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N. Saravanan, G. Nagarajan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai 600 025, India
Article history: Diesel engines are the most trusted power sources in the transportation industry. They
Received 20 June 2006 intake air and emit, among others, the pollutants NOX and particulate matter. Continuous
Received in revised form efforts and tests have tried to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of internal
18 December 2007 combustion engines. Alternative fuels are key to meeting upcoming stringent emission
Accepted 24 December 2007 norms. We study hydrogen as an air-enrichment medium with diesel as an ignition source
Available online 20 February 2008 in a stationary diesel engine system to improve engine performance and reduce emissions.
Stationary engines can be operated with less fuel than neat diesel operations, resulting in
Keywords:
lower smoke levels and particulate emissions. Hydrogen ðH2 Þ-enriched air systems in diesel
Hydrogen
engines enable the realization of higher brake thermal efficiency, resulting in lower specific
Enrichment
energy consumption (SEC). NOX emissions are reduced from 2762 to 515 ppm with 90%
Performance
hydrogen enrichment at 70% engine load. At full load, NOX emission marginally increases
Emissions
compared to diesel operation, while both smoke and particulate matter are reduced by
Combustion
about 50%. The brake thermal efficiency increases from 22.78% to 27.9% with 30% hydrogen
enrichment. Thus, using hydrogen-enriched air in a diesel engine produces less pollution
and better performance.
& 2008 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
powered vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Hydro- Table 1 – Specifications of the test engine
gen can be used as a sole fuel in spark ignition (SI) engine,
either by carburation or by direct injection [4]. In a compres- S.No Parameters Specifications
sion ignition (CI) engine, however, H2 cannot be directly used
due to its higher self-ignition temperature, but it can be used 1 General Single cylinder, four stroke,
in the dual fuel mode. H2 is only one of many possible details Compression ignition, Constant speed,
vertical, water cooled, direct injection
alternative fuels that can be derived from natural resources
2 Bore 80 mm
such as coal, oil shale and uranium or from renewable 3 Stroke 110 mm
resources based on solar energy. H2 can be commercially 4 Swept 553 cc
produced from electrolysis of water and by coal gasification; volume
it can also be produced by several other methods such as 5 Clearance 36.87 cc
the thermo-chemical decomposition of water and solar volume
photo-electrolysis, although these are currently still in the 6 Compression 16.5:1
ratio
laboratory stage. H2 fueled ICE vehicles built with current
7 Rated output 3.7 kW at 1500 rpm
technology are not competitive with synthetic gasoline or 8 Rated speed 1500 rpm
methanol vehicles on the basis of coal consumption or fuel 9 Injection 240 bar
cost [5]. However, the development of practical and highly pressure
efficient end-use converters of H2 , such as fuel cells, should
lead to a dramatic reduction in cost and improvement in
efficiency of H2 production, in addition to providing safe and
convenient onboard storage.
The concept of using hydrogen as an alternative fuel for regulator. Hydrogen was passed through a fine control valve
diesel engines is recent. The self-ignition temperature of to adjust the flow rate and then through a gas flow meter that
hydrogen is 858 K, so hydrogen cannot be used directly in a CI metered the flow of hydrogen in liters. The hydrogen was
engine without a spark plug or glow plug. This makes passed through a non-return valve (NRV), preventing reverse
hydrogen unsuitable as a sole fuel for diesel engines [6]. flow of hydrogen into the system (reverse flow sometimes
One alternative method is to use hydrogen in enrichment or occurs in a hydrogen-injected engine, particularly in the latter
induction, in which diesel is used as a pilot fuel for ignition. part of injection). The hydrogen was then passed through a
As hydrogen is a gas, it mixes well with air, resulting in flame arrestor, in order to prevent explosions inside the
complete combustion. Hydrogen-enriched engines produce hydrogen-containing system [11]. The flame arrestors quench
approximately the same brake power and higher thermal the flame if sufficient heat can be removed from the gas by
efficiency than diesel engines over the entire range of the arrestor, which also acts as an NRV. Next, the hydrogen
operation [7,8]. This work involves the enrichment of air was allowed to pass through a flame trap, used to suppress
with various percentages of hydrogen in a diesel engine flash-back into the intake manifold. A polythene diaphragm
using diesel as an ignition source. With a lesser pilot quantity was fitted onto the wall of the flame trap as a safety measure.
of diesel, hydrogen-enriched engines give higher brake In the event of any severe flash-back, this diaphragm would
thermal efficiency with smoother combustion than a burst, preventing any pressure rise leading to explosion of the
diesel engine. Increasing hydrogen beyond a certain quantity cylinder. The flame trap is made of cast iron that contains a
results in knocking; at the highest diesel flow rate, thermal sleeve to suppress the flame and water to put out the flame.
efficiency is found to be the same as that of diesel engines. The hydrogen from the flame trap was allowed inside the
Hence, the overall behavior of the engine is similar to that of a inlet manifold with the help of a gas carburetor, which was
diesel engine. Yi et al. [9] stated that thermal efficiency of used to mix air and hydrogen. The process of mixing air and
intake port injection is clearly higher than in-cylinder fuel is called enrichment. By varying the percentage of diesel
injection at all equivalence ratios. Shudo et al. [10] stated (10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 80% and 90%) by volume (l/min), we
that hydrogen combustion exhibits higher cooling loss to the studied the performance and emission characteristics of the
combustion chamber wall than does hydrocarbon combus- hydrogen-enriched engine. The pilot quantity of diesel was
tion because of its higher burning velocity and shorter set and the pump rack locked and hydrogen flow varied
quenching distance [10]. simultaneously to maintain a constant speed.
The engine was started with diesel fuel; later the diesel was
reduced and hydrogen was supplied to the intake manifold.
2. Experimental setup Diesel flow was reduced up to 10% of the baseline value and
hydrogen flow increased until the engine reached the rated
The engine used for the investigation is a four-stroke, water- speed of 1500 rpm. After allowing the engine to reach steady
cooled, single cylinder stationary diesel engine developing state conditions for about 15 min, we measured:
power of 3.78 kW at the rated speed of 1500 rpm. The technical
specifications of the engine are given in Table 1, and the Fuel consumption.
schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1 with a NOX , HC, CO, CO2 , O2 .
photograph of the setup in Fig. 2. Smoke intensity.
Hydrogen was supplied from a high-pressure cylinder Exhaust gas temperature.
(150 bar) reduced to a pressure of 1.5 bar using a pressure Particulate emissions.
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I N T E R N AT I O N A L J O U R N A L O F H Y D R O G E N E N E R G Y 33 (2008) 1769 – 1775 1771
4 5 14
2 3
8
6 7
9
1
10
12
11 13
Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of experimental set-up. 1. Hydrogen cylinder; 2. pressure regulator; 3. hydrogen surge tank;
4. filter; 5. mass flow controller; 6. control unit for flow controller; 7. flame trap; 8. flame arrestor; 9. hydrogen carburetor;
10. IR sensor; 11. data acquisition system; 12. engine; 13. dynamometer; 14. diesel tank.
The above procedure was repeated for different loads and Table 2 – Average uncertainties of some measured and
diesel fuel quantities. calculated parameters
35
knock limit
25
20
100%diesel
100%hydrogen
15
20%hydrogen
30%hydrogen
10
50%hydrogen
70%hydrogen
5
90%hydrogen
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
BRAKE LOAD, (%)
40 100%diesel
10%hydrogen
35 20%hydrogen
30%hydrogen
30 50%hydrogen
70%hydrogen
SEC, (MJ/kWh)
25 90%hydrogen
20
15
10
knock limit
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BRAKE LOAD, (%)
4000
3500
3000
2500
NOX, (ppm)
100%diesel
2000
10%hydrogen
1500 20%hydrogen
30%hydrogen
1000 50%hydrogen
knock limit 70%hydrogen
500 90%hydrogen
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BRAKE LOAD, (%)
5
4.5
4
3.5
SMOKE, (BSN)
3
2.5 100%diesel
0.5 90%hydrogen
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BRAKE LOAD, (%)
100%diesel
0.25 10%hydrogen
PARTICULATE EMISSION, (g/kWh)
20%hydrogen
30%hydrogen
0.2
50%hydrogen
70%hydrogen
0.15 90%hydrogen
0.1
0.05
knock limit
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BRAKE LOAD, (%)
limit of combustion is significantly extended, which in turn Houseman et al. [15] investigated the effect of enrichment of
reduces the peak combustion temperature. A low NOX level of hydrogen in air. They reported that conventional engines
575 ppm is achieved with 90% hydrogen enrichment at 60% could not be operated below an equivalence ratio of 0.85 of
loading, but is limited due to severe knocking above 60% load. gasoline. They concluded that at an equivalence ratio of 0.53,
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1774 I N T E R N AT I O N A L J O U R N A L O F H Y D R O G E N E N E R G Y 33 (2008) 1769 – 1775
very low NOX and CO emissions were produced and engine condition of equivalence ratio 0.4, which results in low NOX
thermal efficiency was substantially higher than normal (575 ppm) at 90% hydrogen enrichment.
operation. To obtain low NOX emissions with increased The variation of smoke level with brake power with
engine efficiency, the engine is operated under the ultra lean different proportions of hydrogen enrichment is shown in
Fig. 7. Smoke is a visible product of combustion, formed due
to poor combustion. Combustion of hydrogen produces only
100 water, resulting in less smoke. The lowest smoke level occurs
100%diesel
90 with 90% hydrogen addition. Diesel particulate consists of
10%hydrogen
combustion-generated carbonaceous materials in which
80 20%hydrogen
some organic compounds are absorbed. Most particulates
70 30%hydrogen
50%hydrogen result from incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel with
HC, (ppm)
80
C.R=16.5:1
70 Start of injection =23° BTDC Diesel
(Diesel) Hydrogen + Diesel
60 Injection Duration=30° (Diesel)
Speed=1500 rpm
Pressure, (bar)
50
40
30
20
10
0
240 290 340 390 440
Crank Angle, (degree)
Fig. 10 – Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle at 30% hydrogen enrichment mixture at full load condition.
110
Diesel
90 Full load condition
Heat Release Rate, (J / degree CA)
Hydrogen + Diesel
1) Diesel = 23° BITDC, 30°
Injection duration
70 2) Hydrogen-Diesel = 30 %
hydrogen enrichment
50
30
10
Fig. 11 – Variation of heat release with crank angle at 30% hydrogen enrichment mixture at full load condition.
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I N T E R N AT I O N A L J O U R N A L O F H Y D R O G E N E N E R G Y 33 (2008) 1769 – 1775 1775
The variation of hydrocarbon with load is shown in Fig. 9. compared to neat diesel fuel, hydrogen-enriched engines
Unburned hydrocarbon decreases significantly because hy- perform well and emit less pollution. Hence, hydrogen
drogen fuel does not contain carbon. The lowest value enrichment in a CI engine can be regarded as an eco-friendly
(56 ppm) was recorded against 127 ppm with 30% hydrogen alternative fuel to diesel. Further work can be done by
enrichment under full load. With 90% hydrogen enrichment, injecting hydrogen in the intake port and manifold and
HC decreases further to 31 ppm at 70% load. Compared to optimizing the injection timings and hydrogen fuel flow rate
results obtained from earlier work done by Bell et al. [17], to improve performance.
there is a net decrease in hydrocarbon emission of 15%.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of cylinder pressure with crank R E F E R E N C E S
angle. It can be observed that in the hydrogen fuelled dual
fuel operation with 30% hydrogen enrichment, peak pressure
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may be due to the late combustion of hydrogen after diesel a Hydrogen Fueled Engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy
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[3] Fulton J, Lynch F, Marmora R. Hydrogen for reducing
diesel combustion with 30% hydrogen enrichment at full load. emissions from alternative fuel vehicles SAE paper 931813;
It is evident that heat release for hydrogen is more rapid than 1993. p. 471–9.
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neat diesel fuel and 30% hydrogen enrichment. It can also be
mental investigation on dual fuel operation of hydrogen in a
observed that the highest heat release rate is 95 J/degree CA
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