· .
Casl' 2 : Let= = x - l_l' _. =~ 0 ~ .,· -4 0 f,~:111II
J)C 4: Show that the / 1tllctio,, ,/ .,
. .
g example
JiZ/ "' izl is di ..
• r,J can be cvaluau:d w ilh e11her

. 1u1io11 : G,vcn,/(z) = izl. Let= "' x + 1. i//erent,abfe for II . . ..

f( -·) - f(0) = 1lnl
· /(x+i_v) - 0_ 1· /(x+·
- 1111 ~ l t ) ~o /( _ Y- " · , undjind 1/s den vut1ve
. o x + iv - 0 ., -.o x + . '0
.r '(O) := lim
. o : - O • 1.t-o .
..
z) - / (x + iy ) "' i(x + . )3
- y3 1y "' i(x3 + 3 . ,
- - 3x2y + i(xl - 3xy2 - tx-y 3.ry - IY)
l 3\.J ,i - 3.r' u(x, y) = y3 - 3x2y and "' ) } - 11(.r, Y) + iv(.r. Y). say
~ +i--- II =- - .,x,y "',rl - 3xy2,
2x1 2x2
!~ _!:L-x-(1-+-i)~"---- ( ·.· Here
.
x 6.ry -
Y
v,,
and 11 "' 3. .2 ,
r - 3.r- -
.)I,,~ I ,.Riemann equa t io ns are satisfied everywh - -v,.
o couc l) fi b Th 8 . ere. Moreover 11
5 ,di.:re. T here o re, Y eorem ,/(z) ts differentiabJ • ..- 11>, v, and v are continuous
-(I+ i) e,,el') /'(z) = u + iv - e everywhere. Y
lim--:-
, _,o I + 1 Also. _ ~ x - -(i.ry + i(3.r2 _ 3y)
- 3,(x2 - .r2 + 2;....,>"' 3 ·c 2 .
. - .r I X + 2uy + ;2 ' )
:= - I . = 31(x + iy)2 = 3iz2. Y-
'ffi nt so/'(0) does not exist, i.e.J(z) is not differe .
Since the values in Ca ses I and 2 a re d I ere • nti~ No te: Here/(z) is .differentiable
.
everywhere so/( ) .
'
. .
z IS analytic in th ·
a t z = 0 + iO. vithout proof which gives the sufficient conditions fi , . e enure complex plane. Let us stale a
1heOr~lll ' or a , unction to be an I · • .
Theorem 9 (Sufficient conditions for a functio t b . a yi,c man open reg,on.
C-R Equations n o e analytic)· Let a · .n. • .,
. t1• are defined in an open region R. lfthepartia I der,vat,ves
and 1•(x, .,-;
. . ·
11 11 v v
pa,r onwnct,ons u(x.y/
.
Let/(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x.y). ..,.., the Cauchy-Riemann equations at every point in R thenf/zl - ..-( >:, ,.. >" are continuous am1
x·(, when (x, y) ~ (0, 0) 1• 1 - 11 x, Y✓ + iv(x. y) is anall'lic in R.

l/,-
3
3 soM.11 . . •
x
E·xample 5 : Test the analy11c1ty ofthe function IV = cos •- and hence derrve . ·
-
2 1ha1
u(x, y) == x +Y d
o , when (x, y) =(0, 0), dz (cos z) = - sin z.

= x + iy u(x,y) + iv(x,y)
3X:Y,when (x, y) ~ (0, 0) Solution: Let z and IV=

w = cos z = cos (x + iy) = cos x cos iy- sin x sin iy

...( I )

v(x, y) ==

l x· + y·
o , when (x, y) = (0, 0)

h3 - 0
From ( I) and (2), we get
= cos x cosh y - i sin x sinh y

u (x, y) == cos x cosh y and v(x, y) = - sin x sinh y

...(2)

ux == - sin x cosh y , u>' == cos x sinh y ,

_ • 11 (0 + h, 0) - u(O, 0) = Jim li2 + 0 = J (·.- htO) vx = -cosxsinh y and v,, = -sin xcosh y.
u(0,
X
0) - A~O
hm h h-,o h 1 •
:. ux = v>' and
uy = - vx . . . .
Similarly, uy (0, 0) = 0, vX(0, 0) = 0 and v;,(0, 0) = I Thus C-R equations are satisfied in the entire complex plane. Since all the parual denvauves 11.,.
uxC0, 0) = vy(0, 0) and u/0, 0) = -v/0, 0). u v v are,continuous in the entire complex plane, sow= cos z is analytic everywhere.
y -'' )' '
S o, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied a t the point (0, 0). dw
== u +iv [See (l), Th. 7]
Hence th e result. dz x ·'
Note: Th is example indicates that the mere satisfaction of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is not sutlicici == _ sin x cosh y - i cos x sinh Y
to guarantee the differentiability of a function. The following theorem, however, g ives condition s that guaram«
the differentiability o f a function at a point. We state this theorem without proof.
 rFRING MATHEM,\
ooK OF ENGIN
A TC:\ TB . , /I r,OM PI f X VARIAOt E
fl ., ,.,, 1
146 ·1 1 1 ,\ 1.1 ,, ) 1·(.1·.,. ya)]
I ) l 0
1 ) 1/( , ,,. o 1 / ,.\ I
147
[ " ' ,, 1 \. _I'.
hrn }; ,'. • r , )'
\ , •n
- }:1!.1, ~ ' ' _( 1:, l c, i~t ] = ,I!~. (2: • (\;:)
'. . . - ~. ( ·: l\.: ~ ())
. 1~1 (-) "" : - 1s d1fTcrcm1ablc in th .
these two limit~ C\lq ~mer " • ·, 1·(.\'o + 6 ., . Ya) - v(~, Yo) S11, ( • C Cnt1rc c
[ r ) - 11( 1,, • ."nl + i lilll ,\ • . ,,0·11·hcri:. ornplcx plane .,.he
Ill\~ -\ \, .(' ~ \ I .o ,. .J •" · · ' refo c
..tiS"" z=x+ . re. ·R equations will be
_,Jim
, ~(' ~ .. , r l ~t. 1Y and/(·)
. . / (z) =z1 =(r + i ~ .. ~ /J(x.y) + tv(x, v).
r )+ir (\ ,- .", ).
=- u {\ · (' 1
;:~uating real and imaginary pans frorn both i(2.ryJ ~ 11f.t, y ) .._ iv(
::d x•-; •
' . l t,,.,th cwt and 11(x, y) = x2 _ , cs, "'c get x, y).
o. u ex.,.) and 1·,(Xo•.10 . )
, 0 . 0 . ) ~ /I ( 10 • I O ) • , - \' Y' and v(x, Y) _ 2.ry
J · o ' . o•cal line
'(- ) = u(rc··' '. . h · =(X J'o• 1·1'.,X --o·
throug •o
ase 2: Limit alonJ? the ' crtt . ( . + ir) - i(J r0)
o• .1
Y· II =
du
-d -2
aV .
Herc. j,: =-= o -· ,o .. ,r·. - ·...' o . _·10, ) = x + i(y + 6.I') -- (xo• yo + ll:Y) x - X=-=v
. - . ~ ir = .r0 + ,(vo ) • o o 0 X dy '
On x =x 0 : • - 1o · I .
/(: )- f (;,) = Jim -.-{!CXo+ 1<Yo + y)) - f (~ + iy0 )} 11 du a
Y= dy =- i y =-~ = -v
'(: )= lim
/ o ,- a -- -o
_ _ , .-• , ., ~ ~ ,.
1• ce the veri lication. Also, from (I) and (i) f '
. I [ (r I' + 6 I')+ il'(Xo, Yo + y) -{u(xo, Yo) + iv(Xo, Yo)}] I en '( 2 ) - 2(x + . ) 2 ' (z) = u + iv - 2x
= hm-" · •·· • . .. v.~i11/' 1,t - 1- Y .- ,y = z as expected. , ,- +i2y=2(x-'-iy)=2:andj'(: )
l - it,\' J ExamIlle 2: Us111g C-R equations, show that f (z) = : is .
I . ,:(.1
•..,•0+6y)- 11(.10, Yn) +~ lim i'(xo,Yo +lly) - v ¼ Solution: nowhere differentiable.
= -; j,-O
hm • ,
u _\
, •• •0 ll y .
L.ct z = x + iy and /(z) = u(x y) + 'v(
[·: f'(zJex- __ • I x,y),
:. I (z) - z = x - iy = u(x, y) + iv(x
= -i11., (x0, y0) + 1',(xo, ro> llllJ o u(x,y)=x and v(x,y)= -y. Thusfora . ,y).
• ny point z = x + iy = (x )
o, u (xo, J'ol and r,(Xo-.1:ol both exist and . ilu ,y ·
) . f'<=o) = 1•.(Xo, Yo) - (Xo, Yo) w,. u,(x,y) = dx = I and v,(x, y) = dv =-1
. ily
From (I) and (2). ,,eget Therefore, Cauchy-Riemarm equations are not • fi
u (x ; · ) - i1· (xo, Yo) = v, (xo, Yo) - i11J(xo, Yol• . . . saus 1ed at any point _ (
r 0' 0 X • that/(:) = z is nowhere d1fferent1able. z - r , Y), so we conclude
Equating real and imaginary pans from bolh sides, we get Note: ee Example 5, Art. 3.5.
u,(xo, Yo)= v,(xo, Yo) and u,.<xo, Yo) = -v,(xo, Yo) Example 3: Prove that the function defined by
This completes the proof.
Notes: (1) The following 1wo equations:
f (z) = \,:: , when u, O
u, = v> and u,, = -v, ..~4)
are called Cauchy-Riemann equations. 0 , when z=O
{ii) If/(z) is differentiable at10, then the Cauchy-Riemann equations (4) will be satisfied at z0 and weca is no1differentiable at the point z = 0 + iO = (0 O) even th h h C .
•.r, d t (,0 01 1 ' oug t e auchy-R,emann equations are
use either {I) or (2) to evaluate of/'(10). sa/ls11e 11 , 'I·
(iii) lfC-R equations (4) are not satisfied at z0 =(x0,y0), then we can say that/(z) is not differentiableat'i Solution:
(iv) Even ifC-R equations (4) are satisfied at z0, we cannot, in general, conclude that/(z) is diffcmttiill
Let z = x+ iy -
z1 (x - iy)
= ----
1
(x2 - y2 - 2ixy)(x - iy)
- - - ' ' - , - - ~ ' - -...!.!..
Let us illustrate each of these points one by one. z x+iy x1 + y1
Example I : Verify C-R equations forf{z) = z1. /(z) = J(x + iy)
Solution:

l
1
x -3.xy2 ./ -3x2y
+r-2 - -
.
,whenz'/.0,1.e., (x, y)'l- (0,0)
2
Now, f'(z) = df = lim f (z + ll z)- f (z) = lim (z + td - z2 x+ y2 2
x +y
dz . , ... o ll z 6 z• O iiz 0, when z = 0, i.e., (x, y) = (0, 0)
I
- 150 ~ . ," r . in irl
= - ( . Ill, c, ,. ,,· "-" · . (Pro,·Nll
.
r,oris
of /I COMPLEX V/IRIA8LE

/(0) "' 0

1~-
- , 111 •. . 'd .
151
= _ , 111 (.1 '11·l · .•,,nipk~ \'ariahk ,~ 1 cnucal int
. f , , .,,.,11 ,,, l . . . pl .. , . Or>,.
. . f ,1, · den- al1\'C ,, a ,111' 1· ·111ial11'" 11,r u1111 ex ,unctions · ••11.
. . n. j •(j muono ' r "' en, . ar "'"'-
:'l o:~~ ru'.~r•,:on ofrr,11 ,·ariahlc an,l ~•' ih,· n1k,1~\ 'rundion ;, onrc known to be anal~~~"-~
u(x, y) "' When ~~ 0 i.,,
drn13111r, : Thu < "'' r ,,ncludc 1h.11 ,r" comp , tie I Ii · · ' r. Yl-t ro,o1
f rc.1I fun.:ul,n~- . , t
;ifTrrrnti• lrd just in th r ordin• ~ - " ") · '\ 0, When. -o .
l , - . 1,,,, (.t. y) = C0 . 0 1
---!J_
fr.·J _ Re r·) ;,· di/Jerentiable eve1)'where in the comp/ v(x. y) = xl + y2 , when (x. )') ;t (0. 0)
1
Example ti : ler(f,· ,,.1,cll.-r. • - • · .:_ . ~ Pl
\ 0, wh
Solution: Lt't == .r ... ('' :. /(:) ~ R~(=) - ·' ,,..,,_ Q"'· 011 ) en (x, y) "'(0. 0)
( ax co.o> = ,,lim
/ (:) = 11(.1'. y) + 11'(.1', y)
Let · u(O+li,0)-11(0. 0)
u(x . y ) =.,· and 1'(x, y) = 0 .... o ~ h = r o-o
1m--o
u, = I. ,~, = O, 1~ = 0 and v,. = 0 /z -
h-+ll

:. .
II :. \' .
equ,atio~s are not satisfied anywhere. Hence/(z) is not diff, '•
(aay")co.a> lim ~.O+k) -u(O,O)
k .... o k -= lim ~ -
t .... o k - 0
_

SoCauchy-Riemann erentiab1
. . the complex plane.
po111t in
~~ -
. - - . . I
7· Prorr rhar rhe fimc/1011 f(z) = (z - : ) (z + z + i) is eve,ywhere c • ~'
e~

' (!:t.O) lim v(0 + h, 0) - v(O 0)

I,.... o I
I
• 0-0
-= lim --=O
h-+O h
1101rhere anoIyuc.
.
_ . _ . . d /(:) = u(x. y ) + iv(x. y ) "'
lim _12,0+k) - v(O, O) . 0 -0
Solution: Let: - ·1 1-1 an . . . k -+0 k = hm - - = 0
J (:) = (: - : )(z + z + 1)={x+ 1y - (x - 1y)} {x + iy+x- ;Y+ . ·,j k -+0 k .
= 2iy(2x + i) = - 2y + i(4~y) l) Therefore, /{z) satisfies Cauchy-Riem .
ann equations at the O · · (O
Let z ~ 0 along the line y = mx so ngm , 0).
From (I ) and (2), we get ' z• 0 ~ X • 0.
. u(x,y) = - 2y and 1{x, y) = 4.IJ'· ' .,,, t•. Jim f (z) - f (0) = lim - ixy(x+ iy)
Both u(x,y) and v(x,y) are polynomials in x andy and so are continuous everywhe~e. Bence , .... o z- 0 , .... o (x+iy)(x2 + l)
is continuous everywhere (by Th. 5, Art. 3.4). /, , -ixy · 2
Here 11 = 0. uy = - 2, v, = 4y and vy = 4x.
=h m - _ li -mu
' , ,-,o x2 + y 2 m
- .t -+O '
x· + m2 x·'
We observe that there is no nbd or open region where u, = vy and uy = -v, at every Point
is not analytic at any point in the complex plane. 'So/~ = lim ...:±!!._2 (" ;tO) im
Example 8: (i) Show 1/101 by considering thefimctionf(z) is defined as · ,(Joi , x-,o 1+ 111 • x = - l + ni2 , for any real m.

J.)' (y- ix) So, the limit does •not exist and hence ./(z) is
·
not d'fii .
I erent1able at the · · · 11 ) •
f(z) = - 2- 1-Jor : t 0 :analytic at (0, 0) though 1t satisfies C-R equations at (O, O). ongm, 1.e.. 1 ,z 1s not
X +y
I ll,j• Hence the result.
= 0,
for z = 0,
!he C- R equations are not the sufficient conditions for a function to be analytic. (ii) Let/(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y), wherez=x + iy
[M-3021/j
(ii) Tes/ whelher thefol/owing function:
Given, f(z)= x2/(x+iy) =_ii_ 1. x2y6
- x2 y'(x+iy) l + y'o x4 + y'o + x• + y'o , when z ;t 0
f (z) - , 10
, z t O;f(O) = 0
and /(0) = 0
X +y

~
salisfies Cauchy-Riemann equalions at the origin or not. x/
3
[WB,UT.2~ _ - - -,
.
when z ;t 0, 1.e., (x, y);,; (0, 0)
Solution: (i) Let/(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where z = x + iy II( X,y) -
4
X
10
+y
Given f (z) = J.Y (y- ix) _ ~i . x2)' . 0 , when z = 0, i.e.,(x, y) = (0, 0)
'
x
2
+y
2 - - -
x2 + y2 - ,
x2 +l ' when z t O.
 r [NGINEERING MAiHELa.
aooK o ~'h...

ATf>-T ""' or" COMPLEX VMIABLE

152 .•
I . \' II h<' 11 •
. ;to. i.,·.. ( \, _r) 1c (0, 0) no"'!i 153
ca~c I and Cose 2. we conclu 1 .
I., '~ ' "' 11111

and
,'( '- I) -1
-
(1 II hl'll •
• 0. i.l'.,(.1, y) = (0, 0) 1•r thC (l rr·••in.
)) tiC ,1I
" < c rhat/(zJ rs not differentiable at the origin, le, it is not

/ 01 - 11(0. 0) = Jim O- 0 = 0 JIC 9: f//(:) log : , find ti/

11((1~ .... 0 1, ' £~Ml \I cl· Ullt/ determine wh fi .
,l11 "" )irn h . ' ere "non-analytic.
1
I ---

l iJ1
10.0•
, ~11
(0 0) 0- Q 50 11111
·o n: Let : =x+ 1y and /(z) = ll(x y) +-.
, 1v (x, y)
(;J

0 1\,
o+k)- 11 · = lim - - = O,
~
, )
= )irn
~ 1-0 k k
(jil'Cil, / (:) = log:= log (x 1- iy). ...(/)
x = r cos O y - •
1 di' ,o "' ' •' (0 0) 0- 0 1,d • - r sin 0, r ~ O.
' . . IO)- '' , = Jim - - = O
~
::i.)
lax 10.01
= Jim
I ,(
~ /r
1-, 0 h

+k)-1'(0, 0)_ limo-o = o

squan
·ng and adding, we get x2 + y2 = ,-2 i e , _ ~

;\ISO, 0=
• •· - vx· + y' .
tan-'(-;)
:, ) ~ - 1 ... 0 k

loy
c,r = Jim k
- , .. u f (z) = log (r cos 0 + ir sin 0) = log (re'6) = log r + ,o
and
10.01 (a") =-(av) 1
011 ) = (~) and a; 10_01 ox co.oi · = ½1og(x + /)+itan·'( ; )
. ( ox ,o.oi oy co.mC R·ernann equations at the origih from ( 1
) and (2), we get ... (2)
..
Toerc,orc.
.
. /(·- ) sa1isfies au
, the -gi\'en function
/(:) - /(0)
ch)'· r "'·
u(x,y) = ½log (xi+/) and v(x,y) = tan-'(; J
Nore: Hert /~ 0 z- 0 u = dll = --.:._ y I ( y)
. -0} ·--:-:
/ 1''(J +l_1') I '
2
dx x + / ' 1
II -
- xi +
y
1 ' v, = - -2
l +L
-
2
x
=-A
x+ y
_ lim {~ x + '.l
I (I)
- : .. o .l . Xl

dv x
and v,. = dy=l+ y2·; = x2+y2·
Xl

==> x -+ 0 . 11, = vY and uY = - v,

Consider lhe ,,oII owmg
· rwo cases:. \' _ r so: -I
0
Case I: Let : -+ 0 along the lrne . - . . x' ~ )so note that 11(0, 0), v(O, 0) do not exist, so 11,. ">• v,, vy do not exist at (0, O). Therefore, at z 7- 0,
[Puttingy., • . df
/(:)- /JE}_ = lim,--:W •mo - =11 +iv
Jim ,-ox + J dz ' • [see (I), Th. 7.]
, ... o :-0

~
1
.I
= Lim - , ; 2
, ... o I + .I =x : y2 +i ( - x2 y2 ) - (x - :~(~+iy) x+iy = ~
We observe that the partial derivatives u,. "r• v,, v>,are continuous and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
=0.
..5:x1' soz-10 ==> X-+ 0. equations It' at z = 0. So,f(z) is analytic at every point in the complex plane except
at every. point except
Case 2. Let z -IO along the curve Y atz = o, where it rs non-ana y tc.

. /(:)- f(0) = Lim~

4
Example 10: For thefunctionf (z) = (z + I )(z- I)
chy-Riemann equations are satisfied.
determine the pointlpoi111s where the z,
lrmo z- O
,- . +x
,-or
Solution: Let z = x + iy and f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) ...(I)
x' . I Here, /(z)=(z + z){z- I)I =2x (2iy)(x-iy)= 4xy+i(4x2y) ...(2)
= lim , = lrm -
..... o2x ,-0 2 From (I) and (2), we have u(x, y) =4xy and v(x, y) =4x2y

011 = 4y2 du =Bxy, dv =Bxy and dv = 4xi.

2 ax · i)y ax oy
 rsoOK OF ENGINEERING MATH
A rEX
1~,
1:1.!A_l
oF A coMPLEX VARIABLE 155
., . ~ == , .1 ,.icr1ol'ls

154
a,, ~ ,ne3i1S
.i,--
•
, _ ,,-. 1.C'. • .I
•-
•
fl!
11
' ''<1inct"ions O r poIynom1als,
p..s (.r,J') aiid v(x ' ·v) both arc rational · so they are continuous
· for (x,y)

--
a, "' ilr. ."' - s.ri·. i.r.. .1:i• = 0 0 0)-
,(' continuilY at (0, O)
a.- n1eans s.,~ . ·fl ,t of. . /\ f11nctt0n
· f(x •y) is said t0 be continuous
·
il11 "' - -;-: tlie Cauchy-Riemann equat·
• at (a, h) if given c > O, no matter however small,
-- "' )-lcnce ions
il_r · r "' r "' 0· ar, . f111111° 11 • Ii ;;, o such that
. ·d onl)' b) . . pe ists a
tfleree" J(x.)') - f(a , b)l < E for (x-a)2+(y - b)2 < 62.
53t1Sfi,
(3) and (4) arc • , I putting x =r cos 0, y =r sm 0, r > 0, we get
f',loW,
riein- df
only at the O • ·Jrl "' e-.• Ji,,,d--d: · ) + ;,{x, y) (
, y) _ 11(0, 0) = I r(cos3 0- sin3 0) I< 2, = 2Jx2 + y 2 Jx' + y' < ~
< E whenever
. 01 pie 11 : !r. • d /(·)"' ,r{.r, ,1' + i sin)') [See(?) ' " J, ' 2'
E ~a
. .1.,e1-
Solull 0 0•
__
- == .\ ~
ir an
f(=) "' <
•
. ". ,,:::; e
~"'e · , sinJ'
<(cos)'
·~u
I v(x, Y)
_ v(0, 0) I= I r(cos3 0+ sin3 0) I< 2r= 2 ~ <E, whenever Jx' + l <- 2 E

' o S l' + ,e
Here /(:) "' e c • .
,) "'e' SIil Y· ·ven E;;, 0, no matter however small, there exists a 6 = ~ > 0 such that
.-. (?) we oet d ,{x,,1 . d ..x so, gi 2
1) and - · "' 'cos)' an . . v "'e' smy an "r ="' cosy. 2
Frorn ( u(x, y)"' e ::: -e' sin y, x 1
I u(x, y)- u(0, 0) I< E and I v(x,y)- v(O, 0) I< E, whenever (x-0)2 + (y-0)2 < 6 .
,,,t cosJ', 11.1· •
. shows that both u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous at (0, 0). Therefore, u(x, y) and v(x, y)
. 111 - V. C
- " and u, - ' and satisfy auc y- iemann equatio h R' Tg . continuous everywhere (by Th. 5).
h tinuous for all x, Y and consequently f (z) 1s
·• 11, - r e c~ntinuous •nt in the complex plane. 11s ~
.... ~ ) r(x, y) ar at every poi t,oth are con
It follows that u(x, y , J(z) is anal)~1c "' uations at (0, 0)
1 plane. So, c-R ._q
point in the comp ex df + ivl' au) . u(O + h, 0) - u(O, 0) - 11m-
-_ 11m . h -_ I (': h;e0)

! '(:)"' d·
•
_ :::::JI
, .
· ' Sill
- ' e'_,. = e'
v- e .
-+ I)' -
= (;, ]',loW, ( ox (O.O) , • o h • • oh
Also, .,tcosy+ie · Ill•
au) = Iim u(0,0+k)-u(0,0) Lim -k =-I
3..(e') "' i- ( ay <o.oi 1• 0 k 1• 0 k
. rtant result d·

':
which verifies the ,mpo • .
that theJu11c11011 av)
-
· v(0 + h, 0) - v (0, 0) = 1·1m-
_- 11m h -_ I
Elample 12: Prove . ( ax <0.01 , ... o h , ... oh
~ *0 J

I
I•

- x· + y av) _ . v(O,O+k)-v(0,0) . k
llm- =I (:. k ;e 0)
J (z) - , : :: 0 - - 11m i ... o k
0 ( dy <o.o, t -+ o k
. h Cauchv-Riemann equations are satisfied,
I butf'(OJdoesnotex1s//ho11g . [W.B.U.T. 2004 Hence at the origin,
is continuous everyw ,ere , ,
au= av and au = _ av .
origin. . ( y) ax ay ay ax
Solution: Let/(:)"' u(x,y) + 111x, · ·, •u•
'l),r'
/-/
-,-----r, when:* 0, i.e., (x, y) * (0, 0) ~
' So, Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin.
11(1, )') "' X+J' ,,,
Test of Existence of f(O)
1 0 , when : :: 0, i.e.. (x, y):: (0, 0) '}

Now, /'(O) = Jim f (z) - J(0)

.
hm
x1 -
,
y3 t i(X1 t y3)
. )
, ... o z- 0 , ... o (x· + y1 )(x+1y
/+ / when : t 0, i.e., (x, y) *(0. 0)
and i,{x,y)=
Ix1 + y1 '
O , when :== 0. i.e.. (x, y) = (0, 0)
 of ENGI NEER ING MAlf1
Af E
r1eoo1< t;""'~~
,:::> .. (1. ' . \ 157
tl , ') I- Ill + i(I + 11r1 ) Of A COMPLEX VARIABLE
• (ll ; • ' .+ // J \ :;:::: ~ f10NS
156
,c r3'"·'
.~ ni•• · , •+1\ 1
, -,,, I. , I+ ,,,, I
. ) (1+111 )(1+,111 )
. (.. ~ •ring and adding (3) and 14) v.·c
' : ~ ,11· 1 l (. .
Let - __. 0 alC1ng 11 "' uniq11.: at (0. 0), i.e., f'(O) .
'{(i)")' (d••)'}.
"
.
-

· · nt"
.

3l
uc; ,.
_ 11111 ( I
(' ((11 - , , .-
( ' • ) I< 11
d <C'I (- •
·,; 311 • · • ,- , ;,011•1'
.r: 13f1 · -),. • •
.,,,. ·),.r", · ·).,.~
• ,,,, I·
, _ .-,Ji~
. , 1.
·
l'l
/
1110 /l'tic 1111yw 1ere.
,1
"~
\
t 5qll••
,,. ox +o.r +
get{(
1
.1 ~-~J+(~'J
' [
f =O

, {(a")' (a")'}=
1, •·
which assume; diflere )111,r 11,,,11I:• 11(" ·•
1
+/ + iy~ <11 ' + ,,·) cl.t + ilx O.
Example J.~ : p ..
• ".\ .
,,.,nJ /I· . ·) // + ." - ·
( ., ,, \
Y
or
Solution: Let- ·I· " ·' ·
Here. .
(1:l ". •

, ) " eh~' ' ~ and r(.1', J

·)"' ·"07·
i
.-,I. (aax, )' +(a")'
ax =0
( ·; ul+ v2 = c2 °#.0) ...(5)
From (I) and (- · 1: +." • 2 2
.r) " .1,· r x2 +y + x / '(z ) -- -+,-
du . dv
1/()-. ~" ~ dx dx [See (I), Th. 7]
..-:--5 +.I' · ~ ✓ x2 + y·
,··r· +. 2~x· ... :
1

J
a.11
_... ::: 2
a, /+/ + / . lf'(z) 1 = ( :: + ( ::)' = o [By (S)J
_;;1=;,:~ · :. J'(z) = 0, 1.e., f (z) = constant. (Proved)
~,, ,r:;l+Y ·2V+ l ✓x +y
Example JS: Jff{z) is analytic, where z = x + iy, prove that
and ~- av y . 2x - xy 2

, -..--;;::----
o// _
X~"P -----=-f:a_;- 2✓X + /
p, x· +)'
)Y - ~ 2 -
~ - {i-1
ax f 1} + {i-I/
ay 1}' = If' 1. 1
[W B U. T. 2006}
- - : +l' Solution: Let/(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
Also. ~- 2x · . = v and u , =- vx are not satisfied
. . maflJI equattons ", Y ·' at aoi
1
cauch)'·R1e .
We observe that the . ot anal)11c an)"
vhere.
. nstant modulus, prove that f (z1 .
• If(z) I= ,Ju' + v 2
...(\)
_. ·JISO ·011 wit1I co I IS Co..
So the functionsI(:) - · I •tic/u11ct1 ··"' Since/(z) is analytic, so it satisfies C-R equations,
' Example J4: !ff(:) isa11a11aJ =x+ iy. Given/(z) is analytic and 1/(z)i,., au -- -av au av
w~~z r ...(2)
. •)" u(x,y)+i1{x,Y,) · -
ox ay and-=--
ay ax
Solution: Let/(. i.e.,
Differentiating both sides of (I) partially w.r.t. x, we get
= constant= c(say). ,
,? -r v1 " c- . fi c-R equations '
:. . . alytic, so it sat1s ,e5 i.11 I= .!.(u2 +v2r11d2uau +2v av\
Since/(z)" u+ ,,. IS an au av ax 2 \ ax ax J
ou ov d -==--
a:;= ay an oy ax I J au av l ...(3)
.
. II t x we get
f (I) artia l' w.r.. ' = 1/llu OX +v axJ
Differentiating both sides O p
O av
0// a,, u_!:+v-=0 Differentiating both sides of(\) partially w.r.t.y, we get
2u-+21'- =0, or
a, ax
a•·' ax
1 y, we get
· •
Differentiating both sides of(I) partta11y w.r. · ' : \ f I = .!.(u2 +v2r"2 f2u au + 2v av l
) au av uy 2 '\. ay ay I
OU 2 ul' - Q or u- + v- : 0 ' i {,,
2uay + "ay - , ay ay
l-u !: +v: 1 [By (2)] ...(4)
01 1 OU [By(2Jj = \} \
- 11-tl'- =O
OX ox
au .av
f'(z)= -+1-
Also, ox ax
 158
' (~)'+(~).
1/ 1:)/· " ilr j
:i..
.
flJtiCTIO
NS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

Now,
' + v2) {( a")l +(~)2}
!' f.i!...1 (/ l:,: 01(11
159
. ' ; )and(-l). ll"l'!!~[ I . 11(0 + /
Squaringandaddlll!-(- ox ax "' 011 )
( -: = lun ~ - 11(0, OJ
_llu11 +Ja.r · 1 ih <o.o, ,... ~=Iim~ =
, ... I, 0,
LH - jil.1 [13~ (I (P (auJ
oy - = lim~u(O,O+k
,... )- u(O,Q)
- o-o
,m_
" I( , I' ,I + . (; ,I .
)"'·-~ <0.01 k =1 =O
k •
· df (z} "' u(x, V; 1v x, Yi 1s an a 0 1 -,0

"' RH~- rJ(r: + 4X)' + y1) an [M-402/14, WB.U. T, 20;~lJJr;c : ( ") = l i m ~ - v(O.O) 0-
Example 16: Ir - r " (-0r;.· ox
1
11 ' <Oo1 <•.01 ,,_,o ~=lim~ = O
_ . _ v. 6, ,
ofz = x + (1•,find f (: I I·11 t,•rm.< ~ iv. :. '·r(·) · • - Ill ~1 h--.o h '
•
Solution: G 11"en. •
/(· )"' 11 -r
(J+I •
·)/(· )"' 11 - v
+ 1·(11 + v).
· 1) V"' 11 -
v and V = u + v. (av)
oy <001
= Jim~
i-,o k
. 0-0
= hm - =O
Adding, f(z),. (I + 1)/(. ' · 1-,0 k ·
Let f(z)"' u+W (-aox") = (av) (a )
:. ) . !so analync.
Since/(z) is analytic, so F(z IS a
au
au .au
_av __ _,_
\ -
oy(0,0)
( 0,0)
and u av
dy (0,0) "'-( ax
Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at th - .
l. . '
[By C-}l e i.e., e ongm.
F '(z) "' a;+ ra;- ax oy q'
. - . - v) (x" ., _ 4,,J' + J). However,
f' (0) = !~ fl_z) - f ~ = lim '1!Xyj - 0
Here, U=11 - v-(x · '•niJ , <:')_ z-0 ,-,o x+ iy
' ·- )(2r +4y) = 3x2 + 6xy- 3y2
au ,. _x2 +4lJ' tr +(X y -- 1·1~
ox m-
,_,0x(l+im) [
taki~g z • 0 along the l
"U ' )+(r - y)(4x + 2y) = 3x2- 6xy-3y;2. \ line y = mx : . x • 0 as z • 0 j
and ~ = - (x2 + 4xy +y- . _ . lxlJ;i
oy ~~,.. -11 m~
..... x(l + im)
au . au _ , .,. ~~- _ 3/ - i(3x2 - 6xy- 3y2) Now, lim Ix IJ;j = lim x.j\;i
F '(z)=a;- 1-a;,- 3r- ""J' (IJ;
' l )b, •(,
, -,o, x(l +im) ,-,o, x(l+ im)
(·: x> 0)
Replacing x by z and y by 0, we get . ,
= ~
F '(z) = 3z2 - 3iz2 "' 3(1- i)z- l+im
Integrating both sides w.r.t. z, we get . _ ( -) J + c
l{t J Also, . lxl,}i;i . -x f'ml
F(z)=( l - i)z3 +c :. (l + r)f(z)- 1-r.7 · 11m - = hm ~
.,-,o. x(l + im) ,-,o. x(l + im) (·: x<O)
2
1- i ) I
C _ ( - 1 .)+A ( A=-
f(z)= !+i ' +~ - i-;')1 '- C )
l +i =- ,Ji;i
' , l +im
Hence,f(z) = - iz3 + A, where A is a constant.
lim lxl~-/- Jim (xlJ;\ .
Example 17: For thefunction defined byf(z) = ~ ,showthat the Cauchy-Riemanneq ·,· .l-lO+ x(l + im) ,-,o. x(l + im)
are satisfied at (0, OJ but the function is not differentiable at that poi111. _Henc~ f '(O) does not exist, so the given function is not differentiable at (0, 0). Therefore

[WB UT 2003, M-302// 3; M-4021/l f (z) = -~ is not analytic at the origin.

Solution: Let/(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x,y), where z = x +iy.
Given, f (z) = J.ryj.

u(x, y) = J.ryj and 1{x, y) = O.

 )( v/\HI/\Olt
,,,,J'l r
160 Arr 'HlOO~ or [NGINI I RING Ml\lt1el l t \ , .( ~( .
., '' ) by cos Onnd ( 14 l hn,n 0
13
' '"~ ( and ~dd,n 161
g. "'c~Cl
a, - ;ao
• CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS IN PO LAR FORM '\ ·1'1' · 1 ilu _ I dv
,,.
The Cauchy-Riemann equaiion, ,n Cartrsian form nrc 0 - ( I 3) x sin 0 gives
ilr .~,, a,, ,1,· ~)' co5
__ - and a
.r a, , ,,,,. t I ! il11 =- a,. iJu
ih r uo
'.It\ ~ • or -:1n --
ur av
Let x = r cos 0. ,, = r sin 0 va
- , _
a, .
011 I ilv

I .\'
-~U"
•tiollS i), =;:,,, VCJ
and ~=- 0V
of) ,_
o= ran -
.I
1l1l' l
-Riemann equa ions in pola r, 1• • dr ...11 5)
, oucl'y . ,or111•
Differentiating both sides of(3) partially 11·.r.t. 1 and)' respectively. we get
w,,, 11 .I pie-. l'r"
1
is real. prove that r" e'" o is anaf)•t·
. 0 1c everywh
Or OT X
£,, n'. n· Let/(:) = r" e'" = r" (cos ne + i sin n0) ="+ . ere except when r ; 0
2r- = 2x -= -= cos8 [By (2)] 5010 110 • II= r" cos n e and V = r" sin ne, IV (say)_
ax ax r
···(l)
,,_, oror =::!y a,
a,,-- l'r =sin, 8 [By (2)) -aua, =nr" - cosne, -a,
I ilv
=n,n-1s,n· ne,
···(~
Differentiating both ide of (4) partialiy w.r.t. x and .1' re pectively, we get
011 . ov
-iJ8 = - nr" sm n0 and -ae -- nr" cos ne.
-iJ8 = --,
I ( - -=-:;-
") in 8
=--,- ·-v ., ==--- [By (2))
ax I + £. x· X' + y · r ···(~
.r:? 011 = .!_ ov and ou = - r ov
iJ8 cos 8
- = - -, ·- = -,--, = - -
I x a, r ae ae a,
[By (2))
c1)· v· x x· + )'. r •-.(8) Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied No ,
. J+ ;_ ThUS, · w, ,or any real n th • .
x2 xcept when r = 0 • , e partial denvatives are

au = au. ar +au .iJ8 = (au)co

ax a, ax ae ax ar
a-(t )sinr
au
8
•-.(9)
cOi1
tinuous e
e if is real,
Henc • II
r" e'·,,e 1.s d'1ffierent1.able eve.rywhere' i.e., ana1ytic. everywhere except when,= o.
[By (5) and(~] llf.l HARMONIC FUNCTION AND CONJUGATE HARMONIC FUNCTION
liill
au = au .ar +au. iJ8 = (au)sin e+(a") cos e , equation: A partial differential equation of the form·
a.,, ar ay iJ8 ay ar ae r ...(IOJ 1,1place s
01 11 o=
1
u
.

[By (6) and (8)] -+ 2 - O

ilx ol
av= av. a,+ av.ae = (av)cos e-(av) sine
ax a, ax ae ax a, ae r ...(IJ) ~called Laplace's equation .
Harmonic function: A function u(x,
y) which possesses continuous partial derivatives of first
av= av .a,+ av. ae = (av)sin e+(av) cos e dsecond orders and satisfies Laplace's equation is known as harmonic function.
oy or oy ae oy a, ae r ...(12) 111
Conjugate harmonic functions: lftwo hannonic functions 11(x,y) and v(x, y) satisfy the Cauchy-
From (I) and (9) - ( 12), we gel
"x
·emann equations = "r' uy = -v, , then they are known as conjugate harmonic functions.
Theorem I0: /ff (z) =f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is an analyticfunction, then 11(x, y) and v(x, y)
(a,au)cos e-(au)
aa sinr o = (av)
:, sm. 6 +(av)
ur
cos e
ae -r- co1ifugate harmonic functions.
Proof: Given, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an analytic function, therefore 11(x, y), v(x, y) satisfy
(!: }in e+(!;y 0
:
9
=-(:;)cos e+(:; )5i;e auchy-Riemann equations, i.e.,
au av ... (1) and -= - -
au iJv ...(2'
ax= ily i)y ax

wWIJf"'.