Biosphere & Ecosystem

Sunday, September 10, 2017 10:01 PM

1. Ecology
• Scientific study of give-take relationship between organisms with their environment
• A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, became the first person to use the term ‘ecology’.
• Term 'Deep Ecology' was coined by- Arne Naess (1973)
• Study of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical environment (abiotic)
• Levels of Organization in Ecology-

2. Environment
• Biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population which have an influence in their survival, development and
evolution.

3. Ecosystem
○ An ecosystem is a structural & functional unit of Biosphere, where living organisms interact among themselves and also
with the surrounding physical environment.
○ The term 'Ecosystem' was coined by- AG Tansley (1935)
○ Features of Ecosystem-
 Open system (continuous variable flow of material & energy)
 Basic functional unit without any boundaries
 Different climatic conditions present different ecosystem
○ Components of Ecosystem
 four basic components of an ecosystem-
□ abiotic part (non-living component)
□ producers or autotrophs
□ consumers or heterotrophs (herbivores, detritivores, Carnivores, Omnivores)
□ Decomposers (Saprophytes)
○ Types of Ecosystem

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 NOTE: In aquatic ecosystem- 2 categories based on nature of flow-> Lentic (Static water- Pond, Swamps, etc.) & Lotic
(running water (river, waterfall, etc.)

○ Ecosystem Services-
 According to World Development Report, 2010, the 'Millennium Ecosystem Assessment' describes following
ecosystem services-

4. Ecotone
○ Zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems
○ Characteristics of Ecotone-
 Zone of Transition – condition is intermediate to the adjacent ecosystem
 May contains organisms which are entirely different from that of adjoining communities
 Edge Effect – Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species is much greater
in size than either community. Ex:- Edge species – Eg. Birds

5. Ecological Niche-
○ Concept was coined by- Joseph Grinnell
○ Unique functional role & place/habitat of a species in an ecosystem
○ Unique for a species
○ Knowledge of Niche helps in conservation of a species
○ Types of Niche-
 Habitat niche (specific species present in specific habitat)
 Food niche (certain species adapted to certain specific food habit)
 Reproductive niche

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  Reproductive niche
 Physical and chemical niche (Temperature, Land, Humidity, Salinity)- Ex: Coral reefs require certain physical
requirement for existence.
6. Biosphere
○ global sum of all ecosystems; zone of life on Earth;
○ elements of biosphere-
 lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
○ Biosphere is absent in-
 Extremes of North and South poles, Highest mountains, Deepest oceans (hostile conditions there do not support
life)
○ Energy – Sun; Nutrients – Air, Water, Soil
 Macro nutrients – N, P, K
 Secondary – Ca, Mg, S
 Micro – Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu
7. Biome
○ Terrestrial part of the biosphere is divided into enormous regions called Biomes.
○ Each biome are characterized by climate, vegetation, animal life and general soil types.
○ No two biomes are alike
○ Climate (rainfall & temperature) determines boundaries of biomes

○ Types of Biomes-
 Tundra
 Taiga
 Temperate Deciduous forests
 Tropical rain forest
 Savannah
 Grassland
 Desert
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Functions of Ecosystem

• Energy Flow
• Nutrient cycling (Biogeochemical cycles)
• Ecological succession

1. Energy Flow:
○ Sun is the primary source of all energy of ecosystem. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% is Photo-synthetically
Active Radiation (PAR). Plant captures only 2-10% of PAR. This small amount of energy sustain the living world.

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 Active Radiation (PAR). Plant captures only 2-10% of PAR. This small amount of energy sustain the living world.
○ Energy always flows Unidirectional from Producer to higher trophic level.
○ Always loss of energy in the form of Heat.
○ Trophic level – position that organism occupies in a food chain.

 NOTE: Energy level decreases with increase in trophic level but efficiency to utilize the energy increases.
○ Trophic level interaction – Way in which members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs
○ Bio-magnification- Process by which substances become more concentrated in the bodies of consumers as one moves
up the food chain (trophic levels).
○ Bioaccumulation- occurs within a trophic level due to absorption from food.
○ Types of trophic level interactions-
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids – Pyramid of numbers, Biomass and Energy

a. Food Chain:
 A sequence of organisms that feed on one another.
 Starts with the producer and ends with top carnivores.
 Types of food chain-
□ Grazing food chain (Starts with plants at the base; primary consumer – Herbivore)
□ Detritus food chain (Starts from Dead organic matter, primary consumer – microorganism)
b. Food Web:
 All possible transfer of energy and nutrients among the organism in an ecosystem
c. Ecological pyramids:
 Graphical representation designed to show biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem
 Roughly 10% energy is transferred (10% Law) for one trophic level to the next & remaining energy lost in the form
of Heat.
 Types-
□ Number
 Can be inverted also
□ Biomass
 Can be inverted also (Ex: Aquatic ecosystem)
□ Energy of Organisms
 Most suitable for understanding bio-magnification
 Follows law of thermodynamics
 Always upright (never inverted)

2. Nutrient Cycle (Biogeochemical cycles)

○ pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere) components of Earth.
○ Gaseous cycles- Water cycle, Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle
○ Sedimentary cycles – Phosphorous, Sulphur

a. Water Cycle (Hydrological cycle)-

 Driven by Solar energy
 Supports other nutrient cycles
 Evaporation-> Condensation -> Precipitation
 86% of the global evaporation occurs from oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling.

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  86% of the global evaporation occurs from oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling.
b. Carbon Cycle-
 Vital for photosynthesis by Plants.
 Short term : Atmosphere –> Plants-> Animals-> Respiration-> Decomposition-> Atmosphere
 Long term : undecomposed organic matter of soil or insoluble carbonates in seabed is cycled by geological
movements.

c. Nitrogen Cycle-
 most complete of the nutrient cycles.
 reservoir pool is atmosphere and exchange pool operates between organisms and the soil
 Atmospheric Nitrogen is fixed to Nitrate which is absorbed by the plants.
 Ultimately they are released as ammonia when organic material is decomposed.
 Ammonia is changed back to nitrates by the action of bacteria.

d. Phosphorus Cycle-
 Can be easily disrupted (as sedimentary cycle)
 Phosphates in the soil are taken into plants for protein synthesis and are passed through the food chains of
ecosystems.

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 3. Ecological Succession
○ This concept was introduced by Frederic Clements.
○ It is observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.
○ Two main types of succession-
 primary and secondary
○ Primary Succession-series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been
colonized before.
○ Secondary Succession-series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or
damaged habitat.
○ Stages of succession-

• SERE- different stages of succession

• CLIMAX- community developed at the end of succession
• In Grassland, trees do not replace grasses because-
○ Trees are already cleared by fire in past
○ Grass also absorbs most of the water, hence moisture does not reach to shrubs.
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Biotic Interactions
• Deals with effects that the organisms in a community have on one another.
• Types of Biotic interaction-

Type Relation
Mutualism + +

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 Commensalism + 0
Competition - -
Predation + -
Parasitism + -
Ammensalism - 0
Neutralism 0 0
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BIOTIC POTENTIAL & CARRYING CAPACITY

• BP- maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
• CC- maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly
depleting or degrading those resources
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Aquatic ecosystem
• Water as the main habitat.
• Classification based on salt concentration-
○ Fresh water ecosystem – 5 ppt (Lakes, Ponds, Pools, springs, Streams, Rivers)
○ Marine ecosystem – Equal to sea level 35 ppt (Ocean)
○ Brackish water ecosystem – 5 to 35 ppt (Estuaries, Salt marshes, Mangroove swamps)
• Aquatic organisms (based on Zone of occurrence):
○ Neuston (organism on surface of water)
○ Periphyton (shallow depth-algae)
○ Plankton (similar to periphyton- Algae, Protozoa, Crustaceans Zooplankton)
○ Nekton (Swimming insects-fishes)
○ Benthon (organism at bottom of water mass)
• Factors limiting the productivity of Aquatic life
○ Sunlight (Littoral Zone, Photic Zone, Aphotic Zone)
○ Dissolved oxygen
○ Transparency
○ Temperature

Eutrophication :
• Ecosystem's response to addition of artificial or natural substances, mainly phosphates, through detergents, fertilizers, or
sewage, to an aquatic system.
• Impact-
○ Algal bloom->Restricts the penetration of sunlight->Oxygen depletion-> No photosynthesis, Decomposition
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Mangrove
• Medium height trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics (between latitudes
25° N and 25° S).
• These are salt tolerant trees (halophytes) adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. To deal with such situation it has
following modifications-
○ Viviparity- condition whereby young plant grows through fruit while still attached to the parent plant.
○ Stilt roots- Adventitious roots emerged from main trunk
• Characteristics of Mangroves-
○ Evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores
○ Physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to water logged anaerobic mud
○ Need abundant sunlight, has the ability to absorb fresh water from saline water source
○ Pneumatophores (Blind roots)
• Examples- Avicennia, Rhizophora
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Coral Reefs

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Coral Reefs
• Diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals.
• Builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. These polyps thrive, grow then die, they leave their limestone skeletons
behind. The limestone is colonized by new polyps.
• Coral has a symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthellae (microscopic algae which live in coral)
• Conditions for growth of Coral reefs-
○ Need submarine shallow platform for sunlight (50 meter deep)
○ Temperature: 25-27 degree
○ Warm, tropical and low latitude waters
○ Salinity: 33 ppt
○ No turbulent water: Seaward side [Constantly moving wave, tides, currents]
○ Need circulating nutrient rich water
• Classification based on their location-
○ Fringing reef
○ Patch reef
○ Barrier reef
○ Atoll
• Coral Bleaching-
○ Release of Zooxanthellae by polyps due to High temperature, Irradiance resulting in loss of colour.
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Miscellaneous terms
• Ecological Footprint- minimum area of the land required to completely sustain life of person. Its unit is Global Hectares.
• Bionomics- synonymous with ecology & stresses on value of natural systems which influence human life.
• Productivity- rate of production of organic matter is known as its productivity. Primary productivity-> from autotroph level;
Secondary productivity-> from heterotroph level. Tropical rain forest has maximum productivity (more than ocean).

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Biodiversity
Monday, October 16, 2017 9:00 AM

• Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region.
• It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form.

Levels of Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem/Community Diversity

• Refers to variation of genes within
species
• Genetic diversity is essential for healthy
breeding of population of species.
• Refers to the variety of species
• Relates to the number of species in a
defined area
• Areas rich in species diversity are
• called hotspots of diversity.
• Differences between ecosystem
types, diversity of habitats and
ecological processes occurring within
each ecosystem type constitute
ecosystem diversity
• demarcation of ecosystem
boundaries is difficult and complex &
hence not rigidly defined

Patterns of Biodiversity

• Tropical forests are very rich in bio-diversity.

• As one approaches the Polar Regions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species.
• Terrestrial biodiversity decline in richness with latitude may be faster in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere. Also
the peaks in richness may not lie actually at the Equator itself but some distance away.
• Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in
the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.
• Reasons for tropic being rich in biodiversity-
○ Stable & constant climate (less glaciation)
○ More solar energy

Measurement of Biodiversity
• Two main factors taken into account when measuring diversity are-
○ Richness (number of different species in a region)
○ Evenness (abundance of the different species in a region)
• Simpson’s Index - takes into account both species richness and evenness among the species.
• Three indices used by ecologists:
a. Alpha diversity – within a particular area
b. Beta diversity – Comparison of diversity b/n ecosystem
c. Gamma diversity – Overall diversity
• More diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive.

Importance of Biodiversity
• Helps in development of human community by providing below services-

Ecological services Biological services Social Services

• Provides of water resources – Aquatic • Food • Research, education – Bio
ecosystem • Medicinal resources and mimicking
• Soil formation and protection – Microbes, pharmaceutical drugs • Tourism
Grass • Wood products • Cultural values – Sacred grooves,
• Nutrient recycling and storage – Roots, • Ornamental plants Deva vana, Totemism
Leaves, N, P, • Breeding stocks, Population
• Pollution breakdown and absorption – reservoirs
Microbes, Plant • Future resources
• Contribution to climate stability – CO2 • Diversity in genes, Species and
sink, CS ecosystems

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 sink, CS ecosystems
• Maintenance of ecosystems - Balance
• Recovery form unpredictable events –
Ecological
• succession

Loss of Biodiversity
• The biological wealth of the planet has been declining rapidly.
• Some examples of recent extinctions include
○ dodo (Mauritius),
○ quagga (Africa),
○ thylacine (Australia),
○ Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and
○ 3 subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
• Causes of Biodiversity loss-
○ Natural causes- (Earthquake, floods, landslides, etc.)
○ Habitat loss and fragmentation (most important cause- Ex: loss in tropical rain forest area)
○ Overexploitation
○ Alien species invasion
○ Co-extinctions (dependent plant and animal species also extinct)
○ Global climate change
○ Hunting and Poaching
• Mass extinction-
○ It occurs when the prevailing rate of extinction far exceeds the background or natural rate of extinction.
○ This rate is measured normally in number of species going extinct over a given period of time.
○ The opposite of extinction is speciation- the rate at which new species are formed, which contributes to the biodiversity.
○ Extinction events are important starting point of speciation activities.
○ More than 90% of all organisms that have ever lived on Earth are extinct.
○ Below are important mass extinction events in past 500 million years-

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 ○ General Causes of mass extinctions of past:
 Change in chemical composition of atmosphere and hydrosphere (such as loss of oxygen)
 Flood basalt events (volcanic eruptions) and releasing of trapped gases
 Temperature changes- global warming or cooling
 Sea level change
 Cosmic factors such as asteroid impact (Asteroid impact or volcanism lead to debris in atmosphere, which blocks
sunlight for long duration. During this period, greenhouse gases such as methane also collect in atmosphere – as
soon as debris clears, there is fast paced rise in temperature).
○ Present Mass Extinction:
 Present extinction rate today is at least 100 times the background or natural rate & hence we have entered the 6th
mass extinction stage.
 Causes of modern mass extinction stage-
□ Land development and habitat destruction
□ Invasive species
□ Anthropogenic emissions into land and water

Biodiversity conservation
• Conservation is the act of preserving, guarding, or protecting biodiversity.
• Modes of conservation-
○ Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside their area of existence (Ex: Zoo, Botanical garden, Seed bank, etc.)
○ In-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity into their area of existence (Ex: Sanctuaries, National Parks, etc.)

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 • Conservation status-
○ International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the species of plants and
animals into various categories for the purpose of their conservation which are as follows:

 Extinct (EX): no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.
 Extinct in Wild (EW): only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population
 Near Threatened (NT): close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
 Least Concern (LC): Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category
 Threatened: based on the criteria-
A. Declining population (past, present and/or projected)
B. Geographic range size, and fragmentation, decline or fluctuations
C. Small population size and fragmentation, decline, or fluctuations
D. Very small population or very restricted distribution
E. Quantitative analysis of extinction risk (e.g., Population Viability Analysis)

Critically Endangered (CR) Endangered (EN) Vulnerable (VU)

• Meets any of the criteria A to E • Meets any of the criteria A to E • Meets any of the criteria A to E
• Facing an extremely high risk of • Facing an very high risk of • Facing an high risk of extinction in
extinction in the wild. extinction in the wild. the wild.

Biodiversity Hotspots
• Concept was given by Norman Myers
• Biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.

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• Biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.
• Below are the criteria-
a. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics (species found nowhere else on Earth).
b. It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation
• 35 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level-

• 4 are present in India-

a. Himalaya: entire Indian Himalayan region including part which falls in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and
Myanmar
b. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands
c. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)
d. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)
• World’s 10 most threatened forested hotspots (listed by percentage of remaining original habitat):

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Plant Communities & Vegetation
Monday, October 16, 2017 12:21 AM

Plant Community
• The group or association of plants growing together in a particular habitat is called plant community.
• It has two basic characteristics-
○ Plants are ecologically related and can live and grow together in a particular habitat
○ Plant community is well organised i.e., it has well developed composition and structure

Vegetation
• All the plants which grow together in any area form its vegetation
• Most abundant biotic element of the biosphere
• Two habitats may have similar floras but different vegetation and two habitats having different floras may have similar
vegetation.
• Vegetation type is primarily dependent upon the rainfall and temperature of a place.
• Other factors such as soil, topography, primitive vegetation, animal species, etc. also influence vegetation.
• Important Terms related to vegetation
○ Canopy: The cover of branches and Foliage formed by the crown of trees is called Canopy.
○ Canopy Density: The percentage area of land covered by the canopy of trees is called Canopy density.
○ Carbon Stock: It is defined as the amount of carbon stored in the ecosystem of the forest especially in living biomass and
soil.
○ Very Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 70% and above.
○ Moderately Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%.
○ Open Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40%.
○ Scrub: Degraded forest land with canopy density less than 10%.
○ Non-Forest: Lands not included in any of the above classes.
○ Endemic plants: The original natural vegetation, which are purely native are called the endemic plants.
○ Exotic plants: Those which have come from outside are called the exotic plants.

Natural Vegetation in India

• Natural vegetation in India ranges from the one that is found in the tropical region to that found in the Arctic region
• On the basis of certain common features such as predominant vegetation type and climatic regions, Indian forests can be
divided into the following groups:

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Evergreen
Wet
Climate • Annual rainfall is more than 250 cm • Annual rainfall 200 to 250 cm
• Short dry season
• average annual temperature 22 °C
Location • Western slopes of Western Ghats
• Hills of NE states
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Characteri • Lofty, very dense, multi-layered
stics forest
• Large number of species, numerous species
epiphytes
• Sunlight cannot reach the ground.
Thus, the undergrowth mainly
consists of canes, bamboos, ferns,
climbers, etc.
Examples • rosewood, ebony, mahogany
• rubber, cinchona, bamboo
• coconut, palms, canes, lianas, etc.
Semi-Evergreen Dry-Evergreen
• Rainfall is in plenty but dry
season is comparatively longer
• Western coasts • Eastern part of Tamil Nadu.
• Eastern Orissa
• Upper Assam
• Giant and luxuriantly growing • Dense, evergreen and short
intermixed deciduous and evergreen (10-15m)
• Under-growing climbers provide an
evergreen character to these forests
• Cedar, Hollock, Kail, Orchids, Ferns, • Maba, Calotropis, Pabatta,
etc. Feronia, Canthium, Zizyphus,
Randia etc.
• NO Bamboos

Deciduous
Moist Deciduous Dry Deciduous
Climate • Sufficiently high rainfall (150 to 200 cm) • Annual rainfall 70 to 100 cm

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Climate • Sufficiently high rainfall (150 to 200 cm) • Annual rainfall 70 to 100 cm
throughout the year. • Long dry season
• Short dry season
Location • Western side of the Deccan plateau, i.e. • Punjab
Mumbai • U.P. and Bihar
• N-E Andhra & Orissa • Orissa, M.P.
• Gangetic plains • Large part of Indian peninsula
• Some Himalayan tracts extending from • NOTE-largest area of country’s forest land is
Punjab in west to Assam valley in the east. occupied by Tropical dry deciduous forests
Characteri • Leaf-fall in hot summer • Trees remain leaf less during dry season.
stics • Trees are not dense, 10 to 15 m in height,
and undergrowth is abundant.
Examples • Teak, Sal, Sheesham • Sal in North
• Hurra, Mahua, Amla, • Teak in South.
• Semul, Kusum, Sandalwood etc. • Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, kair, axlewood,
etc.
• NOTE- commercially most exploited

Tropical Thorny
Tropical Thorny Sub-Tropical
Climate • Annual rainfall is less than 50 cm Sub-Tropical
• Dry season is hot and very long Climate • Wet hills forests occur at 1000-1200m
Location • South-west Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat altitude.
• MP and UP Location • Eastern Himalayas
Characteris • Small trees (8 to 10 m high) and thorny or • Western Himalayas
tics spiny shrubs of stunted growth. Characteris •
• Forests remain leafless for mostly (thorn tics
scrub or scrub jungles).
• Most of the vegetation is confined to Examples • Eastern Himalayas (wetter area)- oak,
areas along seasonal rivers chestnut, ash, birch, pine
• Western Himalayas- Chir & Pine
Examples • babool, ber, khejri, date palm, khair, • Drier areas of Kashmir- wild olives
neem, palas, acacia etc.

Temperate
Wet Temperate Vegetation Moist Temperate Vegetation Dry Temperate Vegetation
Climate • Rainfall is high • Mostly in western Himalayas • Inner dry ranges of western
• Temperature is moderate in between 1500-3000m Himalayas where precipitation is
summers and winters are cold. below 10cm
• occur between 1800-2700m
altitude in Himalayas
• Above 1500m in South
Location • Eastern Himalayas • Western Himalayas • Inner areas of western Himalayas
• South India- Nilgiris, Anamalai and
the Palani hills (SHOLA forest)
Characteri • Rate of evaporation is not high and • 30-50m in height and undergrowth • coniferous forest with xerophytic
stics trees do not shed their leaves. is mostly evergreen shrubs
• Trees are shorter there with • Mosses and ferns grow on the trees. • Epiphytes and climbers are rare
abundant undergrowth and
epiphytes.
Examples • Oak, poplar, elm, laurel, maple, • Deodar, spruce, maple, walnut, • chilgoza, deodar, oak, maple, ash,
birch, magnolina poplar, cedar, chestnut, birch, oak, celtis, olives, etc.
etc.

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 Sub-Alpine & Alpine Littoral and Swamps
Sub-Alpine & Alpine Littoral and Swamps
Climate • occurs above 2700m in eastern Himalayas Climate • soil is sandy (large amount of lime and
and above 3000m in western Himalayas salts but poor in nitrogen and other
and extends upto the snowline mineral nutrients)
• Ground water is brackish & water table is
Location • Eastern Himalayas
very close
• Western Himalayas
Location • Eastern Himalayas
Characteris • dense scruby forest
• Western Himalayas
tics • mosses and lichens also form part of
vegetation Characteris • further divided into
tics • Beach forests
Examples • silver firs, junipers, pine, birch and
• Mangroves
rhododendrons
• Fresh water swamps
• NOTE- Alpine grasslands are extensively
• evergreen vegetation.
used by the nomadic tribes like the
• plants are typical halophytes
Gujjars and the Bakarwals for grazing
• prop roots, pneumatophores and
livestock.
viviparous germination of seeds
Examples • sundari, bruguiera, sonneratia, agarm
bhendi, keora, etc.
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Forest Cover in India

• Difference between Forest Area & Forest Cover-

○ 'Forest Area' refers to all the geographic areas recorded as forest in government records under provisions of Indian
Forest Act, 1927. Thus it have legal status.
○ 'Forest Cover' refers to all lands more than one hectare in area, having a tree canopy density of more than 10%. It
indicates presence of trees over any land.
• On the basis of the percentage of the actual forest cover, the states can be grouped into four regions:

Region & Percentage States

Cover of Forest
High concentration 1. Mizoram (88.93%),
(> 40%) 2. Lakshadweep (84.56%),
3. A & N Islands (81.84%),
4. Arunachal Pradesh (80.3%),
5. Nagaland (78.21%),
6. Meghalaya (76.76%),
7. Manipur (76.11%),
8. Tripura (74.49%),

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 5. Nagaland (78.21%),
6. Meghalaya (76.76%),
7. Manipur (76.11%),
8. Tripura (74.49%),
9. Goa (60.08%),
10. Sikkim (47.31%),
11. Uttarakhand (45.32%),
12. Kerala (49.5%),
13. Dadra & Nagar Haveli (41.96%),
14. Chhattisgarh (41.12%)
Medium concentration 1. Assam (35.22%),
(20-40%) 2. Orissa (32.34%),
3. Jharkhand (29.45%),
4. Himachal Pradesh (26.40%),
5. Madhya Pradesh (25.13%),
6. Tamil Nadu (20.26%)
Low concentration 1. Karnataka (18.99%),
(10-20%) 2. Telengana (18.80%),
3. Andhra Pradesh (15.25%),
4. Maharashtra (16.45%),
5. Daman & Diu (17.51%),
6. Chandigarh(19.32%),
7. West Bengal (18.96%),
8. Delhi (12.73%),
9. Puducherry (11.54%),
10. Jammu & Kashmir (10.34%)
Very low concentration 1. Gujarat (7.48 %),
(< 10%) 2. Bihar (7.74%),
3. Uttar Pradesh (6%),
4. Rajasthan (4.73%),
5. Haryana (3.58%),
6. Punjab (3.52%)

• National Forest Policy-

○ Adopted in 1952 further modified in 1988.
○ Aim- sustainable forest management in order to conserve and expand forest reserve and to meet the needs of local
people.
○ Targets-
 bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover
 Maintaining ecological balance
 conserving natural heritage, biological diversity and genetic pool
 checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts
 Creating of a massive people’s movement involving women to encourage planting of trees & stop felling of trees
• Social Forestry-
○ management and protection of forests + afforestation on barren lands
○ National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories-
 Urban forestry (trees on public and privately owned lands in and around urban centres)
 Rural forestry (promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry)
 Agro-forestry (raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Eco Sensitive Zones

• National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of environment ministry stipulated that state governments should declare land
falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco fragile zones or ESZs under
Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Protected areas are based on the core and buffer model of management. The core area has the legal status of being a
national park while buffer areavdoes not have legal status.

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 national park while buffer areavdoes not have legal status.
• Boundaries are decided by Field based team comprising representatives from the forest department, revenue department
and Panchayati Raj institution.

Western Ghats and various committees:

• Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP)
○ Headed by Madhav Gadgil
○ Formed by MoEF in 2010
○ Recommendations-
 Entire Western Ghats region ecologically-sensitive area.
 Entire area was divided into 2 parts-
□ Protected areas (national parks and wildlife sanctuaries)
□ Ecological Sensitive Zones (ESZ-1, ESZ-2 and ESZ-3 -> different level of protection)
 Highest protection in ESZ-1 and ESZ-2 categories (no mining or dams)
 ESZs should be based on participation from local communities and local bodies.
 Western Ghats Ecology Authority (WGEA), as a statutory authority under the Ministry of Environment
• High-Level Working Group (HLWG)
○ Formed by MoEF due to stiff protest on Gadgil report.
○ Headed by Kasturirangan.
○ Recommendations-
 only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total area be brought under ESA (not entire area)
 Complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in ESA. Current mining areas in the ESA should be phased out
within the next five years
 Distinguished between cultural and natural landscape.
 No thermal power should be allowed and hydropower projects be allowed only after detailed study
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Climate Change & Pollution
Monday, October 16, 2017 12:22 AM

• Environmental change
○ change or disturbance caused by human influences and natural ecological processes.
○ Includes physical changes, biotic changes & also those caused by infestation of invasive species.
• Climate change
○ Long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators.
○ Causes-
 Natural (volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation)
 Human causes (Increase in the level of greenhouse gases & Deforestation)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

• Greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
• Incoming sunlight is- Short wave, high energy ultra-violet and visible radiation.
• Outgoing reflected wave is- infra-red or 'longwave radiation' and is less energetic than sunlight.
• This outgoing long waves are absorbed by the gases particles in atmosphere. The gases which absorb this radiation is are
called greenhouse gases.
• Following are the Major greenhouse gases-

Gas Lifetime in Natural Source Anthropogenic Source Sink Warming Share

atmosphere potential
CO2 Variable • Burning fossil fuels, • Oceans, Forests 1 60%
• Deforestation, (taken as (if water vapour
• Aerobic fermentation reference) is not counted)
of solid waste and
wastewater
CH4 12 • Wetlands, • Animal waste, • Bacteria 56 20%
• Oceans • Paddy fields, • chemical reactions
• Burning fossil fuels, in atmosphere
• Anaerobic
fermentation of solid
waste & wastewater
N2O 120 • Microbial • Fertilized soil, • Soil 280 6%
processes in • Biomass • Photochemical
oceans’ waters • Fossil fuel burning reactions in the
• Natural soil atmosphere
O3 • Complex • Reaction with free Several
photochemical radicals in the hours to
reactions in the atmosphere and days
atmosphere complex
photochemical
reactions
CFCs 45 • Industrial activities, • Chemical reactions 7020 14%
• refrigerators, in ozone layer
• pesticides,
• artificial solvents,
• foam products
HFC-23 264 9100
NOTE- though Water Vapour has highest Warming potential and share but yet is essential for survival hence not mentioned
above.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Global Warming

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Global Warming

Wrt Ozone Wrt Ocean Wrt Agriculture

• Ozone depletion occurs in Polar regions
mainly (South pole specially) because
• height of troposphere is min there
• highest backscattering as snow has
highest albedo.
• Main reason is CFCs. It plays two role-
• In troposphere, act as GHG
• In stratosphere, broken down by UV
rays from Sun into chlorine radicals
and these have the ability destroy
ozone.
• Ozone prevents high intensity UV rays
from reaching the surface & thus helps in
maintaining the Heat Budget.
• Ozone hole leads to slight cooling of
Troposphere not heating.
• Thickness of O3 is in Dobson Unit (DU).
• 1 DU = 0.01 mm
• It is difficult to change temperature of • Soil contains a large amount of organic
water easily (high specific heat), thus due matter and is, therefore, also an
to 71% water bodies earth temperature important carbon store. When the soil
remains almost constant. is intensively ploughed, more oxygen
• Largest carbon source on earth- can get into it. This extra oxygen
• Sediments in form calcium increases the rate at which the organic
carbonate matter is broken down into CO2.
• 2nd biggest is ocean (in dissolved • Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced
and hydrogen carbonate form) biologically in soils, water and animal
• Carbon dioxide dissolves more easily is wastes
saline cold water more easily than fresh • Main sources of Methane (CH4) are
warm water. Thus polar oceans act more ruminant livestock (cows and sheep)
as carbon sink than tropical and and rice cultivation. About 1/3 of total
equatorial oceans. amount of methane in atmosphere
• Impact of global warming on Oceans- comes from agricultural sources
• Impact on ocean currents
• Impact on CO2 absorbing capacity
& hence dissolved O2 declines
• Impact on marine ecosystem
• Rise of sea level

• Impact of Global Warming:

○ increase in average global rainfall (5 to 20%) due to increased amount of evaporation.
○ High temperature in colder regions
○ Oceanic impacts (as above)
• Methods to control Climate change and Global Warming:
○ Burn less fossil fuel (use alternative sources)
○ Stop deforestation
○ Capture GHGs from garbage & waste dumps
○ Climate Smart Agriculture
○ Carbon Sequestration (capture & long term storage of atmospheric CO2). Ways to do it-
 Afforestation
 Wetland Restoration
 Sustainable Agriculture
 Growing Seaweed (later it can be used to produce bio-fuel)
 Bio-char produced by pyrolysis of bio waste (later it can be used for landfill & inc soil fetility)
 Subterranean injection (injecting CO2 into depleted oil and gas reservoirs or in deep oceans)
 Growth of planktons
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

POLLUTION
• Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil.
• Agents that bring about such an undesirable change are called as pollutants.

AIR Pollution
• Industry and transport are the largest sources of air pollutants. Air pollutants can be either gases or aerosols (particles or
liquid droplets suspended in the air).
• Sources of Air Pollution-
Natural Man-made
• Dust from Deserted areas • Stationary sources-power plants, factories,
• Methane from various sources waste incinerators, construction sites, etc.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the • Mobile sources- Vehicles, aircrafts, etc.

Environment and Ecology Page 21

 • Radon gas from radioactive decay within the • Mobile sources- Vehicles, aircrafts, etc.
Earth's crust
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
• Volcanic activity (sulfur, chlorine, and ash)
• Types of Pollutants-
○ Primary- emitted directly into the air from sources at the Earth’s surface. Ex- GHGs
○ Secondary- regional gases when react with already present gases. Ex- Particulate Matters (aerosols)
NOTE- Result of Secondary pollutant is Photochemical Smog.
• Important terms related to Air pollution-
○ Black carbon (BC)- incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass
○ Aerosols- suspended particulates in the atmosphere provides condensation Nuclei.
○ Emission factor- quantity of a pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated.
○ Toxic hotspots- Urban, highly populated areas around pollutant emitters such as old factories and waste storage sites.
• Types of Air Pollution-

Indoor Pollution Outdoor Pollution

• Sources are- • Sources are-
• Radon gas from the radioactive decay of • coal is burnt in power stations
radium in rocks beneath building. Causes • exhaust gasses from petrol engines.
lung cancer. • Metallurgical work
• Second hand smoke or Passive smoke • NOTE- Diesel Engines emit less toxic gasses
• Biological chemicals due to growth of but may emit more particles
mould & micro-organisms
• Volatile Organic compounds (VOC) in
paints, glues, Air freshners, etc.
• Carbon monoxide from defective heaters,
etc.
• Ozone produced from certain High
Voltage devices

• Smog-
○ combination of smoke and fog.
○ invented around 1911 by the physician Harold Des Voeux.
○ Two types-
London type smog Los Angeles type or Photochemical Smog
• Occurs at very cold temperatures. • Occurs in sunny condition
• Burning coal leads to emissions of CO2, SO2 • It is result of emissions from traffic.
and dust. When these pollutants mix with • Nitrogenous oxides from car exhausts and
fog, droplets of highly corrosive Sulphuric hydrocarbons react in the presence of
Acid are produced in the air. sunlight to produce a noxious mixture of
aerosols and gasses.
• Photochemical smog contains tropospheric

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 • Photochemical smog contains tropospheric
ozone, formaldehyde, ketones and PAN
(peroxyacetyl nitrates).
• Acid Rain-
○ when the pH of rain falls below 5.6, it is called as acid rain.
○ Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) are the main reasons for acid rain formation.
○ Water in the air to form the nitric acid (HNO3) and the sulphuric acid (H2SO4) resulting in Acid Rain.
• Fly Ash-
○ In thermal power stations, major portion of ash comes out along with the flue gases and is collected through electro
static precipitator or filter bags before allowing the exhaust gases to escape through chimney is called Fly Ash.
○ Fly Ash is categorised as hazardous waste however it has found number of uses-
 Replacement for Portland cement used in producing concrete. Concrete made with fly ash is stronger and more
durable than traditional concrete.
 Landfilling
○ To reduce fly ash content, coal should be washed before pulverisation.
• National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP)-
○ Programme for improving ambient air quality
○ It is monitored by the Central Pollution Control Board (statutory body under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981) in association with various State Pollution Control Boards, Pollution Control Committees for Union Territories
and NEERI across the country.
○ Pollutants under consideration are-
 SOx , NOx , Suspended Particulate Material (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)
• National Air Quality Index (NAQI)-
○ prepared by an expert group, set up the Ministry of Environment and Forests
○ The index is a part of the government’s Swachh Bharat Mission.
○ The index measures eight major pollutants-
 PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb
○ The index is based on real time monitoring, and the health risks are easily identified through a colour coded system.
○ The risks will be signified through six levels – good, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor, and severe.
• Bharat Stage emission standards-
○ based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000.
○ Since October 2010, Bharat stage III norms have been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat stage IV
emission norms for cars have been in place since April 2010.
○ Government has announced that
 all two-wheelers, three-wheelers and four-wheelers will have to comply with BS IV norms from April 1, 2017
 skip BS V norms and directly implement BS VI norms by April 2020.

Water Pollution
• Presence of undesirable substances (organic, inorganic, biological or radioactive) in water which make it unfit and harmful for
use by the human beings, animals and marine life is water pollution.
• Sources of water pollution-
○ Domestic Sewage
○ Industrial Waste
○ Agricultural Waste
○ Off-shore Oil Drilling
○ Thermal Pollution (water used in cooling purpose in industries)
• Important Terms related to water Pollution-
○ Biological/Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)-
 It refers to the amount of the oxygen that would be consumed if all the organic matter in one litre of water were
oxidised by bacteria.
 It is used to measure effectiveness of wastewater treatment plant.
 The sewage water is treated till the BOD is reduced.
 BOD is a measure of the organic matter present in the water & greater the BOD of waste-water, more is its
polluting potential.
○ Eutrophication-
 enhanced plankton growth due to excess supply of nutrients. Large growths of phytoplankton are known as
blooms.
Mycofiltration-

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 ○ Mycofiltration-
 The process of using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste and microorganisms from water in soil.
○ Phytoremediation-
 Use of plants (such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and pigweed) to eliminate toxic waste from the
water or other polluted medium
○ Bio-magnification-
 increase in the concentration of a substance as you move up the food chain.
 occurs because the pollutant is persistent.
○ Bioaccumulation-
 occurs within an organism, where a concentration of a substance builds up in the tissues as it is absorbed faster
than it is removed.
○ Bio-concentration-
 Bioaccumulation often occurs in two ways, simultaneously: by eating contaminated food, and by absorption
directly from water. This second case is specifically referred to as bio-concentration

NOTE- Chlorine, Chloramine, Chlorine dioxide, Ozone and UV rays are commonly used as water disinfectant.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Solid Waste Pollution

• All waste can be categorized into three types –
○ Bio-degradable-
○ Recyclable -
○ Non-biodegradable - enzymes cannot cause its disappearance or conversion into another compound.
• The concentration of solid wastes reacting to heat, moistures and air as they lay exposed to the environment also cause
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Electronic Wastes (e-wastes)-
○ waste of irreparable computers and other electronic goods.
○ Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-waste, provided it is carried out in an environment friendly manner
○ e-waste substances include
 epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC, thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron and
aluminum.
 Elements found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium
○ Regulation of E-Waste in India-
 Notified by MoEF, these Rules provide for mandatory authorization of producer, collection center, dismantler and
recycler of e-waste;
 ‘Extended Producer Responsibility’ under which producers will be responsible for collection and channelization of
e-waste generated from the ‘end of life’ of their products to registered dismantler or recycler.
• Bioremediation-
 It is a treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non-
toxic substances.
 When Fungi are used, it is called mycoremediation.
 Bioremediation may be conducted in situ or ex situ.
 Used to clean oil spills using the bacteria of family Pseudomonas and other bacteria like Alcanivorax or Methylocella
Silvestris.
 NOTE- Heavy Metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or captured by microorganisms.
Phytoremediation is useful in these circumstances because plants are able to bioaccumulate these toxins.
 Genetic engineering has been used to create organisms designed for specific purposes. For e.g. bacterium Deinococcus
radiodurans (the most radioresistant organism known) has been modified to consume and digest toluene and ionic
mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Noise Pollution
• Any sound, which is unwanted or unpleasant to our ears, is called noise.
• Any undesirable sound which adversely affects the physical and mental health of its recipient is called noise pollution.
• Green Mufflers-
 rows of green plants are grown near the noisy places like highways or industrial areas so that they obstruct the sound
noise.
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Environment and Ecology Page 24

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Environment and Ecology Page 25

Wetlands
Monday, October 16, 2017 12:22 AM

• It is defined as transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the
surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
• The land area is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct
ecosystem.
• Primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is characteristic vegetation of aquatic
plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil (saturated soil with anaerobic conditions).
• Ramsar Definition-
○ Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres.
• Classification-
Marine/Coastal Inland Human Made
• Saline • Fresh water • Aquaculture ponds,
• Shallow waters less than 6 m deep, • rivers, streams • irrigation channels,
• Coral Reefs • Inland river deltas; • irrigated fields,
• Shores (Sand, shingle or pebble) • Freshwater springs, • seasonally flooded agricultural land,
• Brackish • Oasis • salt exploitation sites,
• Mangroves, • Lakes • Water storage areas
• coastal lagoons, • Saline, Brackish or Alkaline • Dams
• estuarine waters, • Bogs, Peats, Marshes
• Karst
• Main types of wetlands-
○ Marsh-
 Found at the edges of lakes and streams (transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems)
 Dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species
○ Swamp-
 Found adjacent rivers or lakes
 Forested wetland having slow moving or stagnant water.
 Peat swamp forests- swamp forests where waterlogged soils prevent woody debris from fully decomposing &
creates acidic peat.
○ Mire-
 wetland without forest cover, dominated by peat-forming plants.
 2 types-
□ Bog-
 mire that accumulates peat thus dome shaped acidic surface & higher than surrounding.
 Functions as carbon sink
 Mainly found in cold & temperate climate in NH.
□ Fen-
 Served with both groundwater and rain water thus less acidic & mineral rich than Bog.
 Located in slopes or depression in cold regions of Western Europe.
• Importance of Wetlands-
○ Aquaculture (harvest fish/aquatic animals for Humans and medicinal purpose)
○ Flood control (act as barrier or shock absorber)
○ Groundwater replenishment
○ Nutrient retention
○ Sediment traps
○ Water purification
○ Reservoirs of biodiversity
• Wetlands in India-
○ Account for 4.7% of the total geographical area.
○ Inland wetlands- 69%; coastal wetlands- 27%, and other wetlands.
Natural coastal wetlands have the largest area.

Environment and Ecology Page 26

 ○ Natural coastal wetlands have the largest area.
○ Gujarat has the highest proportion (17.5%) and Mizoram has the lowest are under wetlands.
○ Indian wetlands can be grouped as-
Himalayan wetlands Indo-Gangetic wetlands Coastal wetlands Deccan
• Ladakh and Zanskar • largest wetland system in • along the 7500 km long • small and large
• Pangong Tso, India coastline in reservoirs and several
• Tso Morad, • West Bengal, water storage tanks
• Chantau, • Orissa,
• Noorichan, • Andhra Pradesh,
• Chushul and Hanlay • Tamil Nadu,
marshes • Kerala,
• Kashmir Valley • Karnataka,
• Dal, • Goa,
• Anchar, • Maharashtra
• Wular, • Gujarat
• Haigam, • Mangrove forests of
• Malgam, • Sunderbans,
• Haukersar and Kranchu • Andaman and Nicobar
lakes Islands;
• Central Himalayas • Offshore coral reefs of
• Nainital, • Gulf of Kutch,
• Bhimtal • Gulf of Mannar,
• Naukuchital); Lakshwadeep
• Eastern Himalayas • Andaman and Nicobar
• wetlands in NE states Islands.
• Beels in the Brahmaputra
• Barak valley

• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands-

○ Signed in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran
○ It is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for
the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
○ Presently 169 Countries are have joined Convention, with 2,234 wetland sites.
○ Major obligations of countries which are party to the Convention are-
 Designate wetlands for inclusion in List of Wetlands of International Importance
 Promote wise use of wetlands in their territory
○ Criteria for unique wetlands-
 supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
 Regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
 Supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies and contributes to global biological diversity.
 Regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland dependent non-
avian animal species.
○ Ramsar Sites in India (26 in number)-
S.No Site State Date of Declaration Area (in sq. Km)
1 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir 23.3.1990 173
2 Tsomoriri Lake Jammu & Kashmir 19.8.2002 120
3 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu & Kashmir 8.11.2005 3.50
4 Hokera Wetland Jammu & Kashmir 8.11.2005 13.75
5 Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 38.56
6 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 19.8.2002 307.29
7 Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 NA
8 Harike Lake Punjab 23.3.1990 86
9 Kanjli Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 14.84
10 Ropar Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 41.36

Environment and Ecology Page 27

 10 Ropar Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 41.36
11 Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh 8.11.2005 265.90
(Brijghat to Narora Stretch)
12 Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 19.8.2002 31
13 Keoladeo Ghana NP Rajasthan 1.10.1981 28.73
14 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 23.3.1990 736
15 Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat 24.9.2012 120
16 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 19.8.2002 525
17 Chilka Lake Orissa 1.10.1981 1140
18 Deepor Beel Assam 19.8.2002 4.14
19 East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 19.8.2002 378
20 Loktak Lake Manipur 23.3.1990 945
21 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 8.11.2005 2.40
22 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 19.8.2002 673
23 Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 19.8.2002 17.26
24 Vembanad Kol Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 4583
25 Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 1860
26 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 19.8.2002 11.3

• Montreux Record-
○ List of wetlands of International Importance which are under threat due to developmental activities & pollution.
○ India wetlands in this list- Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan and Loktak Lake, Manipur
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Environment and Ecology Page 28

National & International Conventions
Sunday, September 10, 2017 10:01 PM

Year Convention Details

1971 Ramsar • Conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands
Convention • only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem
• adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 02 Feb 1971 (Wetland Day)
1972 STOCKHOLM • First declaration of international protection of the environment
DECLARATION • 113 States, including India, participated and accepted the declaration
• Provided 26 principles which formed basis of International Policy for Protection and improvement of the
environment
• UN Environment Program (UNEP) agency has been established by UN as result of this convention,
1973 CITES • CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FLORA AND FAUNA
• Came into force in 1975
• Aimed to control or prevent international commercial trade in endangered species or products derived
from them.
• Did NOT directly protected endangered species rather reduced international market for them.
• Secretariat – Geneva, Switzerland
• TRAFFIC– wildlife trade monitoring network; joint program of WWF & IUCN; HQ- Cambridge, United
Kingdom.
1982 NAIROBI • Adopted at Nairobi for celebrating 10th Anniversary of Stockholm conference on Human Environment
DECLARATION in 1972
• Creation of a special commission to frame long term environment strategies for achieving sustainable
developments.
1985 VIENNA • Provided an important legal basis for taking international action to protect Ozone layer
CONVENTION
1987 MONTREAL • To protect ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be
PROTOCOL responsible for ozone depletion
• Entered into force in 1989. Since then undergone many revisions. Latest being- Kigali Agreement, 2016.
According to this amendment now GHGs reduction is also included in Montreal Protocol as GHG such as
HFC also leads to Ozone depletion.
• All nations are NOT treated equally i.e. acknowledges that certain countries have contributed to ozone
depletion more than others.
1989 BASEL • To reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations specially to Least Developed Countries
CONVENTION (LDCs).
• Does NOT address the movement of radioactive waste.

1992 RIO EARTH • Also known as- United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
SUMMIT • Major issues addressed-
• production of toxic components (Ex: lead in gasoline, radioactive chemicals)
• alternative sources of energy (replacing fossil fuels)
• reliance on public transportation
• growing scarcity of water
• Outcomes-
3 documents:
Documents Details
Rio Declaration on • Consists of 27 principles intended to guide future sustainable
Environment and development
Development
Agenda 21 • Non-binding action plan of UN with regard to sustainable development
• (21 refers to 21st century)
• Contains-
• Social and Economic Dimensions

Environment and Ecology Page 29

 • Social and Economic Dimensions
• Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
• Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
• Means of Implementation
Forest Principles • Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for
Management, Conservation & Sustainable Development of All Types of
Forests.
3 conventions:
Convention Details
Convention on • Legally binding convention for conservation of biological diversity
Biological Diversity • Agreement covers all species, ecosystem, genetic resources
(CBD) • Goals-
• conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity
• Sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
• US did not ratified it
• 2012, COP 11 – Hyderabad, India
• 2016, COP 13 in Los Cabos, Baja California South, Mexico
• Protocols came up in different COPs-
• Cartagena Protocol
• Nagoya Protocol
Framework • Aims at reducing emissions of GHGs in order to combat global warming.
Convention on Legally non-binding
Climate Change • Protocols came up in different COPs-
(UNFCCC) • Kyoto Protocol
United Nations
Convention to
Combat
Desertification
1997 KYOTO • Agreement made under UNFCCC.
PROTOCOL • Adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
• Phase -1: 2005 to 2012; Phase-2: 2013 to 2020 (Extended in Doha Amend-2012).
• Post 2020, Paris Climate deal will replace it.
• Detailed rules for the implementation of Protocol were adopted at Marrakesh Accords in 2001.
• Under it countries tries to reduce emissions of 6 greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, HFC & PFC).
• May also do trading of emission to achieve targets.
• Countries are grouped into-
• Annex-1: Developed Nations; compulsory reduction targets
• Non Annex-1: Developing or least developed countries; voluntary targets.
• Mechanism for green investment-
• Emission Trading: allows countries to buy 'Kyoto units' to achieve targets.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): achieve targets by investing in Green Projects of Non
Annex-1 countries.
• Joint Implementation: Annex-1 countries can invest among themselves in Green Projects in their
nation.
• Adaptation Fund was created under this protocol in 2001.
1998 ROTTERDAM • Regulate International trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health&
CONVENTION environment from potential harm.
• Legally binding obligations for implementation of Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
• Adopted in 1998 and entered into force in 2004
2000 CARTAGENA • Agreement made under CBD.
PROTOCOL • Aims to ensure safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs-GM crops, etc.)
resulting from modern biotechnology.
• Adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
• Establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate exchange of information on living modified

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 • Establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate exchange of information on living modified
organisms.
2001 STOCKHOLM • International legally binding agreement on Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
CONVENTION • POPs are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical,
biological, and photolytic processes
• Dirty Dozen-
• 8 organo-chlorine pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex &
toxaphene)
• 2 industrial chemicals (hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyl)
• 2 industrial by-products (dioxins and furans)
• Convention entered into force in 2004
2010 NAGOYA • Agreement made under CBD.
PROTOCOL • Aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.
• Strategic Plan consists of 20 new biodiversity targets for 2020, termed the ‘Aichi Biodiversity Targets'
2013 MINAMATA • International treaty designed to protect human health & environment from anthropogenic emissions
CONVENTION and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
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_

Recent Developments in Treaties, Protocols, etc.

Convention Year Details

UNFCCC 2015 • COP21 in Paris (2015) or Paris Agreement
• Legally binding if joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent
of global greenhouse emissions
• Limit global warming to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with a
stretch goal of keeping below 1.5 C.
• By 2020 each country has to put up INDCs
• Paris Agreement is not a treaty, and countries’ INDCs are not binding
MILLENNIUM 2000 • to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound and quantified targets (deadline
DEVELOPMENT of 2015)
GOALS (MDG) • MDGs are internationally agreed framework of 8 goals and 18 targets was complemented by 48
technical indicators (to measure progress).
• The goals were adopted in 2000 but base level for setting targets is 1990.
• Difference between goal, target and indicators-

• 8 goals are-

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UN CONFERENCE 2012 • Concept of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was born.
ON SUSTAINABLE • balances three dimensions of sustainable development: environmental, social, and economic.
DEVELOPMENT • 17 goals and 169 targets to be achieved by 2030
(RIO+20) • 17 goals are-
1. Poverty eradication
2. Food security
3. Healthy life
4. Education and learning opportunity for all
5. Gender equality and women empowerment
6. Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and reliable energy
8. Economic growth and productive employment
9. Build resilient infrastructure, industrialization and foster innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of forest and bio-diversity.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies and provide access to justice for all
17. Strengthen and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development

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INDIAN ECOLOGY RELATED LAWS & DEVELOPMENT

Law Year Details

INDIAN FOREST ACT 1927 • Recognises forest dwellers' rights and makes conservation more accountable.
• Law recognises three types of rights-
• Land Rights- given to people, who have been cultivating land prior to December, 13, 2005.
• Use Rights- use and/or collect the minor forest produce (tendupatta, medicinal herbs, etc.)
• Right to Protect and Conserve- protect and manage forests to people of village communities.
• categorises forests into three categories-
• Reserve forest- only on forest land or waste land, restricted access, government ownership.
• Protected forest- any land other than forest land, limited access & cutting allowed.
• Village forest- state government assigns ownership to any village community.
WILDLIFE 1972 • Provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and matters connected with them
PROTECTION ACT • Act constitutes a National Board for Wildlife that provides guidelines for framing policies by State

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PROTECTION ACT • Act constitutes a National Board for Wildlife that provides guidelines for framing policies by State
& Central governments
• Also sets up National Tiger Conservation Authority
• Five kinds of protected areas notified in the Act-
• Sanctuaries-
○ State/Central Govt may by notification declare its intention to constitute any area as a
sanctuary for protecting wildlife or environment
○ Both Govt determines nature and extent of rights.
○ Tourism some human activities are allowed
• National Parks-
○ May be within sanctuary or outside.
○ State Govt. cannot alter boundaries except on recommendation of NBW
○ No human activity is allowed
○ All provisions of sanctuary is also applicable to NP
• Conservation Reserves-
○ State Govt. after consultations with local communities can declare any area owned by
Govt (particularly areas adjacent to NP or Sanct) as conservation reserves.
○ Management committee is constituted by govt for monitoring & conservation.
• Community Reserves-
○ State Govt. can, in consultation with the community or an individual who have
volunteered to conserve wildlife, declare any private or community land as community
reserve.
○ Management Committee is constituted by State Govt for managing reserve.
• Tiger Reserve-
○ State Govt. on recommendation of Tiger Conservation Authority may notify an area as a
tiger reserve.
ENVIRONMENT 1986 • Provides for protection & improvement of environment and environmental standards, policies for
(PROTECTION) ACT improvement of environment & prevention of human beings from environmental hazards.
BIOLOGICAL 2002 • To conserve and promote sustainable use of biological diversity and to regulate the access to
DIVERSITY ACT biological resources with equitable share in benefits.
• In line with CBD
• Sets up National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Board (SBB) and Biodiversity
Management Committees
• Also aims to respect and protect knowledge of local communities traditional knowledge related to
biodiversity
NATIONAL GREEN 2010 • Creation of a special tribunal to handle the expeditious disposal of the cases pertaining to
TRIBUNAL ACT environmental issues.
• Within a period of 30 days of award or order received by aggrieved party
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_

Important policies for environment protection

Policy Year Details

COASTAL 2011 • Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ)-
REGULATION ZONE • coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line (HTL)
• Range of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers
• Notification regulates setting up and expansion of industries or processing plants, construction
activity, dumping of waste, mining etc. in CRZ.
• Shailesh Nayak Committee-
• Committee recommended several relaxations in the terms set by the 2011 notification.
• Also diluted regulatory powers held by central government in coastal areas.
• Report recommends that all activities except those requiring environmental clearances should fall
under the ambit of the state and local planning bodies instead of being regulated by central policy
ECO-SENSITIVE • Mentioned under Environment Protection Act, 1986
ZONES • Areas around Protected Areas (NP, Sanctuaries) to prevent ecological damage caused due to

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ZONES • Areas around Protected Areas (NP, Sanctuaries) to prevent ecological damage caused due to
developmental activities.
• Create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas.
• Generally width of ESZ could go up to 10 Kms around protected area.
PROJECT TIGER 1973 • Aims at tiger conservation based on a 'core-buffer' strategy.
• Core areas were freed from all sorts of human activities while buffer areas were subjected to
'conservation oriented land use'.
• Starting from nine reserves in 1973-74 the number has grown up to forty one
PROJECT ELEPHANT 1992 • Centrally sponsored scheme to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing
states.
PROJECT SNOW 2010 • To conserve biodiversity with community participation for Snow Leopard which is globally
LEOPARD endangered species as well as the most important flagship species of mountain region.
• Project will be operational in five Himalayan States viz. J&K, HP, UK, Sikkim, and Arunachal.
INDIAN CROCODILE 1975 • To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries
CONSERVATION
PROJECT
VULTURE 2004 • India has nine species of vultures
CONSERVATION • Vultures are highly susceptible to Diclofenac, and are killed by kidney failure
INDIAN RHINO
VISION 2020
NATIONAL ACTION 2008 • Outlining existing and future 8 policies and programs addressing climate mitigation and
PLAN ON CLIMATE adaptation.
CHANGE • 8 missions are (SEHWAG HC):
• National Solar Mission
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
• National Water Mission
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission for a “Green India” (forest cover from 23% to 33%)
• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
• 4 new missions to NAPCC-
• Wind energy
• Human health
• Coastal resources
• Waste-to-energy
National Action
Programme to
Combat
Desertification
International 2015 India & France announced at 2015 Paris Climate Summit.
Agency for Solar Invitations to over 100 countries (countries between tropics) to join the coalition
Policy and Similar to the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Application (InSPA) HQ- Gwal Pahari, Gurugram, Haryana
Opened for signatures in Marrakech, Morocco in November 2016 & 121 countries have joined so
far.
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Environment and Ecology Page 34

Mineral Resources
Friday, December 1, 2017 10:02 AM

S.No
Mineral India World
Production Source Production Source
1 Coal CH>JH>OR JH>OR>CH CHN>US>IND US>RUS>CHN
2 Bauxite OR>GJ>MH OR>AP>GJ AUS>CHN>BR GUINEA>AUS>BR
3 Iron OR>CH>KA KA>OR>JH CHN>AUS>BR AUS>RUS>BR
4 Magnesium MH>MP>OR OR>KA>MP CHN>S.AFR>AUS S.AFR>UKRN>AUS
5 Chromite OR>KA OR>Mani>Naga
6 Feldspar RJ>TG>AP RJ> TG>AP
7 Diamond ------ MP>AP>CH RUS>BOSTA>CONG AUS>CONG>BOSTWANA
8 Gold KA>JH KA>RJ>BR CHN>AUS>RUS AUS>RUS>S.AFR
9 Silver RJ>KA RJ>JH>AP MEX>PERU>CHN PERU>AUS>CHILE
10 Copper MP>RJ>JH RJ>JH>MP CHILE>CHN>PERU CHILE>AUS>PERU
11 Zinc RJ>JK RJ>MH>MP CHN>AUS>PERU AUS>CHN>PERU
12 Dolomite CH>TG>OR MP>AP>CH
13 Graphite TN>JH>OR ARUN>OR>JH CHN>IND>BR TURKEY>BR>CHN
14 Petroleum RJ>GJ ASSAM>GJ SAUDI>US>RUS VENEZ>SAUDI>CANADA
15 Natural Gas ASSAM>GJ ASSAM>GJ US>RUS>QATAR IRAN>RUS>QATAR
16 Lead CHN>AUS>US AUS>CHN>RUS
17 Cobalt CONGO>CHN>CAN CONGO>AUS>CUBA
18 Nickel PHP>RUS>AUS AUS>BR
19 Tungsten CHN>RUS>CAN CHN>CAN>RUS
20 Mica CHN>US>S.KOREA

Environment and Ecology Page 35