International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

Tube electrode high-speed electrochemical discharge drilling using

low-conductivity salt solution
Yan Zhang, Zhengyang Xu n, Di Zhu, Jun Xing
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Film cooling holes are widely used in the aerospace industry, and their fabrication requires high ma-
Received 15 December 2014 chining speed and accuracy, as well as good surface quality. Tube electrode high-speed electrochemical
Received in revised form discharge drilling (TSECDD) is a promising hybrid machining method for the fabrication of film cooling
16 February 2015
holes in difficult-to-machine superalloys. An electrochemical reaction can occur if a low-conductivity salt
Accepted 17 February 2015
Available online 4 March 2015
solution is used in the drilling. Materials can also be removed at a high speed using electrical discharge
machining (EDM). Thus, TSECDD and electrochemical machining (ECM) can be combined into a unique
Keywords: machining process using a low-conductivity salt solution. This machining process achieves both a high
Film cooling hole machining speed and good surface finish. In this study, the material removal mechanism of TSECDD was
Hybrid machining
studied using a low-conductivity salt solution, and comparisons with high-speed electrical discharge
Superalloy
drilling were made. The performance of the process was investigated using salt solutions of various
Low-conductivity salt solution
Tube electrode conductivities. The results show that there are different material removal mechanisms in the frontal gap
and the lateral gap and that, in the latter, there is a transition from EDM to ECM. Experiments conducted
using TSECDD confirm that the use of this process with a low-conductivity salt solution can improve the
machining surface and machining efficiency achieved. The results also show that the use of a low-con-
ductivity solution improves the material removal rate, the hole diameter, and the taper angle.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to-machine materials that cannot be machined effectively with

Micro-holes have a wide range of applications in the fields of
aerospace, electronics, and miniaturized medical equipment. In
the aerospace industry, turbine vanes and blades are required to
operate at turbine inlet temperatures higher than the melting
point of the metals currently used in gas turbine engines [1]. Ad-
vanced film cooling technology has been introduced in high-effi-
ciency gas turbines to protect the vanes and blades from over-
heating. In film cooling, cooling holes that are distributed over the
surface of a blade supply coolant air to form a thermal insulation
film on the blade's external surface, thereby decreasing the in-
cident convective heat flux on the surface. Modern gas turbine
rotor and stator assemblies may have more than 20,000 small-
diameter film cooling holes made in superalloys [2]. Successful
fabrication of such micro-holes is essential to improving the cap-
abilities of turbine engines.
Aero-engine components make wide use of nickel-based su-
peralloys, titanium alloys, single-crystal alloys, and other difficult-
n
Corresponding author. Fax: þ86 25 84895912.
E-mail addresses: zhangyanzy@nuaa.edu.cn (Y. Zhang),
xuzhy@nuaa.edu.cn (Z. Xu), dzhu@nuaa.edu.cn (D. Zhu),
xingzjun@163.com (J. Xing).
conventional processes [3]. Thus, the efficient machining of large
numbers of film cooling holes in turbine blades presents a sig-
nificant challenge. In addition, advances in the design of turbine
engines are placing more rigorous demands on the surface quality
of these holes. It is essential that the machined surfaces be free of
the recast layers and microcracks that are usually generated by
thermal machining [4].
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most effi-
cient machining processes for conductive materials [5]. The pro-
cess, based on electro-thermal erosion of metallic materials, can be
used with any difficult-to-machine metal material regardless of its
density, toughness, or hardness [6]. During the machining process,
there is negligible cutting force and no direct contact between the
workpiece and the electrode. However, because EDM is a thermal
process, the machined surface is characterized by recast layers,
including cracks and residual tensile stresses, which result in
overall degeneration of the component’s mechanical capabilities
[7]. In contrast, electrochemical machining (ECM) relies on the
mechanism of anode electrochemical dissolution to remove ma-
terial [8], with the advantage that the machined surface has no
recast layers and is free of residual stress and microcracks [9].
Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM), which is a hy-
brid of EDM and ECM, exploits the advantages of these two

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2015.02.011
0890-6955/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18
processing technologies, and given its machining efficiency and
ability to achieve high surface quality, shows promise for use in
the production of film cooling holes. Recently, ECDM has attracted
increasing research interest [10]. Nguyen et al. [11,12] have pro-
posed a process called simultaneous micro-EDM and micro-ECM
(SEDCM), in which EDM and ECM are performed in sequence to
improve the surface finish and machining accuracy using low-re-
sistivity deionised water, a low feed rate, and short voltage pulses.
Kurita and Hattori [13] have developed a new complex machining
technology involving EDM and ECM-lapping, in which EDM
shaping and ECM finishing are performed alternately in the same
process, resulting in greatly improved surface roughness. Chung
et al. [14] have investigated a finishing process for micro-hole
surfaces machined by micro-EDM and have successfully obtained a
finished surface using ECM in deionised water. Zeng et al. [15]
have reported on a study of combined micro-EDM and micro-ECM
milling of three-dimensional metallic microstructures, in which
micro-EDM shaping and micro-ECM finishing were carried out
successively on the same machine tool with the same electrode
but using different machining media. De Silva et al. [16] have de-
veloped a hybrid of EDM and ECM called electrochemical-erosion
sinking (ELESIN) that is employed together with associated pro-
cess control and power systems and have found that surface
quality and dimensional accuracy can be improved by properly
controlling the process.
The greatest challenges in developing a drilling process for film
cooling holes are the requirements of high machining speed and
high surface quality. A process for fabricating film cooling holes at
high speed without producing recast layers and cracks was in-
vestigated in this study. The process, tube electrode high-speed
electrochemical discharge drilling (TSECCD), is an innovative
combination of high-speed electrical discharge drilling and ECM.
The two crucial components of TSECDD are the use of a tube
electrode and the use of a low-conductivity salt solution. The
combination of the two allows high-speed internal flushing of a
low-conductivity salt solution. As a result, TSECDD offers ad-
vantages over other machining processes, such as EDM, ECM, and
simultaneous EDM and ECM, in both the machining speed and
surface quality achieved.
Unlike conventional ECDM for non-conductive materials [17],
TSECDD is intended for use in the machining of difficult-to-ma-
chine superalloys. In contrast to high-speed electrical discharge
drilling and SEDCM, the TSECDD technique combines electro-
chemical dissolution and electrical discharge erosion using a salt
solution of extremely low conductivity rather than deionised wa-
ter. Such a solution is effective in not only facilitating high-speed
EDM but also enhancing electrochemical dissolution, which makes
it possible to machine film cooling holes with high efficiency and
good surface quality. In contrast to the cylinder type of electrode
used in conventional EDM, ECM, and SEDCM, the tube electrode
used in TSECDD achieves better high-speed inter-flushing, which
enhances the machining efficiency of TSECDD. Hence, in this ma-
chining approach, the use of low-conductivity salt solution and a
tube electrode are the two crucial components. In this study, the
mechanism of TSECDD was examined, and the optimal con-
ductivity of the working fluid, in terms of process efficiency, ma-
chining accuracy, and surface quality, was determined. Finally, the
superiority of TSECDD over other processes with respect to ma-
chining speed and surface quality was confirmed.
2. Principles of TSECDD
2.1. The mechanism of TSECDD
TSECDD is a hybrid of ECM and EDM, with electrochemical
11
Fig. 1. Mechanism of tube electrode high-speed electrochemical discharge drilling.
dissolution and electrical discharge erosion occurring in the same
process. Fig. 1 illustrates the mechanism of TSECDD. The discharge
gap has a theoretical maximum value d0 of approximately 10–
20 μm. The gap must remain below d0; otherwise, sparks cannot
be maintained, and the EDM process will stop. Let the frontal gap
be denoted by df and the lateral gap by dl. The mechanism can be
described in three distinct stages.
Stage 1. df r d0 and dl o d0. As Fig. 1 shows, sparks occur at the
forward part of the electrode, where the inter-electrode gaps,
i.e. the frontal gap and the lateral gap, are smaller than the
theoretical maximum discharge gap. In these regions, the effect
of electrochemical dissolution is relatively slight, and anodic
material removal depends more on EDM. Hence, the machining
gaps rapidly enlarge around the forward part of the electrode.
In the frontal gap in particular, discharge erosion allows a high
feed rate to be achieved.
Stage 2. df rd0 and dl ¼d0. Here, the lateral gap is at the critical
maximum value. Under these conditions, electrical discharge
occasionally occurs as a result of process instability, and ECM
begins to play a dominant role in material removal, with mass
hydroxide precipitates and bubbles being generated in the
lateral gap. This stage can be seen as a transition from EDM to
ECM in the lateral gap, with machining in the frontal gap still
mainly depending on EDM.
Stage 3. df rd0 and dl 4d0. Here, the lateral gap exceeds the
critical value, and EDM stops completely in that region. The
lateral gap formed after EDM has finished is considered to be
the initial gap for material dissolution, and the rough surface
generated by EDM is removed by electrochemical dissolution in
the lateral gap. Therefore, this stage is one in which EDM in the
frontal gap and ECM in the lateral gap occur simultaneously.
In summary, the whole process can be considered as ECDM. In
the frontal gap, EDM is always taking place, while in the lateral
gap, the material removal mechanism transforms from EDM to
ECM. The hole is drilled at high speed by EDM in the frontal gap,
with the rough surface resulting from EDM being removed by ECM
in the lateral gap. In this process, a low-conductivity salt solution,
which is a bi-characteristic fluid, plays a crucial role, not only
ensuring that EDM can take place in the frontal gap but also fa-
cilitating the electrochemical reaction in the lateral gap. To obtain
12 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18

the best surface and highest efficiency, the optimal conductivity of

the salt solution must be determined experimentally.

3. Experimental details

3.1. Machine tool

Experiments were conducted to perform TSECDD using a spe-

cially developed machine tool, illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.
Film cooling holes in a turbine blade or vane are usually dis-
tributed over the blade or vane and are drilled at various angles to
the surface. To satisfy the resulting complex processing require-
ments, the machining system used in this study was designed with
a precise five-axis motion table using closed-loop control for high-
precision positioning. The range of movement of the linear axes
was 400 mm (X-axis)  200 mm (Y-axis)  300 mm (Z-axis), with a
positioning accuracy of 0.01 mm and a repeatability of 0.005 mm.
For the B and C rotary axes, the maximum travels were 180° and Fig. 3. Measurement of diameter accuracy and taper angle.
360°, respectively. The pulse generator that supplied the pulse
voltage and the process control system were integrated into the where Dentrance is the entrance diameter and Dexit is the exit dia-
control cabinet. Because of the presence of the salt solution, all of meter of the hole machined by TSECDD. The taper angle θ of the
the outer casings of the equipment, especially those parts in micro-holes is given by the following equation:
contact with the solution, were designed with stainless steel
tan θ = (Dentrance + Dexit )/2h (2)
components. The equipment included a changeable high-speed
spindle for drilling, and both high-speed EDM and TSECDD could where h is the thickness of the workpiece. MRR is calculated from
be performed using the machine. the following equation:

3.2. Measurements MRR = L/t (3)

The machining performance of the TSECDD process was eval-
uated in terms of the material removal rate (MRR) and the ma-
chining quality of the holes. The machining quality was evaluated
in terms of the average diameter, the taper angle, and the recast
layer thickness. Fig. 3 shows the measurement of the diameter and
the taper angle. The average diameter of the holes is given by the
following equation:
Daverage = (Dentrance + Dexit )/2
where L is the machined depth and t is the machining time re-
quired to drill a hole at a particular setting. Because the holes are
drilled throughout the workpiece, the thickness of the workpiece
(h) is considered to be the value of L. Thus, MRR directly reflects
the machining speed. The higher MRR is, the shorter the ma-
chining time is, and the higher the machining rate is.
The recast layer thickness was observed under a metallographic
microscope after appropriate metallurgical procedures, including
(1) cutting, polishing, etching, and microscopic analysis of cross

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment.

 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18
Table 1
Machining conditions for TSECDD.
Machining parameter Value
Pulse voltage 80 V
Pulse duration Ton 12 μs
Pulse interval Toff 36 μs
Peak current 12 A
Tool electrode diameter 500 μm
Working-fluid pressure 4 MPa
Tube electrode rotation 100 rpm
Solution conductivity 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 mS/cm
sections.
3.3. Machining procedures and conditions
In this study, experiments were carried out on a cobalt-based
superalloy (DZ40M) and a nickel-based superalloy (DZ125L), both
2 mm in thickness, using a tube electrode made of brass. Several
experiments were conducted to examine the effects of the elec-
trical parameters, the pressure of the working fluid, and the ro-
tational speed of the tube electrode. The optimal combination of
inputs was determined and used as fixed settings for the para-
meters in this study. The primary machining parameters adopted
in the TSECDD process are given in Table 1. Low-conductivity salt
solutions, composed of sodium nitrate and deionised water, were
employed as the bi-characteristic fluid. The conductivities of the
salt solutions were measured using the conductivity test instru-
ment SevenCompact S230, produced by the Mettler Toledo Com-
pany. Using this instrument, the conductivity of a salt solution can
be determined precisely by changing the proportion of sodium
nitrate. The effects of various solution conductivities on machining
performance, in terms of MRR, average hole diameter, and taper
angle, were examined. In addition, the performance of TSECDD
conducted using a low-conductivity salt solution was compared
with the performance of conventional EDM conducted using
deionised water, with the other machining parameters held the
same for both techniques.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Comparison between TSECDD and other machining processes
The performance of TSECDD conducted using a low-con-
ductivity salt solution was compared with the performance of
other machining processes, including EDM, ECM and simultaneous
micro-EDM and micro-ECM (SEDCM). Compare with EDM, ECM,
and SEDCM, the advantage of TSECDD is presented from surface
Fig. 4. Micro-holes fabricated by different machining processes: (a) EDM; (b) TSECDD.
13
qualities and machining speed.
The deionised water used with the conventional EDM process
had a conductivity 0.5 μS/cm. Fig. 4 shows the holes machined by
the EDM and TSECDD processes. As shown in Fig. 4(a), with con-
ventional EDM, there is an obvious sharp edge at the entrance of
the hole, and the lateral surface near the entrance is rough, with a
recast zone visible in this region. However, with TSECDD, as shown
in Fig. 4(b), the micro-hole diameter is distinctly expanded at the
entrance, with no sharp rim, and the surface adjacent to the en-
trance is smooth. This indicates that when a low-conductivity salt
solution is used as the working fluid, electrochemical dissolution
can occur on the lateral surface after EDM has stopped.
Fig. 5 compares the surfaces machined by EDM and TSECDD. As
Fig. 5(a) shows, the use of deionised water results in the machined
surface being entirely covered with the recast layer generated by
pure EDM. In contrast, the use of a low-conductivity salt solution
in TSECDD improves surface roughness substantially, as shown in
Fig. 5(b). The surface of the hole is obviously divided into two
areas with different characteristics. The upper area is smooth and
recast-free, while in the lower area, the surface is rough and
covered with a recast layer. Both machining regions are magnified
in Fig. 5(b). On the upper machined surface, it can be seen that the
rough surface defects have been swept away. This illustrates that
with increasing machining depth, an electrochemical reaction
occurs mainly in the upper zone of the hole, where the surface is
finished. The reason for this is that when the lateral gap expands
and exceeds the critical discharge distance, the spark reaction
stops, and material removal occurs entirely due to electrochemical
dissolution. In contrast, it can be seen that discharge craters are
still present on the surface near the exit. This is a consequence of
the lower surface having undergone a shorter period of machining,
with only a slight dissolution reaction occurring and EDM still
playing a dominant role.
The dissolved surface and recast surface can be examined fur-
ther in Fig. 6. The dissolved surface on the upper part of the hole
wall is shown in Fig. 6(a). It can be seen that the surface fully
machined by TSECDD is smoother. The reason for this is that the
recast layer on the surface produced by EDM was removed by
electrochemical dissolution. The surface near the exit is shown in
Fig. 6(b). It can be seen that there are many humps and craters,
making the surface rough and irregular. The reason for this is that
the actual machining time in this region is shorter than that to
which the upper region of the hole wall is subjected, limiting the
amount of dissolution that can take place. Fig. 6(c) and (d) show
the three-dimensional topographies of the surfaces, which are
consistent with the explanation provided.
Experiments were carried out to compare the MRR of TSECDD
and conventional EDM. In addition to these techniques, in-
vestigators have also studied other processing technologies, such
14 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18

Fig. 5. Comparison of surface finish in cross sections: (a) EDM; (b) TSECDD.

as ECM and simultaneous micro-EDM and micro-ECM (SEDCM).

With a shaped tube electrode, ECM can obtain an MRR of almost
10 μm/s [18,19]. In contrast, with a cylinder electrode and deio-
nised water, SEDCM cannot achieve an MRR greater than 1 μm/s
and also achieve a smoothly machined surface [11,12]. Based on
the experimental results obtained in the present study and those
obtained by other investigators, the MRRs of various machining
processes, including TSECDD, conventional EDM, ECM, and
SEDCM, are plotted in Fig. 7. The MRR of TSECDD is only slightly
lower than that of conventional EDM. However, compared with
ECM and SEDCM, the machining speed is more than ten times
higher. This confirms that the machining efficiency of TSECDD
performed with a low-conductivity salt solution is sufficiently high
that TSECDD can be considered a high-speed machining process.
Above all, the results provide insight into the material removal
mechanism of TSECDD. Furthermore, the results confirm the ad-
vantages of TSECDD. The TSECDD process is focused on high-speed
and high-quality machining of film cooling holes distributed over a
Fig. 7. Comparison of material removal rates for different machining processes.
turbine blade or vane at various angles. In TSECDD, the use of a

Fig. 6. Microscopic photographs and three-dimensional topographies of hole surfaces machined by different processes: (a, c) STECDD; (b, d) EDM.
 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18
tube electrode and a low-conductivity salt solution greatly im-
prove the machining quality and machining speed. These are the
major advantages of this process, which is very different from
EDM, ECM, simultaneous EDM and ECM, and other such machin-
ing processes.
A tube electrode is employed to enhance the machining speed
in TSECDD. The high-pressure inner flushing that occurs greatly
increases the material removal rate in the feed direction. In con-
trast, in simultaneous EDM and ECM, a cylindrical electrode is
used. The working fluid can only be injected into the machining
region from the outside of the electrode and workpiece, which
dramatically decreases the machining speed. The MRRs achieved
in this study using TSECDD, SEDCM, and ECM are shown in Fig. 7.
The differences in the machining speed are obvious.
The low-conductivity salt solution used in TSECDD serves to
remove the recast layer and improve the surface quality of the hole
wall. In contrast, in high-speed electrical drilling and SEDCM, low-
resistivity deionised water is used. The conductivity of deionised
water is lower than that of a salt solution, so the electrochemical
reaction is weaker. In high-speed drilling, the surface of the hole
cannot be fully finished using deionised water. Research results
reported by Nguyen et al. confirm this point [11,12]. One of the
three crucial components of SEDCM is the low feed rate. Thus, only
at a low feed rate can EDM and ECM be properly combined to
obtain a smooth surface. However, using a salt solution, surface
Fig. 8. Lateral surfaces machined using salt solutions with various conductivities (in mS/cm): (a) 0.1; (b) 0.5; (c) 1; (d) 2; (e) 2.5; (f) 3; (g) 7; (h) 9; (i) 10.
15
defects can be removed quickly.
Hence, the use of a low-conductivity salt solution together with
a tube electrode to allow internal flushing results in advantages in
machining speed and surface quality achieved using TSECDD.
4.2. Confirmation of the TSECDD mechanism using various salt so-
lution conductivities
To confirm the TSECDD mechanism, salt solutions with various
conductivities were used to fabricate micro-holes. The results are
shown in Fig. 8. The arrow indicates the dissolution area where the
discharge craters have disappeared from the machined surface.
With increasing salt solution conductivity, the zone expands from
the entrance to the exit in the direction of the arrow. As shown in
Fig. 8(a), for a 0.1-mS/cm salt solution, the lateral surface close to
the entrance rim is slightly dissolved and finished, while there are
large overlapping discharge craters on the rest of the machined
surface, indicating that the electrochemical reaction has been
slight – indeed, nearly negligible – in places. As shown in Fig. 8(b),
with an increase in the conductivity to 0.5 mS/cm, the dissolution
area is sharply expanded to one third of the entire hole wall, and
as the conductivity increases from 1 to 3 mS/cm, the area of the
smooth surface also continues to enlarge. At a conductivity of
3 mS/cm, the recast layer appears only on the surface adjacent to
the existing rim. These results indicate that as the salt solution
16 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18

conductivity increases, the material removal mechanism changes

from EDM to ECM, and the electrochemical reaction dissolves the
recast layer generated by EDM, with a vestigial amount remaining
in the exit region, where the electrode remains for a short amount
of time until the machining stops. However, when the conductivity
exceeds 3 mS/cm, there is no further visible improvement, in-
dicating that the best machining results can be obtained using a
solution with a conductivity of 3 mS/cm. The major reason for the
vestige of material in the exit region is the short dissolution time;
increasing the conductivity further to reduce the dissolution time
further does not improve the machining performance.
The mechanism of TSECDD described in this paper was con-
firmed by the results of the experiments conducted with the salt
solutions with various conductivities. With a low-conductivity salt
solution, EDM can still occur, which is effective in ensuring that a
high machining speed is achieved. Based on the results, a low-
conductivity salt solution can be considered a bi-characteristic
fluid that facilitates both the frontal electrical discharge drilling
Fig. 10. Effect of salt solution conductivity on hole diameter.
and the lateral electrochemical reaction of the TSECDD process.

of bubble generation, which again results in unstable machining.

5. Performance of TSECDD in low-conductivity salt solution
The purpose of TSECDD is to fabricate micro-holes at a high
MRR with high machining accuracy and achieve good surface
finish. The results described above show that the material removal
mechanism differs between the lateral gap and the frontal gap
when the conductivity of the salt solution is low. The results also
confirm that TSECDD can be used to obtain a high-quality surface.
Additional experiments were carried out to investigate the effi-
ciency and accuracy of machining micro-holes using TSECDD and
salt solutions with various conductivities. The MRR, dimensional
accuracy, and taper angle were used as measures of the efficiency
and accuracy of the process.
5.1. Effect of salt solution conductivity on MRR
The effect of salt solution conductivity on MRR is shown in
Fig. 9. It can be seen that the MRR decreases as the conductivity
increases from 0.5 to 10 mS/cm. Between 0.5 and 2.5 mS/cm, the
decrease is sharp. The MRR is relatively high at lower conductivity
levels. A very high salt solution conductivity is not suitable for
material removal, as it increases the likelihood of arcing and short-
circuiting, which result in very poor machining stability and a
decrease in MRR. Increased conductivity also leads to a higher rate
Fig. 9. Effect of salt solution conductivity on MRR.
Hence, the MRR decreases with increasing salt solution con-
ductivity. Thus, to obtain a high MRR, a salt solution with low
conductivity should be used.
5.2. Effect of salt solution conductivity on dimensional accuracy
Fig. 10 shows the effect of the salt solution conductivity on the
hole diameter. It can be seen that the diameter increases very
sharply with increasing conductivity, especially at conductivities
between 0.5 and 8 mS/cm. The greatest diameter was obtained at a
conductivity of 8 mS/cm. Beyond that level, the diameter tended to
decrease slightly. These results indicate that the expansion of the
lateral gap is highly dependent on ion dissolution. A higher-con-
ductivity salt solution favours ion dissolution and enhances the
electrochemical dissolution rate. In addition, at a higher con-
ductivity, the critical gap formed by EDM is enlarged. However, as
explained previously, an excessively high conductivity will result
in degradation of the performance of EDM, leading to a decrease in
the hole diameter. For the purposes of machining, the diameter
range should ideally be as small as possible, and thus a salt solu-
tion with as low a conductivity as possible should be used. A
comparison of Figs. 9 and 10 shows that the MRR decreases as the
salt solution conductivity increases, whereas the hole diameter
increases. The reason for this is that the MRR only reflects material
removal in the feed direction; it does not reflect material removal
in the radial direction. As the salt solution conductivity increases,
the electrical discharge effect in the frontal gap is weakened, while
the electrochemical reaction in the lateral gap is enhanced. Fur-
thermore, a decrease in MRR means an increase in machining
time, which could result in the lateral gap being enlarged over a
longer period of time. Thus, the MRR decreases as the salt solution
conductivity increases, whereas the hole diameter increases.
Fig. 11 presents scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of
holes machined using salt solutions with conductivities ranging
from 0.5 to 10 mS/cm. It can be seen that with increasing salt
solution conductivity, the variation in the diameter is consistent
with the curve plotted in Fig. 10. Fig. 11 also shows the entrance
profiles of the holes, which reflect the dimensional accuracy
achieved. When the salt solution conductivity is lower than 3 mS/
cm, the dimensional accuracy is relatively poor. For conductivities
in the range of 3–6 mS/cm, the dimensional accuracy of the hole is
significantly improved. In particular, at 3 mS/cm, the hole exhibits
perfect dimensional accuracy, as shown in Fig. 11(e). It should be
noted that the electrochemical reaction enhances dimensional
accuracy. However, when the salt solution conductivity exceeds
 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18
Fig. 11. SEM images of holes machined with salt solutions with different conductivities (in mS/cm): (a) 0.5; (b) 1; (c) 2; (d) 2.5; (e) 3; (f) 4; (g) 5; (h) 6; (i) 7; (j) 8; (k) 9; (l) 10.
6 mS/cm, the dimensional accuracy becomes worse, as over-
etching destroys the machined shape of the entrance. Hence, the
optimum value of the salt solution conductivity is 3 mS/cm.
5.3. Effect of salt solution conductivity on taper angle
The variation of the taper angle with salt solution conductivity
is plotted in Fig. 12. It can be seen that with increasing con-
ductivity, the angle increases almost linearly between 0.5 and
6 mS/cm and then tends to decrease, with some fluctuation, the
Fig. 12. Effect of salt solution conductivity on taper angle.
17
peak angle being observed at 6 mS/cm. This indicates that in-
creasing the salt solution conductivity enhances the dissolution
reaction. Compared with the exit region, where the dissolution
reaction is negligible, the entrance is expanded further by elec-
trochemical dissolution in a low-conductivity salt solution. How-
ever, when the salt solution conductivity exceeds 6 mS/cm, the
discharge gap at the exit widens, the diameter of the exit is also
enlarged, and thus the taper angle decreases. In any machining
operation, it is desirable to have as small a taper angle as possible.
Thus, a comparison of all these performance results indicates that
the optimum salt solution conductivity is one that is as low as
possible.
Overall, considering the effects on MRR, dimensional accuracy,
and the taper angle, a value of 2.5 mS/cm can be considered an
ideal salt solution conductivity for use in TSECDD. This value
provides a moderately high MRR, good dimensional accuracy, and
a relatively small taper angle. Based on the experiments on the
cobalt-based superalloy described above, a salt solution with the
optimum conductivity was used to machine the nickel-based su-
peralloy. The recast layers were subjected to metallographic ex-
amination, and the results are compared with those of EDM in
Fig. 13. It can be seen that with EDM, a recast layer is present in all
three regions of the hole. In contrast, with TSECDD, the recast layer
is absent from the entrance and middle regions, although there is
no indication of any removal of the recast layer close to the exit
region. These results are consistent with those obtained for the
cobalt-based superalloy, thus further confirming the proposed
explanation of the mechanism of TSECDD.
18 Y. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 92 (2015) 10–18
Fig. 13. Metallographic microscope images of cross sections machined by TSECDD
and EDM.
6. Conclusions
TSECDD, an innovative hybrid machining process, is described
in this paper. The material removal mechanism of TSECDD per-
formed using low-conductivity salt solution was investigated, and
the performance of the process was evaluated for salt solutions of
various conductivities. The following conclusions can be drawn.
1. In TSECDD, there are different material removal mechanisms in
the frontal gap and the lateral gap. In the frontal gap, material
removal is accomplished mainly by EDM, which allows a high
machining speed to be achieved. In the lateral gap, as the
machining process proceeds, there is a transition from EDM to
ECM. When the lateral gap exceeds the critical discharge gap,
material removal is purely by ECM, which serves to remove the
recast layer formed by EDM.
2. The mechanism of TSECDD was confirmed by comparison with
traditional EDM. The use of TSECDD with a low-conductivity
salt solution achieves a remarkable improvement in surface
quality. The highest surface quality observed was obtained with
the lowest-conductivity salt solution tested.
3. A comparison of the effects of different machining processes
shows that TSECDD performed using a low-conductivity salt
solution makes it possible for a higher machining speed to be
achieved. The use of MRR makes it possible to achieve a ma-
chining speed that is almost the same as that achieved with
high-speed EDM and far higher than that achieved with either
ECM or SEDCM.
4. The results of experiments conducted using salt solutions of
various conductivities confirm that it is feasible to use TSECDD
to improve the machining accuracy of micro-holes. The dia-
meter and taper angle are both improved by using a low-con-
ductivity salt solution.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51475237), the National High-Tech Research
and Development Program of China (2013AA040101), and the
Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-
12-0627).
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