Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DIAGNOSIS OF WATER
IN THE AMERICAS
Edited by
BLANCA JIMÉNEZ-CISNEROS
JOSÉ GALIZIA-TUNDISI
DIAGNOSIS OF WATER IN THE AMERICAS
IANAS WATER PROGRAM
Academia Mexicana de Ciencias
Calle Cipreses s/n, km 23.5 de la
Carretera Federal México - Cuernavaca,
San Andrés Totoltepec,
Tlalpan, C.P. 14400, México, D.F.
www.amc.mx
academia@amc.edu.mx
Tel. (52 55) 58 49 49 05
Editorial Coordination:
Mexican Academy of Sciences
Regina M. Alarcón-Contreras
María Luisa Torregrosa y Armentia
Editors:
Blanca Jiménez-Cisneros (Mexican Academy of Sciences)
José Galizia-Tundisi (Brazilian Academy of Sciences)
Design:
Imelda Paredes (Mexican Academy of Sciences)
Ixchel Obregón
ISBN: 978-607-96209-2-9
Printed in México
IANAS WATER PROGRAM
DIAGNOSIS OF WATER
IN THE AMERICAS
INTERAMERICAN NETWORK OF ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES
Edited by
BLANCA JIMÉNEZ-CISNEROS
JOSÉ GALIZIA-TUNDISI
INTERAMERICAN NETWORK OF ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES-IANAS
PARTICIPANT ACADEMIES
ARGENTINA CHILE
National Academy of Exact, Chilean Academy of Sciences
Physical and Natural Sciences of www.academia-ciencias.cl
Argentina
www.ancefn.org.ar DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Academy of Sciences of the
BOLIVIA Dominican Republic
National Academy of Sciences www.academiadecienciasrd.org
of Bolivia
www.aciencias.org.bo GUATEMALA
Academy of Medical, Physical and
BRAZIL Natural Sciences of Guatemala
Brazilian Academy of Sciences mcasamayoa@gmail.com
www.abc.org.br
MEXICO
CANADA Mexican Academy of Sciences
The Royal Society of Canada www.amc.mx
The Academies of Arts, Humanities
and Sciences of Canada NICARAGUA
www.rsc.ca Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences
www.cienciasdenicaragua.org
COLOMBIA
Colombian Academy of Exact, PERU
Physical and Natural Sciences National Academy of Sciences of Peru
www.accefyn.org.co www.ancperu.org
Water is vital for human life, we use water to drink, to grow our food, to clean up
our environment, we use it as a way of transport, for power generation, and a for
thousands of other purposes. Water resources are limited and are also unevenly
distributed in the regions of the world.
In America, the Atacama region in Chile is famous for an almost total absence
of rain, in the same sense, the communities of the arid deserts in southwestern
North America, are engaged in a constant battle against lack of water for human
life. In contrast, other regions such as the Amazon basin are equally famous for
its abundance of water, however; even that abundance can be threatened by
changing weather patterns.
There is one fact about water that stands above among any other: the current
patterns of water used are unsustainable in many regions of the world, including
major portions of the American continent.
One of the greatest challenges of the XXI century will be to improve our
management and use of water, to ensure that this critical resource supports a
world population of nine billion or more in 2050. A substantial contribution to
overcome this challenge is the effective use of science to improve the use of our
water resources
The effective use of science means not only to create new knowledge, but also
to translate this scientific knowledge towards the open public, so that new
technologies and new concepts can be implemented quickly.
This volume is the result of a project of the “Water Network” which is part of the
“Inter-American Network of Academies of Science” (IANAS). Our organization
is the network of science academies on the American Continent, created from
the initiative and the spirit encouraged by the operation of the “Inter-Academic
Panel” (IAP), which brings together more than one hundred national science
academies worldwide.
IANAS members are all the countries that have established an academy of
sciences. IANAS’s mission is to foster cooperation between the academies of
sciences and promote their participation as relevant actors in the development
of the countries of the region. IANAS bases its operation on programs. The Water
Program completes its first stage with the publication of this volume: Diagnosis
of water in the Americas. The diagnosis of each country is the result of the work
of scientific networks in each of the member academies of IANAS. This work
was coordinated by José Galizia Tundisi from Brazil, and Blanca Jiménez from
Mexico. Both of them co-chair the program.
IANAS can quickly establish connections between scientists who have the best
current scientific information and those instances in each country that requires
it for decision making. One of the goals of IANAS is to provide fundamental
information to the involved authorities to undertake actions to properly allocate
water resources. We also identified opportunities in the design of new processes
that improve water use in order to achieve sustainability in the long term. Finally,
we recommend contacting the national academies of sciences in the Americas
as partners to provide expert advice to decision-makers, locally and nationally.
We thank all of our American Continent scientists who participated carrying
out this volume; as well as to the global network of science academies (IAP) for
providing their financial support. Also to the Mexican Academy of Sciences and
the Institute of Engineering of the National Autonomous University of Mexico
for editing, printing and distributing this book.
In these countries and regions, water can be abundant, scarce or even rare. The
multiple uses of water in agriculture, industry or domestic supply, is a complex
matter that requires implementing an integrated handling which is difficult to
accomplish. Also, since human activities have a daily impact on surface and
underground water and given the high rate of worldwide urbanization; the
availability of the resource is deteriorated on daily bases by pollution and fatigue
causing a severe negative effect to the public health and to the ecosystems; thus
creating a serious safety problem for the entire world.
We hope that the inputs presented in this book, be representative of the diversity
in the availability of water, pollution problems and public policy strategies on
the continent. The policy of water management change considerably in the
countries: laws and public policies are diverse and are found at different stages
of development. The comparative description of the status of water policy
and its availability or lack of it in such different countries will certainly be useful
information to increase the exchange of policies and technical experiences.
The editors are confident that this book will be very useful to strengthen the
study of water resources in the different countries of the American continent,
providing in this context its share to the development of public policies.
The editors thank extensively the efforts of all the authors of this text as well
as those who participated as coordinators of national texts as members of the
IANAS Water Network. Blanca Jiménez-Cisneros PhD and José Galizia-Tundisi
PhD, thank the Mexican Academy of Sciences, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences
and the IANAS Directive Committee for their support in the production of this
text. The editors also acknowledge the support of the Engineering Institute of
the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
Blanca Jiménez-Cisneros
Co-Chair Water Program
IANAS
José Galizia-Tundisi
Co-Chair Water Program
IANAS
June 2013
Presentation
In 2002, the Mexican Academy of Sciences (MAS) established specialized
committees to undertake studies on various key issues and make
recommendations to guide decision-making at various levels of government.
In particular, it created the Water Committee, a working group designed to use
scientific knowledge to achieve the sustainable, integral use of water, thereby
enhancing citizens’ well-being. Mexico, like many other countries, faces several
water-related problems including shortages, pollution, the need for improved
administration coupled with the lack of ecological management and the impact
of climate change on the hydrological cycle.
Poor water resource management is one of the main causes of the loss of
opportunities for the sustainable development of several countries and the
Academies of Science comprising IANAS consider that this complex situation
requires scientific and technological action and effective management that
will contribute to better use of existing supplies, permit the recovery and
conservation of degraded areas and groundwater reserves and develop public
policies to ensure the necessary water resources for future generations. Together,
the Academies constitute an excellent forum for the dissemination of quality
information and serve as an expert interlocutor for supporting decision-makers
at the national and regional level.
Within this framework, the “Diagnosis of Water in the Americas” was developed,
in which each Academy provided a strategic overview of the water resources of
its respective country. The documents were prepared by multidisciplinary experts
and make a valuable contribution to the debate on water policies in the Americas.
We obviously have top-level scientists and technologists who provide solutions
to the problems of the region and I am confident that this joint assessment will
be vital to addressing the challenge of water for the future of the planet.
THE WATER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT .......... 535
1. Introduction
2. The Occurrence and Availability of Water
3. Water Use
4. Water Resources Research in the United States
5. Major Water Issues Facing the U.S.
6. References
Argentina
and evaluate alternatives that promote
agreements on priority workable proposals.
In this way, it will be possible to back the
“And time, irreversible, that hurts us and flees,
water, is nothing more than one of your metaphors”.
prompt and adezquate assignment of budget
J. L. Borges (“Poem for the Fourth Element”, 1964). resources and legitimate complementary
income to develop policies and projects that
José María Dagnino Pastore1, Adolfo harmoniously sustain the achievement of two
Sturzenegger1, Eduardo H. Charreau2, Oscar basic objectives: to satisfy the social function
Vardé3, Conrado Bauer3 y Pablo Bereciartúa1 of water (equity) and allow its productive
use (growth) and thus contribute to the
Academia Nacional de Ciencias Económicas
1
sustainable and comprehensive development
of the country.
2
Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas, Fisi-
cas y Naturales The international acknowledgement of water
as the essential support for life and its future
Academia Nacional de Ingeniería
3
is unanimous. This entails the pressing need
to care for its management, quality and
1. Introduction rational use, and consequently to protect its
The National Academies sponsoring the natural cycle and the ecosystems of surface
present work have summoned a group of and groundwater basins, as well as expand
university professionals concerned with the and consolidate the services that purify
problems regarding water in Argentina. and provide safe water, collect, treat and
They have been dedicated to analyzing the dispose of wastewaters and prevent flooding
situation, gathering part of the generally and droughts. The activities mentioned
disperse and discontinuous information are fundamental world-wide elements for
available until 2008/2010, and have put promoting health and the social integration
forward their opinions in this outreach project. and development of all nations. The
Our intention is to point out the importance of “United Nations Conference for Sustainable
the issues regarding water in our country and Development” held in Johannesburg in 2002,
the need to adopt the most urgent measures placed water first when identifying the five
required by the current situation. At the same issues to receive priority attention.
time, we intend to promote the short term
expansion of work programs that facilitate Each country, including Argentina, must
analysis and drive comprehensive organization commit especially to plan and bring about
17
ARGENTINA
actions that lead to enabling appropriate In conclusion, the objective is directed to
water availability and its more sensible, reveal relevant aspects of the issue in an
rational and fair use, ensuring the continuity orderly manner, as a summary, as a reminder
and preservation of a supply that satisfies not of basic information and as a reference
only human needs regarding quantity, quality, contribution to move forward on ideas and
time and place, but also productive activities, proposals that allow the establishment of
ecosystem conservation and biodiversity. priorities for action in order to face current and
future challenges in our country. The following
The adoption and fulfillment of these objectives persons have coordinated the production of
are a responsibility shared by governments, the report and proposals “The Issue of Water”:
businessmen, specialized professionals, the ex-president of the Academia Nacional
technicians and workers, as well as the general de Ciencias Económicas (National Academy
population; their knowledge regarding the for Economic Sciences) José María Dagnino
importance of water and the urgent need Pastore, PhD and its current president Adolfo
to preserve its proper use must constitute Sturzenegger, PhD; in collaboration with the
the necessary support that will allow to president of the Academia Nacional de Ciencias
make reasonable proposals for policies and Exactas, Físicas y Naturales (National Academy
actions and put them into practice. With for Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences)
such broad participation, it will be possible to Eduardo H. Charreau, PhD; and the support
make general, regional and sectoral interests for publication and diffusion of the report
compatible, and to promote the appropriate from Oscar Verde, president of the Academia
legislation, management, execution and Nacional de Ingeniería (National Academy for
updating of structural measures (physical Engineering).
works) and non-structural measures (systems
for training, setting rates, regulating, controlling The list of professionals who have personally
and diffusion). These actions will encourage and participated in the development of the report
enable effective water governance. includes Conrado Bauer, Gustavo Devoto and
Luis U. Jáuregui, hydraulic and civil engineers
Since 2008, the authors have met periodically from the National Academy of Engineering;
to promote and organize the content and Pablo Bereciartúa, hydraulic and civil engineer;
design of this document. They have been Emilio Lentini and Juan Antonio Zapata. PhD.,
through the information available, even when specialists in economics; and Mario Valls PhD.,
it has been incomplete, and have come up expert in water law. We finally express our
with and discussed proposals which have acknowledgement regarding the contributions
led to the publication of this study as an on water management of Javier Pascuchi and
additional contribution for the outreaching the special contributions of the civil engineering
and analysis of the problems created by Luciana Manzelli, Federica Brenner and
the use of water. It is not only directed to Augusto Mercadier, economists, and Susana
specialists in the subject, but also to the press D.R. Savoia, PhD. (Technical Secretary of the
and for distribution to the general public. National Academy for Economic Sciences).
18
ARGENTINA
2. Context “the issue of water”. Within the context of
Water has become a critical resource for the paradigm of sustainable development, it
the development of societies in the XXIst is necessary to come up with strategies that
century, to the extent that when the 2002 are focused on reducing the gaps between
UN Conference for Sustainable Development a growing demand (that requires increasing
in Johannesburg selected the five most rationality and control) and the capacity to
important topics necessary for sustainable satisfy it. Therefore it is necessary to consider
development, it placed water at the top of the the issue of water within the concept of
list, as mentioned in the foreword. Previously integrated management of hydric resources.
in 1993, the United Nations had established
the 22 of March as “WORLD WATER DAY” to 2.1 Objectives
represent the importance of the issue and its Based on the collection and analysis of the
continuous renovation. information available on a worldwide, regional
and national scale, the following aspects have
In a more general framework, the concern over been developed in the present work:
water results from two tendencies: a) rapid • To identify the main topics related to the
growth of demand brought about by an increase “issue of water”, and its global and regional
in population, growing economic development situation, particularly in Latin America
and a more concentrated urban population, (points 3 and 4), with brief references to
all of which stimulate the demand to satisfy its our country.
various uses, no matter if they regard basic vital • To present the specific characteristics of
needs, food production, hygiene, conservation each one of these topics in Argentina, so as
of the environment, or development in its to offer elements that describe their current
broadest sense; b) a simultaneous increase in situation and recent evolution (point 5.1).
the factors that limit the quantity and quality of • To create of a series of conclusions that
the water supply: while the quantity available is lay down current and future challenges, as
determined by the characteristics of ecosystems well as certain actions that are considered a
and the hydrological cycle in each geographical priority to meet them (points 5.2 and 5.3).
area, quality decreases due to contamination
and poor practices. These tendencies result 3. The Sustainability of the Use
in the obvious gaps that grow between the of Hydric Resources; General
needs that must be satisfied and the hydric Situation and Outlook.
resources apt to meet them. Although these 3.1 Evaluation of the Availability
circumstances are present world-wide, they of Hydric Resources
present specific conditions in each region and 3.1.1 Water in the World
every country. The world contains a large amount of available
In recent years, and in response to the water, although it is unevenly distributed in
evidence of the challenges mentioned time and space. It is found naturally in several
above, there has been a growing awareness states: solid, liquid and gas, within different
regarding this matter, which can be called positions in the air, on the Earth’s surface,
19
ARGENTINA
underground and in the oceans, and has a
variable content of salts (FIG. 1.) (Ramsar,
2009).
* Rebouças, Aldo C. et al. “Aguas dulces em Brasil. São Paulo”, Escrituras Editora, 1999
20
ARGENTINA
3.1.2 Water in Latin America 3.1.3 Water in Argentina
Latin America is one of the regions with the Argentina’s water resources are distributed
greatest wealth in hydric resources, holding irregularly, two thirds of its territory is
26% of the world’s water and only 6% of its arid and semi-arid and only one third is
population, while in contrast Asia concentrates rich in water sources, most of which are
30% of available water and 60% of the world’s surface waters which represent 84% of the
population. Nevertheless, Latin America faces available water in the country.
serious issues with respect to water supply: it
contains some of the most humid areas on Earth The uncontrolled growth of industrial
and some of the driest deserts, water sources are and productive uses and the untreated
polluted to an important degree and in recent wastewater they discharge, together
decades, the region has been going through with the disorganized development of
intense urbanization. Two thirds of the land important marginal human settlements,
in Latin America is arid or semiarid, including have provoked considerable deterioration
great extensions in the center and north of of hydric resources as a consequence of
Mexico, northeast Brazil, northwest Argentina, inadequate exploitation and the dumping
northern Chile and areas in Bolivia and Peru. It is or infiltration of all kinds of contaminating
estimated that one fourth of the Latin American substances. This has brought about issues
population –more than 100 million people– live related to the development of aquatic life,
in areas under water stress, mainly in Mexico, increase in the cost of water purification,
Argentina and the countries located along the appearance of water-borne diseases or an
western coast of the continent (PNUMA, 1999). increase in their incidence, and a decline
in conditions for the development of
The fact that Latin America is the region with recreational activities.
the greatest water availability per capita
does not imply that there are no populations Overall, Argentina’s average annual hydric
suffering from serious water scarcity. The supply per inhabitant is greater than 20,000 m3/
region is becoming more dependent on inhab., much higher than the threshold for water
the use of its groundwater sources: South stress adopted by the UNDP (United Nations
America obtains 40 to 60% of its water from Program for Development) of 1,000 m3/inhab.
below the surface, while Central America and Nevertheless, in spite of this important water
Mexico depend 65% on these sources. In supply and because it is concentrated in the
Mexico for example, 102 out of 653 aquifers area corresponding to the Rio de la Plata basin,
are over-exploited. With a population there is a serious imbalance between potential
demanding more basic services and a model demand and availability in wide regions in the
for economic development based on the country (Table 2).
exploitation of raw materials, Latin America In addition to water quantity, it is relevant to
is headed towards the worsening of its consider the quality of available water. In a great
problems regarding exploitation of its water part of Argentina, for example, groundwater is
sources (Tribunal Latinoamericano del Agua). affected by high concentrations of arsenic and
21
ARGENTINA
Table 2 . Imbalance Between Potential Demand and Availability in Wide Regions in the Country
Region Problem
Arid and Semi-arid Water deficit due to scarcity and seasonal variations of supply.
Limit to the favorable possibilities for development of agricultural
products of high relative value.
Conflict due to over-exploitation of aquifers.
Loss of productive capacity due to salinization.
Humid and Sub-humid Decline in water quality due to pollution of surface and groundwaters
caused by discharge of untreated wastewaters.
High amounts of salts, excess arsenic and fluorine (north and central
Pampa regions) or low power in aquifers.
fluorine. Likewise, in the main metropolitan lacks access to water in minimally satisfactory
and industrial areas, and particularly in the conditions and 50% has no adequate sanitary
Metropolitan Area of the city of Buenos Aires facilities (WHO, 2008).
(AMBA - Área Metropolitana de la Ciudad
de Buenos Aires) there are serious levels of International norms established by agencies
pollution in surface and groundwater resources, such as the World Health Organization (WHO)
which force investment in costly treatment. and the United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF) suggest a minimum amount of water
In summary, the availability and demand per person of 20 liters per day found within
of water resources in Argentina are highly a distance of one kilometer from the user’s
diverse, and in order for the nation to satisfy dwelling. This amount is sufficient for drinking
its potential and desirable uses, it faces and basic personal hygiene. People who lack
important challenges with respect to water access to this amount of water are limited in
management and quality, as well as its spatial their ability to maintain their well-being and the
and temporal availability. It is necessary to dignity involved in being clean. The minimal
perform analysis and studies that not only amount of water per person increases to nearly
consider overall data, but also the variable 50 liters a day if water needs for personal and
quantity and quality of water needs and domestic washing are included.
availability in every basin and sub-basin.
Water consumption varies between 200 and
3.2 Uses Given to Hydric Resources 300 liters per person per day (l/p/d) in most
3.2.1 Description of the Main Sectors European countries and reaches up to 550
and Activities liters per day in some areas in the United
Water and Sanitation States. In contrast, a large portion of the world’s
During the past century, the use of drinking population is found extremely below the
water increased twice as fast as the number minimum basic water needs, not just temporarily
of inhabitants. Nevertheless, it is estimated but permanently. There are 1,100 million
that 20% of the world’s population currently people that live more than one kilometer away
22
ARGENTINA
from a water source and use less than 5 liters of not guarantee the separation of wastes from
unsafe water (UNPD, 2006). The average use in human contact) and the remaining 17%
countries such as Mozambique for example, is resorted to open-air defecation.
less than 10 liters per person per day. People in
less developed countries with difficult access to In the case of Latin America and the Caribbean,
improved water sources tend to consume less 80% of the population had access to improved
water because they must travel long distances sanitation, 14% used non-improved facilities
to get to the source, or they must pay excessive and 6% practiced open-air defecation, while
amounts of money to obtain it. average sanitation coverage by connection to
a public network within urban populations in
On a global scale, in 2008 it was estimated that Latin America was 57% (BM, 2009).
57% of the world’s population had a piped
connection within their home or plot and Argentine Republic
30% had access to an improve source (tap or It is considered that 80% of the population in
public source), thus 87%, or approximately 5.9 Argentina has a home connection to a clean
million people used clean water or improved water network, and only 47% has a home
sources, which implies an increase of 1,800 connection to a network of sanitary sewers;
million since 1990. However it is worth noting although this percentage increases to 90%
that nearly 1,000 million people lack access to if improved sanitation services are included.
water with minimal conditions of quantity and Only 12% of collected wastewaters are
quality, and if we add families with access to treated before returning them to receiving
water only through an improved source that bodies of water.
does not comply with clean water standards,
the number grows to 3,000 million. It has been calculated that the national
average drinking water production per
In Latin America and the Caribbean, the person is 400 liters per day, although it varies
average piped-water service coverage is widely between one province and another
84%, while other improved sources represent from a maximum of 650 l/p/d in San Juan to a
9%. Within the region, Uruguay (98%) and minimum of 170 l/p/d in La Pampa.
Chile (93%) have the highest coverage rate
per network, while Argentina stands at 80%. Non-revenue water is one of the main
problems concerning efficiency in drinking
Regarding sanitation services worldwide, water services. It is estimated that 35 to
the average access to improved systems 40% of the water produced is lost within
(facilities that guarantee no contact between the network and is under-billed because of
people and human feces) for the year 2008 clandestine connections and poor updating of
was 61%, while 11% used some form of user registry. Thus average water consumed
shared sanitation (improved sanitation with in Argentina is estimated at around 250 l/p/d,
shared use of facilities, including public with maximum rates of up to 400 l/p/d.
toilets), 11% used non-improved forms (do Compared to many countries in the world and
23
ARGENTINA
in Latin America, Argentina’s high water use their renewable hydric resources are assigned
can be mostly explained by the low degree to to agricultural use. Alternatively, a country
which water use is micro-measured and the is considered to be in a situation of water
prevalence of “free-faucet” type billing in the stress if it uses more than 20% of its hydric
Argentinian system, especially in the majority resources. According to this criterion, 36 out
of large-city services. In this respect, and of 159 countries (23%) suffered water stress in
according to international records, average 1998 (FAO,1995).
consumption of water registered by micro-
measurement systems is found generally to Both Latin America and Argentina have
be below 200 l/p/d. an average water extraction for irrigation
of less than 5% of their total renewable
Water and Agriculture water resources.
Although the global demographic rate is
falling, the number of persons that become Water and Industry
part of the world’s population every year Industry is an important user of water
is approximately 75 million. As population resources and because of its high participation
increases, hydric resources available per in the gross internal product (GIP) it is the
capita become more restricted and it greatest contributor to the economic and
becomes necessary to increase agricultural social development of nations. To guarantee
productivity. In order to satisfy the estimated industrial development, there must be access
growth in food demand between 2000 and to an adequate supply of water on the one
2030 in developing countries, a 67% increase hand, and a commitment to use water
in food crop production is anticipated. efficiently and not return potentially polluting
Likewise, the continuous improvement in untreated wastewater to nature on the other.
productivity should allow an expected 14%
growth in agricultural use of water (UN, 2006). Depending on the region, the negative
impact of industry on aquatic environments
Irrigation consumes most of the water is of greater concern than the volume it
extracted as a result of evaporation effectively uses. Water quality is deteriorating
processes, passage of water into plant in many lakes and rivers worldwide, and the
tissues and transpiration in crops. Water marine environment is also being affected by
that is extracted but not consumed industrial pollution (UN, 2006). In low to mid-
recharges aquifers or evaporates. Globally, income countries, a large part of industrial
more than 65% of extracted water is used activity is accompanied by unnecessarily high
for irrigation (FIG. 2). levels of water use and pollution. Industrial use
of water increases according to the income
The intensive use of water for agriculture can of a country, varying from 10% in low to mid-
create great tension on water resources. Fig. income nations, to 59% in countries with high
2 shows that close to 20 countries worldwide income. In developing countries, an estimated
are in a critical situation, as more than 40% of 70% of liquid industrial wastes are discharged
24
ARGENTINA
into bodies of water (rivers, lakes, oceans) and feasible are essential. There is a wide
without purifying treatment (UNESCO, 2003). variety of instruments (normative, voluntary
FIG. 3 is a general representation of the initiatives, training activities) and consultancy
distribution of water uses worldwide per low, available to help industrial managers
mid and high income nations. improve the productivity of water use and
reduce contaminant emissions to extremely
The annual water volume used by industry is low levels. At the same time, these actions
expected to increase from 752 km3/year (as can help production efficiency, as well as
measured in 1995) to an estimated 1,170 km3/ reduce the use of raw materials, facilitate the
year for the year 2025, and industrial use is recovery of useful substances and promote
expected to represent 24% of the total fresh the growth of reuse and recycling practices.
water extracted in 2025 (UNESCO, 2003).
Water and Energy
Nevertheless, it is possible to separate The world’s hydropower potential is
industrial development from environmental approximately equal to the total energy
deterioration, radically reduce the use consumed at present, although only one fourth
of natural resources and energy and of this potential is actually used. Consequently to
simultaneously have clean and profitable this day, hydropower is an important alternative
industries. With the proper incentives, it is to the use of fossil fuels. It is estimated that more
estimated that industrial water demand can than 50% of the energy used in 65 countries is
be reduced 40 to 90%, even with the existing hydroelectric, in 32 countries it is 80% and in 13
techniques and practices. For these purposes nations nearly 100% of their energy is supplied
water conservation policies that are both fair by hydroelectricity.
25
ARGENTINA
The fact that 1/3 of the world’s population Hydropower implies a very low operating
still has no access to electricity is an incentive cost, although it requires an important initial
to consider the alternative of hydroelectricity. investment.
However, when potential projects and their
design are to be considered, it is vital to Asia is by far the continent with the greatest
contemplate the possible negative impact hydroelectric resources and the one which
on the environment of each one and plan to maintains the most aggressive policy
minimize it. regarding development of hydroelectricity.
Although South America follows Asia, with
Hydropower is the most widely tested respect to hydropower resources, they
technology for the large scale generation of are mostly concentrated in Brazil and are
electricity: it does not contaminate water; growing much less rapidly. Europe, North
does not consume the resource; produces America and Australia, in that order, have
no waste materials and consequently no installed a good part of their potential, while
greenhouse gases; has the highest yield of in Africa the development of hydropower is
all technologies (greater than 90%); uses still an unresolved issue, as are many other
a renewable resource; directly produces development indicators.
mechanical energy instead of heat, can be
obtained by means of machines of many It must be pointed out that in spite of all
different sizes, and generates a group of the advantages mentioned in the previous
positive externalities. In addition, investment paragraph, special attention must be placed
in hydropower works that are adequately on hydropower’s negative effect on the
designed and operated allows satisfaction environment. This means that the viability
of other water uses, such as irrigation, of any hydroelectric project must include a
supply of drinking and industrial water, very meticulous assessment of environmental
navigation, fishing, and flood control, as impact. If this assessment is positive, it must be
well as recreational and tourist activities. complemented with a plan for environmental
26
ARGENTINA
management that includes the analysis of the population, greater income per person and
entire hydrographic basin involved, and values increasing urbanization1, while the availability
and conditions the characteristics of the project of fresh water will remain nearly constant.
to guarantee functionality and production However, such a viewpoint does not consider
within the basin’s natural ecosystem. human instinct for survival, nor humanity’s
creativity and adaptability to face similar
Other Uses of Water situations in many other circumstances.
Water management includes not only the
uses of water in human activities, but also the The most well-known example is the
collection of potential uses of water within pessimistic prediction by Malthus regarding
the natural ecosystem. Thus effective use of insufficient food production for a rapidly
water within the water cycle depends on a growing population, which was refuted in the
broad vision, and implies strategic planning following centuries. Such an example helps
including analysis of the needs to be satisfied focus the topic along less simplistic lines,
and optimization of the system. which consider that together with an increase
in demand, it is possible to respond adaptively
In order to prevent floods for example, a part and innovatively, affecting demand as well
of a reservoir’s regulatory capacity must be as efficiency and thus making it possible to
dedicated to buffer the impact of exceptional convert what nature offers into what man
rises in its level. Such a purpose, “preventing needs, by means of the growing practice of
floods”, competes with other uses of water so-called “sustainable technologies”.
assigned to reservoir capacity and is therefore
considered another use of water. Likewise, The use of fresh water in the world has grown
the need to maintain the ecological flow of six-fold in the past century, while population
rivers to preserve their biota and hydrological growth has multiplied by three. According
processes as well as the natural environment, to estimates for the year 2008, 13% of the
is also considered an effective use of water, global population has no access to improved
because it reduces the availability of water water, a third of the remaining 87% are not
for other uses. Water pollution itself can be connected to a network, while 49% lack
considered a consumptive use of the resource improved sanitation (JMP, 2010).
as the lack of water quality reduces supply for
specific uses.
Other significant and customary uses of water
1 “It should be noted that the great urban masses
have been fishery, navigation and recreation. -3 billion people - need large volumes of water
for their sustainment; in addition, they produce
an enormous amount of wastes (feces and urine)
3.2.2. Evolution and Tendencies which require immediate treatment to avoid
contamination of surface and groundwater.
Observed in the Use of Water. (Added to the needs and consequences of
When first approaching tendencies related economic activity) this group of problems has led
to the current situation affecting water, a crisis
to the use of water, it is logical to think that never seen before that demands action in the
global demand will increase with a growing short, mid and long term” (Tundisi, 2009).
27
ARGENTINA
Africa and south Asia are the areas with Another important problem concerns
the greatest deficiencies. We could say in groundwater, which comprises 97% of the
summary, that problems concerning water earth’s freshwater, in contrast to the almost
in developed countries affect above all negligible 0.015% surface water retained
environmental conservation and economic in reservoirs. 33% of the world’s population
growth potential, while developing countries depends on these waters, especially in rural
also have scarcity issues and still lack drinking areas, nevertheless it is threatened not only
water, which among other consequences, by the natural quality of these waters which
directly causes diseases such as diarrhea, in many cases are in contact with geological
cholera and others that provoke serious water layers containing arsenic or other
limitations on global growth and cause harmful substances, but also by anthropic
avoidable deaths. pollution of aquifers or inadequate use of
existing wells.
Irrigation takes on average 70% of extracted
fresh water and a significant part of this It is important to consider that fresh water is
demand is due to the use of inefficient not uniformly distributed from a geographic
techniques such as irrigation by flooding. or time perspective. Uneven distribution
Industrial use on the other hand, is estimated has brought about the construction of
to double in 2050, and in countries under rapid great reservoirs and diversions, not always
industrialization such as China, it will increase considering their social and environmental
up to five times. Urban consumption increases impact. These factors have led to the fear of
along with per capita income, especially in possible wars triggered by access to water
relation to recreational uses (sports fields, and to apocalyptic predictions that announce
parks and gardens, etc.) and those related to that the XXIst century will be the century of
tourism. In contrast, the decrease in quality of water wars.
fresh water very seriously affects its availability,
as soon as the natural self-purification capacity 3.3 Water Requirements:
of rivers is surpassed. In this respect, diffuse Minimun and Midsized Levels
contamination from farming practices caused Many countries are in negative-balance with
by uncontrolled toxic pesticides and fertilizers respect to water resources because they
produce eutrophication (excessive algal consume more water than they have at their
growth and death of aquatic ecosystems) and disposal as a renewable resource. Water
in many cases can cause cancer due to the high deficit is mainly produced when groundwater
concentrations it reaches in certain countries. extraction is greater than aquifer recharge.
This causes exhaustion of the resource, and
Furthermore, industrial contamination by in certain arid nations that base a substantial
heavy metals, organic matter and new toxic amount of their development on water, it is
compounds is estimated to grow by a factor destabilizing. It has been estimated that in
of four in 2025. Urban pollution is present the main water over-drawn countries nearly
above all in megacities and its slum areas. 160 km3 of water are exploited annually,
28
ARGENTINA
meaning that 180 million tons of grain (10% of 4. Emerging Water - Related Issues
the world’s production) are being produced 4.1 Water and Basic Human Needs
with non-renewable hydric resources. 4.1.1 Access to Water as a Human Right
The definition of human rights was determined
If the current levels of water consumption at the end of World War II to indicate the rights
continue, two out of every three people on that every human being is entitled to, inherent
the planet will be living in water deficit or to the status of being human and opposable
hydric stress –moderate to severe water to all other human beings and States. The right
scarcity- by the year 2025. At that time, it is every human being has to water arises from
probable that at least one in four individuals the fact that life is impossible without it, and
will live in a country affected by chronic or thus it is a natural right inherent to life. This
recurrent fresh water scarcity (FIG. 4.). implies that the right to water is not created
by legal regulations, but rather these norms
As mentioned above, as the world’s recognize and protect it, and that it can and
population has been tripling in the past must be exercised even when not imposed by
century, water use has doubled, and a statutory norm. Therefore, the right to water
therefore consumption has grown six-fold is indisputably a natural and human right.
during this period. The world’s population
is expected to increase from nearly seven On the other hand, it is important to consider
billion people in 2010 (6,903,100,000 the harm caused by the lack of immediate
United States Census Bureau), to eight access to clean water and the way this affects
billion in 2025. At the same time, the the unproductive time invested in fetching it,
World Water Commission predicts that and the cost of water-borne diseases and their
water use will double in thirty years. impact on infant mortality and labor dynamics.
Table 3. Percentage of Population Covered by Water and Sanitation per Region– Year 2008
Region Home Water Urban Water Rural Water Urban Rural
Supply Supply Supply Sanitation Sanitation
East Asia 15 83 49 61 53
Southeast Asia 33 92 81 79 60
South Asia 23 95 83 57 26
Sub-Saharan Africa 16 83 47 44 24
North Africa 92 96 78 94 83
Developed Countries 94 100 98 100 96
Latin America 84 97 80 86 55
Source: JMP (2010). Joint Monitoring Program (WHO+UNICEF). Information corresponds to 2008. Names and definitions of type
of access to water services and sanitation correspond to those established by the Joint Monitoring Program in its documents.
30
ARGENTINA
the social goal of universal coverage. State 80% of all diseases are due to consumption on
participation for financing infrastructure is “non-drinkable” water and the poor sanitary
also common at several jurisdictional levels, conditions of the population. Close to 20% of
particularly in major building projects. all illnesses could be avoided by improving
water supply, sanitation services, and hygiene
In order to achieve financial sustainability of and handling of water resources (UNESCO,
services, it has been deemed convenient that 2003). Additionally, these improvements
tariff income should cover at least operation would reduce infant mortality and nutritional
costs and those related to infrastructure level in a sustained manner.
maintenance so as to guarantee service
quality and the state of conservation Water supply and sanitation services also
and functionality that corresponds to the improve education as school attendance
recommended technical standards. increases when absences caused by disease
or time dedicated to carry water is reduced.
4.1.3 Water and Health Women are especially affected by fetching
Every year, diseases related to water cause water (UNPD, 2006). Within the domestic
more than 5 million deaths worldwide, scope, emphasis is made on the lack of access
while approximately 2,300 million people to sufficient quantities of drinking water and
suffer from water-borne diseases and 60% adequate sanitation, as well as the promotion
of infant mortality is caused by infectious of good hygiene habits.
and parasitic diseases, most of them
related to water. Diarrhea is one of the 4.2 Water and Development
main causes of death in these diseases. 4.2.1 Regionality
Water is the most important component
The relation between GIP per capita and on the planet and all living things depend
the number of deaths or illnesses caused on its presence. Water also promotes or
by the consumption of unsafe water, lack discourages economic growth and social
of adequate sanitary conditions and poor development in every region and affects its
hygiene reveals, that the most serious life and cultural patterns. Therefore water
problems regarding water-borne diseases is recognized as the predominant agent in
are found in poorer countries. regional and national development.
Universal clean water and sanitation From primitive urban and farming settlements,
services not only improve the health of the development of peoples has historically
the lower income population but also their been closely linked to water, becoming a
income through cost reduction of these decisive factor in the selection of a place to
services. Improvement also occurs in the live and to locate all kinds of industrial plants.
general well-being of families as it implies Demographic and economic growth, lack of
progressive distribution of income. In the criteria for conservation and sustainable use
developing world, it has been calculated that of natural resources, subsequent pollution
31
ARGENTINA
and regional growth of water demand have of water quality has put increasingly severe
all contributed to its scarcity. This has led to limits on water availability. These regions are
competition for the resource, which becomes where the most important human settlements
acute during dry years and culminates in are found together with areas of strong
conflicts that affect the development of industrial development.
communities. Thus the control, rational use,
and preservation of water quantity and quality 4.2.2 Seasonality
within national, regional and local spheres are It is important to consider the seasonality
strategic for the development of nations and of hydric resources and its connection to
the protection of human beings. potential regional growth. Most time-series
for hydrologic variables have an important
Total consumption of water tripled between seasonal component. From a hydrological
1950 and 1995, when water use exceeded 4,300 viewpoint, greater seasonality is linked to
km3/year or the equivalent of 30% of the world’s greater precipitation in certain months of
stable renewable water supply. In addition, the the year, which is directly associated with the
world’s irrigated surface has increased five-fold rainfall pattern and occasionally, in basins fed
to be able to feed its population; consequently, by snowmelt or both rain and snowmelt, with
more than 26 countries have had their water the presence and orientation of mountain
availability fall below 1,000 m3 per person ranges, i.e. orography. Precipitation seasonality
per year, reaching water scarcity. This reveals is often a factor that restricts the use of water,
a global scene of poor water management, in particular when supply and demand are
scarcity, over-exploitation and pollution that is out of step, although this can be reduced by
reaching a point where water is becoming the regulating water through reservoirs.
limiting factor for sustainable development in
many nations. Ultimately, water seasonality is an additional
restriction to the amount of water
On the other hand, in many countries the economically available and it can be very
problem is not the lack of fresh water but its severe. When seasonality and availability
poor distribution. In general, large countries are considered together, they allow “hydric
often have significant differences in regional stress” indicators to be determined when
development. Argentina is not foreign to compared relative to demand.
this phenomenon and along its extension
there is great territorial inequality. In spite of 4.3 Water and Society
its important overall water supply, there is a 4.3.1 Giving Value to Water
large imbalance between potential demand To recognize that water is a good with
and availability in large areas of the country. economic value implies understanding
In the humid and sub-humid regions, where the need to apply economic principles to
water supply and climate characteristics allow its study and the organization of its use,
the growing of crops on un-irrigated land or for the purpose of achieving its proper
by supplemental irrigation, the deterioration management and administration. This does
32
ARGENTINA
not necessarily mean that a price must be put warned that the future of the development
on water; it implies that its management must of nations is strongly linked to water and its
consider both direct and indirect social and availability. However, there is clearly a lack
environmental costs and benefits associated of integration between water management
to its various uses and include the restrictions and society’s interests, attitudes and
these have in order to protect the health and behaviors regarding water; therefore it is
safety of individuals and the environment. necessary to radically transform current
practices, in other words, it is necessary to
Incorrect allocation of costs for example, has develop a new water culture.
contributed in many cases to resource and
environmental deterioration. If only the costs Responsible participation of social actors
declared by users are considered, or those in the management of water requires an
determined by partial interests, and all the irreplaceable ingredient: that they understand
costs that are effectively paid for by society the processes. In this way it would be possible
as one are excluded, the use of the resource to facilitate agreements to execute rational,
will not be sustainable. responsible and supportive actions in every
one of the tasks in which these actors must
Integrated management is an alternative to interact with water, making special emphasis
the market system which allows the weighing on providing value and grassroots support
of all benefits and costs that a society faces for the conservation and responsible use of
when adequately managing hydric resources. water as a resource for life.
This means achieving the participation of all of
the affected sectors in the making of important 4.3.3 Public Participation in the Water
decisions. This mechanism cannot guarantee Management
that optimum decisions will be reached, The movement towards a new relationship
although it can ensure that they will be based with water based on sustainability not only
on the coordinated efforts between all those requires continuous economic, scientific
affected by interrelationships that cannot be and technological efforts, but also new
resolved by operations research tools and approaches in the field of education, as well
systems analysis, because of their complexity. as a reconsideration of the processes used
to facilitate individual participation in the
The main reason why it is difficult to making of public decisions. As individuals
organize water markets is that water is not participate, there is an improvement in
a homogenous good, as it continuously the efficiency with which human societies
changes in most of the processes related to respond to the challenges of the environment
its use, quality and location. and sustainability. Intervention by the people
permits a better diagnosis of existing
4.3.2 The Issue of Water in Education problems, the generation of a group of
The XXIst century is destined to be “the wider alternatives to solve the challenges
century of water”, and we have already proposed, and the mobilization of the human
33
ARGENTINA
and material resources of various social activities must focus on information, education,
participants, to achieve better management seeking advice, strengthening initiatives, taxing,
of the environment. Frequently, the agreement, decision-making and management
appropriate solution to a problem is found in all phases of the project. Education on the use
exclusively in the hands of the community and management of water must be available to
itself, thus making its participation essential all; nevertheless, it must adopt diverse formulas
(IV Congreso Ibérico, 2004). that are adapted to a variety of recipients
and socio-environmental contexts. Education
Participation does not guarantee that everyone must be permanent, universal and go beyond
will agree with the decisions adopted in the generation boundaries so as to reach the
end, but it can promote taking the desires education system, as well as administrative and
and needs of a large number of people social actors.
into account, and in this way participation
integrates interests into the decision-making Although there is a wide group of useful
processes. In addition, it allows people to instruments to organize and channel public
better understand the reasons behind a participation in environmental management,
decision, the complex variables that affect a very limited set of instruments have
problematic issues, the potential effects that traditionally been used to plan and manage
must be foreseen when getting involved or water (IV Congreso Ibérico, 2006). They have
the limitations that condition decision-making. been questioned in the following areas:
The following are some of the more • Lack of information about procedures: data
specific arguments that show the need for regarding procedures (deadlines for claims,
participative decision-making: places to consult documents, etc.) do not
always get to those potentially interested
• River basins are synergic: any action taking because the information is frequently
place in one point affects the whole. Users published only in the official journal and
and residents in a basin must share and there is no real effort to disclose it further.
resolve the tension generated by the use • The complexity of the documents at public
of water. disposal: the highly technical character of the
• The characteristics of water are irregular; documents at public disposal makes it difficult
this forces the making of unforeseen for those interested to interpret them.
decisions, and therefore decision-making • Lack of transparency: it is uncommon for
based on rigid and predetermined formulas social actors to have access to sufficient
becomes inadequate. information regarding water as to guarantee
the transparency of the processes involved
Traditional conceptions regarding the in its management.
process of development must be overcome.
Community participation must include analysis, An additional reason to promote participation
decision-making and action. Therefore, is that the only way to have been proved by
34
ARGENTINA
experience that effectively avoids management of these situations because of the growing
from being dominated by partial interests pressure of demand on available resources.
in the absence of competition as a control- There are places where water costs account
mechanism, is the demand by citizens through for 10% of the income of poorer families.
tools that channel participation efficiently.
Problems that cause insufficient water supply
4.3.4 Interjurisdictional Hydric Resources 2
typically go beyond community and political
It has been calculated that for the year 2025 boundaries and affect continents and countries.
water demand will be 56% greater than Many political limits between countries are
supply. In fact, it is already a scarce good bodies of water; close to 40% of the global
for a good part of humanity: more than 20% population lives in river basins that are shared by
have no access to clean/safe water (2.6 billion more than one country, and many communities
people according to the WHO and UNICEF) (such as Israel and Palestine) depend on drinking
and up to 40% suffer its scarcity and cannot water from the same aquifers that have been
even count on basic hygiene infrastructure in over-exploited. Thus water scarcity resulting
their homes. Conflicts have started to appear from its poor management frequently brings
regarding global appropriation of local hydric about the risk for conflict. This is why it is so
resources either by reservoirs, channels, tanks important to find ways to manage shared water
or bottles. by means of cooperation without confrontation.
In summary, proper water management,
In 1949 there were 5,000 great hydraulic according to its characteristics, requires not only
dams on earth and at the end of the XXth local but also national, regional or international
century the number had increases to 45,000. action.
Because many of these dams modify the flow
of rivers that are shared by several countries, Argentine Republic
they have sparked conflicts in many cases. The Constitution of the Argentine Nation has
established that provinces have the original
The conflicts that have arisen between Egypt domain over the natural resources that exist
and Ethiopia for the exploitation of the in their territories, which means that provinces
Nile River are well known, as well as those own their hydric resources. Whenever water
in the Democratic Republic of Congo as a is shared by several provinces, agreements
consequence of the Grand Inga dam or in the must be sought between the parties. Basin
Brazilian Amazon where indigenous peoples committees have been created to facilitate
fight against the Xingú River dam. To these these agreements and in some cases
confrontations between peoples and nations basin agencies with executive powers (See
we can add the violent protests in cities such Appendices, points 6 and 7).
as Cochabamba (Bolivia), Soweto (South
Africa) or Jakarta (Indonesia) against the
privatization of water supply and everything 2 Point 6 (Appendix I) deals with the topics
introduced here
seems to indicate that there will be more
35
ARGENTINA
4.4 Significant Impact Related Floods have also caused numerous human
to the Water Sector deaths. The list of natural events that have
4.4.1 Droughts and Floods caused human victims in the last thirty years
The definition of drought has been highly includes two great flood disasters, in 1970 and
debated because of the disparity in the 1991, both in Bangladesh. They respectively
criteria applied by various authors. It has occupy first and third place regarding number
no universally accepted definition and of victims. Fortunately, the number of flood
therefore has becomes a term that is not fatalities tends to decrease in time because
entirely precise. In its broadest meaning, most exceptional hydrologic events develop
a drought may be an abnormal period of slowly and forecast techniques and early alert
high water scarcity produced by a lack systems have been implemented in many
of precipitation with negative effects not densely populated areas.
only agriculture but also on other activities
such as hydroelectricity, and drinking water As to economic losses, the situation remains
supply as well3. serious because not only have great disasters
increased in number, but annual losses also
Of all natural disasters, droughts have the consider minor events that produce local
greatest economic impact and affect the flooding. A tendency analysis reveals that
largest number of people. flooding disasters and the economic losses they
produce have drastically increased in recent
Floods, as well as earthquakes and cyclones, years. Additionally, economic costs of floods
may have a great physical intensity but must consider the cost of building structures
they do not last long and have a limited against floods and their maintenance.
geographical impact, although the number
of deaths caused by these disasters may 4.4.2 The Effects of Climate Change
be very high if densely populated areas are Any regional increase in extreme events
affected. In contrast, droughts affect large (storms, floods, cyclones, droughts, etc.)
extensions of territory, including entire associated to climate change will cause
countries and can last several months or in physical damage, migration, adverse
some cases even years. effects on food production, damage to
the quality and availability of fresh water,
Disasters caused by flooding account for one and an increase in the risk of epidemics
third of all natural disasters around the world,
at least in terms of economic loss, and are
3 “There is no single solution to face the pressure on
responsible for more than half the fatalities. the growing consumption of water and instability of
Damage by floods has been extremely severe rain patterns. Nations must draw up holistic action
plans and put them into practice.” These plans
in the past decades and their intensity and must “guarantee drinking water and sanitation for
frequency have been clearly increasing. In the all/Increase water efficiency in agriculture/Increase
past ten years, losses have reached more than anticipation of droughts by means of improving
water storage” (Sachs, 2008, p. 184)
250 billion dollars.
36
ARGENTINA
caused by infectious diseases, particularly extinction in more vulnerable species,
in vulnerable populations. producing loss in biodiversity.
The precise effect of climate change on It is worth mentioning that the effects of
hydric resources is unknown. Precipitation climate change will not be linked exclusively
will probably increase at latitudes beyond to potential damage and loss to society. It
30ºN and 30ºS, but many tropical and also may produce benefits by improving
subtropical regions will potentially receive a environmental conditions in specific regions,
smaller or more irregular amount of rainfall. for example, generating new areas apt for
A noticeable tendency towards an increase food production at high latitudes or allowing
in extreme meteorological conditions will the application of adaptive measures in certain
probably lead to more floods, droughts, mud regions suffering modification in their climate
slides, typhoons and cyclones. If the current which will be better than the current situation.
situation is not modified, climate change
will have more significant environmental, 4.4.3 Water Pollution
social and economic impact and costs. Such Although within the developing world
negative impact includes: the total population is on the rise, its
rural population is expected to decline
• Food security: if global temperatures rise slightly while its urban population grows
significantly, the most probable effect will rapidly. Human settlements contaminate
be a general decrease in crop production resources, therefore the proper
in most tropical and subtropical countries. management of clean and wastewater is
Arid land could be the most affected, essential to reduce pollution and minimize
because its vegetation is sensitive to small health risks.
changes in climate.
• Extreme events: droughts and floods Irrigated farming also has a significant
will become more intense. Strong impact on the environment. Extraction of
precipitation will cause more damage water from rivers and lakes for irrigation
due to more frequent landslides and puts aquatic ecosystems at risk causing
avalanches. Some coastal cities will be losses in productivity and biodiversity.
threatened by flooding. Chemical products used on irrigated land
• Health: tropical diseases will be found at often contaminate surface and underground
ever higher latitudes. Disease vectors, runoff. Potassium and nitrogen applied as
such as mosquitoes and water-borne fertilizers can be leached into surface and
pathogens (related to poor water quality, groundwaters making algae proliferate and
and food availability and quality) will be causing eutrophication. Irrigation waters
subject to change. can also contain naturally existing salts, and
• Ecosystems: while some species will in arid regions, irrigation can leach toxic
increase in abundance or variety, climate elements that are natural components of soil
change will increase the existing risk of such as selenium.
37
ARGENTINA
Together with agricultural and municipal 4.5 Management of Hydric Resources
wastewaters, industrial wastes put hydric 4.5.1 Emerging Paradigms in the
resources at risk throughout the entire planet, Management of Water
harming and destroying ecosystems. This Throughout history and the spreading of the
threatens the hydric security of individuals civilized world, water has been managed
and of the activities that use and consume in very diverse ways. Nevertheless, within
water. At the same time, pollution has a direct this highly varied landscape, it is possible to
economic impact on fishing and industries observe the permanent presence of tension
that require clean water in both developed along two lines: between centralized and
and developing countries. Hydric security has decentralized forms of organization, and
been increasingly affected by water deficit between a greater or lesser participation of
and the decline in water quality. private initiative.
The main problems and processes related to The fact is underlined by the paradigm that
the pollution of surface waters (lakes, rivers has been taking shape in recent decades
and reservoirs) are shown in FIG. 5., taken which proposes that going from one of these
from Tundisi, 2009. extremes to another, a frequent situation
Loss of
biodiversity
Difficulties in Damages to
navigation fishing
Distinction of
ecosystems and
Decrease in water endemic species Contamination
of water
Contamination
Decreased
Sedimentation by toxic Eutrophication Acidification
water level
substances
Non-Sustainable Agriculture,
Overgrazing, Deforestation
Population increase
Industrialization
globalization of the economy
FIG. 5. Main Problems and Processes Related to the Pollution of Surface Water (Lakes, Rivers, Dams). Results of
the Study Carried Out in 600 Lakes of Several Continents by ILEC.
38
ARGENTINA
in many countries, reflects the need to the fields of engineering (particularly systems
attain a balance between opposite forms analysis) and economics. Development in
of organization, as no extreme form can these two fields promoted the opposite
produce good results on its own. The Dublin tendencies mentioned above: towards
Principles4, reached by consensus in 1992, planned and centralized management
propose this paradigm in a language that is of water on the one hand, and towards
accessible to those who are non-specialists decentralized management on the other.
in the many areas that are relevant for water
management (basically engineering, geology, The first tendency produced the setting
meteorology, biology, law, economics and up of Basin Authorities for the purpose
public and private management). of managing hydric resources as a system
in which optimum use is achieved by a
“How can there be a balance between purely series of norms and works, on the base of
technological management and management comprehensive assessment of needs and
that includes education, divulging of possibilities. The second tendency produced
problems and community participation? The awareness of water as a scarce good, as well
issue should be considered for each basin or as awareness of the convenience of recurring
sub-basin and shall depend on the degree of to decentralization (as far as possible given
existing technology and the perception and the characteristics of the hydrologic cycle),
education of the community, as well as the based on market mechanisms in which
ability of decision-makers, municipal prefects individual responses to prices determined
and basin managers to manage conflict” by supply-demand interactions define how
(Tundisi, 2005). water is assigned among users.
The chapter on “Providing Water and 5.1 The View of Argentina Regarding
Sanitation” in the book by UNESCO on the Various Uses of Water
engineering (UNESCO, 2010), concludes by The following general conclusions can be
saying that there is an urgent need for planned reached based on the information revealed in
action to administer hydric resources and that the present work including years 2008, 2009
a particular concern exists for problems arising and 2010:
in urban areas of developing countries (page
287). It points out that many interventions have 5.1.1 Available Water Resources:
failed because little attention has been paid to Variability Related to Space, Time and
the institutional view that has put them into Water Quality
practice and because of the lack of participation • Water supply is irregularly distributed
of those involved in their development and around the world. Latin America and the
execution. It also states: “Intervention must Caribbean occupy approximately 15% of
consider the complete urban cycle of water the surface of the planet and produce 33%
and recognize the interactions between the of the world’s surface runoff. The region is
various components of the system. home to 10% of world population and thus
Thought must also be given to the way water the amount of water per person is greater
is used and reused and to greater use of than the worldwide average. However, two
natural treatment systems”, in order to obtain thirds of the territory is arid or semi-arid and
more robust and resilient systems in the face one fourth of the population lives in areas
of non-foreseeable pressures and emerging under hydric stress. Thus, improving the
pollutants. spatial and temporal distribution of water
supply and demand is a regional challenge.
5. Hydric Resources in Argentina • In the past 50 years, global population
Having presented water issues in the context has tripled while water use has increased
of the world, Latin America and the Caribbean, six-fold. Water demand for consumption
including some Argentinian references, the increases as the population grows and
present work now discusses information, improves its standard of living.
conclusions and suggestions in three different • Argentina has an average annual surface
categories with particular focus on the use of water supply greater than 20,000 m3/
water in Argentina: person, making it a country rich in water.
Nevertheless, the nation’s possibilities for
1. Posture of Argentina regarding the various balanced territorial development are linked
uses of water. to adequate water availability regarding
43
ARGENTINA
space and time, for which it must build humid regions, where water supply and
infrastructure and management capacity to climate allow the development of non-
overcome its climate diversity as well as the irrigated or complementary irrigated
uneven distribution of its hydric resources crops, degradation of water quality limits
(point 3.1.3). its availability.
5.1.2 Consumption of Water to Satisfy • The above occurs regardless of the orderly,
Basic Needs pacific and non-conflicting incorporation
• Water consumption varies considerably of the right to water in the Argentinian
in Argentina from 150 to 400 l/inhab/d. legal system, and the fact that the right is
On the other hand, it has been calculated protected by courts and is accepted and
that the volume that cannot be accounted studied by specialized doctrine.
for is between 30 to 45% of the water Argentinian positive law in Article 41 of
produced. The same happens with micro- the National Constitution proclaims that
measurement, which varies from zero to all inhabitants enjoy the right to a healthy,
100% of the users in a few small localities, balanced environment that is apt for human
although the national average is below 20%. development and the productive activities
• The entire population of Argentina is not needed to satisfy present needs, without
guaranteed water availability to cover threat to the obligation of protecting this
basic needs. The main deficiencies occur right. Although it does not specifically state
in metropolitan areas of larger cities as a that the aforementioned is a human right, it is
consequence of a lack of supply networks implied in the term “all inhabitants”.
and the contamination of surface and
groundwater resources. There are also rural Water Supply and Sanitation
populations in arid and semi-arid areas with FIG. 7 shows the history of water and sanitation
a jeopardized supply capacity. coverage in Argentina from 1990-2008. Water
46
ARGENTINA
services with a connection to a public network approximately 0.2% of their GIP in water and
grew 11%, while sanitation services by a network sanitation. From 1970-1980, Argentina invested
remained practically constant, in other words an average of 0.17% of its GIP in the area;
they increased with demographic growth. while from 1981-1991 it fell to 0.08%, although
it increased to 0.21% from 1993 to 2001. In
According to data form the National Institute subsequent years, investment decreased as a
for Statistics and Census (INDEC -Instituto consequence of the macroeconomic crisis and
Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos) for the the renegotiation and cancellation of contracts
first trimester of 2010, the 32 metropolitan for private operation. Recently though,
areas containing 70% of the national urban significant plans for works have been put forth
population had an average clean water and there have been important investments
service coverage of 99,6% and sanitary service from the state budget and loans from multilateral
coverage of 64,5% (BM, 2010). The figures for banking along with renationalization of most of
the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area (AMBA) the greater services, particularly in the AMBA.
were below these averages.
5.1.3 Tariff Systems
As to wastewater treatment, it is estimated Regarding financial sustainability of water and
that only close to 12% is processed, one of sanitation services, international experience
the lowest percentages in Latin America. In a shows that income covers the costs of
group of 10 provinces, between 50 and 85% maintenance and operation and a part of capital
total wastewaters are treated, although in the costs in all countries except those that are less
largest cities treatment is rare (in general, less developed. Nevertheless, services are partially
than 10%). subsidized even in more developed countries.
When defining an action strategy against Some actions that can help prevent floods
flooding, clearly there is no single response are risk management of swellings; flood
valid under all circumstances and in all contingency plans that establish evacuation
regions, and it is impossible to provide routes, critical thresholds for decision-
absolute protection. There are examples of making, and requirements for emergency
severe swellings that caused serious damage operations, etc.; construction of structural
and were difficult to manage in societies with and non-structural infrastructure for defense
high technological development such as the against flooding (physical works and alert
one in the Mississippi in 1993 or the Oder systems); maintenance of infrastructure
in Germany in 1997. These cases show that for flood defense; territorial planning and
even first world countries suffer these natural management in the entire drainage basin;
disasters and prove that management of avoiding inadequate physical and economic
swellings is a current problem to be discussed settlements in flood plains; and providing
within the science and technology community. information and education to the community
in relation to the risks of floods and the actions
In conclusion, the importance of investi- to be taken in an emergency.
gating water-related natural disasters is
strongly linked to the need to define action Furthermore, operational management of
strategies to avoid them, although it is swellings can be considered complementary
impossible to find a single answer valid in to four activities: a) hydrometereological
all circumstances and to ensure complete detection of possible swelling formation; b)
protection. prediction of runoff conditions; c) alert on
49
ARGENTINA
swelling severity and timing, and d) emergency an alert system with a telemetry network was
response from authorities and the population. installed twenty years ago in the basin of the
In this respect, there is an evident need to San Antonio River, in the semi-arid region of
develop specific mathematical models and the Cordoba mountains, there have been no
techniques to estimate the variables to be deaths by alluvial swellings in the touristic town
used to alert and warn the population. of Villa Carlos Paz. The system functions and
gives warning and evacuation signals with only
Actions to be taken after the flood is over a few hours of anticipation from December to
depend on its severity and can include aid March, not just because this is when intense
for the immediate needs of those affected; rainfall occurs, but also because it is the
reconstruction of damaged buildings, tourist season when campers can be found
infrastructure and defense works; recovery in risk areas. It is important for plain basin
and regeneration of the environment and alert systems to produce precise information
economic activity within the flooded area, and regularly not only regarding the date of the
revising planning and management actions to event and its expected height, but also the
be considered in future events. time flood levels are expected to remain.
As stated above, structural and non-structural Likewise, alert systems should function
measures are complementary in mitigating continuously as they predict swellings and falls
the effects of river swellings. Currently, an that can affect navigation. Daily hydrometric
environmental view of the problem suggests levels for the cities of Rosario and Santa Fe
possible non-structural solutions, such as are estimated twenty days in advance, and
territorial zoning of flood plains, appropriate then corrected according to the effect of local
control of development and activities in the rains. In every important coastal city, water
flood-prone areas, early alert systems and levels are predicted with a variable amount of
plans for civil defense. The importance of time and made public at the proper moment
non-structural measures is underlined by the when alert and evacuation levels are reached.
false sense of security in communities living
close to works for physical defense as these The ways and roads that run parallel to water
are designed for a specific critical state, which courses within a great alluvial valley create
can naturally by overwhelmed. problems that are very difficult to solve. More
than 50% of the bridges that have fallen in
Although non-structural measures cover a the United States for example, have failed
wide variety of specialized fields, it is vital to because of poor hydraulic design. When
mention the importance of early alert systems roads are built in low slope areas, their
that are based on the mid-term forecast embankments can alter the flow of water,
of potential floods. If an accurate alert is changing its direction and causing diversion
called in a timely manner in quick response of the basin. Then, land that was not flood-
basins, deaths can be avoided as no one prone before the building of the road
would be surprised by the event. Ever since becomes floodable.
50
ARGENTINA
5.1.5 Water and Health Likewise it should be mentioned that a survey
Based on information from the 2001 in the La Matanza district found that 66% of
census, Argentina has developed a sanitary those surveyed mentioned having suffered a
deficit index, which relates access to basic water-borne disease (Cuenca Hídrica Matanza
sanitation services and access to the health Riachuelo, 2004).
system. Thus the population not in sanitary
deficit, in temporary sanitary deficit (lack of In addition to problems associated to access
access to the health system) or structural to water, Argentina must face the presence
sanitary deficit (no access to basic sanitation of natural water contaminants such as arsenic
services), and finally in critical sanitary and fluorine. Prolonged intake of water with
deficit (lack both services) can be calculated high amounts of arsenic can produce certain
(Triano, 2006). kinds of skin cancer, cancer of certain internal
organs (lung, liver, kidney and bladder), as
According to this study, the average Critical well as non-cancerous lesions of the skin,
Sanitary Deficit Index for the nation is 28%, such as altered pigmentation and thickening
with great disparity between provinces (hyperkeratosis). According to recent studies,
(Formosa 53.6%; Greater Buenos Aires the areas exposed to arsenic are home to 2.5
34.8%; Capital Federal 3.4%; Tierra del million people (7% of the population) and
Fuego 4.5%). Similar behavior is observed cover an extension of 435,000 km². According
when considering the Structural Sanitary to a document from 2001, the main provinces
Deficit Index which has a national average exposed to levels of arsenic greater than
of 14.5%. These results imply that 42.5% those allowed by the National Food Code
of the population has deficient access to (Código Alimentario Nacional), are Salta,
basic sanitary services (no matter if the Santiago del Estero, Chaco, Tucumán, Santa
deficit is critical or temporary) (FIG. 8). Fe and La Pampa.
Although there is strong positive impact In Argentina, 68% of irrigated surface is found
on the environment from reuse of treated in arid and semi-arid areas while the remaining
residual wastewaters in agricultural or 32% that belongs to humid regions, is under
forestry irrigation because fewer pollutants complementary irrigation.
52
ARGENTINA
The most common problems regarding pollution as well as the interjurisdictional
irrigation in Argentina are: salinization due to basin organizations involved. Both the legal
poor drainage, technological backwardness, system, at provincial, federal and Supreme
poor efficiency and a poor fee system. Court levels, and national and provincial
These causes can be generally related to ombudsmen, are directly supporting these
a lack of awareness on irrigation issues and initiatives by increasingly demanding
participatory control of government aid to the allocation of sufficient resources to
the sector. water and environmental management
agencies within their jurisdictions and to
5.1.7 Water and Industry the interjurisdictional basin organisms that
• Industrial processes use water intensively. promote coordination and cooperation,
For example, in order to produce one ton and thus demanding results.
of plastic, more than 5,000 m3 of water
are required. 5.1.8 Water and Energy: Hydropower
• On the other hand, industrial processes Argentina has a hydroelectric potential
produce contaminating wastes that must estimated at close to 170,000 GWh/year,
be treated and controlled. In developing of which 130,000 GWh/year correspond to
countries 70% of industrial wastes are inventoried projects in various degrees of
spilled into water without being treated, development. Of the potential accounted for,
as a result the impact on the environment 35,000 GWh/year correspond to works that
frequently causes greater concern than the are under construction or have already been
amount of water used. built 6.
• Pollution in the following areas in Argentina
is the consequence of the lack of quality FIG. 9 shows how each of the seven electricity
control of contaminating discharge into regions in the country contributes to installed
receiving bodies of water by industrial hydroelectric capacity.
processes: the Metropolitan Area of
the city of Buenos Aires (AMBA –Area
Metropolitana de la Ciudad de Buenos
Aires), the basins of the rivers Matanza-
Riachuelo and Reconquista, and to a lesser
degree cities such as Córdoba, Rosario and
San Miguel de Tucumán.
• In order to solve the most critical cases – the
rivers Matanza-Riachuelo and Reconquista
in Buenos Aires and the river Salí Dulce in
the provinces of Tucumán and Santiago del
FIG. 9. Installed Hydroelectric Capacity
Estero- national and provincial governments
have strengthened the agencies directly in
charge of prevention and remediation of 6 Source: Subsecretaría de Energía Eléctrica
53
ARGENTINA
The installed hydropower capacity in a year The bi-national projects in hand are: Garabí
with average hydraulicity currently covers (5470 GWh) and Panambi (5970 GWh) with
approximately 35% of the nation’s annual Brazil on the Uruguay River, and Itatí-Itacorá
electricity demand. If the year were to have (11300 GWh) and Corpus Christi (19000 GWh)
a high combined hydraulicity, it could cover with Paraguay, on the Paraná River. The main
45% of the demand, while in years of very low national projects are: Chihuido I on the Neuquén
hydraulicity the percentages falls to 25%. River (478 MW installed capacity), Cóndor Cliff
and Barrancosa (1740 MW installed capacity)
The largest hydropower station currently in on the Santa Cruz River, Punta Negra (62.20
operation is Yacyretá, a bi-national venture MW installed capacity) on the San Juan River,
shared with Paraguay and located on the Portezuelo del Viento on the Grande River (90
Paraná River, 100 km downriver from the MW installed capacity) and Los Blancos I and
city of Posadas. When the project is finally II (443 MW installed capacity) on the Tunuyán
completed, Yacyretá will have a total installed River, both in Mendoza.
capacity of 3,100 MW, and will be able to
generate 19,500 GWh/year. If these projects were to be built, the nation’s
capacity for hydropower generation would
The joint energy of the projects located decisively increase. The relative weight of
in the regions of Comahue, Nordeste Argentina’s hydroelectricity supply in the
and Litoral is equal to over 80% of the future would grow in new basins and would
annual hydropower supply in Argentina. be more evenly distributed along its territory.
The basins of the four main energy
generating rivers are Paraná, Uruguay, 5.1.9 Other Uses of Water
Limay and Neuquén. Attention should We particularly consider the uses linked to
be concentrated on these rivers to navigation and ports, fishing, tourism, etc. Some
analyze the influence of their combined of their characteristics are presented below.
hydraulicity on national hydroelectricity.
Navigation and Ports
The projects located on the rivers Limay and Inland waterway transport is not nearly used
Neuquén together concentrate the greatest to its potential for bulk transport by trains of
hydropower potential in the nation with 4,650 barges, although there are great possibilities
MW, or 25% of the peak hour load curve of for growth if coordination with ports of transfer
the Wholesale Electricity Market (MEM – or destination and shipping is improved, if
Mercado Eléctrico Mayorista) (19,500 MW, there are better conditions for navigation and
historical maximum recorded in July 2009). an effective sign system. Private initiative has
In addition, El Chocón, Piedra del Águila concentrated on establishing ports with very
and Cerros Colorados are the only seasonal low infrastructure and operation costs on the
reservoirs in the electricity system, that is the Paraná River that only require the maintenance
only ones with a capacity to transfer energy of canals in the Río de La Plata. This has proved
from the winter into summer. beneficial for all ports upriver from the port of
54
ARGENTINA
La Plata and some natural shallow-water points group affected by over-fishing within the
in the Paraná, with no need for dredging at limits of the continental shelf exclusion zone is
mooring stations or access canals. However, the squid. Although prawns are commercially
although progress is being stimulated by important, their capture is limited and the
a very significant increase in export cargo, amounts highly variable.
mainly agricultural bulk and containers, traffic
congestion has also increased on the roads River fishing is important in the Río de la Plata
leading to the ports. basin for subsistence, commercial activity in the
production of fish flour (shad), recreation and
On the other hand, a lack of coordination as a tourist attraction (sport fishing of dorado,
between agencies and deficient control of pacú, tararira, surubí and other gastronomic
real estate developments have caused poor delicacies). However, capture has not only been
exploitation of the recreational and tourist affected by the construction of the Yacyretá
potential of the ports along the Río de la and Itaipú dams, as the fish ladders do not work
Plata and Paraná River. Two exceptions that adequately, but also by over-fishing and the
illustrate this potential are the ports of Olivos appearance of exotic species (carp).
and Tigre, both of which from time to time
have combined services for a variety of users Fishing is also a recreational and touristic activity
in an articulate and harmonious way (sand of economic importance in mountain rivers. In
companies, fruit transportation companies, these areas, large scale fishing is used to supply
sporting navigation, amateur fishermen, restaurants and at certain times, for export.
visitors, the Argentine Naval Prefecture, Nevertheless it is important to limit the scale at
export of explosives, limited culinary which it is done to avoid affecting water quality.
selection). The attraction for tourism and
recreation of the port of Mar del Plata has Improved control and regulation of
not been followed by other ports along the fishing activities requires coordination and
Argentine Atlantic shore. cooperation between many agencies, and
thus must be supported by a long term
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the country approach. On one hand it is necessary to
should reconsider the possibility of developing make progress in scientific research on the
deep-water ports along its ocean shore to ecosystems involved, including activities that
allow an increase in efficient cargo movement range from the agricultural use of fertilizers,
and thus improved competitiveness in biological agents and agro-chemicals; as well
exporting goods. as marine research; investigation of food
chains and systematic follow-up of the changes
Fishing in populations of various species. On the other
The population of hake, the sea fish species hand it is also important to provide information
of the greatest importance in Argentina, has on tides, hydrology and meteorology; regulate
been calculated to have declined 70% in the catches; and study successful management
past twenty years due to over-fishing. Another strategies used in other countries.
55
ARGENTINA
5.1.10 Preservation of Water Quality because the Uruguay and Río de la Plata
Since the dissolution of the OSN - Obras rivers are suffering from algal blooming more
Sanitarias de la Nación (National Sanitary frequently, it is necessary for the country to
Works Company), management of water implement a reliable monitoring system.
quality and groundwater has suffered great
deterioration in Argentina. The recent conflict over the establishment of
the Botnia pulp mill company on the east bank
Companies that provide clean water monitor of the Uruguay River has attracted attention
their surface and groundwater sources, from the media over its possible impact.
although their measurements are not Nevertheless, they have not considered that
sufficient to identify sources of contamination. it would also be necessary to monitor other
Unfortunately, lack of information hinders sources of pollution along the Uruguay River
control of contaminating activities, a function that existed beforehand and that also affect
formerly performed by Sanitary Works, and water quality.
to date it has been impossible to achieve a
comprehensive approach to this and other Environments Affected by Water Quality
obstacles, and as a consequence there has The main environmental problem regarding
been continuous deterioration of hydric water that can be observed in the many
resources, especially in urban, metropolitan geographical regions of Argentina is the
and industrial areas. The creation of the consequence of a lack of discharge treatment
ACUMAR -Autoridad de la Cuenca del río (mostly industrial, residential and urban) and a
Matanza-Riachuelo (Basin Authority for the lack of adequate urban planning. An example
Matanza-Riachuelo River) arises as a new way of this is the settlement in the flood valleys
to face this issue. of the Matanza-Riachuelo and Reconquista
Rivers, and some of their tributaries.
Furthermore, the CIC-Comité Interguberna-
mental Coordinador de la Cuenca del Untreated wastewater then contaminates the
Plata (Intergovernmental Coordinating southern coastal strip of the Río de la Plata
Committee for the Río de la Plata Basin) has and part of the Paraná delta. Control is almost
tried to organize the systematic monitoring non-existent and the factories established
of water quality in the Uruguay and Paraná in those valleys generally discharge their
Rivers at the locations where they enter wastewaters untreated. Additionally, these
the country. Nevertheless budgetary issues informal settlements (shantytowns) lack
of the national and provincial agencies proper water supply and sanitation services,
involved have not allowed the initiative and to make matters worse, dump trash into
to continue. Because the Uruguay River wastepipes and canals, as they also have no
receives untreated discharge from the food solid waste collection services.
industry, mainly chicken and pork processing
facilities, as well as fertilizers and pesticides Likewise, the sustainability of surface and
from crops such as rice and soy bean, and groundwater sources faces growing threats
56
ARGENTINA
due to anthropic modification of land use The emblematic case of the Matanza-
in drainage basins. Non-conservationist Riachuelo basin presents all types of water
agricultural practices, deforestation, the and environmental problems: flooding of
use of agro-chemicals and changes in land residential and industrial areas, large sections
use disturb hydric balance and the quality of a population without sanitary services,
conditions of water sources. jobs for collection and processing of trash
that do not follow hygiene, safety and health
The following cases stand out in the country: preservation regulations, and industrial
• Misiones and several areas in the Bermejo activities that are frequently unreliable.
basin: increase in the amount of suspended
solids due to greater water erosion The formation of the ACUMAR -Autoridad
by deforestation, overgrazing or poor de Cuenca del Río Matanza-Riachuelo (Basin
management of arable land. Authority for the Matanza-Riachuelo River) has
• Uruguay and Negro Rivers: presence the main objective of facilitating the activities
of pesticides and fertilizers in surface of various agencies, although a single strategy
watercourses. with an overall view without which it will be
• Contamination of shallow reservoirs such impossible to reverse the processes of urban
as Río Hondo (Santiago del Estero), San and environmental deterioration, has yet to
Roque and Los Molinos lakes (Córdoba), be reached by consensus.
Lake Lacar (Neuquén) and Lake Nahuel
Huapi (Río Negro) because of untreated A second serious water-environmental
wastewaters and sewage from urban problem facing Argentina is pollution
settlements and riverside industries or of groundwater. In most of the country,
those located on the drainage basin. groundwater management is hardly efficient
• Aquifer contamination caused by and therefore there is a lack of quantitative
wastewater discharge into septic tanks, as in information necessary to assess the current
“Pueluche” in the Buenos Aires Province or state of water quality in aquifers and the
due to intensive and uncontrolled urban and tendencies in each one.
industrial development, as on the shores of
the Paraná River, from Rosario to La Plata. Although the responsibility of groundwater
• Contamination of the basins of the management lies in the provincial
Reconquista and Matanza-Riachuelo Rivers governments, these generally do not have
in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area. sufficient human and financial resources to
Both basins are extremely polluted and manage a resource which is much less visible
thus directly and indirectly affect the well- than surface water. Most often, technicians
being of 5 million inhabitants. It must be specialized in drilling know groundwater
mentioned that other important cities like resources better than the authorities, either
Córdoba, Rosario and San Miguel Tucumán because studies are expensive, or because
suffer similar, although less serious there is no information on un-registered wells,
situations. most of them in many provinces.
57
ARGENTINA
A third water-environmental issue of importance The 67% of the world’s commerce in virtual
in Argentina is wetland deterioration due water is related to the international trade of
to a variety of causes including pollution vegetables, 23% to trade in livestock and
(Hondo River Dam), construction of drainage meat products, and the remaining 10% to
systems with poorly organized operation and trade of industrial products.
maintenance (Bajos Submeridionales), illegal Approximately 57% of Argentina’s exports
canals that alter surface runoff (in the Pampa are related to agricultural products, making it
plains), flow regulation by means of dams that one of the main exporting nations of virtual
eliminate swellings that previously caused water between 1995 and 1999, with a net
overflows used by subsistence agriculture export volume of 226.3 109 m3, only below
(Copo, San Gregorio and Figueroa marshlands the United States, Canada and Thailand.
on the Salado River in Santiago del Estero,
Dulce River marshlands) or the natural or man- 5.1.12 Water and Education
made blockage of its natural discharge points More than 90 % of the population in Argentina
(Iberá estuary). lives in large and mid-sized cities. As a
consequence, it is necessary for those who
Basin Committees provide an ideal train teachers to transmit a founded diagnosis
environment to rehearse conciliation of of the following issues: the need for safe
objectives when they become open to water in cities, the treatment and sustainable
participation through procedures that management of waste and rainwater, the
circulate initiatives and receive suggestions interactions between surface and groundwater
and proposals from the entire sector affected, with communities, as well as assessing the
before initiating management activities. potential pathways for solutions in specific
cases, considering concrete examples that are
5.1.11 Water, International Trade and applicable in the region.
Globalization: Virtual Water The Ministry of Education and The
The concept of virtual water arose in the early National Academy for Exact, Physical
1990’s and was defined as water consumed in and Natural Sciences of Argentina have
the making of a product. Water is needed to followed the guidelines established in the
make goods; therefore the water used to make “Science for all Children” and “La main
a product, whether agricultural or industrial in à la pâte” programs, developed by the
nature, is the product’s virtual water. Virtual Science Academy of the United States
water is a tool to calculate the real use of and France respectively, and translated
water in a country or its “water footprint”, the scheme to secondary level students.
and is equivalent to the total sum of domestic As one of its first activities, they have
consumption and the import of virtual water intended to introduce the topic of water
in the country, minus the export of its “virtual as fundamental and have involved experts
water” to other nations. A country’s water to interact with university professors.
footprint is a useful indicator of a country’s As an example, a positive experience with
demand on the earth’s water resources. respect to acquiring water culture at primary
58
ARGENTINA
and secondary education levels in Argentina Water) of the School of Veterinary Sciences at
and five other countries (Brazil, Denmark, the University of Buenos Aires.
Ghana, Thailand and Japan) can also be
mentioned. This occurred with support 5.1.13 Water Management
from the International Lake Environment In Argentina, water management has
Committee (ILEC) during the “water decade” developed in a series of steps that have not
established by the United Nations (Martinez, been the same in every one of its provinces.
1993 and 1998). Nevertheless it is useful to list various concepts
that have had an influence on the process:
Regarding education at the undergraduate • Water as a resource the use of which
and graduate levels, a national network for contributes to economic development and
training and management of water resources labor in the territory.
called Red Argentina de Capacitación y • Water as a risk factor.
Fortalecimiento de la Gestion Integrada de • Water as a resource that links various sectors
los Recursos Hídricos -ArgCapNet) (Argentine and jurisdictions in complex ways, and which
Network for Training and Strengthening requires trying new ways of organization.
Integrated Management of Hydric Resources) • Water as a resource which cannot be
has been made official. It is composed of an managed centrally due to a great variety of
important group of government, academic situations.
and non-government institutions with the • Water as a resource vulnerable to
aim to contribute to strengthen abilities for contamination and also as an element the
integrated management of water resources in management of which has a fundamental
the country, and to provide a framework that role in the protection of the environment.
is larger and more important than previous
proposals in Argentina. Each one of these ideas gave place to
Several initiatives within this framework can innovation in the organization of water
be mentioned, such as the Curso Internacional management in the following ways:
de Posgrado en Gestión Integrada de los • The creation of the Dirección Nacional
Recursos Hídricos -GIRH (International de Irrigación (National Directorate for
Postgraduate Course for Integrated Irrigation) and then the state-owned
Management of Water Resources) organized company Agua y Energía Eléctrica (Water
by both the Department of Hydraulics of and Electricity), into which it was absorbed.
the School of Engineering at the University The state-owned company Obras Sanitarias
of Buenos Aires and the Instituto Argentino de la Nación (National Sanitary Works) was
de Recursos Hídricos -IARH (Argentinian also created and became responsible for
Institute of Hydric Resources) which began clean water supply and sanitation in the
over a decade ago; and the master’s degree country’s most important cities.
in Water Management at the Centro de • The establishment of provincial directorates
Estudios Transdisciplinarios del Agua -CETA for hydraulics, with the main function of
(Center for Transdisciplinary Studies on building flood regulation works. Regulatory
59
ARGENTINA
frameworks for civil engineering works Negro]). During the 1980’s, Obras Sanitarias
were perfected (provincial or municipal de la Nación (National Sanitary Works) was
norms complementary to the Civil Code). cancelled and the same occurred with Agua
The Instituto Ordenador de Vertientes y Energía Eléctrica (Water And Electricity) in
e Ingeniería Forestal (IOVIF) (Institute the 1990’s. Their services were transferred
for Watershed Regulation and Forestry to the provinces and in many cases given in
Engineering) was also created, which concession to private companies.
performed studies and pilot projects on • During the last few decades of the XXth
alluvial basins. century, an “Area for the Environment” was
• Development agencies to improve established in the national and provincial
coordination between sectors to get major governments and assessment techniques
water projects under way (Corporación for environmental impact were divulged.
del Río Dulce [Dulce River Corporation], Environmental issues were included in the
Instituto para el Desarrollo del Valle reformed National Constitution of 1994
Inferior del Río Negro [Institute for the which determined that water management
Development of the Lower Negro River is the competence of provinces. Agencies
Valley], CORFO Río Colorado) were created. for hydric resources and the environment
Project assessment techniques (incremental proposed the formation of federal councils
analysis of social and economic impact) were -Consejo Hídrico Federal (COHIFE)
divulged during the second half of the XXth (Federal Hydric Council) and Consejo
century. In addition, interprovincial basin Federal del Medio Ambiente (COFEMA)
committees were created to promote joint (Federal Council for the Environment), to
projects (for example, Comisión Técnica promote coordination between provinces
Interprovincial del Río Colorado – COTIRC in issues that are not the competence of
[Technical Interprovincial Commission for basin committees or agencies.
the Río Colorado]).
• Hydric Resources Areas were created The elimination of the state-owned Agua
within national and provincial governments, y Energía Eléctrica (Water and Electricity)
providing various alternatives regarding and Obras Sanitarias de la Nación
their competence and institutional ranks. (National Sanitary Works) transferred the
Interprovincial basin committees were administration of water resources and
created for interjurisdictional coordination management of irrigation, clean water
and so were basin agencies to implement and sanitation services to the provincial
interjurisdictional agreements (for example, governments. In most cases, management
Comité Interprovincial del Río Colorado quality has consequently declined because
– COIRCO [Interprovincial Agency for the of inadequate financing and poor technical
Colorado River] and Agencia Interprovincial and management teams.
de Cuencas de los ríos Limay, Neuquén y There have been several causes for the lack
Negro –AIC [Interprovincial Agency for the of financing for water management. The
Basins of the Rivers Limay, Nuequén and most important of these was that Agua y
60
ARGENTINA
Energía Eléctrica obtained financial resources management and if provinces also increase
from electricity production that allowed it provincial funds for this purpose as a direct
to adequately fund essential functions such response to popular demand.
as studies and projects, hydrometeorologic
monitoring, management of regulatory and Two recent developments in the sphere of
legal issues, and the coordination between water management reveal the consensus that
sectors and jurisdiction. Likewise, Obras has been reached regarding the importance
Sanitarias de la Nación operated in areas of promoting coordination and participation:
where land occupation and socioeconomic the interjurisdictional agreement on
level provided an income that was sufficient Principios Rectores de Política Hídrica (PRPH)
to cover all of its functions (one of its legal (Governing Principles on Water Policies) and
advisory functions was establishing norms Plan Nacional Federal de Recursos Hídricos
on use and extraction of groundwater). (PNFRH) (National Federal Plan for Hydric
An additional cause of deterioration was Resources), that promote formulation of
that although the federation transferred provincial and sectoral hydric plans.
the infrastructure of these two important
companies to the provinces, it did not transfer Argentina has taken a significant and
the necessary resources for their operation irreversible step toward water management
and maintenance, nor the trained personnel at the provincial level, because the diversity
needed for these activities. and extension of centralized management
that makes it unviable. However, to complete
Because people in most provinces this process it will be necessary to decidedly
are not accustomed to improve the move forward in two concrete aspects. One is
management of water by demanding or to include new topics in education regarding
proposing constructively, the decision- practical issues facing water management,
making authorities that assign budgetary thus complementing learning of physical
resources to the provinces do not receive aspects that are already part of the curricula.
requests for a greater allocation of financial The other is to include specialized subjects
resources to water management (most and practical activities to teach fundamental
popular demands regard issues such as concepts on organization and management
social services, job creation and housing). in all specialized disciplines that must
Consequently, water management in most participate in hydric management.
provinces continues to depend on financial
aid from the federation, which implies that 5.1.14 Summary
the decentralization process has not achieved In summary, and as a consequence of
the objective of providing real independence comparing Argentina with other countries
to provincial decisions. This situation will only in the region, the nation faces a series of
be overcome if the Nation increases the co- significant challenges to attain integrated
participation of its provinces in national taxes management of its hydric resources that
specifically directed to strengthening water would turn into greater well-being for its
61
ARGENTINA
people and fit in the paradigm of sustainable assigned is in many cases due to factors
development. that do not depend exclusively on decisions
Overcoming these challenges can be regarding water supply services or the
achieved with the development of an agenda management of infrastructure works.
of structural and non-structural activities,
prior consensus by public and private sectors, The worldwide objective of achieving
which corresponds to a strategic long-term efficient, fair and sustainable use of water is
vision on the use of hydric resources, and usually interpreted as the same as achieving
that translates into increased investment and guaranteed access to basic water supply and
greater efficacy and efficiency levels in its sanitation services, in addition to universal
execution. protection against flooding and sustainable
use of water for the entire population.
5.2 Challenges to the Management Currently, some regions show they have
of Hydric Resources in Argentina reached the first two specific objectives and
The overall view presented in this document are taking measures to achieve the third.
on the current meaning of water in the world, Nevertheless, the great majority of the
Latin America and Argentina, enables to regions of the world, including many nations
appreciate the existence of a clear tendency with abundant water resources or those with
of water demand growing faster than its considerable income, are far from reaching
supply. Nevertheless, this vision also reveals the first two.
that water management faces challenges that
vary greatly from one nation to the other and Therefore, the main challenges facing water
from one region to another, as the various management in many countries refer not
factors that influence needs and opportunities only to the basic tendencies that determine
can combine in many ways. supply and demand, in other words the
impact of population growth and income on
Analyses show that the achievement of the water demand, but also the impact of climate
main objectives in water management is not change and the increasing production of
clearly related to the provision of water per effluents and contaminating wastes.
person in each region or community, or to
its income per capita. This implies that the In nearly all countries these basic tendencies
challenges in water management are not are present to a certain extent and it is
only limited to finding new ways to increase important to point out that some of them
availability and reduce demand. have been able to appease, and at times
revert, the tendencies towards growth in
Although the scarcity of water and technical- water demand per person and in the amount
financial resources that facilitate the increase of contaminants spilled into bodies of water.
in water availability, are no doubt extremely For this purpose they have designed policies
important factors, it is relevant to note that that combine structural activities with the
the poor efficacy with which resources are application of management tools, including
62
ARGENTINA
providing information and raising awareness The following negative tendencies are not
in the population, and involving various directly related to water management:
sectors in the negotiation of agreements • Human settlements in floodable areas.
necessary to change the tendencies • Precarious settlements in city outskirts of
threatening the sustainability of social and poor immigrants that cannot pay for water
economic organization. and urban management services.
These cases lead the way for other • Increase in the spilling of non-treated
countries; however it is not enough to copy effluents in rivers and lakes.
technological or organizational solutions, as • The continued and increasing tendency to
it is also essential to promote changes in the charge very low fees for water services for
attitude of the people through the use of the reasons other than water management.
management tools mentioned above. • The excessive use of agro-chemicals that
contaminate aquifers.
5.2.1 Harmful Tendencies • Rapidly expanding aquaculture that
In addition to the tendencies mentioned threatens to become an important factor
previously, there are other tendencies that may for water contamination if techniques
avoid the attainment of water management to guarantee its sustainability are not
objectives if they are not dealt with in a timely developed.
manner. Some of these are directly related • Limited progress regarding environmental
to failure in water management, but others and economic education for improving
result from the prevalence of non-sustainable awareness about the value of water and the
practices in productive activities or land zoning. social and environmental cost of poor water
management, as well as the need to preserve
The following are some of the negative hydric resources and the environment.
tendencies regarding the management of
water resources: These tendencies are clearly the result of
• Excessive regulation of certain rivers. views that ignore that the complexity of water
• Non-sustainable use of aquifers and a lack management implies that partial proposals
of adequate management of groundwater. intended to avoid problems in certain fields
• Poor response from those responsible usually aggravate problems in other fields.
for the management of water and energy
towards those in opposition to the building Therefore it is fundamental to create
of dams for hydropower production. mechanisms that allow decision-making based
• Poor quantification of industrial and urban on the coordination of all sectors involved.
effluents, the cost of which increases more
rapidly than the resources for dealing with 5.2.2 Main Actions to Contain Harmful
them as transgressions rise. Tendencies
• Water supply for irrigation at a very highly One of the causes of the harmful and
subsidized cost, thus stimulating the unsustainable tendencies mentioned above
inefficient use of water. is not having been able to integrate the
63
ARGENTINA
plans of numerous independent agencies and awareness campaigns among the
and organizations. Integration is necessary to population.
identify the issues they have in common and • Increase awareness among groundwater
to search jointly for viable solutions. users on the importance of participative
management that can guarantee
The following actions, mainly realized in sustainability.
developed countries but also to some degree • Promote the improvement of technologies
in Latin America, have the objective of that obtain freshwater from sea water,
controlling the processes that already affect the through subsidies for the activities that use
accomplishment of the aims of hydric resource them in a limited time span.
management, or that threaten to do so:
• Improve fee systems and the charging for The most important actions in Argentina are:
water services by means of mechanisms • Execution of expansion and improvement
that allow subsidies only for vulnerable and works to guarantee universal access to
needy populations, and encourage the rest water and sanitation services.
to adopt sustainable behaviors. • Fee scheme: agreement on fee levels and
• Promote the use of techniques that save improved fee collection.
water in all of its uses and which facilitate • Promotion of plans for urban recovery in all
its reuse. cities, respecting criteria that ensure their
• Recover rivers: give them back the part of consistency.
the flood valley that has been occupied by • The necessary awareness to install systems
urban or industrial developments, as far for groundwater management in all
as economically possible, and eliminate provinces.
sources of contamination. • Awareness campaigns to sustain firmer action
• Increase awareness among groundwater from agencies that supervise observance of
users on the importance of participative norms forbidding contamination of rivers,
management that can guarantee lakes, aquifers and shores.
sustainability • Construction of new hydroelectric ventures.
• Expand organic agriculture which is in • Promotion of awareness among farmers on
increasing demand due to its undisputable the sustainable use of agro-chemicals.
health benefits. This would imply less • Promotion of organic agriculture.
contamination of water resources, and
therefore its promotion is of interest to 5.2.3 Aspects in which Coordination and
water management. Cooperation among Sectors is Essential
• Study new locations for hydropower Experience on water management
projects. accumulated throughout centuries has
• Eliminate spilling of untreated effluents by proved that cooperation among sectors
means of a combination of programs to aid and jurisdictions is a necessary condition to
activities that will deal with both investment accomplish the objectives of integrated water
and current expenditure for treatment, management.
64
ARGENTINA
In this context, it is essential to reach and jurisdictional actors allowing consensus
agreements regarding two key aspects: to be reached and providing a rational base to
• A consensus with respect to the basic combine aid mechanisms for people, sectors,
needs of the people. or jurisdictions, while maintaining economic
• Coordinated action between urban, water incentives that promote healthy competition
and environmental management. in as many spheres as possible.
One of the main objectives of the integrated 5.2.4 The Role or Coordination and
management of hydric resources should be Cooperation Between Fields
to coordinate the management of sectors The considerations mentioned above imply
with influence on decisions regarding the the additional need to bring together tools
establishment of persons and businesses. from a variety of fields such as engineering,
economics, sociology, urban planning, law
Policies used by certain countries to avoid and management within a common vision.
migration flows that tend to destabilize the This global viewpoint would on the one hand
finances of both cities of origin as well as make clear that agreements fixing minimum
cities of destination, have generally relied standards for water and sanitation services,
on giving aid to the former to increase their as well as flood prevention must consider
attractiveness as places to live and do business the limitations imposed by economics and
by providing better services and opportunities technology, and on the other allow to agree on
for productive activities. As with any aid goals and thresholds to be considered as data
mechanism, this policy has not been easily for economic analysis performed by public and
implemented, although it has been successful private agencies and for urban planning.
in some countries.
The most noticeable case has been the A fundamental objective of hydric management
generous aid provided by the former West is to promote a climate of cooperation that
Germany to the former East Germany which is essential to reach agreements between
helped avoid migration on a grand scale that sectors, jurisdictions and actors, regarding not
would have caused enormous economic and only the goals and thresholds mentioned but
social costs in both regions. also in search of the least expensive solutions
to accomplish them. Cost-effectiveness is
This is a useful example of the implications important because achieving management
of the concept of integrated management: that coordinates the various uses of water for
it not only includes intersectoral coordination the purpose of maximizing reuse and reducing
but also interjurisdictional coordination on purification and treatment costs in each water
a national scale between sectors indirectly basin is generally a necessary complement to
related to water. market mechanisms. To promote cooperation
Thus an essential objective of water among agencies, and also between agencies
management is to promote an atmosphere and individuals, all relevant information
of collaboration between the various sectoral needed to understand the challenges faced
65
ARGENTINA
by management must be made public. two priority areas have been selected as
Awareness campaigns are also important having the greatest prospects regarding
before taking governmental measures, so the technical and political viability, social and
population understands what these measures environmental urgency and economic
are for and has the possibility to express their feasibility after considering their general
opinions and interests in a timely manner. repercussions and foreseeable externalities.
These areas are “water supply and sanitation”
Sufficient human and financial resources and “hydroelectricity supply”. The challenges
are another requisite for the fulfillment of and proposals for the development of hydric
hydric management responsibilities. This can resources in both areas are presented below.
only be accomplished if the people know
the problems confronted by management 5.3.1 Water and Sanitation
and have information on how these can be The main challenge faced by the nation in
solved, as the corresponding taxes and the area of clean water and sanitation is
contributions will only be sustainable if universal supply.
their purpose is understood and justified
properly. Indeed, it is fundamental to remind There is an urgent need to supply the millions
the population continuously that payment of inhabitants that lack clean water and
for water management services has two sanitary sewage. Likewise, it is indispensible
functions: to stimulate efficient use of water to execute works that allow treatment
and infrastructure and also to cover at least of wastewaters and to create awareness
part of the costs for providing these services. among government officials, professionals,
technicians, operators and the population
It is generally accepted that sanitation must at large on the rational use of water and the
be guaranteed by governments and that all protection of its quality.
people have the right to a minimum supply of
clean water, no matter if they are able to pay Among others, this creates the following
for it. Nevertheless, the search for the least challenges:
expensive ways to reach such goals through
cooperation agreements must be balanced a. To design and execute socially and
with additional agreements that promote economically sustainable investment plans
rational use of water in all sectors. that establish universal services as a priority
and guarantee financing in the appropriate
5.3 Proposals for the Development cases by assigning necessary funds within the
of Hydric Resources in two Priority budgets of public organizations.
Areas: Water and Sanitation,
and Water and Energy According to information from studies on
To complete this work with concrete the investment required to provide universal
proposals, and according to the information, access to services in Argentina (IBD, 2005,
viewpoint and experience of the authors, 2007), an estimated 10,000 million dollars
66
ARGENTINA
would be needed if “access to safe drinking resources would allow to shorten the required
water”, “improved sanitation” and wastewater time to achieve universal access to safe water
treatment were included under this term. and improved sanitation.
This estimate is a minimum, considering
the quality of the services contemplated. b. To improve economic sustainability of the
If the goal was to universalize both services service and greater rationality in fee schemes.
including network connections in urban areas
and a greater degree of effluent treatment, At present, tariff income for services in many
this amount would at least double. major Argentinian cities is insufficient to cover
operation and maintenance (O&M) costs.
The many social benefits (externalities)
associated to universal access to adequate The rationale behind the fee scheme is given
clean water and sanitation services justify by its capacity to financially sustain the service,
such an investment. These benefits include which in turn depends on the extent to which
improved health and its impact on education fee value reflects its cost. The use of micro-
and jobs; reduction in expenses for alternative measurement as a base to billing according to
solutions, including the cost of bottled water; consumed volume, contributes to economic
and improved environmental conditions, all sustainability because it promotes a reduction
of which directly affect quality of life. in non-essential consumption.
A WHO report has calculated that the cost- Chile, Colombia and some of the most
benefit ratio of investment in water and important operating services in Brazil (the
sanitation systems in a group of countries state of Sao Pablo, among others) have
including Argentina would be approximately developed lengthy and systematic processes
15. This means that for every currency unit to fix fees based on costs and they have led
invested, there would be 15 times the benefit. to a significant real-term increase in income
Likewise, if total coverage for both services for the service providers. In addition, these
including connection to a public network is regions have implemented the generalized
contemplated, then the cost-benefit ratio micro-measurement of consumption. The cost
would be 5. Both of these scenarios lead to of water and sanitation services in Santiago
positive socio-economic benefits. (Chile) and Sao Pablo (Brazil) is close to US$1
per m3, in Bogotá (Colombia) it is close to
The differences between them basically result US$1.5; while in contrast, in the metropolitan
from the much greater cost of expanding area of Buenos Aires the average cost is only
water and sanitation networks than to invest US$ 0.17per m3.
in “improved services”, while the benefits
obtained by each solution are not equally While micro-measurement in these countries
proportional to the respective costs. In this is practiced nearly in their entirety, it is
regards, installing service of lower quality estimated that only 20% of the billed volume
in countries or areas with less economic in major urban areas in Argentina is the result
67
ARGENTINA
of micro-measurement of consumed water. reducing the amount of water that is not
One of the main conditions for the success accounted for. In main urban areas, losses
of this practice is that fee values are fixed at from water systems are in the range of 40
a level that allows the recovery of O&M costs to 45% of the volume of water produced.
and at least some of the investment costs, To reduce such losses would produce
especially those associated to maintenance significant benefits as a result of lower
and restoration of infrastructure. operation costs and less investment in
installed capacity in plants, networks and
Nevertheless, subsidy systems must be other facilities.
implemented to aid poorer or more vulnerable
households that do not have the conditions It is worth noting that in calculating benefits,
to pay fees that cover costs.7 only the direct impact of cost reduction
regarding operation and investment
It is worth noting that in many countries, (greater installed capacity available in
no matter the state of their economies, plants, networks and other facilities) is
investment in basic water and sanitation considered, while required investments and
works is to a great extent covered by their incremental O&M expenses are accounted
governments, and there are no expectations for as costs.
to recover investment through fees, as a Regarding this issue, the generalization of
result of the extremely important social and micro-measurement would help detect network
environmental impact of these services. As losses more precisely and contribute to more
mentioned previously, in countries or regions efficient management by service operators.
with poor socio-economic development, it Finally, there is a need for a specific and
is advisable to first provisionally reduce the independent legal and institutional framework
quality standard of the services to be able
to attain sooner the much needed universal 7 In the context of a critical evaluation of how
coverage. urban water supply services are privatized
according to “Washington’s favorite solution”,
Sachs, J. (2008) suggests: “An efficient
c. To increase efficacy levels of operator agreement between public management and
management and coordination between privatization can be achieved by demanding
that private suppliers offer a minimum vital fee
sectors and jurisdictions. that guarantees all families a fixed amount of
water daily free of charge for vital necessities
(drinking, cooking and hygiene). The amount
Sustainability of water services by means
consumed beyond this minimum would be
of fee income demands improved charged at market values per cubic meter.
management efficiency and the resulting In this way, even the poorest people would
have a minimum guaranteed amount of
minimization of costs. water.”… “Depending on the exact structure
of the public-private enterprise and the norms
An area of special interest in cost reduction regulating prices, money from the public sector
budget could be used to reimburse the water
and improved efficiency in the sector is supplier for the free minimum water supply.”
minimizing physical losses, in other words, (pp. 185 and 186).
68
ARGENTINA
as well as technical and financial regulation participates directly in decisions to expand
for fees to reflect efficient costs. services, mainly in suburban and rural areas.
Likewise, it is important to mention the
d. To perfect the information system regarding organization of operating entities in the form
management and results. of user’s cooperatives, which is very common
in Argentina, especially in small and mid-sized
Making fee schemes reflect costs and making localities8.
them cost-efficient is related to the quality of
the corresponding accounting and technical Suggested actions to overcome the
information. Some Latin American countries challenges considered:
have made important efforts in this regard,
such as systems for regulatory accounting • Promote and prioritize investment in the
in Chile, Colombia and Peru, as well as the sector in light of the resulting benefits of its
AMBA services in Argentina. impact on public health, the environment,
the economy in general, poverty reduction
At a regional level, efforts have been made and social cohesion.
in the past few years to organize a system • Establish explicit incentive mechanisms
of indicators for comparative analysis for efficient management of operation
(benchmarking) through the Asociación de companies and the rational use of services.
Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento Fee schemes should include incentives to
de las Américas (ADERASA) (Association of rationalize water consumption and supply,
Regulatory Entities for Water and Sanitation by means of a significant increase in micro-
in the Americas). measurement of the volumes consumed by
users for example, as well as investment to
e. To promote participation of civil society reduce losses in the water networks.
and local authorities. • Fix fee levels so they cover the costs of O and
M and at least part of capital amortization,
Participation of civil society and local apart from considering subsidies for users
authorities is an essential mechanism to without the capacity to pay.
ensure that water and sanitation services • Strengthen regulation and control
are provided with the required quality, that of services and guarantee that the
universal coverage is achieved as soon as agencies responsible for these functions
possible, and that fees are fair and reasonable. are technically capable and can act
Civil society can participate through non- independently.
governmental organizations or by taking part
in public opinion consultations regarding 8 There are close to 750 user´s cooperatives
investment plans and other relevant aspects that provide clean water services in Argentina
and they represent approximately 17% of the
of the service, in public hearings or in the user
population with water service from a network
committees organized by regulatory entities. in the country.
There are also cases in which the community
69
ARGENTINA
• Improve legal and institutional mechanisms The part corresponding to hydropower in a
for the participation of society and local year of average joint hydraulicity is 35%.
authorities. This includes better diffusion and Assuming a 4% annual growth in demand
communication regarding the performance and in order to supply 40% of the demand
of operators and control authorities, as well with hydroelectricity (as advised by energy
as increasing educational activities on the specialists) and thus achieve a more balanced
issues of clean water and sanitation and the energy supply, an additional 43,000 GWh/year
importance of preserving public health and must be added by other projects along rivers
the environment, especially in primary and that are not shared with other countries such
secondary schools. as Cóndor Cliff, La Barrancosa, Paraná Medio,
and El Chihuido 1, plus 5,000 GWh/year from
5.3.2 Water and Energy an increase to full capacity (83 meter level) of
The nation faces the challenge of increasing the Yacyretá.
hydropower participation within the
conventional supply to generate extensive Table 6 shows the anticipated installed
amounts of electricity (Hydro + Thermal + capacity and the estimated building costs of
Nuclear power). This creates the following reservoirs on non-shared rivers.
challenges, among others:
Suggested actions to overcome the challenge
a. To promote the development of hydropower considered:
works in regions of the country where not
only the characteristics necessary to generate • To carry out the relevant studies and
hydropower exist, but where there would projects to complete the design of the main
also be additional benefits associated to the reservoirs and energy-generating works in
control of swellings, regulation of flow and both national rivers and those shared with
the addition of reservoirs. It was previously other countries.
mentioned that Argentina has a hydropower
potential of 130,000 GWh/year in projects Many of these tasks imply updating original ideas
inventoried in various stages of development. proposed several decades ago regarding today’s
However only 35,000 GWh/year correspond technical design and multipurpose reservoir
to works currently in operation. The country operation for the generation of hydropower.
would not only benefit from the clean energy In particular, there is a need for complete and
generated, but also from the control of updated studies to assess environmental impact
flows and floods, especially in Andean and of the work on a local and basin scale.
Patagonian regions where water is scarce.
b. To promote hydropower works that allow a • To bring these studies together with
more balanced energy supply with an average project assessment that considers not only
joint hydraulicity of close to 40% of demand. benefits but also direct and indirect impact
Current electricity demand in Argentina is close or externalities on socioeconomic activities
to de 115,000 GWh/year. and the environment.
70
ARGENTINA
Table 6. Installed Capacity and the Estimated Building Costs of Reservoirs on Non-Shared Rivers.
Expected
River Province Reservoir installed Investment US$/kw
potential (MW) (millions of US$)
Neuquén Neuquén Chihuido I 637 1.500 2.35
Cóndor Cliff and
Santa Cruz Santa Cruz 1.740 4.000 2.30
Barrancosa
San Juan San Juan Punta Negra 62 380 6.13
Portezuelo del
Grande Mendoza 90 265 2.94
Viento
Los Blancos I
Tunuyán Mendoza 480 1.000 2.08
and II
Sources: Ing. Luis Bergman (EBISA); Ing. Juan Lucchilo (CAMMESA)
These elements are necessary to promote such as a reduced impact of greater prices for
management linked to the viability of the oil and oil derivatives, energy production with
investment required to develop projects and low environmental impact and no greenhouse
determine their priority with participation and gas emissions, regional development related
approval from the social actors involved. to water supply and water availability for
irrigation, and the possible development of
• To analyze electricity fees in comparison sporting and tourism activities.
to international data to make power Based on these criteria, it seems reasonable
generation viable and thus determine how to orient public investment to build works
much of the investment needed can come accordingly. Aligning fees with international
from fee collection. standards will allow more interest from
private investment both in the construction
A general assessment of the energy market and operation of new venues.
in our country makes it clear that fee
levels for energy are close to 20% below • To work with Brazil and Paraguay in the
the international average. Major energy planning, building and usufruct of the
consumers, representing less than 5% of the energy produced by the Garabí dam on
demand, pay greater fees, although they do the Uruguay River, and Corpus Christi on
not go beyond international prices. Table the Paraguay River, for the purpose of
7 and FIG. 10. compare fees for electricity guaranteeing their development and to
(in particular thermal energy companies) benefit each of the parties.
in several Latin American countries.
Hydropower is an underestimated resource in Garabi dam. This project on the Alto Uruguay
our country and there is a need to promote the promoted by EBISA & ELECTROBRAS,
development of works to increase diversity of considers the building of two dams, Garabi
supply. This would bring long-term benefits and Panambi, with 1,152 and 1,048 MW
71
ARGENTINA
FIG. 10. Electricity Costs for Residential Customer Rd. Minimum Electric Power – 200kWh/month – BT. March/2010.
72
ARGENTINA
respectively and a joint average annual c. The reduction of the impact of a potential
energy of close to 11,440 GWh. It is important increase in oil and its products in the future.
to quicken the studies on the technical, d. The opportunity to give hydropower
economic and geologic viability of these two works other uses that are as important as
potential dams. electricity generation, although less profitable
(controlling swellings, irrigation, tourism,
Corpus Christi. This hydroelectric dam is navigation, etc.).
planned to be built on the upper course of the e. The development of a region for the
Parana River, close to the town of Corpus in the purpose of balancing it with others and thus
Argentinian province of Misiones and Puerto avoid migration for geopolitical reasons.
Bella Vista in Paraguay, some 50 kilometers In conclusion, it is not the potentially high fees
northeast of the cities of Posadas in Argentina which take so long to recover what may generate
and Encarnación in Paraguay. It will have an this type of intensive investment of capital in the
elevation of 105 masl and work coordinately future, but rather government decisions which
with the existing Yacyretá (Argentina- result from political power and the conviction of
Paraguay) and Itaipú (Brasil-Paraguay) projects the importance of development.
and with the Itacorá-Itatí (Argentina-Paraguay)
dam currently under construction. 6. Interjurisdictional and
International Hydric
At present, the possible project in Pindo-í is Resources (Appendix I)
under consideration. It is proposed to have The National Constitution states that the
140 MW Kaplan turbines, a planned installed original command over rivers belongs to
capacity of 2,880 MW; it would produce an provinces (Art. 124) while the Civil Code
average annual amount of 20,175 GWH, and establishes that water is a good of public
would affect 13,966 has. of land. domain (Section 2340, subsection 1).
However, these legislative bodies do no
Additional Comments typify the relationship established between
The construction of hydropower projects provinces bathed by the same waters.
of medium to large capacity has been many Consequently, when a basin spans over the
times proved to be highly unlikely without territory of several provinces or of a province
the predominant participation of national or and the city of Buenos Aires, each jurisdiction
provincial governments, especially in a country could adopt decisions that could harm the
under the conception and economic structure others or miss the opportunity to manage
of Argentina. Taking this into consideration, the basin rationally and fairly without being
what potential impact would convince the outside the law.
State to promote hydroelectric projects? The most adequate way to accomplish
a. The increase the reliability of electricity coordinated management of water is within
supply by diversifying its sources. a basin viewpoint. Agreements are usually
b. The reduction of greenhouse gas emission the most adequate way to coordinate water
of the installed generating capacity. management, although in some cases
73
ARGENTINA
participation of the national authority has that culminated in a definitive study by the
been proposed and put into practice. United States’ Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Its results were considered an
The reform to the constitution of 1949 adequate base for an agreement by the
authorized the National Congress to legislate technical and political standards of the five
(Art. 68, paragraph 14) and the Executive provinces of the basin.
power to execute the policy on interprovincial
rivers (Art. 83, paragraph 2) and to nationalize In 1983 the Comité Interjurisdiccional del Río
waterfalls (Art. 40), although it was revoked Colorado (Interjurisdictional Committee for
by a Constituent Convention in 1957. Law the Colorado River) was formed to oversee
13030 conferred regulatory faculties on the observance of the agreement, funded by
interprovincial rivers to a national agency to the provinces and the national government
guarantee rational and harmonious use along (Law 22721).
their entire course, although it is not applied.
An agreement celebrated by the National
In 1948, Tucumán and Salta celebrated a treaty State with the Northwestern Provinces
for the construction of a dike on the Tala River created the Hydric Basin Committees for
and to share its water equally (National Law the basins in the region (San Salvador de
956, decreed August 7, 1948; sanctioned June Jujuy, January 18, 1971, and ratified by
30, 1948). national decree 4361/71). This originated
the Basin Committees of the rivers Salí
In 1956 the Comisión Técnica Interprovincial Dulce and Pasaje Juramento Salado.
Permanente del Río Colorado, COTIRC The Hydric Basin Committee for the
(Permanent Interprovincial Technical Bermejo River was also created by decree
Committee of the Colorado River (Tratado de (Resistencia, April 14, 1972) and another
Santa Rosa, August 30, 1956), formed by the was created on similar bases for the basin
Basin Provinces (Buenos Aires, Mendoza, La of the Gran Rosario. Another agreement
Pampa, Neuquén and Río Negro) promoted between the national government and
an interprovincial agreement on the use the governments of Córdoba and San
of river waters that was subscribed in the Luis created the Basin Committee of the
Sexta Conferencia de Gobernadores del Río Quinto-Conlara Basin (September 19,
Colorado (Sixth Conference for the Colorado 1979). Some of these basins are sub-
River) on October 26, 1976, formally defined basins of the Paraná Basin, which is in turn
in February 1977 and ratified by National a tributary of the Río de La Plata.
Law 21611 January 8, 1977 and Laws 8663
of the Province of Buenos Aires, 750 of the The committees’ mission was simply to
Province of La Pampa, 4116 of the Province formulate recommendations, supervise the
of Mendoza, 964 of the Province of Neuquén collection and analysis of data regarding
and 1191 of the Province of Río Negro. The water and to promote studies and research
agreement was based on numerous studies to assess the use of hydric resources in each
74
ARGENTINA
basin. They were intra-federal, decentralized, Río Negro, Buenos Aires), who built and
multi-jurisdictional and singular agencies with manages the Casa de Piedra Reservoir.
capacity in public law because they originated
within interprovincial agreements and acts of c. Comisión Regional del Río Bermejo
the National Government. (COREBE) (Regional Commission for the
Bermejo River), a regional development
The Basin Committee for the Salí Dulce River corporation, to carry on studies and
became the Comité Intrejurisdiccional de la projects regarding the Bermejo River.
Cuenca del Río Salí Dulce (Interjurisdictional It includes the National State and the
Committee of the Basin of the Salí Dulce provinces of Chaco, Formosa, Jujuy,
River) in January 2007, with the signing of Salta, which are found in the basin, and
an interjurisdictional treaty between the five the provinces of Santa Fe and Santiago
basin provinces and the Nation. Its aim is del Estero who expect to benefit from its
to promote the drawing of a Management management (Convenio de Buenos Aires
Plan for the basin with consensus between [Buenos Aires Agreement], 10/2/81 ratified
all parties, to be executed by the by national law 22697).
strengthening of provincial agencies for
water and the environment. d. Autoridad Interjurisdiccional de las
Cuencas de los Ríos Limay, Neuquén y Negro
The basin committees for the rivers Juramento- (Interjurisfictional Authority for the Basins of
Salado and the northwestern region of the La the Rivers Limay, Neuquén and Negro) created
Pampa plains, which receives extraordinary by the interjurisdictional agreement signed
contributions from the Quinto River, are near in Neuquén on December 16, 1985 by the
the signing of interjurisdictional treaties similar National State and the provinces of Neuquén,
to the one for the Salí Dulce River. Río Negro and Buenos Aires (ratified by
National Law 23896). It receives resources
The following were also created with from hydropower generation and performs
participation of the National Government: hydrometeorologic and coordination tasks. In
spite of its name, it does not have functions
a. Comité Intergubernamental Coordinador expressly delegated from provincial agencies
de la Cuenca del Plata (Intergovernmental with competence in hydric management.
Coordinating Committee of the Plata Basin),
to coordinate the activities of the provinces e. Autoridad de la Cuenca Matanza-Riachuelo
in the basin, between provinces, with the (ACUMAR) (Authority for the Matanza-
National Government and between the Riachuelo Basin), an interjurisdictional public-
National Government and foreign states law institution formed by the National State,
that share the basin (Law 23027). the province of Buenos Aires and the Ciudad
Autónoma de Buenos Aires (Independent
b. The Executive Entity Presa Embalse Casa City of Buenos Aires) (Law 26168, Art. 1).
de Piedra (National Government, La Pampa, Its functions include regulation, control and
75
ARGENTINA
promotion of industrial activities; unification a. Subordinates the use of contiguous rivers
of disposal schemes for wastewater in bodies to previous agreements between riparian
of water and gas emissions; provision of countries.
public services, other environmental activities,
prevention, sanitation, restructuring and b. Allows each nation to use successive
rational use of natural resources; planning for sections of the rivers they share9 according to
environmental management of the basin and their needs, but without causing considerable
the execution of the Plan Integral de Control de damage to the other States.
la Contaminación y Recomposición Ambiental
(Comprehensive Plan for the Control of In the United Nations Conference on the
Environmental Restructuring and Pollution). Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972),
Because Argentina is found on the lower Argentina achieved recognition of the
section of the Río de la Plata Basin, it has always obligation to notify well in advance of
had a special interest in the development and “important activities regarding water that may
exploitation of the basin within international have a significant effect on another country”
agreements. Whenever a basin spans several (Recommendation 51). In the UN Conference
nations, one nation might adopt decisions on Environment and Development (Río
that could harm another or the opportunity to de Janeiro, 1992) Argentina attained the
manage the basin comprehensively and fairly recommendation to avoid causing harm to
might be missed. the environment of other nations and regions
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction
To achieve comprehensive and fair water (Principle 2), and also to provide prior and
management, it is best to focus it on each timely information to potentially affected
individual basin, which requires the intention States on activities that may have significant
of the nations involved. For this reason, within adverse transboundary effect and to consult
the VII International Conference of American with those States at an early stage and in
States, the Montevideo Statement on the use good faith (Principle 19). The UN Conference
and exploitation of international basins in the on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg,
American continent, which is a principle for 2002) committed the signatories to increase
international law and has been followed by access to basic needs such as clean water.
further statements along the same lines, was In the bi-national scope, Argentina and
issued (1933). It has promoted the formation Uruguay have accomplished true models of
of a regional system for the Plata basin which international practice. To build and operate
approved principles applicable to international the works at Salto Grande, they reached
basins and some particular recommendations
9 In the resolution quoted, “international rivers
for specific works. Within the Asunción
of successive course” refers to rivers that
Conference of Ministers of Foreign Affairs run from one country to another, such as the
and from the many negotiations within the Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers when they run
from Brazil to Argentina; while rivers that
framework of the Plata Basin system arose separate countries are called contiguous
Resolution No. 25 on June 3, 1971 which: rivers.
76
ARGENTINA
agreements (Treaties signed 12/30/46, on the river (La Paz, Bolivia, February 9,1995;
11/26/58 and 10/20/72), provided timely approved by Law 24677). This commission
information on the projects to Brazil and received important financial support from
accepted its observations to avoid the edge the European Union, allowing it to engage
of the reservoir from harming its environment the formulation of a Master Plan for the
(Joint Argentinian- Brazilian –Uruguayan development of the basin. At present, this
Statement of Buenos Aires, September 23, plan is being executed at the pace allowed by
1960). They reached agreements again for the the collection of funds from various sources.
Plata and Uruguay Rivers (Treaties signed on
11/19/73 and 2/26/75, Laws 20645 and 21413) Bolivia and Argentina created the Comisión
that regulate the use and preservation of these Binacional para el Desarrollo de la Alta
rivers. The environmentally respectful behavior Cuenca del Río Bermejo y el Río Grande de
always shown by both countries could not Tarija (COBINABE) (Binational Commission for
avoid the controversy brought up by Argentina the Development of the Basin of the Bermejo
against Uruguay due to the installation of pulp River and Río Grande de Tarija), to perform
mill plants; this was settled by the International studies, research, projects and works, as
Court of Justice at The Hague in 2010. well as exercise certain authority and police
functions (Tratado de San Ramón de la Nueva
With Brazil and Paraguay, Argentina agreed Orán, June 9, 1995, approved by Law 24639).
to harmonize the Brazilian-Paraguayan
reservoir of Itaipú with the Argentinian- By means of the Acta de Santiago (Act of
Paraguayan reservoir project of Corpus Santiago), June 26, 1971, both Chile and
(Acuerdo Tripartito de Puerto Presidente Argentina agreed not to put into effect
Stroessner [Tripartite Agreement of Port unilateral activities that could cause harm
President Stroessner], October 19, 1979). to the other’s environment and to begin
With Brazil it agreed on the joint use of the joint actions for environmental protection,
bordering stretch of the Urugauy and Pepirí- preservation, conservation, and clean-up.
Guazú rivers, and the use by each State of the
unshared stretches according to each nation’s 7. Legal- Administrative Framework
interests and without causing relevant harm to for Water in the Argentine Republic
the other, according to the consideration and (Appendix II)
description made by both parties involved The National Constitution sets the base for
(Treaty of Buenos Aires, May 17, 1980; ratified all Argentinian law, distributes authority
by Law 22740). between the Nation and its provinces and
forces both to respect certain government
With Paraguay and Bolivia, Argentina created principles such as the separation of powers,
the Comisión Trinacional para el Desarrollo the establishment of the municipal system
de la Cuenca del Río Pilcomayo (Trinational and to yield to the minimum environmental
Commission for the Pilcomayo River Basin), budgets imposed by the National Congress
for the study and execution of joint projects and the international treaties it approves.
77
ARGENTINA
The Constitution bestows the Nation power to enforce law in the rest (waters which
competence over water matters when begin and end in the same premises).
it gives the National Congress power to d. Sanction of the necessary norms to legally
legislate on topics such as navigation by protect the environment, use natural resources
declaring it free for all flags (Art. 26,b), rationally, preserve natural and cultural wealth
international and interprovincial trade (Art. in addition to environmental education, and
75, Sec. 13), substantive codes (Art. 75, Sec. finally complement the minimum budgets for
12), and minimum budgets for environmental environmental protection determined by the
protection (Art. 14). Nation, as entrusted by the 1994 reform not
only to the national State but to the provinces
The Constitution also gives the Congress as well (Art. 41).
competence to approve international treaties
celebrated by the Executive Power (Art. 75, Although the National Constitution did not
Sec. 22) which must be observed by the specifically entrust the National Congress to
provinces and promote the construction sanction norms regarding water, the functions
of navigable channels and the exploration attributed to it in the Civil Code allow it to
of inner rivers. The Nation cannot regulate establish uniform principles on water matters.
matters that the National Constitution The National Civil Code determines that
did not delegate to the Congress (Art. practically all water is of public domain, at
121). Likewise, the National Constitution least all that is of community interest, including
authorizes the provinces to perform actions rivers, their flows, other water that flows in
regarding: natural channels and all other water that has
or acquires the capacity to satisfy uses of
a. Creation of regions, for economic and general interest, navigable lakes, lake beds,
social development and the establishment the inner shores of rivers and the watersheds
of agencies with faculties to accomplish their that originate in the property of one owner
objectives (Art. 125). Basins are includes as and end in the property of another.
one of these regions.
Groundwater is also of public domain without
b. Celebration of partial treaties with other prejudice to the rights of the owner of the
provinces to administer justice, economic property above it to extract it according
interests, and activities for common good, with to their interests and in accordance with
knowledge from Congress (Art. 125) and to local regulations. In special cases and under
regulate management of interprovincial basins. particular restrictions, it gives the land owner
the right to water that does not have nor
c. Regulation of management and use of water acquires the aptitude to satisfy needs of
under their jurisdiction. It gives provinces general interest.
original domain of natural resources (Art.
124). The Civil Code awards provinces public The provinces and the Subsecretaría de
domain over most waters (Art. 2340) and the Recursos Hídricos de la Nación (Subsecretariate
78
ARGENTINA
of National Hydric Resources) created the cases water management is under national
Consejo Hídrico Federal (COHIFE) (Federal jurisdiction, such as navigation and electricity
Hydric Council) (Law 26438) to coordinate interconnection (Law 15336, Art. 12).
federal hydric policy and to combine policies,
legislation and management of water in The water rights granted to individuals by the
jurisdictions. The Federal Council for the civil code are those exercised on the grounds
Environment coordinates the activities of of the legal requirements it establishes. They
the national and provincial governments on are basically enforced by local authorities in
matters of environmental policy (Law 25675). agreement with matters of federal competence
exercised by the National Government.
The so-called “Guiding Principles for Hydric
Policy of the Argentine Republic” propose a Certain provinces fix basic hydric policy
conceptual base for efficient and sustainable principals in their constitutions, with the purpose
management of hydric resources in the entire of making them prevail over a contrary decision
country. These principles are the direct result by any of its three powers. Nevertheless, while
of several years’ work by sectors involved executing their regulatory faculties regarding
in the use, management and protection of management, use and preservation of both
water resources that were summoned by public and private water under their jurisdiction,
the argentine provinces at the request of provinces have sanctioned laws that often
the Subsecretaría de Recursos Hídricos overlap and in other cases are contradictory
de la Nación (National Sub-secretariat and have ascribed application to a variety of
of Water Resources) (originally created agencies.
as the Secretariat of Water Resources). To face the inconveniencies provoked by
Simultaneously, the Fundamentos del such dispersal, some provinces bring these
Acuerdo Federal del Agua (Foundations for norms together in water codes and unify their
the Federal Agreement on Water) which gave application in a central agency. Some provinces,
rise to al COHIFE, proposed that the National accepting the paradigm of integrated and per
Congress should sanction a coherent and basin management, have created agencies to
effective Framework Law for Water Policy, manage development or exercise authority in a
that combines provincial, regional and certain basin or in the part of it that falls under
national interests respecting the historical its jurisdiction.
roots of each jurisdiction. The Constitution grants the provinces original
domain over rivers (Art, 124), while the Civil
The domain of province over water is a Code grants public domain (Sec. 2340, Sub-
primary (National Constitution, Art. 124), sec. 1), however it does not typify the relation
public (Civil Code Art. 2340), and residual between several provinces bathed by the
right which recognizes limitations. Therefore same waters (Appendix I)
provinces must manage or allow the
management of water in accordance to the In light of the aforementioned, the following
Civil Code (Arts. 2636/2653) although in some conclusions can be reached:
79
ARGENTINA
• The legal system in Argentina deals with resources and the conservation of natural
a multitude of water-related issues. The wealth. The “Consejo Hídrico Federal”
abundant and scattered norms from 25 (COHIFE) (Federal Hydric Council) a federal
jurisdictions and some interjurisdictional authority for normative coordination, is
sources concerning the preservation showing the signs of becoming the most
and improvement of watersheds and adequate organ to create such a law or
conferring their application to numerous code, because it anticipates the consensus
organisms, creates problems regarding of the entire political and administrative
the identification and application of norms, system as well as its obstacles. In addition,
while stimulating certain activities but not COHIFE promotes the Guiding Principles
others. This rarely helps to solve issues, it for Hydric Policy of the Argentine Republic.
more likely increases conflict of interests
generated by permanent circulation of • The abundance and scattering of norms
water throughout basins, decreases water is also present in the international laws for
availability and worsens the effect of its over- water, built from precise agreements. The
abundance. On a national scale, this is even location of Argentina in the lower section of
more obvious because a national body for the Plata Basin and the opportunities offered
water regulation is lacking. At the launching by the Andean rivers force it to continue
of the “Guiding Principle for Water Policy in ahead in the building of an equitable and
the Argentine Republic”, within the Hydric solidary international legal system for water.
Policy of August 8, 2003, the following was
stated: “The standardization of Guiding 8. Glossary
Principles through a Framework Law on Alluvium. Detrital material such as gravel,
behalf of the National Congress will allow sand and clay, deposited by water currents.
the stating of clear and equitable rules that
shall provide legal certainty, thus avoiding Anthropic. Anything associated to, influenced
proliferation of partial, disperse, overlapping by, belonging to, or even contemporary to
and often contradictory legislations”. the human species or human being.
Sustainable development. The process of Water scarcity. A country suffers water scarcity
increasing and long-lasting improvement in when the annual fresh water supply is lower than
the life of a human community. It can occur 1,000 m3 per person. Such a country probably
along one or more aspects such as physical experiments chronic and lengthy water scarcity
(health, nutrition, housing, jobs, services, conditions that hinder its development.
infrastructure), financial, ethical, spiritual
and emotional (education, recreation, art, Water treatment. In environmental
culture, religion). In socio-economic and engineering, the term “water treatment” is
cultural terms, sustainable development the group of physical, chemical or biological
occurs when progress and consolidated operations aimed at eliminating or decreasing
quality of life continues through time. From pollution or unwanted characteristics of water
the perspective of prosperity, human equity of various kinds: natural, for supply, residual,
and environmental conservation, according or in the case of urban wastes, raw sewage.
to the 1987 Brundtland report, sustainability The purpose is to obtain water with the
is development that meets the needs of the proper characteristics for the use it will be
present without compromising the ability of given, thus the exact nature and combination
future generations to meet their own needs. of processes varies not only with the traits of
the original water, but also with its final use.
Virtual water. This concept developed in the
early 1990’s. Because water is necessary to Wetlands. Areas of the Earth’s surface
produce commodities and services, the virtual temporarily or permanently flooded, regulated
water of a product, whether agricultural or by climate factors and in constant relation with
industrial, refers to the water needed to make the living things that inhabit them. They are
84
ARGENTINA
highly biodiverse and vulnerable to human Water and Sanitation)
activity.
EPA
9. Acronyms Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
A.D.E.R.A.S.A.
Asociación de Entes Reguladores de Agua y GEI
Saneamiento de las Américas (Association of Gases de efectos invernadero (greenhouse
Entities for Water Regulation and Sanitation gases)
A.M.B.A. GIRH
Area Metropolitana de Buenos Aires (Buenos Gestión Integrada de los Recursos Hídricos
Aires Metropolitan Area) (Integrated Management of Hydric Resources)
A.N.C.E. IANAS
Academia Nacional de Ciencias Económicas Inter-American Network of Academies of
(National Academy for Economic Sciences) Sciences
A.N.C.E.F y N. ILEC
Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas,Físicas International Lake Environment Committee
y Naturales (National Academy for Exact,
Physical and Natural Sciences) INDEC
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos
A.N.I. (National Institute for Statistics and Census
Academia Nacional de Ingeniería (National
Academy of Engineering O.S.N.
Obras Sanitarias de la Nación (National
A.P. y S. Sanitary Works)
Agua Potable y Saneamiento (Clean Water O y M (O&M)
and Sanitation) Operación y Mantenimiento (operation and
management)
Arg.Cap.Net
Red Argentina de Capacitación y Fortaleci- P.A.H.O
miento de la Gestión Integrada de los Pan American Health Organization
Recur-sos Hídricos (Argentine Network
for the Training and Strengthening UNICEF
of Integrated Management of Hydric United Nations Children’s Fund
Resources)
W.H.O.
AySA World Health Organization
Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos (Argentine
85
ARGENTINA
10. References and Mitigation of Groundwater Level
1. “2° Informe de las Naciones Unidas Rise in a Highly Populated Urban
sobre el desarrollo de los recursos System”, XXX IAHR Congress, Vol. B,
hídricos en el mundo”, 2006. pp. 629-636, Thessaloniki, Grecia, 2003.
2. “2º Comunicación Nacional de la 11. BID. “Water and Millennium
República Argentina a la Convención Development Goals: Investment Needs
Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el in Latin American and the Caribbean”,
Cambio Climático”, 2007. 2005, 2007.
3. IV Congreso Ibérico de Gestión y 12. Boj, C. A. “Principales Consideraciones
Planificación del Agua, 2004. sobre la operación de Embalses
4. ADERASA. Asociación de Entes Estacionales”, Comisión Nacional de
Reguladores de Agua Potable y Energía Eléctrica. Guatemala, C.A.
Saneamiento de las Américas, “Informe 13. Calcagno, A., Mendiburo, N. y Gaviño
Anual de Benchmarking 2010. Informe Novillo, M. “Informe sobre la Gestión
Preliminar”, 2010. del Agua en la República Argentina”,
5. Aisiks, E. G. “La gran crecida del río World Water Vision, 2000.
Paraná de 1983”, Organización Techint 14. CEDLAS-Banco Mundial. Socio-
Boletín Informativo, 232, Buenos Aires, economic Data Base for Latin America
1984. and the Caribbean-SEDLAC-, 2009.
6. Asociación Federal de Entes 15. Cham, R. “Diagnóstico de la situación
Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de los servicios de agua potable
(AFERAS), 2010. Conclusiones de y saneamiento en relación con los
los Seminarios de Tarifas y Sistemas objetivos de desarrollo del milenio”,
Tarifarios de AFERAS (2009-2010). Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo,
7. Banco Interamericano de 2007.
Desarrollo.“Agua Potable, Saneamiento 16. Conferencia Internacional sobre el Agua
y los Objetivos de las Metas del Milenio y el Medio Ambiente (CIAMA), Dublin,
en América Latina y el Caribe”, 2010. 1992.
8. Bereciartua, P. J. “Vulnerability to 17. Del Castillo, Lilian. “Los pasos del
global environmental changes in agua” (De Mar del Plata a Estambul
Argentina: opportunities for upgrading 1977-2009), CARI, Documento de
regional water resources management trabajo Nº 86, Buenos Aires, 2009.
strategies”, Water Science & 18. Escalante Sandoval, Carlos A. “La
Technology, Vol 51, Nº 5, pp. 97-103, vulnerabilidad ante los extremos: la
IWA Publishing, 2005. sequía”, Revista Ingeniería Hidráulica
9. Berz, G. “Flood disasters: lessons de México, México, 2003.
from the past - worries for the future”, 19. Estudio Análisis de la Situación
Geoscience Research Group, Munich Sanitaria en el Área del Proyecto
Reinsurance Company, Alemania, 1999. de Alcantarillado en el Partido de la
10. Bianchi, H. y Lopardo, R.A. “Diagnosis Matanza, Provincia de Buenos Aires
86
ARGENTINA
(Programa BID 1059-oc/ar) del Comité 31. http://www.greenfacts.org (consultada
Ejecutor del Plan de Gestión Ambiental en octubre de 2010)
y de Manejo de la Cuenca Hídrica 32. http://www.hydriaweb.com.ar
Matanza Riachuelo, 2004. (consultada en octubre de 2010)
20. FAO. “AQUASTAT”, 2005. 33. http://www.natureduca.com (consultada
21. FAO. “Agua y Cultivos”. Roma, 2002. en octubre de 2010)
22. FAO/Banco Mundial. “Agricultura 34. Hutton, G. y Haller, L. “Evaluación de
mundial: hacia 2015/2030”, 1995. Costos y Beneficios por mejoras de
23. FAO. “Programa de Acción los servicios de Agua y Saneamiento-
Internacional sobre el Agua y el Organización Mundial de la Salud”,
Desarrollo Agrícola Sostenible”, Roma, 2004.
1990. 35. HydroPower&Dams. World Atlas &
24. Fay, Marianne and Mary Robinson. Industry Guide, 2007.
“Infrastructure in Latin America and 36. INDEC. “Estadísticas de Población y
the Caribbean Recent Development Hogares”, IV Trimestre, 2006.
and Key Challenges”. The World Bank, 37. Informe Bruntland. Report of the World
2006. Commission on Environment and
25. Fernández, D., Jouravlev, A., Lentini, Development: Our Common Future.
E. y Yurquina, A. “Contabilidad Naciones Unidas, 1987.
regulatoria, sustentabilidad financiera 38. Informes Anuales. “Agua y
y gestión mancomunada: temas Saneamiento Argentinos SA”.
relevantes en servicios de agua y 39. INCYTH-UNESCO. “Balance Hídrico de
saneamiento”, Serie Recursos Naturales la República Argentina”, Buenos Aires,
e Infraestructura Nº 146, CEPAL, Argentina, 1994.
Santiago, 2009. 40. JMP (Joint Monitoring Program).
26. Global Water Partnership, “Integrated “Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-
water resources management”, 2000. water: 2010”, Update, 2010.
27. Goniadzki, Dora. “Sistemas de 41. Lentini, E. “Servicios de agua potable y
información y alerta hidrológico. La saneamiento: lecciones de experiencias
prestación de un servicio esencial”, relevantes”, CEPAL, en edición, 2010.
Revista INA, Año 1, Nº 1, pp. 21-23, 42. Lopardo, R. A. y Seoane, R. “Algunas
1997. reflexiones sobre crecidas e
28. Grupo Banco Mundial. “El Banco inundaciones”, Ingeniería del Agua,
Mundial y el suministro de agua y Vol. 7, Nº 1, isbn 1134-2196, pp. 11-21,
saneamiento en América Latina y el Valencia, España, 2000.
Caribe”, 2006. 43. Martinez, S. y Bauer, C. “The lakes and
29. http://www.cavaargentina.com environmental education”, en Memorie
(consultada en octubre de 2010) dell’Istituto Italiano di Idrobiologia, pp.
30. http://www.expozaragoza2008.es 39 a 54, Verbania Pallanza, Italia, 1993.
(consultada en octubre de 2010) 44. Martinez, S., Bauer, C. and Calcagno,
87
ARGENTINA
A. “Experiences of ILEC-PEAEL Project creciente ocupación”, Revista INA, Nº1,
in Argentina”, en “Guidelines of Lake pp. 78-81, 1997.
Management: A focus on Lakes/Rivers 53. PNUD. “Informe sobre Desarrollo
in Environmental Education”, pp. 63 a Humano Más allá de la escasez: Poder,
67. Environment Agency, Government pobreza y la crisis mundial del agua”,
of Japan, Tokio, Japón, 1998. publicado para el Programa de las
45. Menéndez, A. “La comprensión de la Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo,
fenomenología de las inundaciones 2006.
como requisito para su control”, Revista 54. PNUMA. “Perspectiva mundial del
INA, Año II, diciembre, pp. 25-28, 1998. medio ambiente 2000 recursos
46. Moreno, Ana Rosa. “Agua, Cambio hídricos”. Nairoby, Kenia, 1999.
Climático y sus Efectos en Salud 55. Prüss-Üstün, A., Bos, R., Gore, F.,
Humana”, México Simposio Agua, Bartram, J. “Safer water, better health:
Clima y Salud. costs, benefits and sustainability of
47. Murillo, J.A. “The scourge of scour, Civil interventions to protect and promote
Engineering”, pp. 66-68, New York, health”, World Health Organization,
1987. Geneva, 2008.
48. OMS/UNICEF: Organización Mundial 56. Ramsar. “Disponibilidad del agua”,
de la Salud y Fondo de las Naciones 2008.
Unidas para la Infancia. “Programa 57. Repetto, R. “Skimming the water: rent-
Conjunto de Monitoreo de Provisión seeking and the performance of public
de Agua y Saneamiento. Progresos irrigation systems”, Research Report No
en materia de agua y saneamiento, 4, 1986.
Enfoque especial en el saneamiento”, 58. Revista Hydria. “Arsénico. Desafíos
Ginebra, 2008. sanitarios por un contaminante natural”,
49. ONU. “El agua, una responsabilidad Nº1, 2008.
compartida”, Segundo informe sobre el 59. Revista INA. “Inundaciones en ríos con
desarrollo de los recursos hídricos en el creciente ocupación”, Nº1, pp. 78-81,
mundo, 2006. Paoli, C. 1997.
50. Ordoqui Urcelay, M.B. “Servicios de 60. Sachs, Jeffrey. “Economía para
agua potable y alcantarillado en la un planeta abarrotado”, Editorial
ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina: Sudamericana, Buenos Aires, Argentina,
factores determinantes de la 2008.
sustentabilidad y el desempeño”, Serie 61. Schneier-Madanes, G. ”L’eau
Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura mondialisée: la gouvernance en
126, CEPAL, Santiago, 2007. question”, La Découverte, París, 2010.
51. Organización de la Naciones Unidas. 62. Segundo informe de las Naciones
Declaración de Río Cumbre Mundial Unidas sobre el desarrollo de los
1992. recursos hídricos en el mundo. “El agua,
52. Paoli, C. “Inundaciones en ríos con una responsabilidad compartida”, 2006.
88
ARGENTINA
63. Triano, María Soledad. “Mapa de
Población con déficit sanitario de la
República Argentina, 2001”, FLACSO/
CEDES, 2006.
64. Tribunal Latinoamericano del Agua
2009.
65. Tundisi, J. G. y Matsumara Tundisi, T.
“A Água”, pp. 106, Sao Paulo, Brasil,
2005.
66. PNUMA. “Perspectiva mundial del
medio ambiente 2000 recursos
hídricos”, Nairoby, Kenia, 1999.
67. UNESCO. “2003, año internacional del
agua dulce”, 2003.
68. UNESCO. “Agua para el futuro: ¿Cuáles
son las tendencias?”, 2003.
69. UNESCO. ”Engineering: Issues,
Challenges and Oportunities for
Development” Report published by
UNESCO, Paris, France, 2010.
70. Zorrilla, S. “Lineamientos para la
estrategia de apoyo al sector Agua
potable y saneamiento”, CETI – BID,
2008.
89
Isla del Sol - Titicaca
BOLIVIA
Water Resources
great availability of water and high annual
precipitation, in nearly half of its territory this
in Bolivia
resource is scarce and there is a great deficit
of it, reaching desert levels. Additionally, the
country suffers with droughts, hailstorms,
A Strategic Viewpoint of floods and other weather phenomena every
the Issues Associated with year, and in many cases unpredictably. These
Transboundary Waters climate phenomena is worsened by events
like El Niño and La Niña. Bolivia is an inland
Fernando Urquidi Barrau, Ph. D. country with a surface area of 1,098,581 Sq.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia Kms and no more than ten million inhabitants.
Bolivia has 6,918 Kms of international borders
1. Introduction with five different countries: 3,424 Kms with
In the XXI century, the scarcity of freshwater Brazil, 741 Kms with Paraguay, 773 Kms with
(blue water) is one of the most significant Argentina, 850 Kms with Chile and 1,131Kms
threats that will affect humanity worldwide. with Peru. Of these, 3,442 Kms (49.8% of
Freshwater has become an increasingly scarce the total) are water, fluvial or lake arcifinious
and vulnerable natural resource. Global climate boundaries (Montes de Oca, 2005). Through
change is causing mountain snow and polar the vast aquatic borders, the controversy
ice to melt, while altering local and regional over the rights and uses of the shared and
hydrologic cycles. These changes have caused contiguous water is inevitable, and leads
disequilibrium between overabundance and to transboundary water issues that require
scarcity of the water resources throughout the permanent management and surveillance to
world, which is very difficult to manage and quickly solve international disagreements or
to solve. This dramatic situation is worsened disputes. For this reason, whatever is decided
by the poor and irrational administration and for upstream water will have direct incidence on
management exercised by mankind of all the what is negotiatied downstream. Additonally,
natural resources, including water. the continuous increase in the direct demand
of water resource, especially from the mining,
Bolivia has abundant freshwater, occupying agriculture and hydroelectric generating
the twentieth position amongst world’s nations industries of the neighboring countries, is
with high hydrologic balances. In addition, causing transborder water conflicts.
it is one of the countries with the largest
freshwater supply per capita in Latin America, The Amazon River macro-basin, for example,
approximately 50,000 cubic meter/capita/ occupies 65.9 % of the national territory
year. However, the surface and underground and has a border of 2,464 Kms, 35.6% of
water balances of its four major hydrological the country’s total international boundaries.
basins, have not been fully quantified nor Nearly 85% of these are aquatic arciniferous
explored. Water is not evenly distributed boundaries of contiguous waterways, of which
in the country; while there are areas with an estimated 70% are mostly abandoned and
91
BOLIVIA
have an extremely scarce bolivian population. From the legal viewpoint, the nation must
The cities of Cobija (population 38,000), on consider the new Political Constitution of
the Acre River, and Guayaramerín (population the Nation, enacted on February 7th, 2009,
47,000), on the Mamoré River (Madera River), as well as the urgent need to analyze and
are the two largest population settlements to enact complementary laws to rationally
on this vast aquatic boundary . It is mainly an regulate water resources. These new laws
upstream country and is also a downstream must replace the obsolete Water Law of
country, but in a minor scale. As an upstream October 26th, 1906, and reconcile the relevant
country, its waters run towards neighboring current and future bilateral and sub-regional
nations along the macro-basins of the rivers agreements. From an institutional perspective,
Amazon (Brazil) and Río de la Plata (Argentina the new executive structure and multinational
and Paraguay), and Pacific Ocean (Chile). In legislative instances must be adapted to the
addition, it recieves downstream water in Bolivian participation on international entities,
the Altiplano or Endorheic macro-basin, and bilateral or trilateral commissions.
specifically in Lake Titicaca (Peru) and the
rivers Mauri (Maure in Peru) and Lauca (Chile) The current governmental policies, found
and in the amazonic macro-basin, through the in Articles 373 to 377 of the new Political
river Madre de Dios (Peru). Constitution of the Nation, consider water as
the most fundamental right for the people’s
Transboundary water resources must be sovereignty and life, and its use must be
analyzed from various perspectives, including done in accordance to traditional ways and
scientific-technical, legal, institutional and customs. Water in all of its states, including
social aspects. Likewise, it requires greater surface and underground water, is finite,
involvement of social actors on both vulnerable and a strategic resource. It also has
sides of the borders. From the scientific- a social, cultural and environmental purpose.
technical point of view, Bolivia needs greater It cannot be subject to private acquisition,
knowledge and data, not only of the four and with the service it provides, will not be
major national water basins, but also of the subject to concession and will be regulated
surface and underground water it shares in accordance to the law (this law should be
with neighboring countries. In addition, proposed and promulgated in the coming
the Bolivian Government has a reduced years to replace the 1906 Water Law). In
financial capacity to satisfy the scientific and summary, to-day, water cannot be considered
technological studies necessary to learn in a commercial good. Nevertheless, the
detail about the size of flow, the physical and accelerated growth of urban population
chemical characteristics of the water resources (65% of the total Bolivian population), and
present in its boundaries. Nevertheless, this the needs of certain industries, have caused
technical-scientific viewpoint, with obvious a higher demand of potable water and its
limitations, is the main topic of the present services. This dilemma is difficult to solve in
study regarding the problems associated with the near future, if water is not considered a
Bolivian transboundary waters. commercial good, in one way or another.
92
BOLIVIA
With respect to international relations with way to obtain the greatest benefit of water
border countries, Article 377 of the Political resources for the entire country.
Constitution must be fulfilled, as it stipulates that
the State will permanently protect boundary Water has a strategic value for the future
and transboundary waters, to conserve the of Bolivia and thus hydrological resources
hydrological wealth and to contribute to the should be an instrument of power and
integration of the people in both sides of the negotiation in its relations with neighboring
frontiers. We must highlight that Bolivia is a countries. The bilateral, trilateral and
signatory of the 1933 Act of Montevideo, regional treaties subscribed by Bolivia in
which refers to the industrial and agricultural recent decades should serve as a base and
uses of international rivers. It’s also a signatory an example for future negotiations. These
of the 1966 Helsinki Norms and the Ramsar negotiations should continue with strong
Convention on the international importance of emphasis on the environment and must allow
wetlands enforced since 1975. However, Bolivia sustainable development of those regions
is not a signatory of the two most important and municipalities in the country that are
conventions on surface and underground involved or affected by them. Water must
water: the United Nations Convention on the contribute Bolivia’s permanent fight against
Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International poverty and social exclusion. In summary, not
Watercourses (1977) and the Convention on only the quantity but also the quality of water
Transboundary Aquifers. The latter is still under must effectively contribute to the sustainable
discussion and has not yet been approved or development and growth of the nation.
implemented by the UN General Assembly.
The problems associated in Bolivia to surface 2. Water Availability in Bolivia
and underground boundary waters have been In order to discuss the strategic scientific
present since the foundation of the nation in and technical aspects of the issues
1825. These issues and problems should be concerning Bolivia’s transboundary
dealt by joint bilateral studies for each specific water, it is necessary to provide a brief
case, and the political response should be description of the country’s hydrological
completely consistent with them. resources, and to describe the referential
geographic context and its relation with
Public actions taken with respect to water neighboring countries. Likewise, it is
issues should be guaranteed by politicians and important to properly define the most
private citizens, as well as social movements. adequate units to handle and manage
Hydrological resources are fragile and have hydrological resources within the existent
a high political and social content, partly hydro-physiographic framework.
because the Bolivian rural original peasant
population (35% of the total) considers water 2.1 Hydro-physiography of Bolivia
as a divine unconditional gift given as rain. The hydro-physiography of Bolivia is made up
The social and economic emphasis should of two major units and seven physiographic
be analyzed in a balanced, fair and impartial provinces. The western major unit is defined
93
BOLIVIA
by the high ground of the Central Andes
Cordillera, about 38% of the territory, and
the rest of the country by the eastern major
unit, which consist of the lower ground of the
Amazon and Chaco alluvial plains, 62% of the
total territory. The Andean block in Bolivia
consist of three contiguous morphotectonic
provinces, which are, from west to east, the
Cordillera Occidental (Eastern Cordillera), the
Bolivian Altiplano and the Cordillera Oriental
(Western Cordillera). The Altiplano is a series
of high, intermontane basins with an average
altitude of 4,000 meters. To the east of the
Cordillera Oriental, the Sierras Subandinas
(Subandean Sierras) and the Valles (Valleys)
are found. The second major unit is located SOURCE: ATLAS AMENAZAS, VULNERABILIDADES Y
in the eastern and northeastern areas of the RIEGOS DE BOLIVIA - 2008
country and consist of the alluvial Amazon FIG. 2. The twelve Hydrographic Watersheds of Brazil
plains along the Brazilian Precambrian Shield weather conditions present in the various
and to the southeast the Bolivian Chaco hydro-physiographic areas. These areas are
plains. The physiographic provinces shown in influenced by macro-weather, micro-weather
FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 are divided into subunits, and local weather events. The macro-weather
which provide a general summary of the relief conditions are characterized by the strong
and geological characteristics of the land. seasonality of precipitation. In the country as
a whole, the rain pattern is tropical and the
2.2 Climatic Conditions greatest precipitation occurs during the warmer
The availability of water in Bolivia is directly months of the year. Bolivia is located between
related to its geographical position within two zonal atmospheric flows: the Intertropical
the northern equatorial region and the Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the Subtropical
High Pressure Belt of the Southern Hemisphere.
This global weather mechanism is influenced by
southern cold advection winds (surazos) from
the South Pole and the thermal variations of the
eastern Pacific Ocean known as El Niño and La
Niña. Of the 855 weather stations in the country,
496 are found in the Amazon basin, 142 in the
Endorheic basin and 217 in the Rio de la Plata
basin. The Pacific macro-basin had only one
SOURCE: ANA 2009 weather station near Laguna Colorada, which
FIG. 1. Physiographic Provinces and Hydrographic Basins operated from 1985 through 1997. According
94
BOLIVIA
to Montes de Oca (2005), the distribution of
average annual temperatures in the country
varies with altitude from close to 25°C in
the plains, to 18°C in the valleys and 10°C in
the high plateaus. The annual temperature
variation is slight as the length of day and angle
of solar incidence is very similar during the
winter and summer. The lowest temperatures
occur in June and July, in the middle of the
winter, towards the early morning. The climatic
conditions are significantly modified by local
phenomena and microclimate, such as the
orientation of the ridges, the presence of
lakes, vegetation cover, etc., all them affect
the temperature and precipitation. Along the
entire national territory there are two rainy
periods, one during the summer with more
SOURCE: ATLAS AMENAZAS, VULNERABILIDADES Y
abundant precipitation (due to the fall in the RIEGOS DE BOLIVIA - 2008
Intertropical Convergence Zone) and another FIG. 3. Spatial distribution of specific discharge in Brazil
during the winter with less abundant rainfall
(the northern movement of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone produces movement of
dry and stable air). The rainy season is basically
during the summer, starting in December and
ending in March, with a maximum during
January, followed by February. From 60 to
80% of rain falls during these four months.
Winter is the dry season, with minimal
precipitation from May to August. These two
seasons are separated by transition periods,
one in April and another from September to
October.
Amazon basin, it has a negative effect when pools, wetlands and other bodies of water.
annual floods are produced, adversely affecting The surface water resources of a specific
productive activities and urban and road region come from rainfall in its catchment
infrastructure. FIG. 6 compares specific runoff basin, melted snow form snow capped
of the various basins in Bolivia. The contribution mountains and springwaters (underground
capacity of non-gauged sections of a specific water discharge). Surface water basins in
basin or of others with similar areas; it can be Bolivia, including the flow of certain rivers, were
assess from the statistical data of a gauged described in detail by Montes de Oca (2005).
section. The map shows that areas with the
greatest precipitation, west of the north and FIGS. 7, 8 and Table 1 show the regional
central Western Cordillera, Yungas and Chaparé abundance of freshwater in Bolivian
regions, have the highest values (40 to 50 l/sec/ territory, which has been divided into two
km¯²). All of the Amazonian macro-basins vary areas, one where freshwater is continuously
between 10 and 20 l/sec/km¯² and 30 to 40 l/ available and another where freshwater is
sec/km¯²; the Bermejo river basin has values scarce or absent. On a national scale, the
of 10 to 20 l/sec/km¯², while the basins in the supply of water (blue water) is greater than
remainder of the country have flows from 0 to 500,000 million cubic meters/year while the
10 l/sec/km¯². current demand is around 2,000 million cubic
meters/year, which means less than 0.5%
3. Availability of Surface Water of the total supply. It is estimated that the
In Bolivian territory, surface waters run national demand of water will increase 18%
through a complex system of rivers, lakes, by the year 2012. This relative abundance
97
BOLIVIA
Table 1. Units of Available Fresh Water
3 South of the Amazon macro-basin and downriver from the Río de la Plata
macro-basin, with moderate (>10 m3/sec to 100 m3/sec) to very large (>500
to 5,000 m3/sec) amounts of water. The high flow season generally occurs
between March and May.
4 The headwater basins of the Amazon and Río de la Plata with small (>1 m3/
sec to 10 m3/sec) to very large (>100 to 500 m3/sec) amounts of water. The
high flow season generally occurs between March and May.
Freshwater scarce or absent 5 The entire macro-basin of the Altiplano with moderate (>10 m3/sec to 100
m3/sec) to very large (>500 to 5,000 m3/sec) amounts of water. Great
amounts of salt water available. The high flow season generally occurs
between January and March.
De La Plata Macro-basin
Pilcomayo Misión La 98,300 506 439 67 -
Paz
Bermejo Juntas de 11,981 1,159 714 418 -
San Antonio
Alto Paraguay Puerto 119,219 1,056 830 226 -
Suarez
Total De La 229,500 829 530 299 -
Plata
Pacific Ocean Macro-basin
Silala Springs Laguna 150 59 914 0 14
Colorada
Total Pacific 19,348 94 630 0 -
NATIONAL TOTAL 1,098,581 1,419 958 461 19
102
BOLIVIA
Table 4. Irrigation Systems by Water Source Per Department
Rivers Run off Wells Reservoirs Total
Department Systems Area Systems Area Systems Area Systems Area Area
(no.) (has.) (no.) (has.) (no.) (has.) (no.) (has.) (has.)
Chuquisaca 615 18,059 28 587 5 2, 522 21 ,168
Cochabamba 415 48 ,979 95 3, 310 469 13, 442 56 21 ,270 87 ,001
La Paz 661 23, 271 258 4 ,166 13 163 29 8, 393 35 ,993
Santa Cruz 225 11, 099 3 25 1 380 3 3 ,735 15, 239
TOTAL 3 ,428 154, 582 702 13, 869 496 14 ,160 103 43, 470 226, 031
Table 5. Types of Source and Flow Supplied in the Capital Cities of Each Department
City Company Source Flow–Q (Lt/Sec)
EPSAS S.A. - Empresa 8 surface sources in the Cordillera Real (Tuni,
La Paz / El Alto Pública Social de Agua Condoriri, Huayna Potosí, Milluni, Choqueyapu, Between 2,011
y Saneamiento (Mixed Incachaca, Ajan Khota, Hampaturi Bajo) and 4,525
venture Company)
SAGUAPAC
Santa Cruz (Cooperative) Sub-surface aquifers (Tilala) (30 wells) 347 – 2,067
722
9 small cooperatives
Surface sources (Escalerani, Wara Wara, Chungara, Between 191
Cochabamba SEMAPA Hierbabuenani) and 404
(Municipal company) 462
Sub-surface aquifers
Surface sources (Cajamarca system which includes
the rivers Cajamarca, Safiri and Punilla) 82
Sucre ELAPAS
(Municipal company) Surface sources (Ravelo system which includes
the rivers Ravelo, Peras Mayum Jalaqueri, Murillo
and Fisculco) 389
Very small to large amounts of freshwater are available in alluvial aquifers of the
Quaternary period; sedimentary aquifers of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras, made of
3 conglomerates, sandstone, silt and schists; and igneous aquifers from the Quaternary to
Freshwater Tertiary periods made of basalts, dacites tuffs and ignimbrites. Aquifer depth is generally
locally below 100m.
abundant Very small to large amounts of freshwater available in fractures and crevices of
metamorphic to igneous aquifers of the Precambrian era, made of granites and gneis.
4 Locally, underground water available from alluvial aquifers along the Paraguay river.
Aquifer depth is generally less than 90 m.
Scarce to very large amounts of saltwater available from non-consolidated to semi-
Freshwater consolidated material of the Quaternary period, made of gravel, sand, silt, clay; and
scarce or 5 igneous and pyroclastic aquifers. Aquifer depth is generally less than 90m. Small to
lacking very large amounts of water are available in igneous and metamorphic aquifers made
of tuffs and sandstone.
106
BOLIVIA
5.1 The case of the Madera not navigable along its 98 Km in Bolivia due
and Beni Rivers to the many rock outcrops (Brazilian Shield)
The basin of the Madera River, an important which are present in its riverbed and are called
river of the Amazon macro-basin, is the most “cachuelas”. Its affluents on the right bank
important in the entire hydrographic system within Brazilian territory are the Dos Araras
of the country. It covers an area of 720,057 and Ribera rivers, while on the left bank and
Sq. Kms. representing 65.5% of the national in Bolivian territory they are the Mamoré,
territory and 99.7% of the surface covered Abuná, Arroyo, La Gran Cruz and Beni rivers.
by the Amazon macro-basin. It´s main flow is
the result of large numerous river flows. The Almost all Amazonian rivers in the country
Madera River constitutes the vertebral column provide an important source of transportation
as a water way of the Bolivian northeast. and the means of subsistence for riverside
inhabitants. Some rivers like the Ichilo,
The Madera River is an international water Mamoré, Iténez, Beni and Madre de Dios, also
course and an adjoining course that serves as sustain a commercial fishing rural industry. A
a natural international boundary between the total of 389 fish species have been identified
Brazil and Bolivia. In Bolivia, the Madera River in the Bolivian Amazonia.
originates where the Beni and Mamoré rivers
converge. As it enters to Brazil, it changes its During 2001 and 2002, with permission
name to Madeira River and becomes the main from the government of Brazil, the Brazilian
affluent of the Amazon River. The Madera is companies Furnas Centrais Eléctricas SA
107
BOLIVIA
and Constructora Noberto Odebrecht SA damage and the use of water by financing
performed a study of the hydropower nergy the pavement of Corredor Vial Norte La Paz
potential of the Madera River in Bolivia and of - Guayaramerín – Cobija (Northern Highway
the Madeira River, in order to determine the Corridor La Paz Guayaramerín – Cobija).
location of four hydropower electrical plants. • Bolivia should have insisted on the
importance of performing the analysis and
The feasability studies were completed in 2004 technical discussion of the projects to be
and 2005; the Leme Engenharia company constructed in Bolivia and Brazil.
presented an Environmental Impact Study • A second issue is the current contamination
(EIS). After questioning from various Brazilian by metallic mercury due to gold mining
environmental agencies and the Bolivian operations in the Madera River.
government, the EIS was approved in 2007
by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment 5.2 The Case of Lake Titicaca
and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA Lake Titicaca is shared with the Republic of
-Instituto Brasilero del Medio Ambiente y Peru and has an extension of 8,030 Sq. Kms.
Recursos Naturales Renovables). The license with its water surface at an average altitude
for the construction of the reservoir for of 3,809 m. The average depth in the Lago
the San Antonio hydropower plant on the Grande (the larger part of the lake) is 135 m
Madeira river was granted by the Brazilian and in the Lago Pequeño (smaller part of the
government in August of 2008. lake) is 23 m. The estimated water volume is
8,966.3 x 1011 cubic m.
Related Issues:
• The construction of four reservoirs is Fishing of trout and native species is an
planned along the rivers Madeira, Madera important activity in Lake Titicaca. In the
and Beni to supply a similar number of Bolivian portion of the lake, the capture rate
hydropower plants and increase the water reaches a maximum of 2,600 tons per year.
level to aid fluvial transportation. Two of However, there is evidence of over-fishing of
the reservoirs will be built in Bolivia and two exotic species, and there is concern about
in the Brazilian side. Table 7 shows some of the future of trout and the survival of certain
the characterisitcs of the plants to be built. native species. Fishing in Lake Titicaca
• These reservoirs will have a serious supports about 1,500 and 3,500 full time, part
environmental and social impact due to the time or occasional Bolivian fishermen.
extensive flooding area estimated at more
than 2.6 x 105 Sq. Kms. Bolivia and Peru have signed the “Acuerdo
• A devastating cutting of trees is programed del Lago Titicaca (ATL)” (Lake Titicaca
in areas of the Amazon forest. The new Agreement) and a Bilateral Organitzation
area will be used for the expansion of for Lake Titicaca has been formed. The
soybean agriculture, with an estimated Lake Titicaca Authority is appointed and
annual production of 24 x 106 TM of soy. authorized to regulate all activites in the
• Brazil would compensate the ecological lake. The Unidad Operativa Boliviana de la
108
BOLIVIA
Autoridad Binacional del Lago Titicaca (UOB- • It has been estimated that the water
ALT) (Bolivian Operative Unit of the Binational drained through the Desaguadero River
Authority of Lake Titicaca) is the technical is 0.66 x 109 cubic m, all going to Bolivian
branch of this Bilateral Organization. territory.
• Current pollution of lake water by untreated
The activity of UOB-ALT is directed towards sewage spilled in by the town settlements on
several technical activities: thematic the shores (Puno, Copacabana and others)
cartography, including surveys; measurement is of great concern. This environmental
of flow in the main river courses of the basin; issue must be addressed by both countries.
conservation and management of natural
resources; conclusion and updating of studies 5.3 The cased of the
of the hydrographic basins of Lake Titicaca – Mauri (Maure) River
Desaguadero River – Lake Poopó – Salar de The water head of the Maure River is
Coipasa (TDPS). It also includes the execution at the Laguna Vilacota in the Peruvian
of the Direction Plan for the construction of: Cordillera Occidental, it fows through a
a) irrigation bridges, b) hydraulic works, c) large portion of Peruvian territory and
dredging of the Desaguadero River and d) then flows into Bolivia at a site near the
building of gates to control over flooding. town of Charaña (Urquidi, 2005b). It forms
part of the TDPS (Titicaca, Desaguadero,
Related Issues: Poopó, Salares) system which drains the
• The basin of Lake Titicaca is shared by Peru water of the central Bolivian Altiplano.
and Bolivia. The hydrological basin of the Maure-Mauri
• It is necessary to solve the issue of flooding River covers part of the departments of
and water regulation. Puno and Tacna (Perú), La Paz and Oruro
• The total fluvial contribution of 66.7 x 109 (Bolivia) and of the Parinacota de la
cubic m is being questioned by Peru, as Región I province (Chile).
more than 80% of the water reaching the In order to deal with the problems related
lake comes from Peruvian rivers. to the Mauri (Maure) river, Bolivia and Peru
109
BOLIVIA
formed the Binational Comision for the Mauri Table 8 Toxic Elements and Adequateness of Water
from the Maure-Mauri River
River (Comisión Binacional del Río Mauri)
with operating bases in La Paz and Tacna. Site B As Population Irriga-
The Comision is considered part of the (mg/l) (mg/l) Use tion
Use
Lake Titicaca Agreement (Acuerdo del Lago
Kovire 1.43 < 0.10 Acceptable C1S1
Titicaca ALT).
Calachaca 30.5 5.63 No C3S3
Frontera 12.5 2.0 No C3S2
Related Issues: Abaroa 13.5 1.81 No C3S2
• Addressing issues of natural boron and Calacoto 10 0.69 No C351
arsenic contamination caused by the Caquena 1 8.82 0.13 No C351
upwelling of springwater in the Quebrada Caquena 2 16 0.5 No C4S3
Putina in Peru (Table 8 and FIG. 12 ). Blanco No C2S1
• A request from Peru to reduce the total M. No C2S1
flow of the Maure river to Bolivia, by cutting Calachaca
the flow of fresh water of the Maure rivers M. Acceptable C1S1
Mamuta
affluents.
The increase in “Calachaca Site” is due to “La
• Building of channels on the Peruvian side Quebrada Putina” polluted waters.
to avoid pollution of the rivers flowing into
the Maure River. A “by pass” system will
chanel the water into channels constructed
in Peru.
• Economic compensation from Peru to
Bolivia, and possibly from Bolivia, for the
use of Lake Titicaca’s water through the
Desaguadero River.
The Silala transboundary aquifer is hosted In 1908, the springs forming the Andean
in the Silala Ignimbrites (7.8 ± 0.3 Ma, marshes were channeled through open collector
Upper Miocene) and probably in infrayacent channels made of stone built by personnel of
geological formations that do not outcrop the railway company. If the marshes were not
in the area. The Silala Ignimbrites are highly disturbed, the water would have remained
fractured and outcrop due to differential standstill and evaporate rapidly. Currently, the
erosion of the volcanic rocks and faults that surface water only drains towards Chile in these
give rise to the formation of gorges widened open collectors. The surface water flows only
by fluvioglacial processes. Because of the through the man-made open channels.
relatively low degree of welding and high
fracturing of the ignimbrite, they allow high On the other hand, Chile considers the
transmissivity and permeability of the Silala water draining from the Silala springs in the
aquifer. All springs that occurre in the Silala Bolivian side as a continuous natural course
area, as much as in the Bolivian as in the of an international transboundary river. Both
Chilean side, are discharges from the Silala positions have been expressed in diplomatic
Ignimbrites aquifer. In many cases, the springs documents processed in 1999, which remain
emerge directly from joints and fissures in the unchanged to the present date.
113
BOLIVIA
According to C14 studies performed by the with water from the springs on main gorge
Bolivian Geological Survey towards the end of of the Chilean side. The temperature of
2006, the Silala fresh waters are ancient (not springwater is 13°C to 16°C.
fossil water), with an age of 9,300 to 10,000
years old. The flow on either side of the border is the
The hydrogeochemical and physical following:
characteristics of the water flowing from the
Silala Springs, both in the Anden Marshes Bolivian side
and in the ignimbrite walls, is a sodium • Average flow: 200 liters/sec
bicarbonate water. From a geochemical • Piexometric level: 0.40 a 0.67 m
viewpoint, a relationship was found between • Number of springs: more than 70
cations of rNa > rCa > rMg and the anions
rHCO3 > rCl > rSO4. Chilean side
• Average flow: 300 liters/sec
The RAS was determined to be class C1S1, • Number of springs: more than 30
or low salinity and low relation to Na. The
TDS values are between 111mg/Lt and 192 Related Issues:
mg/Lt, while the pH is between 7.40 and • The Silala aquifer is aconfined one without
8.35. or very little recharge. These transboundary
underground water system has to be
The electrical conductivity reveals two types ecologically preserved with its current 500
of water, one with values from 209 to 240 Liters/Sec average flow.
µs/cm found in the southern moor (bofedal), • Bolivia considers that in the past 100
and another with values from 95 a 120 µs/ years, Chile has received free surface water
cm on the northern marsh, which coincides from the Silala springs that outcrop on the
117
Boats over the sea in Buzios,Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
BRAZIL
FIG. 4. Recharge Area of the Main Aquifers in Brazil FIG. 5. Uses of Water in Brazil
121
BRAZIL
of hydroelectricity and construction of and Northeast have a low Water Quality
reservoirs which change river flows, river Index and a high Eutrophic Index as a result
biodiversity and are the cause of several of human activities and the concentration
impacts on major watersheds such as the of waste water and toxic substances and
Paraná, São Francisco and the Amazon River elements (FIG. 6 and FIG. 7).
tributaries (Straskraba & Tundisi, 2008;
Tundisi & Matsumura-Tundisi, T, 2008). In certain regions of the country, such as in some
reservoirs of the Paraná and São Francisco
As a consequence of the several economic watersheds, the use of water for fisheries,
activities and the multiple uses of water, recreation and to supply the population was
the main problems of water pollution and prohibited due to the heavy degradation.
contamination are the increase of toxicity
of the surface and ground waters; the The degradation of water quality in Brazil
eutrophication of rivers and reservoirs with can also be aggravated due to hydrologic
excessive growth of toxic cyanobacteria extremes. For example, with heavy rains and
causing organic contamination of water high discharge in urban and metropolitan
sources, especially near the large urban regions, contamination can increase three to
centers and metropolitan regions; siltation, four times its usual (Tucci & Mendes, 2006;
and emission of greenhouse gases from IIEGA/PMSP, 2009). During extreme events
eutrophic waters. (Azevedo, 2005; Jorgensen of dryness in the Northeast, eutrophication in
et al., 2005; Tucci & Mendes, 2006; Straskaba reservoirs, used for storage of drinking water
and Tundisi, 2008; Tundisi et al., 2006; Abe and for quenching animal thirst, can frequently
et al., 2009; Sidagis Galli, et al., 2009; ANA. be a source of water quality degradation.
2009; Bicudo, Tundisi and Cortesão S., 2010).
The Water Quality Index shows critical
negative values in the upper Paraná watershed
(Tietê and Iguaçu Rivers) located in the south
and southeast regions. The cost of water
treatment in the watersheds of the southeast
and south regions is very high (more than 200
US dollars/1,000m3). The Trophic State Index
for Brazil is also high in the southeast and
south regions. Eutrophic and hypereutrophic
waters in these regions are a source of heavy
expenses with regards to water treatment,
impairing multiple uses such as recreation,
tourism and fisheries (Tundisi et al., 2006).
SOURCE ANA 2009
As a general trend, the surface and ground
FIG. 6. Percentage of Treatment of Wastewater in Brazil
waters of watersheds of the South, Southeast
122
BRAZIL
A general overview and trend of the capacity own watershed committees consolidating
of assimilation of organic discharge also shows their plans and their watershed agencies. In
a picture that matches the Water Quality Index addition they created a plan for the economic
and the Trophic State Index; the surface and development of the watersheds and for the
ground waters of the watersheds located in the use of water, and formed state agencies
south and southeast region have low capacity responsible for controlling pollution and
of assimilation of organic discharge, whereas water contamination. The advances in the
in the Amazon region watersheds have high legislation were registered in regions or
capacity for assimilation of organic discharge states where water conflicts over water uses
(78% of the Amazonian rivers) (ANA 2009). and water availability existed (ANA, 2002).
Therefore, in April 2004, the Canadian A further complication is that ice jams
Government formally requested that the can occur in the Red River in the spring
Devils Lake outlet proposal be referred to since the river flows from the south to
the IJC to conduct an independent, impartial north where thaws take place later. FIG.
review of the risks. Because no response from 10 displays the flooding which occurred
the US Government was forthcoming, the in April and May of 1997 for which the
Canadian Government continued to press the resulting lake was up to 40 km wide. At its
US Government to agree to an IJC reference, peak on May 4, 1997, more than 2,560 km2
164
CANADA
of land was inundated in Manitoba to form
Canada’s “Red Sea”. The total damages
incurred in the US and Manitoba was $3.5
billion and $500 million, respectively. The
American Cities of Grand Forks and East
Grand Forks received extensive damage
from the flooding. Fortunately, the City of
Winnipeg was protected by a floodway built
between 1962 and 1968 as a joint federal/
provincial/municipal project, following
severe inundation of the city in 1950, which
displaced some 100,000 residents.
The fundamental international legal document Because the Great Lakes Basin falls within the
governing the use of the waters of the Great territories of eight states and two provinces,
Lakes Basin is the Boundary Waters Treaty of it is not surprising that these political entities
1909 described in Section 3.2. Almost all of have cooperated with one another over the
the international agreements regarding water years in the management of the Great Lakes
quantity and quality problems in the Great Basin. Specifically, on February 11, 1985, the
Lakes Basin that have been jointly created and Great Lakes Charter was launched as a means
signed over the years are founded upon the for the Great Lakes states and the provinces
powers and “spirit of cooperation” enshrined of Ontario and Quebec to manage the water
in this well-crafted 1909 treaty. Accordingly, resources of the Great Lakes in a cooperative
even though improvements could be made, fashion. A key principle of the Charter is
the Great Lakes system has been remarkably that the planning and management of the
well managed and thereby constitutes a water resources of the Great Lakes Basin
model for other nations to consider following should be based upon the integrity of the
as they develop their own bilateral and natural resources and ecosystem of the basin.
multilateral agreements over water. Additionally, the Basin should be treated as
a single hydrological system that transcends
Consider what has happened with respect political jurisdictions. A key clause is that
to water quality in the Great Lakes. Earlier “diversions of Basin water resources will not
reference studies executed by the IJC led be allowed if individually or cumulatively they
directly to the Great Lakes Water Quality would have any significant adverse impacts
Agreement of 1972, which was primarily on lake levels, in-basin uses, and the Great
concerned with reducing phosphorus levels Lakes Ecosystem”.
in Lakes Ontario and Erie shown in Figure
FIG. 11. This 1972 agreement was superseded In the spring of 1998, the Ontario government
by the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement approved a permit for Nova Group of
of 1978, which put forth an ecosystem Sault Saint Marie in Ontario to remove 160
approach to water quality management to million gallons of water per year from Lake
restore and maintain the chemical, physical Superior for exporting to Asia (Section 4.7).
and biological integrity of the Great Lakes Even though the Ontario Government later
Basin Ecosystem. Both the 1972 and 1978 rescinded the license, the public backlash in
agreements contained phosphorous loading Ontario and the United States led to a review
and toxic chemical limits. A Protocol signed of bulk water removals by the IJC. This also
167
CANADA
prompted the Great Lakes Governors to spread public concern over the risk of costly
form a Working Group to study this issue in damage, the Canadian and US governments
1999, which Ontario and Quebec joined later requested the IJC to carry out an investigation
in the year. Subsequently, the Great Lakes and make appropriate recommendations.
Governors and two Premiers signed the Great The IJC created the Levels Reference Study
Lakes Charter Annex 2001 on June 18, 2001 Board which eventually released its final report
in Niagara Falls, New York, as an amendment on March 31, 1993. To alleviate the adverse
to the Great Lakes Charter of 1985. Within consequences of fluctuating water levels, the
Annex 2001, parties agreed to prepare basin- Board recommended a combination of actions
wide binding agreements in contrast to the related to land-use regulatory practices and
voluntary obligations of the original 1985 that no further consideration be given to
Charter. On December 13, 2005, the eight the regulation of water levels via hydraulic
Governors and two Premiers signed the Great structures (Levels Reference Study Board,
Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable 1993; Rajabi et al., 2001; Yin et al., 1999).
Water Resources Agreement and endorsed
the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Water 4.6 Hydroelectricity in Quebec: the
Resources Compact, which became law on James Bay Project and Churchill Falls
December 8, 2008. Key components of the Canada is the second-largest producer of
agreements are the ban of new diversions of hydroelectricity in the world (behind China),
water from the Basin except for some special producing 13% of global hydroelectricity
cases, and economic development must be (International Energy Agency, 2008).
executed via the sustainable use of water.
Hydroelectricity accounts for about 60% of
The substantial monthly and yearly fluctuations Canada’s overall electricity production and
in water levels present significant problems 97% of its renewable energy generation
with respect to shoreline flooding and erosion, (Government of Canada, 2009). In Quebec,
hydroelectric power generation, navigation, over 95% of the electricity distributed by
docking, and the loading and unloading of Hydro-Québec, the province’s leading
transported materials (Environment Canada, electricity provider, is hydroelectric (Hydro-
2009; Section 5.5). In fact, in 1985 and Québec, 2009). Canada is currently “a world
1986, following almost 20 years of above- leader in hydropower production, with an
average precipitation and below-average installed capacity of over 70,858 megawatts
evaporation, all lakes except Lake Ontario (MW), and an annual average production
reached their highest levels in the 20th of 350 terawatt-hour (TWh)” (Government
century. In combination with high water of Canada, 2009). Canada has the greatest
levels, storm activity caused severe flooding, hydroelectric capacity in the world (Canadian
erosion of shorelines, and extensive damage Geographic, 2010b). Its current hydroelectric
to lakeshore properties. In response to the production has the potential of being more
issue of fluctuating water levels in the Great than doubled (Government of Canada,
Lakes-St. Lawrence system and the wide- 2009). Canada is the largest supplier of
168
CANADA
electricity to the US, primarily in the form Nine free-flowing rivers were diverted and
of hydroelectricity (Burney, 2009), exporting dammed by the project, flooding 11,500 km2
6 to 10% of its electrical generation to of boreal forest. The project also caused the
the US (Centre for Energy, 2010). Most release of mercury into the water system,
provinces have an electrical connection with contaminating fish and contributing to the
adjacent US states and all of the provinces death of 10,000 caribou. Moreover, the
are interconnected with neighbouring project devastated the livelihood and way of
provinces, allowing exchanges of electrical life of indigenous people living in the affected
power. Canadian utilities and governments area (Canadian Encyclopedia, 2010).
are currently striving to augment east-west
electricity flow amongst provinces (Centre for
Energy, 2010).
Society Targeted Pesticides A wide variety of chemicals used to kill selected or groups
of living things
Industry Targeted
Solvents Dissolve many materials
Ammonia
Physical Parameters Particles - Air PM10, PM2.5, lung penetration
Particles - Water Total Suspended Solids, reflection, refraction, adsorption,
entrapment of CECs
Radiation Ultraviolet light Reactions in cellular materials which may lead to changes
in actions
of CECs as well as some representative gas, liquid and solid phases of material can
characteristics. contain CECs. The transfer of a contaminant
from one phase to another results in quality
Sources of CECs. changes but does not reduce the contaminant
All aspects of municipal, industrial and load on the environment. The obvious
natural activities can release CECs into the example of this is volatilization or mass
environment. It is relevant to recognize that transfer from a liquid to a gas or vice versa.
177
CANADA
Many studies of municipal wastewater (both The discharge of conventionally treated
raw and treated) have demonstrated that it municipal wastewater is now being shown
contains materials (dissolved, solid or gaseous) to be problematic. Kerr et al. (2008) showed
identified in virtually all of the categories that conventional biological nutrient
of CECs. In fact, virtually every human- removal activated sludge treatment effluent
made material can be found in municipal and ultra-membrane filtered effluent did not
wastewater. As an example, a survey in Alberta reduce exposure to xenobiotics. However,
identified 105 pharmaceuticals, hormones and additional treatment with activated carbon
endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) in did reduce most xenobiotics.
raw wastewater and 48 in treated effluent. A
similar study in Ontario found similar results Various other studies have been carried out
(Servos et al., 2005). Such surveys have been investigating the effects of the different types
conducted around the world and all indicate of CECs found in Canada’s water. A 2005-
that municipal wastewater carries all forms 2006 survey detected trace levels of certain
of CECs. Although the principal objective pharmaceuticals and BPA (Bisphenol A) in
of wastewater treatment is to remove all Ontario’s untreated source water and finished
contaminants from the raw wastewater, in drinking water sampled from various sources,
reality only a few characteristic parameters are but these are currently at levels that do not
reduced. pose a threat to human health (Ontario
Ministry of the Environment, 2006). Another
Impacts. study found that exposing fish to estrogen at
Microorganisms are both allies and enemies levels similar to those found in many municipal
of living things. Acaryotic (viruses), prokaryotic wastewater effluents in Canada reduced
(bacteria and cyanobacteria), and eukaryotic egg production and male secondary sex
(including the protists (algae, fungi and characteristics (Parrott and Blunt, 2005). An
protoza)) and the metazoan (rotifers, investigation was conducted into the effect
nematodes) can have positive and negative of commonly used agricultural pesticides on
relationships to other living things. Novel northern prairie wetlands, which found there
issues develop when humans introduce to be no significant impact on the health of
materials into the environment that accelerate the water itself but these pesticides still pose
changes in the microorganisms and, in some a threat to aquatic life found in these wetlands
cases, make them more dangerous. (Johnson, 1986). Further CECs studies have
been carried out regarding various types of
With respect to pharmaceuticals, the industry pathogens in wastewater (Andersen, 1993;
is continuously working to make them more Bell et al., 1983; Finch and Smith, 1986) and
resistant to degradation so that they will do waterborne disease (Neumann et al., 2005).
their intended “jobs” better. As a result, it
can be expected that their occurrence in Management of CECs.
wastewater and the difficulty of their removal How can one manage the CEC materials? The
will increase. answer is relatively simple: a multi-component
178
CANADA
program is required. First, there must be 362,000 (NRTEE, 2003). Canada may possess
legislation and the related regulations with up to 30,000 brownfields, including the sites of
enforcement support to prevent production almost-forgotten industrial enterprises such as
where possible, reduce discharge, and coal gasification plants, locations where toxic
educate people with respect to proper substances were used or stored, and former
handling procedures. gas stations and mining operations (De Sousa,
2001). Brownfields currently being created on a
Control of CECs requires at least three large scale include the oil sands development in
simultaneous types of actions: a) stop the Canada (Section 4.3) and the rapidly expanding
creation of CECs; b) control the disposal industrial sites in China and India for which
of CECs, and c) destroy or change them massive economic growth is of paramount
into non-dangerous materials. All three importance at the expense of extensive
approaches require very important action environmental degradation. By definition,
at the government level – the enactment of brownfields almost always result in the
legislation and regulations to empower each contamination of ground and/or surface water
type of enforcement. resources, and sometimes the atmosphere.
211
Laguna San Rafael Glaciers Of Chile
CHILE
FIG. 2. Typical Mean Monthly Hydrographs for FIG. 4. Water Balance across three Regions: North,
some Chilean Rivers Central and Southern Chile
215
CHILE
The southernmost third of the country,
south from Chiloé Island, displays the most
abundance of surface water resources.
2.4 Limnology
The southern region of Chile at latitudes higher
than 40oS, concentrates more than 90% of the
distribution of lakes, reservoirs and lagoons
(Salazar and Soto, 2006). This trend is also
presented in terms of density of lakes per unit
of surface shown in FIG. 9, which indicates that
climatic conditions of high precipitation shown
in FIG. 4 are a key factor in understanding this
FIG. 8. Precipitation Projections Under A2 Emissions
Scenario. Values Expressed as Percent Changes from spatial abundance of lakes.
Base Line (1960-1990). Adapted from CEPAL, 2009
The nature of lakes, lagoons and reservoirs
Many studies have attempted to translate these also varies across Chile. In northern Chile,
climate projections into water-related impacts. water bodies are mainly salty lagoons of the
McPhee et al. (2010) evaluated streamflow Altiplano, where the upwelled groundwater
changes under temperature and precipitation is completely evaporated in a small surface
changes for the 21st century, and found (de la Fuente and Niño, 2010). In central
218
CHILE
Chile, coastal wetlands are formed and their 2.5 Water Quality
hydrodynamics is influenced by wind and Water quality issues in Chile are as diverse
emerged vegetation (Baladrón, 2011). Large as water quantity. Many quality problems are
and deep lakes formed by glaciers appear of human origin, but in a few areas naturally
in southern Chile, among which Villarrica or occurring constituents associated with
Llanquihue lakes are important touristic places metalogenic geological deposits (Northern
of the region. Stratified conditions govern their Chile) represent, at best a nuisance and at
dynamics during 9 months (spring, summer worst a threat to human populations and
and autumn), and due to the large size of economic activity.
these lakes, internal waves hydrodynamics
is also modified by Earth rotation (Meruane, The Lluta River is an example of this, where
2005; CENMA, 2006; Rozas, 2011). In spite naturally occurring Boron affects local agriculture.
of the large abundance of lakes in Aysén and Arsenic is one of the most conspicuous naturally
Magallanes regions, the key agents that govern occurring water contaminants in Chile. Until
their dynamics are not well known, and this gap recently, the Arsenic standard in drinking water
in the knowledge needs to be filled soon. was 50 μg/l. Currently this limit has been lowered
to 10 μg/l to match international standards.
It is known that melted waters from glaciers Additionally, high evaporation and increased
feed these water bodies and strong winds water extractions have impacted negatively the
recorded in the region seem to be the dominant salt content of many water bodies in the region
agent that dominate their hydrodynamics; (Vila et al., 2007).
however, due to low temperatures of inflows,
it is unclear whether well mixed conditions Mining activities represent a singular problem
occurs in winter. to water quality. The Loa river (the longest river
FIG. 9. Density of Lakes, Lagoons and Reservoirs [Number / 100.000 km2] (Adapted from Salazar and Soto 2006)
219
CHILE
in Chile) is a fair example of some of the quality the most characteristic natural constituents.
issues facing northern rivers: at its headwaters Going further south, wetter conditions
in the Altiplano (high plateau) and at mid increase discharge rates in surface streams,
elevations, weathering of rock formations thus diluting many of the municipal and
puts water in contact with mineral-rich soils industrial liquid waste discharges to rivers such
and mobilizes constituents such as copper, as the Maule and Bíobío (CADE-IDEPE, 2004).
chrome, molybdenum, boron, and aluminum. Nevertheless, high profile pollution events
Mining activities here play an important role in (such as the Mataquito river fish mortality
determining water quality, but lack of sufficient events) have highlighted the risks associated to
data hampers our ability to assess its precise the paper mill industry in an area where logging
effect (CADE-IDEPE, 2004). and forestry represent a major economic agent.
In central Chile, where agriculture represents Water quality of lakes and reservoirs has
the largest water user and most of the changed due to shifts in land use and
population resides, water quality issues are urbanization. Salazar and Soto (2006) show
the result of disperse pollution from pesticides increased nutrients concentrations in 7 lakes
and fertilizers, plus organic loads from human whose water quality is systematically measured
settlements. As it will be seen later, wastewater by DGA, a Ministry of Public Works agency.
treatment coverage has increased drastically As a consequence, dissolved oxygen in the
in the last few years, thus organic matter surface waters has reduced in 2 mg/l in 20
pollution is somewhat less of a problem than years (1980 to 2000), and recent observations
it was in past decades. Regarding fertilizer and in Lake Villarrica, a touristic place of southern
pesticide pollution, although the perception Chile, indicate algae bloom events of harmful
among experts is that these do represent species during summer (V. Durán, pers. comm.),
a problem, data is limited, because so far which may become human a health risk for
environmental regulations in the country have humans with the corresponding economic
dealt with controlled discharges to water looses in tourism activity. As a mechanism
bodies, and not with water quality in the to revert this trend, asides the general
receiving water bodies themselves (emission normative that applies to all discharges,
standards do exist, but environmental quality specific normative to regulate water quality
standards have not been enacted). of discharges to particular aquatic system is
recently being defined. This specific regulation
A significant shift in water quality issues considers particular conditions of the receiving
occurs approximately at 34º S, where water body, and among other places, lakes
metalogenic formations along the Andes Llanquihue and Villarrica defined their specific
cordillera disappear. In turn, volcanic activity normative (Woelfl, 2010).
plays an important role in determining soil
characteristics in basins such as the Maule FIG. 10 shows, very approximately, the regional
River watershed, and thus the natural quality distribution of water quality issues affecting
of these waters. In these, aluminum is one of some of the main water bodies in Chile.
220
CHILE
construction suggest that the trend towards
increased mining use will continue, even if the
mining industry sustains its current path to
efficiency in water use (Section 3.6).
222
CHILE
3.3 Water and Ecosystems human activity: well exploitation for industrial
Chile combines a relatively low population with purposes, agriculture, grazing and logging can
remote regions and a wide range of climates have detrimental effects over water recharge,
and this combination results in many areas chemical inputs, sediment loads and other
where ecosystems remain largely pristine. factors determining ecosystem health.
In addition to national parks and national
monuments, which in many cases feature In Chile, Ramsar sites have gained increased
water bodies prominently, Chile is affiliated attention in the past decade, and the Chilean
to the Ramsar Convention, and thus wetlands public nowadays shows awareness, if not
in the country have special status. Wetlands, about the specific details, about the relevance
albeit protected, are fragile ecosystems of the issue. A key factor in this process was
that in many occasions are surrounded by the incident involving the Carlos Anwandter
223
CHILE
Sanctuary, where swans mortality was 3.4 Water Services for Municipalities
associated with irregular industrial wastewater The analysis of municipal water services in
from a paper mill. This case received intense Chile must be separated into small localities
media coverage and prompted several (less than 500 connections) and large localities
technical reports. To date, disputes on the (more than 500 connections). The municipal
origins and responsibility about the incident water sector in Chile underwent a gradual
remain active (Muñoz, 2005). but steady transformation since the decade
of 1970, where the State slowly opened
Table 1 lists the Ramsar sites managed by the spaces for private investment in the sanitary
national agency in charge of national parks sector. Currently, the Chilean state exercises
and reserves (CONAF); wetlands in Altiplanic an exclusively regulatory role through the
Salares are the majority, but also included are Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios
coastal lagoons and riparian habitats. Table (SISS), while drinking water production,
2 lists Ramsar sites managed by other entities. distribution and wastewater collection as
The first two sites are coastal lagoons located in well as treatment (in large localities) are
the extreme south (Bahia Lomas) and semi-arid responsibility of private companies. These
center-north of the country (Laguna Conchali). companies constitute natural monopolies in
The third (Juncal) is a recently added site their service areas, so the State controls service
located in a high elevation valley in the semi- quality and tariff setting through a precisely
arid Andes, two hours north of Santiago. defined negotiating process. The State keeps
Table 1. Ramsar Sites Managed by CONAF
Surface Aditional Wetland type
Site Coordinates area protection
(has)
18° 46’ to 18° 55’ S and Natural Perennial salty lagoons associated
Salar de Surire 68° 58’ to 69° 06’ W 15,858 Monument to altiplanic salares
Sistema 23° 15’ to 23° 22’ S and National Perennial salty lagoons associated
Hidrológico Soncor 68° 07’ to 68° 11’ W 5, 016 Preserve to altiplanic salares
Laguna del Negro 27° 27’ S and 69° 13’ O and National Perennial salty lagoons associated
Francisco y laguna 27° 04’ S and 69° 10’ W 62,460 Park to altiplanic salares
Santa Rosa
El Yali 33° 50’ S ; 71° 36’ W 520 National Coastal, lagoon
Preserve
Santuario de la Nature Perennial riparian with periodic
Naturaleza Carlos 39° 35’ to 39° 47’ and 4,877 sanctuary, tidal effects
Anwandter 73° 07’ to 73° 16’ W Montreux
Registry
224
CHILE
a minority stake in most of the companies that This chart mirrors closely the population
currently operate in the country, while special distribution in Chile, but amplifies this
regulations control the participation that any factor by climatic effects (Santiago is
single firm may have in a geographic region. located in a semi-arid region) and economic
In order to keep expenditures in basic services factors. In Santiago, where average
in check for poor segments of the population, income is generally higher than in other
the State issues targeted subsidies that cover cities, per capita consumption (230 l/cap/
a percentage of sanitary services monthly bill. day) almost doubles that of the rest of the
In small localities, local committees (rural country (110-150 l/cap/day). Not shown is
potable water committees), which receive this graph is the very high spatial variability
technical and some financial support from of per capita consumption within cities: in
the State, manage water production and Santiago, this metric can be as low as 150
distribution. These committees operate l/cap/day –proper of cities located in very
autonomously and are composed by arid regions such as Antofagasta-, but as
the residents of the area being served. high as 600-800 l/cap/day at the wealthier
Usually composed by a groundwater well, areas of the city. Non-critical uses such as
a chlorination unit, an elevated tank and a yard irrigation and swimming pool filling
PVC distribution network, about 1,000 such account for this large difference. As stated
systems exist in the country, and they have above, successive Chilean governments
been enormously successful in providing implemented policies allowing for private
safe drinking water for isolated towns and capitals entering the sanitary sector. Leaving
villages. Some challenges remain, though, aside political considerations, this process
as these small systems are vulnerable to injected fresh resources to regional utilities,
drought or other emergencies, and lack and these resources allowed for: a) the almost
financial resources to invest in increasing complete coverage of supply and sewage
their supply security. collection systems along the country (FIG.
16), and most importantly, for b) a dramatic
FIG. 15 shows the amount of potable increase in the coverage of sewage treatment.
water produced across Chile’s territory. The FIG. 17 shows this metric, and it is self-evident
supplied rates are rather homogeneous with how, around years 1998-2000, the sanitary
the salient cases of cities such as Valparaíso- sector experienced a systemic transformation
Viña and Concepción (with almost 5 m3/s) that led to an almost complete coverage of
and Santiago, with more than 20 m3/s. wastewater treatment today.
Table 2. Ramsar Sites Managed by Other Parties
Site Coordinates Surface area Aditional Wetland type
(has) protection
Bahía Lomas 68o 49’ to 69o 26’ and 58,946 None Coastal, with large tidal
52o 27 to 52o 32’ flats
Laguna 31o 53’ S ; 71o 30’ W 34 None Coastal, transitional
Conchalí
Parque Andino 32o 55’ S; 70o 03’ W 13,796 None Alpine spring fed
Juncal
225
CHILE
FIG. 15. Municipal Water Production and Average Per capita Design Rate.
FIG. 16. Historical Evolution of Sanitary Sector FIG. 17. Historical Evolution of Sewage Treatment.
Coverage
FIG. 18. Mining Water Demands in Chile, and Associated Recirculation Ratio
Table 4. Projected Public Investment in Urban Drainage 2010-2020 (MM$). Includes Planning,
Construction and Maintenance
Program 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total
(MM$)*
Master Plans
in cities over 0 200 800 800 800 800 600 0 0 0 0 4,000
20,000 inhab.
Design &
execution of
works in cities 0 0 0 400 1,000 17,000 17,000 21,000 21,000 24,600 24,000 126,000
over 20,000
inhab.
Design &
execution of
works in cities 20,500 23,000 21,500 17,000 16,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 7,000 7,000 144,000
over 50,000
inhab.
Development
of strategic
frameworks in
0 1,200 900 900 900 600 500 0 0 0 0 5,000
order to make
new Laws about
Rainwater.
Policy Studies of 200 200 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500
rainwater
Maintenance of
the urban storm 2,200 2,400 2,500 2,600 2,700 2,800 3,000 3,000 3,200 3,200 3,400 31,000
water drainage
TOTAL 22,900 27,000 25,800 21,700 21,400 29,200 29,100 32,000 32,200 34,800 34,000 310,500
Source: Dirección de Obras Hidráulicas, Ministerio de Obras Públicas
* Currency 2009
232
CHILE
note that people living in the neighborhood
of the sedimentation basins have taken care
of them, transforming them into soccer fields,
thus helping to keep the basins clean.
4.2 Hydroeconomy
The development strategy followed by Chile
in the past 30 years has been one of increased
private initiative and the development of
FIG. 24. Check-dam Built with Gabions mining, agriculture, aquaculture and forestry
as the major drivers of Chilean economy. As
such, water has seen its relevance increase
as an intermediate production factor for
many industries. Probably one of the main
challenges facing Chile to this date is the
insuring of adequate energy supply in order
to sustain the level of economic growth
displayed by the country in the past decades.
In this scenario, hydropower rises as the
only renewable, large-scale energy source
FIG. 25. Check-dams Constructed with Pre-fabricated
Concrete Joists currently able to compete economically
with coal and diesel power plants. The
environmental impact of large hydropower
projects (both dammed and run-of-river)
has been intensely debated, and no national
consensus exists yet regarding the most
sustainable strategy for energy production.
However, it is likely that hydropower projects
(large, medium and small sized) will continue
to be designed and built
FIG. 26. Panoramic View of Chek-dams Built in Ravines
El Ancla and Baquedano, Antofagasta (MOP, 2009) 4.3 Institutional and Legal Framework
In Chile, the main governing legal body for
basins were built in Quebrada de Macul, a water management is the 1981 Water Code
ravine that experimented the largest flows (with modifications in the 2005, 20.017 Act.).
(see FIG. 27). Similar sedimentation basins The Water Code indicates that Chilean
were constructed in Copiapó, a city in the continental water as public-use, national
north of Chile, which in June 1997 suffered goods, but assigns water rights to private
the action of strong debris flows, generating parties who can make use of them as with any
heavy economic losses. It is interesting to other private property. In other words, water
233
CHILE
in Chile is a public good until it is assigned, broad range of river basin characteristics that
via water rights, to an individual or company; can be found in a country as diverse as Chile.
then it becomes governed by private property Starting in 1990, with the taking over of the
principles. Water in Chile is dissociated from government by center-left political parties,
land, so water rights can be bought, sold and and also due to mounting evidence of the
rented without much consideration of their inadequacy of markets alone for dealing
initial purpose. with water management in combination with
social and environmental issues, small steps
were taken in order to correct aspects of the
law.
• 18.450 Irrigation Act: sets loans and other • Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto
forms of funding in order to increase the Ambiental (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente,
irrigated acreage and improve efficiency in SEIA): This agency coordinates and
water use for agricultural purposes. oversees the environmental impact
assessment process.
Institutionally, the agencies with
responsibilities pertaining to the water sector 4.4 Water and Woman
include: Chile, as the rest of Latin America, has
been working for several years on including
• Dirección General de Aguas (Ministry of more strongly a gender focus in water
Public Works, DGA): with the mission of management. In particular, access to
researching and managing water resources. water for all is a goal that has been on the
It issues water rights, maintains the main government agenda for more than 40 years
hydrometeorological monitoring network when the Rural Water Program (APR, in
in the country, including groundwater Spanish) was established. The APR program
levels, sediment loads and water quality. involves small supply and distribution systems
DGA is also in charge of enforcing the water serving small communities. Each system is
235
CHILE
self managed in a cooperative mode, with 4.5 Public Participation
technical assistant from DOH, a government The institutional framework for water
agency. Is in this field where women have had management in Chile, as described before, is
the greatest opportunity to become relevant one in which water right holders operate water
agents of change and active stakeholders on markets that are expected to allocate optimally
water issues. Throughout the country, women the resource to the most efficient uses. Public
participation is over 80% in the administrative participation is contemplated in the Water
aspects of rural water systems; their presence Code by the definition of users associations: a
in executive boards decreases to 34%, channel users association groups all users from
and only 4% of women participate in the a single primary channel; a junta de vigilancia
operation of these systems. groups water rights holders from the same
stream; a comunidad de aguas subterráneas,
Within the APR system, women have been brings together everyone with water rights to
able to shift from a management paradigm the same aquifer. In all these cases, the people
focused only in covering operational costs participating in these associations must all be
to one centered in efficiency, establishing water right holders.
fees that take into account the real
operational and maintenance costs of When water issues intersect with environmental
rural water distribution systems. Women or social issues, though, this model becomes
participation on science and technology in inadequate, as stakeholders in environmental
Chile is limited (Rebufel, 2009), but their water related problems might not hold water
participation in developing knowledge for rights. According to Chilean law, then, these
water management is relevant. In this sense stakeholders are not valid participants in debates
it is important to promote associations and involving water planning and management. On
synergy among professionals of technical the other hand, the Environmental Impact
and social fields working on water issues. Assessment System (SEIA) contemplates an
instance of public participation associated
Women tend to think on a sustainable with the assessment process of individual
way so they care about the impact on the projects. In this case, at certain times during
environment and water resources minimizing the assessment period, town hall meetings
the effects of human activity. As an example are held in which the project developer
of this, the INEH (Iniciativa de Eficiencia presents the project to stakeholders and
Hídrica, ww.ineh.cl) initiative initiated on public comments are recorded and organized.
2008 at Dirección General de Aguas of the Thus, public participation for water issues
Ministery of Public Works, is formed mainly occurs only if there is a specific project being
by women professionals; through teamwork environmentally assessed, and if this project
they have formulated proposals for water affects in any way the local water bodies.
resources policies as well as clean and efficient
domestic water technologies (M. A. Alegría, Other instances of public participation
pers. comm.). include the rural drinking water
236
CHILE
committees, in which the inhabitants of investment projects, through the
of a locality operate and manage their environmental impact assessment system.
own distribution system; in territorial
planning, whereby land-use plans are Now the economic aspects related to
publicly discussed, water issues such as water management have been firmly
construction in flood prone areas might established and accepted by most
provide further space for discussion. stakeholders, the water sector should
strive to balance these aspects with
5. Conclusions environmental and social sustainability.
This chapter reviews some of the main water The Chilean population, for the most part,
issues and challenges facing Chile, in relation has adequate access to water services
to human, environmental and geographical (supply and sanitation).
dimensions. The development of the water
sector in Chile has been strongly influenced Again, government policies have favored
by a decisive transition to economically the participation of private companies in the
liberal policies, where private investment ownership of water utilities, while the state
has a primary role and State participation is has maintained a strong oversight role.
limited to regulatory and oversight functions.
The 1981 water code separated water rights This has had as a result, a sharp increase
from land ownership, and emphasized the in drinking water, sewage and wastewater
value of water as an economic good. treatment coverage since the 1990`s decade.
Improved sanitary practices have all but
Although this transformation added eradicated water-related diseases in Chile,
significant dynamism to the productive but concerns remain about the presence of
sector, and arguably contributed to the naturally occurring elements, such as Boron
economic growth experienced by Chile in and Arsenic, in water sources in the northern
the last decades of the 20th century, it has portion of the country.
also generated some problems that the
Chilean State has attempted to correct since In terms of water use as an intermediate
1990. These problems are mostly related to economic good, the situation is diverse
the functioning of water markets in terms among industries: irrigated agriculture
of speculation, monopoly and inequity in remains by far the largest (in volume) user
access to water for disadvantaged groups of of water in the country, with application
the population. efficiency levels in the order of 50% as a
national average.
The environmental value of water and the
ecosystem services associated with aquatic No estimates of the importance of
systems were absent from the original water “involuntary recycling” (i.e., use of irrigation
code, but have slowly gained preponderance excess water by downstream users) exist, but
in the public discussion and in the assessment at the watershed level it can be supposed
237
CHILE
that overall efficiency is a little higher. 7. References
Mining, on the other hand, is the industry 1. Baladrón, F. “Estudio de la
that extracts the most economic value per hidrodinámica del humedal Ciénagas
unit volume of water, and this is reflected by del Name”. Tesis para optar al grado de
and large by the cost of water transactions Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería,
(willingness to pay) in this industry. mención recursos y medio ambiente
hídrico. Memoria para optar al título de
At the same time, most mining activities in ingeniero Civil. Universidad de Chile.
Chile develop in arid or semi-arid regions, so (2011)
the impact of new extractions or, conversely, 2. Bartosch, A. “Die Wasserversorgung in
water savings, can be high for ecosystems einer Metropolregion in Lateinamerika.
and local populations. Das Beispiel Santiago de Chile”.
Diploma thesis, Jena. (2007)
Water quality problems related to 3. Bauer, C.J. “Dams and Markets: Rivers
agricultural, industrial and mining activities and Electric Power in Chile”. Natural
have been acknowledged for some time, Resources Journal, 49 (3-4): 583-651.
but these problems have become more (2010)
visible in the last few years due to high 4. Buschmann, A., and A. Fortt. “Efectos
profile pollution cases that have resulted in ambientales de la acuicultura intensiva
increased public awareness. Chile shows a y alternativas para un desarrollo
somewhat coherent, technically proficient sustentable”. Revista Ambiente y
institutional framework for dealing with the Desarrollo 21, no. 3: 58-64. (2005)
different aspects of the water sector. 5. Cabello, F. C. “Antibiotics and
aquaculture in Chile: Implications for
However, the level of activity prompted by human and animal health”. Rev. Med.
the private sector often overwhelms the Chile: 1001-1006. (2004)
response capacity (in terms of administration 6. Cenma. “Estudio para la
and oversight) available to the government. implementación de medidas para el
Increasing the ranks of government officials control de la contaminación hídrica:
in charge of enforcing environmental and antecedentes de apoyo a la elaboración
Water Code regulations is one of the main de la norma secundaria de calidad
challenges facing the Chilean water sector in ambiental para la protección de las
the next few years. aguas del lago Llanquihue”. Realizado
para Gobierno de Chile, Comisión
6. Acknowledgements Nacional del Medio Ambiente, X
The authors wish to thank Ernesto Brown for Región. (2006)
his thoughtful comments on this document. 7. CEPAL. “La economía del cambio
We are also thankful to Edward Cornwell for climático en Chile. Síntesis”. United
his valuable help in preparing some of the Nations Publication. (2009)
figures presented. 8. CRH, Centro de Recursos Hidráulicos,
238
CHILE
Universidad de Chile. “Crecidas Súbitas Ambient 21, Nº 2, pp. 83-89. (2005)
y corrientes de detritos ocurridos el 16. Golder Associates S.A. “Informe
18 de Junio de 1991 en Antofagasta”, sobre vulnerabilidades ante riesgo
Dirección General de Aguas, Ministerio de aluviones en el sector Adit 71”.
de Obras Públicas. (1993) Codelco Chile, División El Teniente.
9. de la Fuente, A., and Niño, Y. (2001)
“Temporal and spatial features in the 17. Hauser, A. “Remociones en masa
thermo-hydrodynamics of a shallow en Chile”. Subdirección Nacional
salty lagoon in northern Chile”. Limnol. de(2000). Geología. Boletín Nº 59.
Oceanogr. 55: 279-288. (2010) SERNAGEOMIN, Chile. (2000)
10. DOH–MOP. “Infraestructura Hidráulica 18. Hauser, A. “Los flujos aluvionales en
del Chile 2020”. Publicación Ministerio Chile: causas, efectos y medidas de
de Obras Públicas. (2010) mitigación”. Servicio Nacional de
11. Falkenmark, M. “The massive water Geología y Minería. Subdirección
scarcity now threatening Africa – why Nacional de Geología. (2004)
isn’t it being addressed?” Ambio 19. Hiscock, K. M., M. O. Rivett and R. M.
18:112-118. (1989) Davison. “Sustainable groundwater
12. FAO. “Visión general del sector development”. Geological Society,
acuícola nacional. Chile”. National London, Special Publications 2002;
Aquaculture Sector Overview Fact Vol. 193; pp. 1-14 doi: 10.1144/GSL.
Sheets. Texto de Norambuena, R. & SP.2002.193.01.01. (2002)
González, L. In: Departamento de Pesca 20. Houston, J. “Variability of precipitation
y Acuicultura de la FAO [en línea]. in the Atacama Desert: its causes and
Roma. (2005) http://www.fao.org/ hydrological impact”. International
fishery/countrysector/naso_chile/es Journal of Climatology 26(15): 2181-
13. Ferreccio C., Gonzalez C., 2198. (2006)
Milosavjlevic V., Marshall G., Sancha 21. INE. “Población y sociedad, aspectos
A., Smith A. “Luna cancer and arsenic demográficos”. Instituto Nacional de
concentrations in drinking water in Estadísticas. ISBN: 978-956-7952-74-8.
Chile”. Epidemiology 11:673-679. (2008)
(2000) 22. Latin Focus. “Gross Domestic Product,
14. Ferreccio C., Sancha A. “Arsenic by Sector. Chile 2000-2008”. (2009)
exposure and its impact on health in http://www.latin-focus.com/latinfocus/
Chile”. J. Health Popul Nutr 24(2): 164- countries/chile/chlgdpsector.htm
175. (2006) 23. Meruane, C. “El efecto del Viento
15. Gaete, H., E. B Schmith, and A. Puelche en la hidrodinámica del lago
Riveros. “Toxicidad crónica de las Villarrica”. Memoria para optar al título
aguas receptoras de efluentes de de Ingeniera Civil, Universidad de Chile.
industrias de celulosa sobre larvas de (2005)
chironomus piger”. Rev. Int. Contam. 24. MOP, Ministerio de Obras Públicas
239
CHILE
Obras Públicas. “Una mirada de diez el lago Villarrica”. Tesis para optar al
años”. Unidad de Comunicaciones, grado de Magíster en Ciencias de la
Dirección de Arquitectura MOP. (2009) Ingeniería, mención recursos y medio
25. Muñoz, A. “Desarrollo Cronológico del ambiente hídrico. Memoria para optar
conflicto ambiental en los humedales al título de ingeniero Civil. Universidad
del río Cruces, primer sitio Ramsar de de Chile. (2011)
Chile”. Centro de Estudios Agrarios y 32. Sancha, A. M. and R. O´Ryan.
Ambientales, Valdivia. (2005) http:// “Managing hazardous pollutants in
www.ceachile.cl/Cruces/PDF/38.%20 Chile: Arsenic Reviews of Environmental
Cronologia%203.pdf Contamination and Toxicology”.
26. Palma, R., G. Jiménez and I. Alarcón. Springer Ed. D. Whitacre. Vol. 196. pp.
“Las energías renovables no 123-144. (2008)
convencionales en el mercado eléctrico 33. Salazar, C. and Soto, M.
chileno”. Published by Comisión “Caracterización y monitoreo de
Nacional de Energía (CNE) and sistemas lacustres en Chile”. Dirección
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische General de Aguas. (2006) http://
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). (2009) www.aprchile.cl/Investigaciones/
27. Parkinson, J., and O. Mark. “Urban caracterizacion-y-monitoreo-de-
stormwater management in developing sistemas-lacustres-en-chile.html
countries”. IWA publishing. (2005) 34. Silva, C. “Aplicabilidad de funciones
28. Peña, H., M. Luraschi and S. Valenzuela. de transferencia para proyección de
Agua, desarrollo y políticas públicas: la efectos de cambio climático sobre
experiencia de Chile. REGA, Vol. 1, No caudales en la cuenca alta del río
2. pp. 25-50. (2004) Loa”. Memoria para optar al título de
29. Perez J. y Vargas X. “Impacto del Ingeniera Civil. Escuela de Ingeniería,
cambio climático en las crecidas de Universidad de Chile. (2010)
la quebrada San Ramón. Análisis de 35. Vila, Irma, Marco A. Mendez, Sergio
variables meteorológicas”. Sociedad Scott, Pamela M. Morales, and Elie
Chilena de Ingeniería Hidráulica, XIX Poulin. “Threatened fishes of the world:
Congreso Chileno de Hidráulica. (2009) Orestias ascotanensis Parenti, 1984
30. Rebufel V. “Chile: participación de (Cyprinodontidae)”. Environmental
la mujer en los fondos públicos de Biology of Fishes 80, No. 4: 491-492.
financiamiento en investigación (November, 2006)
científica y tecnológica y algunas 36. Woelfl, S. “Consideraciones acerca de
propuestas de intervención”. Editorial: la eficiencia de normas secundarias para
FLACSO. ISBN: 978-956-205-239-9. la protección de lagos de Chile”. VII
(abril de 2009) Congreso de la Sociedad Chilena de
31. Rozas, C. “Análisis modal para el Limnología. Villarrica, Chile. (2010)
estudio de resonancia de ondas
internas excitadas por el viento en
240
Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombia
COLOMBIA
Colombia
actual state of our country’s hydrological
resources. The information has been obtained
An Overview from publications by important Colombian
institutions that deal with water resources
Mtra. Claudia Patricia Campuzano1, Dr. Gabriel and the environment in general, including:
Roldán Pérez2, Ing. Ernesto Guhl Nanneti3, Mtro. The Environmental, Housing and Territorial
José Manuel Sandoval Pedroza4 Development Ministry (MAVDT - Ministerio de
Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial),
Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia
1
The Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and
Environmental Studies (IDEAM - Instituto
Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rionegro
2
de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios
Ambientales), The Autonomous Regional
Instituto Quinaxi
3
Corporations and Environmental Authorities;
The National Comptroller’s Office, as well
Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y
4
as research institutions such as Universidad
Desarrollo Territorial Católica de Oriente, Universidad del Valle,
Instituto Quinaxi and Centro de Ciencia y
Key words: availability, offer, demand, water
quality, use of water, health, potable water, Tecnología de Antioquia.
management, regulations.
2. The Colombian Territory
1. Introduction Colombia is found in the northwestern corner
Until 1990 Colombia was the fourth country of South America, within the latitudes of 12º
in the world with the highest water volume 30’ North and 4º 13’ South. It has a continental
per unit surface area, only behind the Soviet extension of 1,141,748 km2 and a continental
Union, Canada and Brazil. According to platform and territorial seas of 928,660 km2 (FIG.
experts, Colombia’s average water yield 1). It is the fourth largest country of the area,
was 60 liters per square kilometer, six times behind Brazil, Argentina and Peru. Colombia
greater than the worldwide average and three is the only South American country with a
times greater than that of South America. coast of 1,600 kilometers on the Caribbean
The prospect today is totally different. The Sea and 1,300 kilometers on the Pacific
decrease in water volume together with a Ocean. As a result of its equatorial geographic
fall in its quality, has reduced its availability. position and its complex relief, it has a variety
The main cause is indiscriminate logging, of climates and a mosaic of ecosystems. Our
which directly affects aquatic and terrestrial country includes one of the most complex and
ecosystems. In spite of the fact that our vulnerable ecosystems on Earth, containing
243
COLOMBIA
a vegetation level reaching an altitude of
up to 3,050 m. To the east of the Cordillera
Oriental there are vast extensions of sparely
populated and only partially explored torrid
lowlands. The southern portion of this area
is covered by rainforest of thick vegetation
drained by the Caquetá river and other
tributaries of the Amazon. The northern
and largest part of the region is formed
by enormous plains known as the Llanos
Orientales crossed by the Meta river and
other tributaries of the Orinoco. Between the
mountains there are high plateaus, most of
them with an elevation greater than 2,438 m,
as well as fertile valleys drained by the main
rivers of the country.
Corrosion Pollution
Water Quality Presence Aquatic Fish Flow
Problems and/or Sedimentation by Wastewater
Deterioration of H2S weed Mortality decrease
Abrasion garbage
Reservoirs
with
15 15 16 15 15 18 14 14 16
information
Number of
Reservoirs 4 4 8 5 4 8 5 5 6
Affected
Percentage
of Reservoirs 26.6 26.6 50.0 33.3 26.6 44.4 35.7 35.7 35.7
affected
249
COLOMBIA
Table 2. Secchi Disc values and the Trophic Status of Colombian Reservoirs.
Secchi Disc
Reservoirs Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic Hipertrophic
Values
Betania 1.02-2.89
(Magdalena)
Betania 1.02-2.89
(Yaguará)
Calima 0.90-3.60
La Esmeralda 0.09-1.30
(Chivor)
La fe 1.02-2.89
Muña 0.25-0.90
Neusa 0.60-2.40
Peñol 0.90-2.50
(Guatapé)
Prado 0.30-2.00
Punchina 0.80-3.00
Sisga 0.40-1.30
Tominé 0.25-0.45
SOURCE: IDEAM,2010
Table 3. Maximum Levels Between Various Return Periods (Source: IDEAM, 2008)
253
COLOMBIA
By 1997, eight small snow-covered mountains Colombia draws groundwater from recent
had lost their glaciers, and the “possible deposits as well as Tertiary and Cretaceous
disappearance of Colombian glaciers” has been sedimentary units by means of wells 50 to
estimated according to research by IDEAM and 300 meters deep; however this information
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. FIG.10. is only an estimate, as a global integrated
shows the approximate life left for each glacier inventory is lacking and is there no monitoring
based on the impressions made by ice towards and follow up of groundwater collection.
the end of the neoglacial period (1850), aerial The distribution of retained provinces in
photographs throughout several decades, Colombia, is presented in FIG. 11.
and recent field data. The analysis leads to the
conclusion that Nevado del Ruiz and Tolima will The Instituto Colombiano de Geología y
be the next glaciers to go, while the Nevado del Minería–Ingeominas, has developed the Atlas
Huila will be the last. This information could vary of Groundwater of Colombia (currently being
if volcanic activity is reactivated for example, validated), which states that underground
accelerating glacier melting. waters can be found in 39% of Colombian
territory. According to their productivity, the
According to information from the Primer potential of aquifers can be classified as: very
Congreso Nacional de Páramos “Conservación high, with a volume flow of ≥ 50 l/s (Valle del
con Equidad” in 2009, Colombia has 49% of Río Cauca, Valle del Río Cesar, La Luna) or
the planet’s paramos, with a total surface of very low, with a water flow of ≤10 l/s (Sabana),
approximately 1,932,987 hectares, i.e. 1.7% as shown in FIG. 12.
of the country’s continental surface. They
provide, amongst others, the water supply 8. Colombian Coastal Areas
for human use and regional development of 55% of Colombia’s territory corresponds to
70% of the colombian population, confirming coastal areas, found mostly on the Pacific Ocean
the importance of the ecosystem as part of and the Caribbean Sea. Sea level on the Pacific
Colombia’s natural heritage. This becomes is 5 meters while it is less than a meter on the
even more significant in the light of the Caribbean; the fluctuation can vary from 1 to
national goal “Objetivos del Milenio” to 15 meters. These areas are not only part of the
provide drinking water to an additional 7.7 country’s material riches, but also an important
million urban inhabitants. part of its environmental wealth.
9. Use of Water
According to IDEAM’s National Water Study
[Estudio Nacional de Agua (ENA)] 2005, the
per capita water availability index classifies
Colombia as 24th place in a list of 182
FIG. 15. Sectoral Participation in the Potential Demand
nations, thus no longer a hydrologic power. for Water in Colombia
256
COLOMBIA
10. Quality of Water Wastewaters (Bases para la formulación
The main factors altering water quality de un Plan Nacional de Aguas Residuales)
are domestic and industrial wastewater; (Universidad de los Andes – Ministerio
wastewater from agriculture and ranching; de Medio Ambiente, 2002), the flow
stormwater; water from terrestrial, fluvial of wastewater from Colombian cities is
and oceanic transportation of dangerous estimated to be close to 67 m3/s, of which
compounds, as well as oil and its by-products; more than 15.3% corresponds to Bogotá,
infrastructure work; water from mining 13% to Antioquia, 9.87% to Valle del Cauca,
processes; and solid wastes dumped into while the remaining departments are below
landfills or directly into bodies of water. FIG.16 5%. These proportions reflect the extent to
shows the distribution of the main sectors of which bodies of water are being affected and
pollutant load contributions to the rivers. set a trend of impact on the regions.
The location of a highly dense population Coastal areas mainly present pollution by
and production industries in Colombia’s main domestic and industrial waste. Most domestic
Andean cities has caused pressure on the sewage is poured directly into coastal waters or
basins of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers. The rivers without treatment, largely into the Cauca
tributaries of these rivers receive the greatest and Bogotá rivers of the Magdalena watershed.
amounts of water quality-altering substances.
The highly organic effluents of the food
According to the Foundations for the industry, are also very often poured directly
Development of a National Plan for and without treatment into water currents,
and together with domestic organic waste
alter water resources. The cement industry
modifies water by dumping suspended solids,
while the petrochemical and carbochemical
industries add complex chemical compounds
to it. Additionally, given the vulnerability of oil
duct and gas pipeline systems, the spilling of
crude oil negatively modifies water quality and
thus resident biota.
Sierra Nevada
3 de Santa Marta 19,100 170 47
Ríos Guaviare
12 520,000 18,900 430 33 16 10 2 3 (2)
Vichada y Amazonas
Total 714,311 26,967 1,310 149 24 15 2 (1) 5 (3)
258
COLOMBIA
of 45 national watersheds. Because departments of La Guajira, Cesar, Magdalena
supplying water to the population is of and Bolívar in the Caribbean region, and the
upmost importance and considering the departments of Huila, Tolima, Valle del Cauca,
high vulnerability of water supply systems, Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander del Norte,
the assessment of water availability Santander and part of Cauca and Nariño in
tendencies has become a top priority. A the Andean region.
large percentage of the country’s aqueducts
obtain water from small rivers, ravines and 12. Drinking Water and
streams. This makes them highly vulnerable, Basic Sanitation
especially in areas with serious problems of Inadequate planning and land occupation have
spatial and temporal distribution such as the contributed to the deterioration of watersheds
259
COLOMBIA
in Colombia, and consequently have affected Girardot leave their sewage untreated. In
the quantity and quality of available other words, the backwardness in water
water. Aqueducts in 140 municipalities of treatment in Colombia is not only due to the
16 departments are vulnerable to water lack of infrastructure for water treatment, but
availability problems because in many also to poor coverage by existent treatment
cases the current water sources are ravines, plants. Only 354 (33%) municipalities in the
with water that has become seasonal as a country have treatment plants, of which 29%
consequence of watershed deterioration. are not in operation. It has been estimated
that out of the 159 m3/sec of water captured
Water sources in cities like Bucaramanga and nationally, the treated wastewater volume is
Cúcuta, are unable to supply the minimal close to 5 m3/sec, or 3.1%.
flow demanded through their aqueducts
in dry seasons. The situation is even more Due to deterioration of water quality and
critical in the municipalities of Popayán, supplying watersheds; poor coverage, capacity
Palmira, Buenaventura, Maicao, Santander and maintenance of water treatment plants;
de Quilichao and Pamplona where the deficit as well as the lack of control, follow up and
is between 15 y 30% of the water provided. monitoring of water quality, “17,736,687
Thus, with the exception of some of the large Colombians did not receive water fit for human
cities in the country, aqueduct systems are use during the first trimester of 2007”.
susceptible to supply scarcity; their design,
operation and maintenance are vulnerable to It is important to mention the high
excessive or reduced flow from supply sources, vulnerability of municipal water conduits.
climate change, or pollution, that result from During 2007 “nearly 200,000 inhabitants
unsustainable use of natural resources and were affected by flooding (or collapsed
inadequate water management. sewage systems); almost 500,000 suffered
from the suspension of aqueduct service as
According to the Superintendencia de a consequence of avalanches, increase in
Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios (2006), the river turbidity, and clogging or collapsing
treatment plants used by the public sewage of collectors; while somewhat more than
system of large cities (Bogotá, Medellín, Cali) 20,000 had services suspended because
have the capacity to treat only 32% of the of landslides that threatened the stability
wastewater poured into them. Even more of a portion of the structure supplying the
worrying is the fact that cities like Barranquilla, service”. To date, the country not only lacks
Bucaramanga and Ibagué only treat of 17%, a plan to diminish this vulnerability but also
26% and 11%, of their sewage respectively, the relevant research and inventories.
while cities such as Cartagena, Cúcuta,
Pereira, Manizales, Neiva, Pasto, Valledupar, Studies on issues of access to basic services
Popayán, Palmira, Florencia, Sincelejo, such as drinking water and sanitation, have
Buenaventura, Piedecuesta, Tulúa, Armenia, shown that although there have been efforts to
Tunja, Rionegro, Cartago, Sogamoso and implement reform programs for these services
260
COLOMBIA
and for broadening their coverage, especially development, and the lack of resources
since 2001, problems persist in relation to for water purification and development of
water quality and access in great areas of the human capital. On the other hand, in rural
country. The most recent data on the coverage areas the problems result from infrastructure
of water conduits and sewage systems both in coverage, as well as the lack of a continuous
rural and urban zones are shown in FIG. 17. supply of high quality water. Important
progress has been made between 2002 and
In Colombian urban areas, the coverage of 2006 in the number of municipalities that have
water services is good in general, although wastewater treatment systems (Sistema para
quality and continuity of supply are a Tratar Aguas Residuales–STAR). In 2002 these
problem. Large and middle sized cities have were 218, and in 2006 they increased to 355.
attained excellent and satisfactory services However, this last figure is still only 32.33% of
with respect to water quality, however the total number of municipalities in Colombia
smaller municipalities still have serious (including the Distrito Capital), meaning that
issues reaching the parameters established the coverage is low overall.
by current regulations. These problems are
related to the low operational, financial and It is also important to note that the
institutional capacity of small businesses, percentage of municipalities with sewage
which result in poor infrastructure treatment systems (STARs) in departments
SOURCE: MAVDT, PRESENTATION “WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN COLOMBIA”, DIRECCIÓN
DE AGUA POTABLE, SANEAMIENTO BÁSICO Y AMBIENTAL, 2006
FIG. 17. Water Conduit and Sewage Systems in Colombia
261
COLOMBIA
including more than 100 municipalities, is of feces (sewer systems, septic tanks, toilets)
lower than the national average (41.39%); together with a lack of education promotes
Antioquia, Boyacá and Cundinamarca, have the spread of disease. The most serious
percentages of 31.2%, 20.83% and 38.79% consequence is persistent mortality and an
respectively. This shows backwardness with increase in morbility caused by infectious
respect to other regions in the country, but diseases of water-borne nature in children
it most surely is a consequence of the size of in most of Colombia’s municipalities. This is
the effort needed to provide the service to a one of the highest costs of environmental
greater number of towns. Table 6 shows the breakdown in the country. According to
volume of flow treated by STARs in 2006. information reported by Ernesto Sánchez-
Triana, et. al., (2006) and taken from DANE
Within this context, it is also important to (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de
note that although there is a great number Estadísitca), 7.2% of all infant mortality is
of STARs installed or in the process of being due to diarrheic diseases and the two-week
installed, operation and maintenance has prevalence in children below the age of 5
become an enormous challenge, as only 51% is 2.9%. Ninety percent of these cases are
of them function well or fairly. This is caused related to problems in the quality of water,
partly by deficient knowledge on how to sanitation and hygiene.
operate and maintain the systems, and the
belief that wastewater-related problems are The Procuraduría General de la Nación states
solved by building infrastructure alone, with that 12.7 million Colombians still lack sewers
only little importance given to maintenance and water pipes, in spite of the $117.5 billion
and operation issues. (approximately 53 thousand million dollars)
that the Colombian government has assigned
Economic sustainability of STARs is also an to the sector in the past ten years. Of these,
issue. In 77% of the cases there are no studies $7.2 billion (approximately 3 thousand million
of impact on service fees, while in 80% the dollars) were assigned to address potable
methodologies established by the Comisión water issues.
de Regulación de Agua Potable y Saneamiento
Básico (CRA) (Comission for Regulation of In summary, it can said that in spite of resource
Potable Water and Basic Sanitation) have investment from General Participation System
not been followed. The situation described (SGP), royalties and other sources, there
implies that the sustainability of wastewater continues to be high morbility and mortality
treatment plants is not guaranteed. due to water-borne bacterial diseases,
especially chronic diarrhea. CONPES 3343
13. Water and Human Health has established that the average cost to public
The lack of drinking water and basic sanitation health systems of “inadequate conditions for
in populations with poor living conditions is one water supply, sanitation and hygiene, is $1.96
of the main risk factors for contracting many billions (approximately 890 million dollars)”. In
illnesses. The absence of adequate disposal addition, living conditions and the geographical
262
COLOMBIA
Source: MAVDT, Grupo Recurso Hídrico based on information from: (i) Plan Nacional de Manejo de Aguas Re-
siduales Municipales – PMAR, published in June of 2004; (ii) Inventory by MAVDT in the framework of SINA,
2006
263
COLOMBIA
location of our territory in tropical areas, favor In accordance with these conditions, the
a high incidence of diseases transmitted by estimated supply for 2015 and 2025 was
vectors, such as malaria. calculated by reducing the usable supply
2% annually. As to population, DANE
Finally, dengue fevers are today a serious (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de
problem to the health of the nation’s population, Estadística) used projections for 1995 to
especially in areas located at less than 1, 800 2005, as well as population scenarios for 2015
masl, home of the transmitter mosquito. and 2025 estimated within the DEAM-CIDSE
agreement (Universidad del Valle, Cali),
14. Supply and Demand according to urban-rural differential growth
Projections for 2015 and 2025 methodology and using logistic formulae. For
At the present moment, a good part of other sectors (industrial, commercial, livestock
Colombia’s municipalities and regions enjoy and agriculture), the projection considered an
an adequate supply of water, in accordance annual increase in demand of 3%, starting from
with its plentiful availability in most parts of the the potential water demand for the year 2000.
country. Only a relatively low percentage has This figure was calculated after recognizing
high scarcity rates, as can be seen in FIG. 18. the need to consider at least three scenarios
It is estimated that this could change quickly for GNP growth when making projections over
and significantly in the future, especially more than 25 years.
in more densely populated areas. In the
coming years, water demand for human These are: marked growth of around 6%; a
and economic use will not only increase, recessive scenario of around 2%; and finally
but the usable supply could also fall as a an average that comes close to the historical
consequence of the current tendencies in average GNP value for the past 20 years. This
deforestation and an almost complete lack last scenario is in reality close to the growth
of wastewater treatment. average (2.6%) for 1980-1998, and can be
FIG. 18. Indices of Shortages and Vulnerability in Accordance with Water Availability in Colombia.
264
COLOMBIA
considered as a reference to project the most high and medium-high water scarcity could
probable water demand. Nevertheless, a more double, while the population with medium
precise econometric ratio could be established water stress tends to fall, because most
when more extensive series on water use and municipality seats pass into more critical
sectorial GNP growth are available. categories with high and medium-high water
stress. (FIG. 19, Graphs C and D).
Because water supply projections for 2015 and
2025 were calculated by reducing the supply 15. Water, Energy and
2% and increasing the demand 3% annually, the Environmental Impact
water scarcity index (pressure of demand over There are nearly 34 reservoirs with volumes
supply) tends to a rise slowly, thus anticipating over 1 Mm3 in Colombia, close to 29 mid-
that water availability will lead to a difficult sized reservoirs and many small ones. Eighty
situation with respect to its supply in the future. two percent of these are used to generate
This indicates that the municipal scarcity index electricity. The total reservoir volume is nearly
for 2015 and 2025 will increase considerably 10,724.5 Mm3 with a total surface of 48 881
in municipalities found in the high water ha (Roldán, 1992; Márquez & Guillot, 2001;
stress group. It also shows that the number of Roldán and Ramírez, 2008). Their areas vary
Colombians in this category will grow from 1.7 between 56 and 16,000 ha, are found from
million in the year 2000, to 13.8 million in 2015 70 to 3,800 masl; have a generating capacity
and could reach 17.5 million by 2025, or 30% of between 21 and 1,240 MW, and a residence
the total population projected for that year. The time varying from 1.6 to 1.995 days. The
progression is similar for medium-high water energy they currently produce represents only
stress and medium water stress groups, proving 10% of Colombia’s hydroelectric potential,
that the pressures of demand over supply are therefore great activity is expected in the mid
more and more significant and that 55% of the and long term in the field, with the ensuing
Colombian population would be found in these ecologic, economic and social impacts that
three categories (FIG. 19, Graphs A and B). this sort of project entails. Table 7 shows the
characteristics of the main 26 reservoirs in
In the year 2000, 38 seats of municipal Colombia.
governments had a high scarcity index, while
in 2015 the number is estimated to increase 16. Governance of Water
to 72, reaching a total of 102 in 2025. Forty At the moment, one of the greatest invest-
eight seats of municipal governments had a ments of the Colombian Plan de Desarrollo is in
medium-high scarcity index in 2000, while the purified water and basic sanitation sector,
101 are projected for 2015 and 138 for with the purpose of significantly increasing
2025. This corresponds to 13% of the total the population with access to these services.
municipalities in the country, 70% of which are It is worthwhile to analyze administration
in the Andean area. The tendency is similar methods for these new systems, so that they
for medium water stress groups. According may guarantee the results expected from such
to projections, the population affected by a a great national effort, and thus contribute to
265
COLOMBIA
equality, health and the fight against poverty. throughout the world, increasing participation
In order to reach these objectives, the of private operators from almost none in 1990
building of infrastructure, although essential, to 2,350 in 1993. Latin American countries
is not sufficient. Economic reforms based chose to follow along these lines to a greater
on liberalization and decentralization, or lesser extent.
considered necessary to change the role
of the state from a provider of public An evaluation of the privatization of water
services to a regulator and facilitator. services presents contradictory results,
although they are overall unsatisfactory.
They deemed convenient to give the private Privatization policies show benefits in urban
sector a more prominent role in the provision areas of high to medium income, but have
of water services, for the purpose of mending failed with lower income consumers. They
governance difficulties, adducing improved have produced complex situations and even
efficiency and the possibility of allowing access law and order disturbances in cases such as
to new financial and technological sources for Cochabamba and El Alto in Bolivia, and the
service improvement and broadening. In the early termination of contracts due to very
first part of the 1990’s, a wave of privatization, high costs and lack of efficiency as in the
especially in water services, rapidly extended water treatment plant in Bogotá.
SOURCE: IDEAM,2005
FIG. 19. Water Scarcity Rate Projections in Colombia for 2015 and 2025
Table 7. The Most Important Characteristics of Colombian Reservoirs and their Capacity for Energy Production
(Taken from: Roldán and Ramírez, 2008).
Reservoirs Year Main River Z Area / Peri- Max. Installed Total Flow Resi- Pur-
max ha meter Cota capacity Useful (m3/s) dence pose
(m) Volume
(km) (Max. (MW) (Mm3) (m3/s) (días)
Level)
Alto Anchicayá
1974 Anchicayá 132 140 25 640 345 30 99 3.5 Energy
(Valle)
Bajo Anchicayá
1959 Anchicayá 53 - - 195 64 15 110 1.6 Energy
(Valle)
266
COLOMBIA
Energy
Betania (Huila) 1987 Magdalena 91 7400 - 561 510 1020 786 15.0 and
Control
Calima (Valle) 1967 Calima 98 1980 - 1400 120 438 76 66.6 Energy
Chuza
(Cundinamarca) 1983 Chingaza 27 98 - 3850 - 225 13 200.2 Aqueduct
Guatapé
1973 Nare 60 6365 419 1887 560 1169 88 153.7 Energy
(Antioquia)
Guájaro C. del
1964 4.0 16000 - 60 - 238 - - Risk
(Atlántico) Dique
Guavio
1993 Guavio 232 1530 15 1630 1000 1140 72 183.2 Energy
(Cundinamarca)
La Esmeralda
1976 Bata 226 1260 83 1277 1000 634 160 45.8 Energy
(Boyacá)
La Fe Aqueduct
1972 Las Palmas 30 1426 8 2155 16 12 8 17.3
(Antioquia) and energy
Miel 1
2002 La Miel 188 2050 - 445 400 565 - - Energy
(Celdas)
Miraflores
1965 Tenche 63 800 47 2062 - 140 18 90.8 Energy
(Antioquia)
Muña
1944 Bogotá 5 933 - 2580 36 10 1 115.7 Energy
(Cundinamarca)
Neusa
1951 Neusa 11 950 - 2997 190 106 2 613.2 Aqueduct
(Cundinamarca)
Playas
1987 Guatapé 65 702 - 980 200 47 126 4.3 Energy
(Antioquia)
Prado
1973 Prado 90 3900 - 370 55 500 115 50.3 Energy
(Tolima)
Porce II
2001 Porce 118 890 - 922 392 82 201 4.7 Energy
(Antioquia)
Punchiná
1984 Guatapé 65 340 17 775 1240 50 142 4.1 Energy
(Antioquia)
Río Mayo
1969 Mayo 16 56 - 1500 21 450 11 473.3 Energy
(Nariño)
Salvajina Energy and
1985 Cauca 148 2031 102 1155 270 753 350 24.9
(Cauca) Control
San Lorenzo
1987 Nare 57 1070 42 1250 170 180 40 52.1 Energy
(Antioquia)
Sisga
1951 - 15 676 - 2780 - 101 3 389.5 Aqueduct
(Cundinamarca)
Tominé
1962 Tominé 19 3690 - 2605 - 690 4 1995.0 Aqueduct
(Cundinamarca)
Troneras
1962 Guadalupe 37 465 35 1775 36 36 26 16.0 Energy
(Antioquia)
Energy
Urrá I
2000 Sinú 73 7400 - 128 340 1200 700 19.8 and
(Córdoba)
Control
267
COLOMBIA
Privatization has proved useful to improve to water resources, improvement of living
distribution systems and reduce non conditions and poverty reduction
revenue water, but has failed with respect
to water distribution equity, broadening 17. Water Policies and
of services, wastewater treatment, and Legislation in Colombia
conservation of water-producing ecosystems. Concern for water resources in Colombia
The contribution of the private sector to coincides with the worldwide relevance
providing drinking water and basic sanitation given to environmental issues that began
services efficiently, may be convenient and to be evident in conferences, symposia,
significant, but the role of the State must and meetings. Considering the definition of
be clear and should be exercised with “environment” as everything that surrounds
efficacy and transparency. As a result of the living things and allows them to develop, water
experiences described above, a tendency to becomes a vital element for life. In this respect,
reverse the wave of privatization of potable the inefficient use of water and the breakdown
water services can be noted from the middle of its quality become one of the main obstacles
of the present decade. Multinational water in the attainment of environmental, economic
service companies are moving away from and social sustainability. Until recently, water in
developing countries and concentrating on this country was believed to be an everlasting
developed ones, as they offer less political element for development, given its abundance
and financial risks. Although the debate on and its associated biodiversity; it was not
the provision of services by the state or the possible to recognize the consequences of
private sector is still ongoing, it is important man’s ancestral relationship with nature in
to identify new roles for the stakeholders our culture. The presence of water became a
thus widening the range of providers for determining element for rural and urban human
these services. settlements, although no importance was given
to its protection and conservation. Eventually
International experiences and from civil Colombia began to take part in the global
organizations have led to the conclusion that concern for water and started to plan for more
governments and multilateral entities have not integral and globalized management along
given due importance to other forms of water international guidelines.
management. These alternatives could help
overcome the debate between public and In the Stockholm Summit of 1972, the Brutland
private management, and explore more open report defined the relevant and definitive
ways of organization such as public-private aspects for sustainable development under the
associations and consumer organizations. ethics of conservation. Later, the Río Summit
The experience with such organizations has reasserted unique principals for administration
proved to be effective in various countries, of natural resources, considering the principles
especially in the handling of rural aqueducts of global action and management, plus social,
and small populations where they have economic and political development.
very effectively contributed to equal access Taking up the regulations that emerged
268
COLOMBIA
from these world summits again, Colombia end was unsuccessful. The objective was
created the Ministry for the Environment in to: “promote water culture to ensure its
1993 by means of Law 99, which assumed efficient and sustainable use; establish the
some of the functions previously performed main procedures to regulate its exploitation
by organizations such as INDERENA and and use; guarantee the population access
the Ministry of Health, amongst others. This to water in sufficient quantity and quality;
Ministry defined the policy guidelines for develop organizations for administration and
various environmental aspects, some of which control in order to protect water resources
are mentioned below: and to give water its proper value so that it is
• Policy Guidelines for the Comprehensive used and disposed of correctly”.
Management of Water (Lineamientos de
Política para el Manejo Integral del Agua), Thus began the construction of an integrative
1995. vision around planning, management,
• Foundations for a National Policy on control, assessment and sensitization to
Population and the Environment (Bases water resources. After two years (2008-2009)
para una Política Nacional de Población y of studies and consultations, a diagnosis of
Medio Ambiente), 1998. the hydrologic situation and its management,
• Strategies for a National System of more than 14 multisector workshops, and the
Natural Protected Areas (Estrategias para approval from the National Environmental
un Sistema Nacional de Áreas Naturales Council in 2009, a diagnosis of the condition
Protegidas). of water resources was prepared. It lead to the
• Guidelines for a National Policy on Territorial “National Water Policy” issued by the Ministry
Environmental Planning (Lineamientos for the Environment, Housing and Territorial
para la Política Nacional de Ordenamiento Development in 2010. It provides the
Ambiental del Territorio), 1998. framework, principles, objectives, instruments
• National Environmental Policy for Sustainable and strategies for the administration and
Development of Colombian Oceans, Coastal planning of water resources, and also
and Island Areas (Política Nacional Ambiental directs the water administration tasks of
para el Desarrollo Sostenible de los Espacios Regional Environmental Authorities (Regional
Oceánicos y las Zonas Costeras e Insulares de Autonomous Corporations, amongst others).
Colombia), 2000.
• National Policy for Colombian Internal The National Hydrologic Policy includes 6
Wetlands (Política Nacional para Humedales specific objectives referring to supply, demand,
Interiores de Colombia), 1994. quality, risks, management and institutional
• National Policy for Environmental Education operation, each of which includes strategies
(Política Nacional de Educación Ambiental), (19), goals and indicators. The guidelines for
2002. strategic action will be developed in detail in
the National Hydrologic Plan, according to
In 2004, the government set forth guidelines regional characteristics and idiosyncrasies,
for a new Water Law, an effort which in the but aiming at the attainment of the national
269
COLOMBIA
objectives and goals defined in the present I of Act 2811 of 1974 on the use of water
Policy. In addition to the Hydrologic Plan, and liquid wastes”.
a CONAPES will be formulated together • Political Constitution of Colombia, Sections
with the National Planning Department 78, 79, 80, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369 and 370.
to determine the sectoral actions that will • Law 99 of 1993, “By means of which the
promote national integral management of MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT is
hydrologic resources. created, the Public Sector in charge of
management and conservation of the
The following is a list of the corresponding environment and natural resources is
regulatory framework in Colombia. As has reorganized, the National Environmental
been mentioned beforehand, the various System (SINA - Sistema Nacional Ambiental)
problems that are still present with respect to is organized, and other dispositions are
water matters, are not due to lack of legislation, enacted”.
but to the diversity of norms, lack of political • Law 373 of 1997, “By which the program
will to apply regulations adequately, in for efficient water saving and use is
addition to a lack of environmental education. established”.
• Law 1220 of 2005 “By which Section VIII of
a. Water resources in general Law 99 of 1993 on environmental licenses
• Law 23 of 1973, “By means of which is regulated”.
extraordinary faculties are given to the
President of the Republic to issue the Code b. Bodies of water and hydrographic basins
for Natural Resources and Environmental • Law 161 of 1994 “By which the Corporación
Protection and to announce other orders”. Autónoma Regional del Río Grande de
• Act 2811 of 1974, “National Code la Magdalena, is organized, its sources
for Renewable Natural Resources and of financing are determined and other
Environmental Protection”. provisions are enacted”.
• Act 1449 of 1977, “By means of which the • Law 357 of 1997, “By which the ‘Convention
following are partially regulated [Paragraph on Wetlands of International Importance
1, Number 5, Section 56 of Law 135 of Especially as Waterfowl Habitats’, subscribed
1961] and [Executive Decree No. 2811 of in Ramsar on February 2, 1971, is approved”.
1974]”. Partial revocation Law 79 of 1986, • Act 1604 of 2002, “By which Paragraph 3,
Law 373 of 1997 and Act 1791 of 1996. Section 33, Law 99 of 1993 is regulated”.
• Act 1541 of 1978, “By means of which Part • Act 1729 of 2002, “By which Part XIII,
III, Book II of Act 2811 of 1974 ‘of non- Section II, Chapter III of Decree-Law 2811 of
maritime waters’ is regulated”. 1974 on hydrographic basins is regulated,
• Law 9 of 1979, “By means of which sanitary Number 12, Section 5, Law 99 of 1993 is
measures are enacted”. partially regulated and other regulations
• Act 1594 of 1984, “By means of which are enacted”.
Section I of Law 9 of 1979 is regulated, as • Resolution 769 of 2002, “By which
well as Chapter II, Section II, Part II, Book provisions are enacted to contribute to the
270
COLOMBIA
protection, conservation and sustainability of Law 99 of 1993 on taxation for use of
of paramos”. Modified by Resolution 140 water is regulated”.
of 2003. • Resolution 865 of 2004, “By which the
• Resolution 839 of 2003, “By which the methodology to calculate surface water
reference terms to develop the ‘Study on the scarcity index is adopted”.
Current State of Paramos and the ‘Plan for • Resolution 872 of 2006, “By which the
Environmental Management of Paramos are methodology to calculate groundwater
established”. Modified by Resolution 1128 of scarcity index is determined as referred to
2006. in Act 155 of 2004 and other provisions are
• Resolution IDEAM 104 of 2003, “By which the adopted”.
criteria and parameters for the classification • Act 1900 of 2006, “By which the Paragraph
and prioritization of hydrographic basins are in Section 43 of Law 99 of 1993 is regulated
established”. and other provisions are enacted”.
• Resolution 196 of 2006, “By which the • Act 2570 of 2006, “By which Act 1600 of
technical guide for the development of 1994 is added to and other provisions are
management plans for wetlands in Colombia enacted”.
is adopted”. • Act 1323 of 2007, “By which the Information
• Act 1480 of 2007, “By which national planning System for Water Resources (SIRH -Sistema de
and intervention of some hydrographic Información del Recurso Hídrico), is created”.
basins are prioritized and other provisions are • Act 1324 de 2007, “By which the Water
enacted”. Resources Consumer Register is created
and other provisions are enacted”.
c. Management instruments
• Act 1600 of 1994, “By which SINA is partially d. Potable water and sanitation
regulated in relation to the Sistemas • Law 142 of 1994, “By which the residential
Nacionales de Investigación Ambiental y public service system is established and
de Información Ambiental”. other provisions are enacted”.
• Act 1933 of 1994, “By which Section 45 of • Act 3102 of 1997, “By which Section 15
Law 99 of 1993 is regulated”. of Law 373 of 1997 is regulated in relation
• Act 3100 of 2003, “By which fees for the to the installation of water use reduction
direct use of water as a receptor of specific equipment, systems and implements”.
discharge are regulated and other decisions • Resolution 1096 of 2000, “By which the
are taken”. Technical Regulations for Potable Water
• Act 155 of 2004, “By which tax for the use and Basic Sanitation Sector (Reglamento
of water is established”. Técnico para el sector de Agua Potable y
• Act 3440 of 2004, “By which Act 3100 of Saneamiento Básico – RAS) is adopted”.
2003 is modified and other provisions are Modified by Resolution 668 of 2002 and
adopted”. 1459 of 2005.
• Act 4742 of 2005. “By which Section 12 of • Resolution CRA 150 of 2001, “By which basic
Act 155 of 2004 is modified and Section 43 and maximal consumption is determined in
271
COLOMBIA
conformity with Law 373 of 1997”. “Agreement Concerning Protection and
• Resolution CRA 287 of 2004, “By which tariff Development of the Marine Environment
methodology to regulate the calculation in the Wider Caribbean Region” and the
of costs for waterworks and sewage is “Protocol Concerning Cooperation to
determined”. Combat Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean
• Resolution 1443 of 2004, “By which Section Region”, signed in Cartagena de Indias,
12 of Act 3100 of 2003, on Plans for Sanitation March 24, 1983.
and Management of Water Discharge (Planes • Law 55 of 1989, for the approval of
de Saneamiento y Manejo de Vertimientos – the International Agreement on Civil
PSMV) is established, and other provisions Responsibility for Damage Caused by Oil
are adopted”. Modified by Resolution 2145 Polluted Marine Waters of 1969 and its
of 2005. 1976 protocol.
• Act 1575 of 2007, “By which the protection • Act 2190 of 1995, December 14, 1995.
and control system for water quality for “By which the ‘National Contingency Plan
human use is established”. Against Spillage of Oil, Derivatives and
• Resolution 2115 of 2007, “By which the other Harmful Substances into Marine,
characteristics, basic means and frequency River and Lake Water’ is developed”.
for the control and surveillance system for
water quality for human use are fixed”. f. Ocean water and continental platform
• Act 3200 of 2008, “By which the norms
for Departmental Planes for the Business • Law 10 of 1978, “By which regulations
Management of Water and Sewage Services on territorial oceans, exclusive economic
and other provisions are enacted”. zones, continental platforms and other
• Resolution 811 of 2008, “For the definition provisions are enacted”.
of guidelines to be followed by sanitation • Act 1875 of 1979, “By which regulations
authorities and service providers to on the prevention pollution of marine
coordinately define, within their area of environments and other provisions are
influence, sampling sites for the control enacted”.
and monitoring of water quality for human • Act 1436 of 1984, “By which Section 9 of
use in the distribution network”. Law 10 of 1978 is partially regulated”.
• Law 611 of 2000, “By which regulations for
e. Contamination and discharge the sustainable development of wild animal
• Act 1875 of 1979, “By which norms for and aquatic species are enacted”.
prevention of marine contamination and
other provisions are issued”. g. International treaties and agreements
• Act 1594 of 1984, “By which Section I, Law • Law 119 of 1961, “Convention on Fishing
9 of 1979 is regulated, as well as Chapter II, and Conservation of the Living Resources
Section II Part II, Book I of Act 2811 of 1974 of the High Seas”.
on the use of water and liquid wastes. • Law 408 of 1997, “By which the Agreement
• Law 56 of 1987, for the approval of the on International Hydrographic Organization
272
COLOMBIA
IHO”, subscribed on May 3. 1967 in can be anticipated, and could produce a
Monaco is approved. high risk of scarcity in its aqueducts. This
• Law 74 of 1979. “By which the ‘Amazonian would imply a true sanitary and economic
Cooperation Treaty’, signed on June 3, emergency, that must be avoided through
1978 in Brasilia is approved”. planning and decisive action.
Granting concessions for the various uses Agriculture consumes around 60% of the
of water implies recognizing the size and water we use and its demand continues to
variation of flow and its quality. In order to rise, motivated by an ever growing population
determine the amount of flow available for with an increasing income, and a supply
a variety of uses, current social priorities that continues to fall because of decreased
must be considered. The first of these is use availability and quality. Traditional irrigation
275
COLOMBIA
systems are greatly inefficient and poorly In addition, projects should have a multiple
used, causing very serious effects on soil. purpose, including conservation, recreation,
This opens the field to the development and ecotourism and fish farming, to allow the
spread of sustainable and technified systems local people to achieve economic benefits
which offer an enormous potential in the and improve their quality of life. They should
saving of water and money. The use of drop not however compete with the watershed’s
irrigation and automatic systems, amongst water requirements to satisfy the various uses
others, provide an important opportunity to and the adequate function of ecosystems.
save water.
The possibility of exporting the water surplus
The future also offers other very interesting form various parts of the country for uses such
possibilities if we not only consider water as agriculture or industry in countries with
as a fundamental element for life, but water shortages, is worth exploring deeply.
also as a strategic resource. In this way, To grant economic value for the maintenance
Colombia could make the most of its natural of environmental conditions to “produce”
hydrologic wealth and turn it into a factor water permanently and sustainably could
for sustainable development. be an attractive alternative to stimulate
conservation. Thus conservation would imply
Possible nonconventional uses of water in the productive use of land, the generation
our country include hydro energy, resulting of income for communities and owners of
from the country’s water abundance and the areas, and avoidance of deforestation
pronounced relief which might allow electricity and predatory uses such as ranching and
to be exported to Central and South America, cultivation of unsustainable and illegal crops.
and water itself to be marketed for human,
agricultural and industrial use.Naturally these 20. Conclusions
possibilities should primarily regard national The situation of hydrological resources
interests, as water is a public good that should in Colombia in general has not reached
benefit Colombians first and foremost, and the critical levels found in other countries.
must be developed by means of highly efficient However, there are symptoms that cause
and low impact technology. Projects should be alarm with respect to supply in certain
based on design and operation criteria that municipalities and urban areas where it is
avoid the devastating effects of enormous necessary to define policies for planning,
dams on ecosystems and communities. True management and use of hydrologic resources
and active participation of the communities to avoid crisis in the future. In the coming
affected by projects is fundamental to this new years, not only will the demand for water for
approach, as is the harmonization of the projects human and economic purposes continue to
themselves with regional and local planning increase, but the usable supply of water could
strategies, for aspects such as organization, fall if the current tendencies of deforestation
management and development by territorial and the almost absolute absence of sewage
entities and environmental authorities. treatment continue.
276
COLOMBIA
Colombia in summary, disposes of very land and water resources, strategies that
significant amounts of water to satisfy its needs. would be in favor of increasing resilience
The enormous problem that seems to be to climate change. It is expected that
approaching has to do with the quality of water, developments in policy terms, as proposed
not with its scarcity. In other words water related by the National Policy for Integrated Water
problems depend more on management and Resource Management, to enable better
control than on its natural availability. In this planning and control of water resources,
sense for decision making is essential to better but the dismantling institutions and sectors,
planning tools such as those currently proposed calls into question their effectiveness and
national policy for water management and becomes a potential threat to the care and
national survey instruments such as water, protection thereof.
allowing progress in the analysis of information
to identify the state of the art of water resources 21. References
in our country. 1. Allen, R. N., 1972. The Anchicayá
hydroelectric project in Colombia:
The national survey of water (IDEAM, 2010) design and sedimentation problems.
mentioned the need to strengthen monitoring En: M. T. Farvar y J. P. Milton (Eds).
and information systems to obtain more timely The careless technology. Ecology and
and representative of reality. It is also necessary International Development. Natural
to advance in studies of groundwater, as they History Press: 318-342.
are an essential resource for water supply for 2. Contraloría General de la República.
future generations, taking into account the Estado de los recursos naturales y el
decrease in availability of surface water to ambiente 2007-2008. Editorial Imprenta
meet water demands of our population. Nacional, mayo de 2007.
3. Guhl Nanneti, Ernesto. La Gobernanza
Climate change is a fact to take into account del Agua, ¿Pública o privada? Diario El
when analyzing the information, and Tiempo, 19 de marzo de 2009.
Colombia is no exception, since the effect of 4. Guhl Nanneti, Ernesto. “El agua en el
natural climate variability today, raises huge futuro sostenible de Colombia: para
risks to social and economic sectors, because que queremos el agua?”. Economía
the intensity of the events that have been Colombiana Ed. 312, Revista de la
presented in recent years. For this reason, Contraloría General de la Republica,
future analysis should take into account the mayo de 2006.
projections of water before scenarios of 5. Hernani, A. y J. J. Ramírez, 2002.
climate variability and changes in land use Aspectos morfométricos y teóricos de
and land cover. un embalse tropical de alta montaña:
represa La Fe, El Retiro, Colombia.
The IDEAM should develop strategies for Revista de la Academia Colombiana de
adaptation to current climate variability of the Ciencias, 26(101): 511-518.
country within the management plans and 6. IDEAM-Instituto de Hidrología,
277
COLOMBIA
Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales. Ecología y efecto ambiental de
El medio ambiente en Colombia. 2da. embalses. Aproximación con casos
Edición, Bogotá, agosto de 2001. colombianos. Universidad Nacional de
7. IDEAM, 2005- Instituto de Hidrología, Colombia, Medellín. 218p.
Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales, 16. Medina, H. 1983. Problemas de
Estudio Nacional del Agua.. operación de origen ambiental en la
8. IDEAM. Informe Anual sobre el Estado Central Hidroeléctrica de Guatapé.
del Medio Ambiente y los Recursos Revista EE.PP.MM, 5(1) 53-77.
Naturales Renovables en Colombia, 17. Orozco, A. 1981. Fósforo y
Estudio Nacional del Agua – Relaciones eutroficación en la protección de
de Demanda de Agua y Oferta Hídrica, los recursos hidroenergéticos del
2008. departamento de Antioquia. En: Revista
9. IDEAM- Instituto de Hidrología, AINSA No. 1, Año 1, Agosto 1981.
Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales. 18. Ramirez, J. J. 1999. Limnología de
Estudio Nacional del Agua. 2010. represas de altitud en Colombia con
10. IDEAM. El Estudio Nacional del énfasis en los embalses la Fe y El Peñol.
Agua un Compendio sobre el Ecología de Reservatórios. 4: 79-107.
Recurso hídrico en Colombia, Efraín 19. Ramirez, J. J., C. Bicudo, G. Roldán
Antonio Domínguez Calle, Grupo de y L.C. García. 2000. Temporal and
Investigación en Hidrología, noviembre vertical variations in phytoplankton
de 2005. community structure and its relation to
11. IDEAM. Presentación Mitos y some morphometric parameters of four
realidades sobre el consumo de Colombian reservoirs. Caldasia 22(1):
agua en Colombia, Hebert Gonzalo 108-126.
Rivera, Ingeniero Hidrólogo, Ph. 20. Ramirez, J. J., C. Bicudo, G. Roldán y
D., Subdirección de Hidrológica, L. C. García. 2001. Variación vertical de
Barranquilla, 2007. parámetros físicos y químicos en cuatro
12. IDEAM. Los Glaciares Colombianos embalses tropicales y su relación con el
expresión del Cambio Climático Global, área, la altitud y el tiempo de retención
1998. hidráulica. Acta Limnol Bras., 13:19-34.
13. IDEAM – UNAL. Estudio de Alta 21. Roldán. G., 1978. Problemas de
Montaña Colombiana, 1997 eutroficación en lagos y embalses
14. Mancera, N. y P. Cala 1997. Aspectos colombia-nos. Revista Cont. Amb. 2(3):
bioecológicos de la comunidad íctica 51-56.
asociada a un cultivo de tilapia roja 22. Roldán, G. 1982. Algunas
enjaulas flotantes en el embalse de consideraciones ecológicas acerca de
Betania, Colombia. Dalia Revista de la los embalses. Rev. Cont. Amb. 6(10):
Asociación Colombiana de Ictiología 2: 13-20.
31-53. 23. Roldán, G., M. Correa, T. Machado, J.
15. Márquez, G. y G. Guillot. 2001. J. Ramírez, L. F. Velásquez y F. Zuluaga,
278
COLOMBIA
1984. Estudio Limnológico de la represa biopelículas asociadas a sustratos
El Peñol. Actual. Biol. 13(50): 95-105. artificiales en la represa La Fe, El Retiro,
24. Roldán, G. 1988. Guía para el Estudio Antioquia (Colombia). Actual. Biol.. 22:
de los Macroinvertebrados Acuáticos 153-168.
del Departamento de Antioquia. Fondo 33. Universidad de los Andes, MAVDT, ―
FEN-Colombia, Ed. Presencia Ltda., Bases para la formulación de un Plan
Bogotá. 217p. Nacional de Aguas Residuales, 2002.
25. Roldán, G. 1992. Fundamentos de 34. Uribe, A. y G. Roldán, 1975. Estudio
Limnología Tropical. Ed. Universidad de comparativo de algunas características
Antioquia, Medellín. 529p. fisicoquímicas y biológicas del embalse
26. Roldán, G., A. Bohórquez, R. Castaño El Peñol (Nare). Actual. Biol. 4(11): 2-12.
y J. I. Ardila, 2000. Estudio limnológico 35. Valderrama, M., 1984. Análisis de la
del embalse de El Guavio (Colombia). situación actual y perspectivas de
Revista de la Academia Colombiana de desarrollo pesquero en embalses de
Ciencias Físicas, Exactas y Naturales. Colombia. Divulgación Pesquera,
XXIV (90): 73-84. Inderena, Bogotá. XXII (2, 3, 4): 72-91.
27. Roldán, G y E.Ruíz, 2001. Development 36. Valderrama, M. 1985. Embalses y
of Limnology in Colombia. In: Wetzel, problemática pesquera, Colombia.
R y B. Gopal: Limnology in Developing Ciencia y Tecnología. Vol. 3(3): 11-14,
Countries. 3: 69-119. International Colciencias, Bogotá.
Association of Theoretical and Applied 37. Vargas, R. A. y J. J. Ramírez. 2002.
Limnology-SIL. Variación espacio-temporal de las tasas
28. Roldán, G. 2002. Treating industrial de sedimentación del material sestónico
wastes in Colombia using water en un embalse tropical de alta montaña:
hyacinth. Waterlines.21(1).6-8. represa La Fe, El Retiro, Antioquia,
29. Roldán, G. 2003.La bioindicación de Colombia. Actual. Biol. 24(77): 13-170.
la calidad del agua en Colombia. El 38. Vega, E. R. Díez y O. Ruiz. 1992.
método BMWP/Col. Ed. Universidad Limnología de dos embalses del oriente
de Antioquia, Medellín. 170p. antioqueño. Contaminación Ambiental
30. Roldán, G y J.J. Ramírez, 2008. (Antioquia) 13: 10.
Fundamentos de limnología 39. http://aupec.univalle.edu.co/informes/
neotropical. 2da.Edición. Ed. abril97/paraiso.html
Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 440
p.
31. Salazar, A. y R. Díez de Arango.
1987. Control de plantas acuáticas
en el embalse La Fe. Revista AINSA
(Medellín) 2: 7-31
32. Sierra, O. y J. J. Ramírez. 2000.
Variación espacio-temporal de
279
Waterfall La Fortuna
COSTA RICA
FIG. 2. Average TARWR Per Capita for Different Regions of the World.
284
COSTA RICA
The main aquifers of the Pacific drainage basin Table 2. Main Aquifers Currently Exploited in Costa
are located in the Tempisque, Grande de Rica. Data not Available are Indicated with the “N.A.”
Abbreviation (Adapted from OD, 2001).
Térraba and Barranca rivers (Table 2; Ministerio
de Salud et al., 2003). There are four zones that
Name Extraction
concentrate the larger part of groundwater volume (x10-3 m3 s-1)
demand: 1) the Large Metropolitan Area (LMA) La Bomba (Limón) 30
of the capital of San José and other neighboring Río Moín (Limón) N.A.
cities (representing 2.4 million habitants and 4%
Santa Clara (Alajuela) 10
of the area of Costa Rica in 2005), 2) Guanacaste,
Bagaces (Guanacaste) 380
3) Puntarenas and 4) Limón.
Tempisque 50-100
(Guanacaste)
Around 50% of the total water supply for
Barranca (Puntarenas) N.A.
human consumption on these areas comes
from groundwater sources. In particular, Colima Inferior 80
the most exploited aquifers in the country (San José)
(Colima Inferior, Colima Superior and Barva) Colima Superior (San 750
José)
supply water to more than 65% of the LMA
Barva (Heredia) 20-100
(Ministerio de Salud et al., 2003).
Costa Rica can be considered a country with environment, future availability, sustainability
relatively low water stress (5.1%). However, of natural resources and the quality of life.
this national average hides dramatic
contrasting situations. For example, the Some of the reasons behind this suggestion
extraction index from groundwater around are: 1) as previously mentioned, the large
the capital metropolitan area rose from 16% availability of precipitation and low water
to 62.5% between 1996 and 2000. This is stress in the majority of the country resulted
equivalent of a water stress similar or greater that over the centuries the Costa Rican society
than the values observed in Egypt, Libya, the have not worried much about water scarcity,
Arab Peninsula and the Near East (Fernández- and have not put enough value on adequate
González and Gutiérrez-Espeleta, 2002; water resources planning and management for
UNEP, 2003). Unfortunately, due to the lack a long time (Ministerio de Salud et al., 2003);
of assessment studies and data, the degree although this changed dramatically, due to this
of the prevalence of similar cases of local old mentality, serious problems accumulated
water resources over-exploitation problems over the years; 2) with exceptions (i.e. MIVAH
is ultimately unknown. However, the problem et al., 2006; MINAE and IMN, 2007 and other
seems common in Costa Rica, implicating publications from the same project) there is a
inadequate or in many cases inexistent lack of integrated studies on water resources
integrated catchment management and to guide planning and to provide knowledge
planning programs of water resources in about the maximum amount of water that
the country, which has implications for the could be devoted to a certain use or that
285
COSTA RICA
could be extracted from a particular river countries around the world using a common
system or aquifer to guarantee sustainability methodology. In Costa Rica, the Costa Rican
(UNEP, 2003; Tribunal Latinoamericano del Electricity Institute (ICE in Spanish) was
Agua, 2008); 3) the quality and quantity of responsible of generating the national study.
hydro-geological data from aquifers has to ICE studied 34 basins that covered a large part
be improved and more hydrological data (i.e. of Costa Rica’s territory and in 2007 produced
stream flow measurements, soil moisture and a 1970-2002 water balance estimate of each
land surface information such as vegetation basin’s average total annual precipitation,
cover and soil properties) are needed in order runoff, actual evapotranspiration (AET) and
to produce appropriate water resources balancing error using the following equation
assessments; 4) the assignment of water (UNESCO, 2007).
rights are not consistent with an integrated
catchment assessment that considers different P - Runoff - AET + error = 0 (Equation 1)
human uses (i.e. water supply, agricultural,
industrial) and other flow requirements Where P, Runoff and AET are the temporal
(i.e. environmental, flood control, optimal and spatial average of each basin’s annual
reservoir operation, hydropower generation, accumulated precipitation, runoff and actual
ecological, water quality); and that incorporate evapotranspiration respectively, and error is
aspects such as sustainability, climate change, the required term to make the left side of the
monitoring, reforestation, land use and other equation equal to zero (UNESCO, 2007).
related issues; 5) in practice, the construction
and monitoring of private wells (especially in In FIG. 3, the data from UNESCO, 2007 were
rural areas) have little or no control (Tribunal used to calculate the average percentage
Latinoamericano del Agua, 2008); 6) water contribution of runoff and AET compared to
laws are old and outdated; and 7) fast and the total precipitation in a year, along with the
disorganized urbanization and forest clearing estimate of the error term. As can be seen,
due to the lack of territorial ordination laws the two water balance components and the
and guidelines creates great pressure over error have comparable spatial variability.
the environment and water resources on
certain regions (Programa Estado de la The basin’s area weighted estimates show
Nación, 2009), and also puts pressure on that a relatively large part of precipitated
the land of headwaters that feed rivers and water usually becomes runoff (65%), while
aquifers (MINAE et al., 2007; Moreno Díaz, AET is about one third of precipitation (this
2009; see also OD, 2001). figure is consistent with Ministerio de Salud
et al., 2003). The error term is generally low
4. Water Balance (1%), suggesting that the assumptions about
A few years back the United Nations storage at these time scales are generally
Educational, Scientific and Cultural valid in these basins. It should be noted that
Organization (UNESCO) supported an effort the Runoff component indirectly includes
to estimate the national water balance of recharge water to the aquifers, as recharge
286
COSTA RICA
was not considered explicitly in the analysis. About twice the volume of water used for
It has been estimated that around 21% of agriculture is used for hydropower generation,
the annual water is used for groundwater but since this water is returned to the river it is
recharge that could in turn become stream not considered here as part of the estimated
flow downstream from the recharge areas 2.68 km3 water consumption. There are
(Ministerio de Salud et al., 2003). hydropower plants of diverse capacity in about
38% of the basins (UNA, 2004). As it is the case
5. National Water Uses in many other regions of the world, agricultural
Total annual water use is estimated to be production is the greatest consumer of water.
as low as 0.54 km3 or 0.5% of the TARWR Unfortunately, Costa Rica has the greatest
(Ministerio de Salud et al., 2003 to as high as consumption of agrochemicals in the Central
2.68 km3 or around 2.4% of the TARWR (UN, American region, with consequent negative
2006; Peter H. Gleick & associates, 2008; CIA, impacts in the environment (flora and fauna),
2009). This latter figure corresponds to about soils, streams and aquifers (UNA, 2004). It is
619 m3 yr-1 per capita (in 2000), distributed estimated that Costa Rica has around 5,250
in 29% domestic use, 17% industrial use and km2 of land that could be potentially irrigated,
53% agricultural use (Peter H. Gleick and but only around 17% has some kind of irrigation
associates, 2008; CIA, 2009). FIG. 4 shows infrastructure or are currently irrigated. The
a comparison of the percentage use of majority of the systems are based on gravity
water resources for Costa Rica against the with a very low efficiency. Surprisingly, the
distribution for several regions of the world. water is priced according to the irrigated area
As can be seen, per capita water use in Costa and not according to the total volume, which
Rica is significantly below the median of favors a high-demand system, low efficiency
many regions of the world except for South and little incentive for upgrading the systems
America and Oceania. (UNA, 2004).
287
COSTA RICA
Forms of industrial use of water includes: 1) sustainable or desirable for a certain region.
ingredient in the production processes in For example, the report Programa Estado de
diverse industries such as bottling of water, la Nación, 2009, an annual national diagnostic
production of drinks (soft drinks, juices, study that evaluates many variables affecting
liquors), 2) purification of high technology socioeconomic development of the country,
components, and many others, 3) transport included for the first time an estimation of
of products, 4) maintenance and cleaning the “ecological footprint” of the country.
of equipment and infrastructure, 5) in the The results are distressful, as they show that
case of the tourism industry a fraction of the the rate of use of natural resources is greater
water is also used for providing recreation, than the capacity of the national territory for
and 6) other related uses. Due to the lack replenishing them by around 12% (therefore
of treatment plants, there is a considerable in order to satisfy the needs of each person
impact of industrial (and domestic) residual we would need 12% more land of what is
water in the environment (UNA, 2004). It currently productive), and this has implications
should be recognized, however, the efforts for environmental sustainability. This also
of certain sectors of the industry to reduce means that the country depends on external
water use and to adopt adequate practices, natural resources and that it is in fact in
which includes certifications in accordance “ecological debt”. The increasing pressure
with environmental norms (UNA, 2004). on natural resources could result in serious
loses in the availability and quality of
6. Water and the Environment natural resources (key components of the
The relatively low water use compared national development); which in turn could
to the TARWR and the high average compromise even more the environmental
TARWR shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 4 could sustainability and the quality of life of
be misleading indicators of the potential future generations (Programa Estado de la
amount of additional exploitation that can be Nación, 2009).
TOC
Monitoring BOD COD DO FC A P
(1.5-2.5
point (3-5 mg/L) (10 mg/L) (4mg/L) (200/100mL)a (0.5mg/L)b (1.5-2.5mg/L)
mg/L)
Rio Virilla
(western 13.60 19.00 62.5 6.20 4,246 k 3.65 667.66
San José
city)
Río Grande
de Tárcoles
confluence 9.01 13.89 33.00 6.20 168 k 1.21 0.47
with Río
Virilla
Río Grande
de Tárcoles 7.08 14.29 42.20 6.32 107 k 0.92 4.95
Outflow to
the ocean
a: For irrigation use
b: Recommended value = 0.05 mg/L
290
COSTA RICA
treatment plant will be built from 2010 2008). However the 2000 estimations also
to 2012, which would eventually process showed that 64% of the population had septic
the polluted waters from 65% of the LAM tanks (instead of access to a sanitary sewer
population, or around 1,070,000 people. system) as the only mode of sewer disposal,
This would result in an improvement in water and this percentage tended to increase over
treatment coverage from 3.5% to around the years (OD, 2001). The septic tanks are a
27%. In the second phase, the coverage will source of groundwater contamination due
be augmented to around 1,600,000 people. to the infiltration of pathogens and nitrates
The resulting treated water will have 90% less into the soils. Conversely, the sanitary sewer
contamination compared to current loads and systems that include treatment plants prevent
will meet current national regulation (Chaves, ground and surface water contamination. The
2009). large percentage of septic tanks is therefore
Among other efforts, studies have been an indication that addressing the problem of
developed since 1989 to determine the groundwater contamination will probably be
quality of water in the aquifers of the Central a complex and costly endeavor.
Valley, based on continuous monitoring.
The project has been developed with the The relatively high availability of clean water
participation and coordination of various along with the opportune investment in public
institutions including AyA, Servicio Nacional health in the past could be considered two of
de Riego y Avenamiento (SENARA), the the reasons behind the relatively good health
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) indicators of Costa Rica compared to other
and the Universidad Nacional (UNA). Part countries in Latin America and the Central
of the activities includes monitoring several American regions. However, the degradation
rivers and wells in the metropolitan area of the environment and water bodies in the
to assess correlations with groundwater. country, but particularly in the LAM over
Groundwater pollution sources have been the last three decades is beginning to be
identified through analysis of O18 and N15 increasingly costly in human and economic
(Salazar, 1998). terms. In fact, it has been estimated that the
annual costs of pollution in terms of loss of
7. Drinking Water, productivity and treatment of associated
Sanitation and Health diseases total about US$325 million divided
In 2008 around 83% of the population had in US$122 million from the areas of the cities
access to potable (drinking) water and more connected to the sanitary sewage system,
than 99% of the population had access to plus US$203 million from the areas with septic
water suitable for human use such as bathing, tanks (Moreno Díaz, 2009).
cooking, sanitation, and gardening (Programa
Estado de la Nación, 2009). In 2004, about 92% The feces contain pathogens, which is a name
of the population had access to some form given to different types of viruses, protozoa,
of sanitation service, compared to the 1970 and organisms that transmit diseases such
value of 52% (Peter H. Gleick and associates, as cholera, enteric fever, paratyphoid fever,
291
COSTA RICA
gastroenteritis, enteritis by rotavirus, diarrhea, (FIG. 5). Clearing for agriculture and cattle
shigellosis, and hepatitis A among others. pastures represent the largest contributors of
In the developing countries the diseases Costa Rica rainforest destruction. The lowest
caused by these pathogens are one of the point in forest cover at the end of the 1980s is
most important causes of premature death, part of a particularly disastrous uncontrolled
especially in children (Moreno Díaz, 2009). deforestation epoch that started in the
1970s; a period of economic crisis when
8. Land Use: Deforestation a series of related global events brought
and Soil Degradation severe negative impacts to Costa Rica’s
Deforestation should be a matter of great economy. This created a state of depression,
concern to any society, as it is associated with impoverishment, and economic disorder, and
many types of devastating impacts to the put the country in a crucial need of foreign
environment such as: soil degradation, loss exchange. In desperation, vast areas of
of fertile top soil through hydraulic transport, rainforest were burned and converted into
landslides, increase in extreme hydrological cattle ranches as a way to prevent economic
events (floods and droughts), reductions collapse by obtaining the needed foreign
in aquifer recharge, loss of productivity, exchange through the increase of beef
desertification, degradation of air quality exports to the United States (a product that at
associated with dust storms, sedimentation that time had an extremely high demand). In
in rivers, loss of wildlife diversity, loss of fact, earning dollars through clear cutting and
recreational value, and loss of timber. deforestation became a common practice
Deforestation of tropical rain forests can have in Latin America during those difficult years
global effects on climate and on many kinds of (Santiago and Schmidt, 1992). When the
earth life forms, as they contain approximately United States ceased beef imports, Costa
25 percent of the earth’s insect, plant and Rica was left with millions of acres of cleared
animal known species. These rain forests land and a lot of cattle. The real extent of
represent extremely sensitive ecosystems that this devastation is summarized by Santiago
are primary suppliers for much of the world’s and Schmidt, 1992: “In sum, beef exports
oxygen. Furthermore, the loss of the natural from this nation increased nearly 500 percent
resources in uncontrolled deforested regions from the 1960’s to the late 1980’s. Additionally,
is usually not easily reversible, which ultimately cattle pasture land increased from 27 percent
result in the loss of all hopes for sustainable of land mass to 54 percent of total land mass.
development, affecting the quality of life of Deforestation and pasturization of land in
current and future generations. Costa Rica marks one the most expansive and
damaging environmental disasters recorded in
Sadly, starting around 1940 until the 1990s, modern history, in terms of percentages.
Costa Rica had extremely high deforestation
rates; a period when the country reduced ” Fortunately and against all odds, Costa Rica is
its forest cover from more than 75% in 1943 now one of the first countries in the world that
to a historical low of only 21% around 1987 has successfully reversed the deforestation
292
COSTA RICA
upward trend of the past, so that the current reduced deforestation rates of the past, such
forest cover is significantly larger than the as the development of an environmental
coverage at the end of the 1980s (FIG. 5). Many conscience by a larger part of the society and
diverse causes contributed to this, including a change of the dependence of the country’s
external factors such as the diminishing of economy toward economic activities that do
the international meat markets, along with not demand such large extensions of disturbed
internal efforts to ameliorate the dire situation land, have also helped stop a situation that
at that time. More recently, one possible otherwise would have been catastrophic.
positive factor in the recuperation is the effect Therefore, it should be recognized that the
of a series of incentives for forest conservation, significant reduction of such aggressive
like the payment for environmental services actions against the natural resources is
(PES) program that started in 1996; which by itself a significant achievement, partly
pays landowners for conserving the forest owed to the effort of many governmental
(República de Costa Rica, 1996; see also: and non-governmental organizations, and
Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2009; Redondo-Brenes communities. Not surprisingly, however,
and Welsh, 2006). The national PES program the recuperation of forest coverage in this
focus on the provision of forest services such as manner has its drawbacks. It has been found
carbon sequestration, biodiversity protection that the quality of the secondary forest is
and watershed protection (República de significantly below that the original forest and
Costa Rica, 1996). The PES is seen by many without a complementary enrichment process
societal sectors as a positive effort to reduce these new forests can remain relatively
deforestation. In fact, a study has shown that poor in species for decades; and that also
several communities in Costa Rica are willing the location of the new forests may not be
to pay higher water bills in order to implement optimal in ecological terms (Baltodano,
local PES programs to protect their own 2007). A diagnostic of the characteristics of
water resources (Ortega-Pacheco et al., the current forests along with other criticisms
2009). Furthermore, other factors that helped can be found in Baltodano, 2007.
9.3 The Water Law Invalidating the rules specified in the preceding
The Water Law number 276 of 27 August paragraph, the enactment of the Mining Code
1942 and its amendments regulate all in 1982 impliedly repealed the distinction
matters concerning the ownership, use and between private waters and public waters,
reuse of water within the territory. There maintaining the public character of all waters.
is a differentiation of the waters of public In the Mining Code, the Article 4 stipulates
domain and the ones of private domain. The that the sources, groundwater and surface
regulation covers common and special uses water, are reserved to the State and may only
of water (which are given in concession), be exploited by it, or through a concession
such as public water supplies, development especially given for a limited time and under
of hydraulic power, irrigation, navigation, the conditions and stipulations set by the
nursery ponds, and other very specific uses. It Legislature in addition to other resources.
also regulates natural and legal rights of way When companies or industries either public
in beaches and maritime zones (but these or private have interest of exploiting water
areas also have special law). resources in a special way, it should be made
through a concession granted by the Ministry
The waters in the public domain under the of Environment and Energy (MINAE), the
Water Act are: seas or territorial waters in entity responsible to establish and deciding
the extent and terms set by the International on the domain of public waters, except in
Law, lagoons and estuaries or beaches that regard to drinking water, as the construction
communicate constantly with the sea; or of pipelines for public use is under the
rivers and their direct or indirect tributaries, responsibilities of the Ministry of Health.
streams or springs, from their original springs
in the headwaters down to their outflow in Every aspect related to concessions is
estuaries, lakes, lagoons, and seas. In addition, regulated in Articles 17 to 29 of the law. With
it includes beaches and maritime zones, lakes, regard to the competent organ, the MINAE
lagoons and estuaries of national ownership, exercise dominion and control of public waters
the reclaimed land to the sea by natural causes in order to grant or deny licenses and permits
or by artificial works, among others. The Water for their exploitation. So MINAE is the body
Law also establishes that rainfall that falls on the responsible for implementing this law.
295
COSTA RICA
The Water Law is more than fifty years old, its competence according to law. The Ministry
which suggests that it’s outdated and unable to has powers to create regulations in this area.
address modern circumstances and problems.
Salazar (1998) mentions some of the problems The Health Law defines as potable water, the
of this law: 1) The law was issued primarily one that meets the physical, chemical and
to regulate water use by private persons, a biological properties that make it suitable for
figure was not provided for the allocation of human consumption according to the drinking
water to public entities, 2) the law has a high water norms of the Panamerican Health
degree of detail that should be delegated to Organization approved by the Government.
a regulation, 3) the law has not been updated
with some concepts for planning, resource use Any water supply system for use and
and recovery, which may be deduced from the consumption of the population must
general obligations, but should be explicitly provide potable water on a continuous
identified, 4) some of the rules are not effective basis, sufficient to meet the needs of people,
or efficient, 5) despite the regulations, the and pressure necessary for the proper
protection of water resources is not guaranteed functioning of medical devices in use. All
because the law has no mandatory rules for homes individual, family or multifamily must
the implementation of decisions, or sanctions meet health requirements such as having
of sufficient severity to ensure compliance, 6) adequate systems for sewage disposal and
after this law have been issued, other laws have storm disposal approved by the Ministry
reduced the powers of the Water Law to some of Health. Any natural or legal person is
extent, which complicates the administration obliged to contribute to the promotion and
because they are not always clearly defined maintenance of environmental conditions,
competencies, and 7) The Water Law does not (being natural and artificial) that allow
have appropriate mechanisms for resolving fulfillment of the vital needs and health of the
conflicts over water use. population (Article 262). Moreover, actions,
practice or operations that deteriorate the
9.4 General Health Law natural environment are prohibited, along with
Water is considered by the General Health Law those that change the composition or intrinsic
5395 and its amendments, as a good of public characteristics of its basic elements, especially
purpose and its use for human consumption has air, water and soil; producing a decline in
priority over any other use. The General Health their quality or aesthetics, or that make such
Law provides that it is the State’s responsibility commodities useless for some of the uses to
to ensure the overall health of the population. which they are intended, or produce problems
Also, the Executive branch of the Government to human health, or to the flora and fauna
through the Ministry of Public Health has the harmless to human beings (Article 263).
obligation of defining the national health
policy, planning and coordination of all public Everyone is obliged to implement the
and private activities related to health, and actions, practices or works provided by law or
the implementation of those activities within regulations to eliminate or control the elements
296
COSTA RICA
and natural environmental factors, physical or System of Conservation Areas. The Forestry
biological and from the artificial environment, Law generally seeks to establish regulations
that are harmful to human health. that limit the right of free use of private
property in order to assert a environmental
It is prohibited for any natural or legal person public interest to benefit the most people;
to contaminate surface water, groundwater as maintaining forest, soils, water and air,
and maritime territorial waters, directly or also results in improvements to the quality of
indirectly, through drainage or discharge or life of the population. Any disruption in the
storage, through intentional or negligent ecological balance between soil, forest and
waste disposal of liquid waste, solid or gaseous water results in a clear deterioration in the
waste, radioactive or nonradioactive, sewage, quality of life for humans.
or substances of any nature that through
altering physical, chemical and biological All land with forestry potential and all forests
characteristics of water make it dangerous for in the country, whether owned by the
the health of humans and terrestrial and aquatic State or reduced to private ownership, are
wildlife or unusable for domestic, agricultural, subject to the Forest Law for enforcement
industrial or collection uses (Article 275 ). purposes. The Forestry Law defines the
forest regime as a set of legal, economic
Only with permission of the Ministry of and technical provisions established by law
Health natural or legal persons can make a and its regulations, along with other rules
drainage or discharge residual waste (solids and acts arising from their application, with
or liquids), or any other contaminants into the objective to regulate the conservation,
surface water, groundwater or maritime protection, restoration, use and development
water; and they should adhere strictly to of forest resources.
safety rules and regulations and special
procedures that the Ministry may impose The following locations are considered
in each particular case to render them protected areas: a) the areas that border
harmless (Article 276). permanent springs, defined en a 100
meters horizontal radius, b) a 15 meters
9.5 Forestry Law strip in rural settings and 10 meters in
The Forestry Law number 7575 of February urban settings measured from both sides of
13, 1996 regulates the patrimonial State river banks, creeks or streams if the terrain
forests and the private activities that might is flat, and a 50 meters strip if is uneven, c)
affect it. In this Law, protection areas close a zone of 50 meters measured horizontally
to rivers are identified, and also it mentions from the river banks of lakes and natural or
that the State has an obligation to ensure the artificial reservoirs built by the State and
protection of watersheds. its institutions, d) the recharge areas and
the spring aquifers, with borders defined
The Ministry of Environment is in charge of the by the institutions established en the
regulation of this law, through the National Regulations of this law.
297
COSTA RICA
10. Integrated Water Resources Drought (Magaña et al., 1999), 4) The
Managing and Planning influence of the Low-level Jet (LLJ) and 5) the
Integrated water resources managing latitudinal displacements of the Intertropical
and planning is the only way to guarantee Convergence Zone. The interaction of these
sustainability, ecosystem health, mitigation features with the diverse topographic features
against climate-induced disasters, and in the country, produce large spatial and
environmental protection. Some of the temporal variability at diverse time scales, in
tools for reaching such objectives are the particular in precipitation.
introduction of a systematic approach and
the concepts of adaptive management. In terms of climate change, IMN, 2009 study
This effort will require the unprecedented suggest an even drier and warmer future in
coordination and collaboration of many the already climatologically dry North Pacific
institutions and people, including physical (Guanacaste), a region with considerable areas
and social scientists, specialists and devoted to agricultural and cattle ranching
technicians in many fields, stake holders, activities, and that has had an impressive
decision-makers, administrators, private and increment of tourism over the past 15 years.
public organizations, local governments and The study also contains estimations of the
community organizations. impacts on different sectors, along with
possible adaptation strategies. However,
A better understanding of climate variability future studies should be based on the
and change in the region is one of the basic projections from more climate models and the
parts of this approach, as the availability downscaling model may need to be revised.
of water could have large year-to-year There is however, much to be done in order
variability, even from natural variations alone. to integrate previous research along with
In addition, anthropogenic climate change new studies into a comprehensive body
may impose new challenges to the availability of knowledge to support water resource
of water resources and could add pressure on operations, management and planning. Also,
the ecosystems of the region. more studies are needed to evaluate the
impacts of climate, meteorology and hydrology
Many valuable studies have been developed in several sectors such as flood and drought
in the past (i.e. Amador et al., 2000; 2003; mitigation, agriculture, socioeconomics,
Fernández et al., 1996; George et al.,1998, ecology, water quality, hydropower generation,
IMN, 2009). Among many other discoveries, public health and others.
these studies have shown than some of the
most significant features that influences It is proposed here that the creation of a
climate of the region are (in no particular system-of-systems (SS) for each basin could
order): 1) El Niño Southern Oscillation strong be a way to address the complexity of this
influence (George et al., 1998; Amador kind of problems. The SS will be based on a
et al., 2000), 2) The tropical storms and communication system, but also includes users
hurricane influence, 3) The Midsummer (including community leaders) and managers
298
COSTA RICA
of the system, along with other support that the meteorologist or hydrologist in each
personnel. As an example, the first level of the Central American country can have better
SS could consist of coupled meteorological- criteria whether evacuation is justified.
hydrological short range or seasonal forecast.
This first system would feed a particular impacts Another example of a system that could
system, such as an agricultural production potentially be used for supporting some
model. A real additional value would be decisions is the SERVIR (Latin America)
added to the SS if it contains another system system (http://www.servir.net/america-latina-
to provide concrete recommendations to the caribe) , which is a centralized repository of
end users and decision makers on what to do. all kind of information about natural disasters
in Latin America and the Caribbean, including
This would be done through decision support some meteorological and hydrological
systems (DSS). Examples of DSSs could be 1) forecasts. SERVIR, however, does not provide
one that provides information about the best information about the possible impacts of
crop to grow for each particular year (crop the hydrological forecast on different sectors
rotations), 2) one that suggests adjustments or specific suggestions to decision makers
to the primes of crop insurances for different about what to do with this information.
crops, 3) one that calculates the amount of
imported water and grass that will be needed to 11. Conclusions
support cattle at each particular year, 4) regions Costa Rica is a country of great contrasts
with a greater probability of experiencing water regarding the use and conservation of
supply problems, and others. Similar DSSs could water resources, the ecosystems and the
be done for planning (taking into consideration environment. Over the last 15 to 20 years,
climate change and sustainability) and another there has been an increasing concern for
one could be designed for disaster prevention conserving the forests, soils and natural
or mitigation. resources that has been recognized
internationally. However, many serious
An example of this latter type of DSS environmental problems from the past still
is currently in operation in the National remain. Among all kinds of over-exploitation
Meteorological Institute (IMN in Spanish), and water quality problems in terrestrial,
called the Central America Flash Flood coastal and marine environments, perhaps
Guidance (CAFFG) system, which was one the gravest is the severe contamination
developed by the Hydrologic Research of urban streams and aquifers, mainly
Center in San Diego. The CAFFG is a flash associated with the lack of adequate
flood early warning system, and consists sanitation facilities and the uncontrolled
of a hydrological model that is fed using growth of these areas. Cleaning the country’s
rainfall forecasts based on data from satellite land and water in these settings represents
and surface meteorological stations. The a significant challenge that will need the
hydrological response is later interpreted in continuous efforts of many sectors of society
terms of warnings of different types, such for several years to come.
299
COSTA RICA
On average, Costa Rica only uses a very small integrated managing and planning for water
percentage of its available water, which may resources, especially in Costa Rica, where
erroneously give the impression that there laws and institutional framework governing
is an immense amount of water everywhere water resources management are sometimes
that could potentially be further exploited inadequate for addressing modern problems.
for human consumption. However, when the
necessities of water for many uses including This adds new challenges to the organization
the sustainability of natural resources that of a consensual integrated solution of
would provide ecosystem services to support problems. In addition, the benefits for
adequate socioeconomic development are society of these systems surpass by far
considered, it is entirely possible that in the implementation and operation costs.
some regions, “water scarcity” and over- More economic studies are needed to
exploitation is or will be a reality in the near evaluate not only the benefits and costs of
future under the current characteristics and implementation, but also the no-action costs
management of the system. to society. This will help securing funds and
establishing priorities under limited budgets.
Optimizing water resources management
and planning could help increase the Even that hydrology is an applied science,
amount of safe exploitation of water for there seems to be a need for a better
domestic, agricultural or industrial use, but connection of a large part of academic,
more and better integrated studies and governmental institutions and industry
projects are needed to be developed to research with stake-holders (government,
determine this. decision makers, local governments, non-
governmental organizations and the
Developing integrated watershed studies community). This is even a challenge in some
that feed decision support systems, for water other regions of the world that have more
management, water planning and climate- economic resources (and are generally better
induced disaster preparedness and mitigation, organized) than Costa Rica. Therefore this
along with other related actions such as the limitation actually stresses the importance
development of an enforceable territorial of optimizing the transference of (hydro)
ordination plan can help save lives, guarantee climatic information and knowledge obtained
sustainability, protect and reduce the impact through the academia, the government and
of human activities on natural resources and the industry’s research into concrete benefits
ecosystems, reduce socioeconomic impact to the society in developing countries.
of climate variability, help optimization of
limited economic and human resources, help 12. Acknowledgments
adaptation to climate change, help to prepare The author would like to thank Enrique
for extreme hydrological (floods and droughts) Chacón and Sadí Laporte from the Costa
and protect vital infrastructure. Such systems Rican Electrical Institute, Flora Solano, Eric
are necessary due to the complexity of Alfaro and Jorge Amador from the Center
300
COSTA RICA
for Geophysical Research Studies and 5. Chaves, C. (2009), Casi listo tratamiento
School of Physics of the University of Costa de aguas en San José, Costa Rica Hoy
Rica, and Hugo Hidalgo (Sr.) from the World online newspaper, (Aug 28 2009 edition),
Metorological Organization, who provided San José, Costa Rica. <http://costaricahoy.
valuable information and references. Thank info>, Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010.
you to the support of the Costa Rica Academy 6. CIA (2009), The World Factbook,
of Sciences through his President Gabriel United States Central Intelligence
Macaya Trejos, to the School of Physics Agency, United States. <https://www.
through its director Rodrigo Carboni and to cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
the Water Programme of the Inter-American factbook/geos/cs.html>, Accessed:
Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS) Jan 1st, 2010.
through his Executive Secretary Marcos 7. COMEX (2008), Evolución del PIB
Cortesão Barnsley Scheuenstuhl. The author nominal 1991-2008, Ministerio de
is partially supported by research projects Comercio Exterior de Costa Rica, San
VI-805-A9-224 and VI-808-A9-180 of the José, Costa Rica, 1 pp.<http://www.
University of Costa Rica. comex.go.cr/Paginas/inicio.aspx>,
Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010.
13. References 8. Fernández-González, A., and
1. Amador, J. A., R. E. Chacon, and S. E. Gutiérrez-Espeleta (2002),
Laporte (2000), Cuenca del Río Arenal: Freshwater in Costa Rica: abundant
Análisis de los eventos La Niña de los años yet constrained, In: Human Security
1988-89 y 1996, Tópicos meteorológicos y and the Environment. International
oceanográficos, 7, 50-62. Comparisons, E.A. Page and M.
2. Amador, J. A., R. E. Chacon, and S. Redclif, eds, Edward Elgar Publishing
Laporte (2003), Climate and Climate Limited, Northampton, United
Variability in the Arenal River Basin Kingdom, Massachusetts, United
of Costa Rica, Climate and Water, States, 267-284.
Transboundary Challenges in the 9. Fernández, W., R. E. Chacon, and
Americas, H.F. Diaz and B.J. Morehouse J.W. Megarejo (1996), On the rainfall
eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, distribution with altitude in Costa Rica,
Netherlands, 317-349. Revista Geofísica, 44, 57-72.
3. AyA (2007), Plan Estratégico Institucional 10. George, R., Peter R Waylen, and S.
2007-2015, Instituto Costarricense de Laporte (1998), Interannual Variability
Acueductos y Alcantarillados, San José, of annual streamflow and the Southern
Costa Rica, 65 pp. Oscillation in Costa Rica, Hydrological
4. Baltodano, J. (2007), Decimotercer Sciences Journal, 43, 409-424.
informe Estado de la Nación en 11. IMN (1985), Atlas climatológico (1961-
desarrollo humano sostenible, bosque, 1980), Instituto Meteorológico Nacional
cobertura y uso forestal, Programa de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
Estado de La Nación, 59 pp. <http://www.imn.ac.cr/mapa_clima/
301
COSTA RICA
altas_clima/atlas%20clima.html>, 13th ed., Por: Ministerio de Salud de
Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010. Costa Rica, Instituto Costarricense
12. IMN (2009), Segunda comunicación de Acueductos y Alcantarillados,
nacional ante la Convención Marco Organización Panamericana de la Salud,
de Cambio Climático, Instituto y Oficina Regional de la Organización
Meteorológico Nacional de Costa Rica, Mundial de la Salud, 36 pp.
San José, Costa Rica, 264 pp.<http:// 19. MIVAH, MINAE, and PNUMA
cglobal.imn.ac.cr/comunicacion.asp>, (2006), Perspectivas del Medio
Accessed: Feb 28th, 2010. Ambiente Urbano, Geo Gran
13. INEC (2004), Geografía y clima, Área Metropolitana Valle Central,
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Costa Rica, Ministerio de Vivienda
Censos de Costa Rica, San José, Costa y Asentamientos Urbanos,
Rica, 2 pp.<http://www.inec.go.cr/>, Ministerio del Ambiente y Energía
Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010. y Programa de las Naciones
14. INEC (2008), Boletín Anual, Unidas para el Medio Ambiente
Indicadores Demográficos 2008, bajo la coordinación técnica del
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Observatorio del Desarrollo de la
Censos de Costa Rica, San José, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José,
Costa Rica, 2 pp.<http://www.inec. Costa Rica, 268 pp.
go.cr/>, Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010. 20. Monge Flores, Esteban (2009), Agua
15. Magaña, V., J. A. Amador, and S. Medina y producción, Centro Ecuatoriano de
(1999), The Midsummer Drought over Derecho Ambiental, Quito, Ecuador, 33
Mexico and Central America, Journal of pp.<http://www.ceda.org.ec/descargas/
Climate, 1577-1588. biblioteca/Agua%20y%20Produccion.
16. MINAE, and IMN (2007), Adaptación pdf>, Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010.
del sistema hídrico de la zona 21. Moreno Díaz, M.L. (2009), Valoración
noroccidental de la Gran Área económica del uso de tecnologías
Metropolitana de Costa Rica al cambio de saneamiento ecológico para
climático, informe final, Ministerio aguas residuales domiciliares, Revista
de Ambiente y Energía e Instituto Iberoamericana De Economía Ecológica,
Meteorológico Nacional de Costa Rica, 13, 1-13.
San José, Costa Rica, 50 pp. 22. OD (2001), Boletín del Observatorio
17. MINAET (2009), Avance del Desarrollo de la Universidad de
Formulación R-PP para Costa Rica, Costa Rica, Observatorio del Desarrollo,
Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Universidad de Costa Rica, San José,
Telecomunicaciones, 24 pp. Costa Rica, 8 pp.
18. Ministerio de Salud, and Organización 23. Ortega-Pacheco, D.V., F. Lupi, and
Panamericana de la Salud (2003), M.D. Kaplowitz (2009), Payment for
Calidad del agua potable en Costa Environmental Services: Estimating
Rica, situación actual y perspectivas, Demand within a Local Watershed,
302
COSTA RICA
Journal of Natural Resources Policy Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010.
Research, 1, 189-202. 31. UN (2006), Water, a shared responsibility,
24. Peter H. Gleick and associates (2008), The United Nations World Water
The World’s Water 2008-2009, Island Development Report 2, UNESCO and
Press, Washington DC, United States. Berghahn Books publishers, New York,
25. Programa Estado de la Nación United States, 601 pp.
(2009), Decimoquinto Informe Estado 32. UNA (2004), La situación del agua
de la Nación en Desarrollo Humano en Costa Rica (resumen ejecutivo),
Sostenible, 2009th ed., Programa Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica,
Estado de La Nación, San José, Costa Heredia, Costa Rica, 20 pp.<http://
Rica, 64 pp.<www.estadonacion. www.una.ac.cr/campus/ediciones/
or.cr>, Consulado: Jan 1st, 2010. otros/agua>, Accessed: Jan 1st, 2010.
26. Redondo-Brenes, A., and K. Welsh 33. UNEP (2003), GEO Latin America
(2006), Payment for hydrological and the Caribbean - 2003, United
environmental services in Costa Rica: Nations Environmental Program
The Procuencas case study, Tropical and Observatorio del Desarrrollo,
Resources Bulletin, 24, 19-25. Universidad de Costa Rica, San José,
27. República de Costa Rica (1996), Ley Costa Rica, 279 pp.
Forestal, Asamblea Legislativa, San José, 34. UNESCO (2007), Balance hídrico
Costa Rica. superficial de Costa Rica Período
28. Salazar, R. (1998), Marco Jurídico y 1970-2002, Programa Hidrológico
Administrativo de las Aguas en Costa Internacional de la UNESCO para
Rica, Sistema Nacional para el Desarrollo América Latina y el Caribe (phi-LAC), San
Sostenible, Ministerio de la Presidencia José, Costa Rica, 55 pp.
y Planificación de Costa Rica, San José, 35. Vargas Sanabria, A. (2003), El manejo
Costa Rica. <http://www.mideplan. de los recursos hídricos en Costa Rica
go.cr/sinades/Proyecto_SINADES/ durante los siglos XVIII y XIX, Ciencia y
sostenibilidad/armonizacion/index-6. Técnica en la Costa Rica del Siglo XIX,
html#_Toc429478972>, Accessed: Jan G. Peraldo Huertas compilador, Editorial
1st, 2010. Tecnológica de Costa Rica, San José,
29. Santiago, A., and J.A. Schmidt (1992), Costa Rica, 376-401.
Costa Rica Hamburgers, TED Case
Studies, 2. <http://www1.american.
edu/TED/class/all.htm>, Accessed: Jan
1st, 2010.
30. Tribunal Latinoamericano del Agua
(2008), Foro: “Sistemas Hídricos en
Guanacaste: Sustenabilidad o Desastre”,
Guanacaste, Costa Rica, DOI: XXXX,
ISSN:XXXX.<www.tragua.com>,
303
Morro Castle, Santiago de Cuba
CUBA
in Cuba
An Overview
supply, in adequate quantity and quality, for
economic and social development, as well
as environmental protection in the country. It
was as a reaction to the occurrence of extreme
Editors events, in 1961-1962 (intensive drought) and
Ing. Pedro Luis Dorticós del Río1, Dra. Ing. 1963 (“Flora” Hurricane, which caused more
Mercedes Arellano Acosta2, Dr. Jorge Mario than 1,000 deaths only in the eastern region
García Fernández3 of the main island).
FIG. 1 Potential Hydraulic Resource The classification places these values among
those of low availability per capita (between
306
CUBA
1,000 and 5,000 m3/inhab/year), for any selected
resources in indicator assessments (potential or
exploitable). However, specialized bibliography
has recognized that this indicator is more a
reflection of water relative richness, starting
from its main natural sources –rainfalls, in Cuban
case–, than the own hydraulic development of
a country.
At present, all the stakeholders endeavor to water access cover to all sectors of economy
achieve a sustainable water management in and society. At the end of 2008, population
Cuban industry and agro-industry, through the access to potable water was 92.4%, with the
promotion of measures such as: 1) integration structure shown in FIG. 4, with a total of 2,253
of water management to the industry’s aqueducts.
economic management; 2) environmental
education and training of the personnel;
3) installation of flow meters in industries
with higher water consumption, prioritizing
highest users; 4) determination of national
and sector consumption indexes, taking into
account the peculiarities of each industry; its
comparison with similar foreign enterprise ,
5) effective application of the environmental
management instruments existing in the
country (environmental legislation; system of
environmental recognitions and certifications;
System for Enterprise Direction and
Management), to improve national industry
performance, related to water management. FIG.4 Water Supply Coverage 2008
Indicator 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Total Population 90,3 91,1 91,2 91,2 91,6 91,6 92,1 92,4 92,4
Served
House Connection 71,1 71,9 73,4 73,4 73,2 73,2 74,4 74,6 74,6
(%)
Public Service (%) 7,4 6,2 5,7 5,7 5,8 5,8 6,4 5,4 5,4
Easy Access (%) 11,8 13,1 12,1 12,1 12,6 12,6 11,3 12,4 12,4
Urban Sector (%) 96,3 96,4 96,5 96,5 96,3 96,3 96,8 96,9 96,9
House Connection 82,4 83,1 84,8 84,8 84,9 84,9 86,7 86,9 86,9
(%)
Public Service (%) 5,1 4,4 3,4 3,4 3,5 3,5 3,6 3,4 3,4
Easy Access (%) 8,8 8,9 8,3 8,3 7,9 7,9 6,6 6,6 6,6
Rural Sector (%) 72,2 75,3 75,5 75,5 77,3 77,2 77,7 78,3 78,3
House Connection
35,8 36,8 38,0 38,0 37,0 37,0 36,5 36,8 36,8
(%)
Public Service (%) 15,4 12,2 13,1 13,1 13,0 13,0 14,8 11,5 11,5
Easy Access (%) 21,0 26,3 24,4 24,4 27,3 27,2 26,4 30,0 30,0
Source: INRH Statistics, 2008
of chlorination: 98.4%; treatment percent of decades a National Action Plan was identified
served water to treat: 97.2 %; Bacteriological and is being developed, closely related to
Potability Index: 94.9 %. existing commitments to accomplish the
Millennium Goals as regards water and
Taking into account the incidence of these sanitation issues. A summary of the analysis
activities on health and quality of life of rural carried out in relation to these goals, for the
and urban population, since last century’s final period 2000-2005, appears in Table 4.
Table 4. Water and Sanitation with Respect to
Millennium Goals 1990-2008
Every year, users must present justified water demands, in accordance with the foreseen
activity level in their production or service plans, their established consumption and efficiency
standards.
Elaboration of Annual It is referred to each supply source, user and specific water use, in each quarter of the year that
Water Balance is planned.
It constitutes the ruling document for sources operation and delivery controls. The
prescriptions that it contains are mandatory for all the water user entities.
Approval of Annual INRH is the national legal authority to approve it. Once approved, it constitutes the Water Use
Water Balance Plan for the corresponding year, and it is an integral part of the National Economy Plan.
327
CUBA
important framework for a better approach An Experience
to integrated water management in its Since 1994, the International Economic
relation to the other environmental and Association for Aqueduct and Sewer Systems
socioeconomic components. in the tourist destination of “Varadero”, and
• Definition of nine basins of national interest. the Concessionary Society for Management
They include six shared basins and 53 high- and Promotion of Aqueduct, Sewer,
priority basins of provincial interest for the Cleaning-up and Drainage Services, S.A.
Council at this level. Elaboration and control (named “Aguas de La Habana” in commercial
of the Water Use Plan for these basins. issues), are two contract modalities that are
• Beginning the constitution of Water operating in Cuba with international partners.
Users Communities. These communities Their essential purpose is to incorporate
propitiate and avoid possible conflicts of state of the art technologies in aqueduct and
interest among users and their greater sewage management. “Aguas de La Habana”
participation in decision-making. They is commercially in charge of these services
provide support to Water Management at eight municipalities of Havana City. Both
Enterprises during their effort to increase contracts were signed by “Aguas Barcelona”
efficiency in the water use. Group, from Spain, and INRH. Economic and
important social benefits are being obtained.
In Cuba, the funding policies based on water
supply service rate for domestic, commercial, 16. Global Change Scenarios
industrial or agricultural uses are governed by One of the evidences of global changes in the
the principle of costs recovery. Caribbean region is the increase in hurricane
frequency in the last years: Michelle (2001),
Within this context, rate design has the objective Lily, Isidora (2002), Claudette (2003), Charley,
of achieving efficient water uses, with a price Iván (2004), Dennis, Rita, Vilma, Katrina
scale that stimulates lowest consumptions and (2005). Prevision and mitigation/adaptation
penalizes consumption excess. strategies that allow facing the consequences
of the evident global changes, and their
Economic Dimension of Water impacts on economy and survival of insular
Management. Efficient Use states, and particularly as regards Cuba, it is
Full development of these policies implies the reason of concern for the government and
measurements of water deliveries. In the Cuban the institutions involved in the actions that are
case, it is in the residential sector where water being undertaken at present. Scientific sector
delivery measurement is poorly developed and Civil Defense integrate pertinent studies.
(only 4% of coverage). The government endows key institutions with
At present there is an ongoing investments material and financial resources, and necessary
process that should increase this coverage support, to elaborate recommendations and
to more than 20% in the next years. The rest measures that Cuban society has to take, with
of the sectors have acceptable water delivery a view to its readiness to cope with global
measurement coverage. change effects. All sectors of economy,
328
CUBA
including water resources, participate in this culture. That influence is manifest in paneled
strategy, which include adaptation measures ceilings, roofing tiles, pottery, and in the
and vulnerability decreasing, by mean a “atanor”, tube or pipe to carry water to the
Hydraulic Resources Program identified. tank, well or cistern, excavated in the houses’
patios to collect rainwater. In Camaguey,
17. Water, Culture and Religion water was stored in typical “tinajones” (large
Culture has been defined by UNESCO’s earthen vats) that, for their utilitarian and
Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity ornamental value, became a symbol of this
as “the set of distinctive spiritual, material, Cuban province.
intellectual and affective features that
characterizes a society or a social group, and At the time when Cuba was a Spanish colony,
includes, in addition to arts and literature, during the government period of Captain
the ways of life, ways of living together, General Miguel Tacón, Havana city was
value systems, traditions and beliefs.”15 This garlanded with fountains, additional to those
international organization has recognized already existing.
the role of water in culture, in its linkage to
the development of mankind. Its Web site, The fountains “La Columna” (the Column)
in its section “Water and culture”, includes or “Ceres”, “Los Aldeanos” (Villagers) or
research contributions of countries on this “Las Frutas” (Fruits), “Los Sátiros” (Satyrs)
subject, with manifestations that date back or “Las Flores” (Flowers), and “Esculapio”
to remote times, to the beginnings of ancient (Aesculapius) date back to 1830’s. The fountain
civilizations. In that context, it is indicated: “Los Leones” (Lions), made by sculptor Gaggini
332
Chavon River in Dominican Republic
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
in the Dominican
fresh water, with the limitation that two thirds
of fresh water is frozen on the polar caps, with
Republic
the only 1% of the remaining total available
for consumption while the population grows
and grows and water contamination increases
R. Osiris de León and increases.
In the same manner, the social and In the case of the Eastern Coastal Plain,
environmental struggle against the installation the main aquifer existing in the Dominican
of a cement mining operation would Republic where thanks to the vertical drainage
contaminate the hydro geological region of process given in the cavernous limestone reefs
Los Haitises, a struggle in which the people that make up an extensive plain which runs
defeated the government, provides evidence from Santo Domingo to Cabo Engaño there
that the Dominican Republic is beginning is an annual net replenishment to the order of
to create awareness on the need to protect 1,100 million cubic meters of water annually.
water quality, but government awareness is In the zone of Boca Chica and La Caleta, the
still lacking for the adequate management of ground water levels are very near sea level,
residual waters, garbage and urban growth and a few times are above the height of 1
along river, streams, ravines, lakes and m.s.n.m., which explains the important and
lagoons, and entrepreneurial awareness to extensive saline intrusion wedges existing in
stop depredation and contamination. the entire zone, where in many stretches the
hydraulic gradient is inferior to 0.1%.
2. Subterranean Waters of
the Eastern Coastal Plains Within the limestone, transmissibility is very
Upon evaluating fresh waters we find that variable since in some cases they are superior
68.7% are found in glaciers and polar caps to 8,000 m2/day with storage coefficient
and is not available, 0.26% is in lakes, 0.006 variables between 0.002 y 0.15.
is in rivers, 0.043% is in the atmosphere and
biomass, and a very important 30.10% is Generally the ground water abatement
located in subterranean aquifers, which is to levels are minimal for the large volume of
say, that of the total fresh water available, water extracted, which is the evidenced by
96% is subterranean waters, which in the the aquifer’s great potential although the
last decades have been over exploited and exploitation of this aquifer is limited by the high
severely contaminated, creating uncertainty risk of saline intrusion previously referred to.
as to the water for the future.
An hydro-geological study conducted some
It is known that a vast majority of countries years ago by Geofitec, S.A. and which
depend to a great extent on the exploitation covers the area northwest of Boca Chica,
of subterranean waters, which have been concluded that:
over exploited by the growth in housing, 1 The aquifer Brujelas–Casuí, located to the
agriculture, tourism and industries in general, northeast of Boca Chica, is covered by a
an overexploitation which has produced an superior horizon of a clay nature which varies
accelerated abatement in ground water levels between 1 y 48 meter thick, with an average
and an extraordinary advancement of saline thickness nearing 13 meters.
336
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
2 This clayish covering hinders the direct 3. Quality of the Subterranean
replenishment to the aquifer which Waters of the Coastal Plain
indicates that all replenishment comes from Saline Intrusion Due to
the north, northeast and northwest zone, Overexploitation of the Aquifer.
which is to say the zone of Los Haitises. The most preoccupying concern in the Eastern
Coastal Plain aquifer is the overexploitation of
3 The ground water level of the zone the subterranean costal water, primarily in Boca
northeast of Boca Chica is approximately Chica and Bavaro, since to the northwest of
24 meters deep, whereby it is currently Boca Chica the saline intrusion has advanced
static fluctuating between 0.5 y 1.5 meters 15 kilometers inland, utilizing subterranean
above sea level. waters from that extensive costal fringe and in
the tourist cluster of Bavaro the saline intrusion
4 Underneath the ground water level the has advanced more than 3 kilometers, placing
stratigraphy is comprised primarily by in danger the future potable water supply
limestone sand, calcareous clasts, sandy in this important regional tour cluster and
limestone and a much reduced proportion endangering the expansion of this tourist site,
claylike waterproof materials noting because today more subterranean water is
that the sandy materials are in a greater extracted than the net replenishment received
proportion which favors the permeability by the aquifer, this being the cause of the
and transmissibility of the aquifer. saline intrusion, which indicates a limitation
2009, we stated that the karstic region of Los Once and again we publicly manifested
Haitises, with a surface area of approximately that due to that reason the cement factory
1,617 square kilometers, comprises one of the Estrella authorized by the government and
most important geomorphologic landscapes the Ministry of the Environment, should be
of limestone domes and submerged surface moved to another location, away from Los
waters in the country and in the world, Haitises, because in the Dominican Republic
where the annual rainfall averages some there are thousands of places that a cement
1,700 millimeters per square meter, and that factory can be installed without degrading
these waters infiltrate quickly thanks to the the subterranean waters while a Gallup poll
high permeability of the limestone rocks and reflected that 85% of the population rejected
the extensive interconnecting subterranean the installation of said cement factory.
cavern system.
****************************************************************
HEADLINE NEWS: El Dia Newspaper, Monday, May 30, 2011
NATIONAL NEWS, (Inset) German cites the PLD’S commitment: Alejandrina German indicated that in the
June 26th primaries the PLD should demonstrate to the population that it is the country’s main political force.
Concern: The Minister of Health visited various hospitals throughout the country to insure that the protocol
is being complied with.
Ozama and Isabela Rivers are contaminated by Cholera
Public Health recommends inhabitants surroundings these water sources not to use water
****************************************************************
343
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
conditions, and that is not always attainable threatens the entire Caribbean region, the
since many times that same human being intense and long fires consume our national
acts in condition to his needs and present parks forest reserves and the uncertainty lies
urgencies and completely forgets the future, over those who depend on water to produce
not because of generational selfishness, but foods and to satisfy thirst.
because of social circumstance that he cannot
control or bypass. Fortunately no one in the Dominican Republic
is dying of thirst because the 18 principal dams
in the Dominican Republic store 2,200 cubic
meters of water, providing potable water to 3
million persons, irrigating 62,000 hectares of
land under cultivation and have an available
generation capacity of 452 megawatts, that
in a year totals some 1,000 giga watts/hour,
in other words, a thousand million kilowatts/
hour without the need for petroleum and
without contaminating the environment with
FIG. 6. The Tavera Dam and its Interconnection
with the Bao Dam gases that produce the greenhouse effect,
such carbon dioxide (CO2).
And this is where water comes in which is
the most special natural resource, since the The environmentalist that are knowledgeable
biological structure of the human being about the national dams systems and its
obligates him to depend on absolute terms surrounding, recognize that the dams that
on fresh water, which represents 2.8% of the provide society and the environment more
total water available on the planet, although benefits than harm, and there is the examples
only 0.06 % present in the subsoil can be of the Valdesia Dam that supplies 6 cubic
used and of the 0.03% existing in surface meters of water per second (137 million gallons
sources, the latter being of the easiest access, daily) for those living in Santo Domingo; and
of the easiest contamination and at the same the dams de Tavera-Bao which contribute
the one that most quickly reaches the sea if 4.5 cubic meters of water per second,
it is not capture beforehand for its utilization. equivalent to 103 million gallons daily for the
city of Santiago and Moca, although none of
Once a drop of fresh water reaches the sea these dams were constructed to supply said
it is not longer useable at a lower cost, at aqueducts: and despite that these dams were
least within that hydrological cycle, being the subject of opposition and harsh criticism
necessary to wait for new volumes are at the start of their construction.
evaporated to recharge the clouds and wait
for the seasonal rain to replenish rivers, Without the Tavera and Valdesia dams, Santo
streams and aquifers, but that can be a long Domingo, Santiago and Moca, would not
wait as it now happens, where the drought have water nor would the farmers in Baní, San
344
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Cristóbal and western Cibao have water for sustained by non petroleum energy sources,
irrigating more than 30,000 hectares through in the protection of the environment and in
the Marcos A. Cabral, Nizao-Najayo and the growth of the installed capacity directly
PRYN canals, nor would we be able to avail proportioned to the growing national demand.
ourselves of 204 megawatts installed in the
hydro-electric turbines of Jiguey-Aguacate- Our high basins are protected by the national
Valdesia, nor of the 100 megawatts installed parks, but protection is not simply for
in the hydro-electric turbines installed in preservation, but to guarantee sustainable
Tavera, without using expensive petroleum development, and the dams guarantee not
and without contaminating the environment. only the sustainable development of the
We should prefer the use of water, the sun nation, but also the protection of the very
or the wind to generate electricity instead of parks themselves because when flames
costly petroleum and is highly contaminating consume the pine forest of the Armando
upon liberating CO, CO2 and SO2. Bermúdez and José del Carmen Ramírez
National Parks, it had been necessary to recur
In the same manner the Monción Dam was to the waters stored en the dam of Sabaneta
originally questioned because it would to supply the helicopters that intend to put
contain the waters from the Mao river, affect out the flames that for weeks remained
the regional flora and displace the peasants uncontrollable and had devoured more than
from the zone, however today the aqueduct 100,000 tareas (628.86m2) of green pines.
in the northeastern region is a reality thanks Again the dams made their contribution.
to the waters stored in the aforementioned
dam, and in the future the results should 8. The Social and Environmental
be more convincing. That is why each drop Problem of the Rising of the
of water should be stored and rationally Waters of Lago Enriquillo
managed during dry spells such as we are Lake Enriquillo, Lake Sumatra and the Lagoon
now experiencing, and that is why it is of Cabral are three lakes remaining from an
fundamental to invest in the construction of old marine cannel that communicated the
dams that allow us to store the surplus water Bay of Neiba with the Bay of Port au Prince,
from rainfall during the rainy season in order in a geological past in which the Sierra
to ration it during periods of long droughts. de Bahoruco was a long limestone island
separated from the rest of the island of
Within this idea of producing clean and Hispaniola.
cheap energy, it is necessary to prioritize the
construction of new hydro-electrical centers in The push to the northern side of the micro
the basins of Alto Yaque del Norte, Alto Yaque tectonic plate of Bahoruco, generated
del Sur, Alto Yuna, and Macasía-Artibonito, compressing effects on the zone of Jimaní
with external financing guaranteed by its own and created an intermediate cliff in the
production of energy, and design a new plan for form of an anticlinal fold which divided the
the expansion of the national electrical system marine cannel into two large bays, while later
345
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
tectonic risings of the southern platform and Descubierta; Boca de Cachón, northeast of
the deposition of large volumes of gravel, Jimaní, La Zurza, to the west of Duvergé; and
sand and clay in the place where the Yaque Las Marías, to the east of Neiba, in the same
del Sur River flows into the Bay of Neiba, manner that it receives surface flow from Las
gradually closed the eastern opening into the Damas, Barreras, Bermesí, Panzo, Guayabal
marine channel. In this manner the marine rivers and the irrigation canals from the eastern
channel became two large lakes, one on the extreme; all with varying flows depending on
eastern side and another on the western side; the condition of the seasonal rain and in the
but the region’s high evaporation rate which last two years have totaled more than 1,100
is in the tune of 2,500 millimeters annually for million cubic meters annually.
each square meter, caused the evaporation of
the greater part of water from these salt lakes But Lake Enriquillo because of its deep
only remaining the water accumulated in the endoergic basin which today is 36 meters
three principal topographical depressions of below sea level, can only lose water through
the region: Enriquillo, Sumatra and Cabral. the evaporation process, with a surface
approximating 300 square kilometers, which
Lake Enriquillo receives huge subterranean is say some 300 million square meters, and
flows from the springs of Las Barías, in La each square meter annually evaporates 2,500
FIG. 7. Satellite Images of the Lagoon Caiman (small on the left), the Great Lakes: Sumatra (left), Enriquillo (center),
and Laguna Cabral (right). The Image Below, from November 2010, Shows Growth of Lake Enriquillo and Flooding
on the West Side.
346
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
millimeters or, 2.5 meters of water column, fundamentally due to the contributions from
evaporating approximately 750 million cubic the Yaque del Sur River, to the deterioration
meter of water annually, and always when the of hydraulic Works that serve as avenues of
annual net replenishment is inferior to this control in the zone and to the entry of large
value Lake Enriquillo will descend its level, volumes of sediment, since that does not
but if the net annual replenishment is superior correspond to the regional geological hydro-
to 750 million cubic meters, which has been geological pattern, because if you eliminate
the case in these two years, then the level of or deviate entirely the Yaque del Sur River,
the lake will rise and it is going to recuperate the lake would continue to rise in the same
the neighboring spaces and lands which have proportion that the regional subterranean
always belong to the lake since long before flow keep rising as a result of the rains that
humans inhabited these inhospitable lands for replenish the neighboring aquifers and the
the first time. best demonstration of all of this is that the last
few years Lake Sumatra, which has a height of
However, the strong rain precipitation fallen 15 meter above sea level has risen up to 19
over the southwestern region of the country, meters above sea level, in other words is has
during the coming of the Noel storm at risen 4 meters, as the same as Lake Enriquillo,
the end of October 2007, discharged 700 which has risen from minus 40 meters up to
millimeters of rain in barely 5 days, in a valley the height of minus 36 meters, and there is no
where average precipitation is in the range possible manner that the Yaque del Sur river
of 450 millimeters annually, which provoked raises its waters up to Lake Sumatra, whose
a great runoff from the rivers that drain these level is still superior to 55 meters higher than
lakes and a substantial replenishment of the Lake Enriquillo.
cavernous aquifers of the Neiba and Bahoruco
ranges; aquifers that drain underground part Also we have to be careful when saying that
of their waters to these lakes: and this, added the sea level is the result of the polar glaciers
to the fact that upon opening the storm melting, is responsible for the increase in Lake
drains in the dams of Sabaneta and Sabana Enriquillo’s level, because if Lake Sumatra
Yegua for various days, the river flow from and Lake Enriquillo have been rising in equal
Yaque del Sur increased enormously, in some proportion, how do you explain the increase
cases up to 350 cubic meters per second, in Lake Sumatra which today is 19 meters
and since for various years a great part of the above sea level? How did the level of Lake
water from the Yaque River has been deviated Sumatra rise?
towards the Cabral Lagoon and from there it
drains towards the eastern portion of Lake We should not say that the tectonic regional
Enriquillo, this also contributed to the rise in faults that define Lake Enriquillo’s graben
Lake Enriquillo. allow the water from Lake Sumatra flow
underground towards Lake Enriquillo,
But we have to careful upon saying that because the Lake Sumatra would have
the increase in Lake Enriquillo’s level is lowered its level while Lake Enriquillo would
347
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
have been permanently raising the flow 9. The Problem of Garbage
transference level, and what is certain is that that Contaminates Water
both lakes have risen simultaneously. Another serious national problem is the final
disposition of our urban and industrial solid
Always when Lake Enriquillo receives a water wastes (garbage), since our waste are deposited
flow superior to 750 million cubic meter of in outside garbage dumps , producing
water per year its level has risen, and always environmental contamination, fires, smells,
when Lake Sumatra receives a flow superior proliferation of rates and insects, etc.. However,
to 288 million cubic meters annually its level modern tendency is within the planning of land
has risen, indistinctively of any illogical theory use, is the final disposition of solid urban waste
that is put forth solely for emitting an opinion. in sanitary landfills constructed over soil which
is entirely clayish with the aim of guaranteeing
Lake Enriquillo has always had growth periods the absolute impermeability of the subsoil and
tied to meteorological phenomena such as in that manner avoid that the leachates, or
hurricanes and storms which have contributed contaminating liquids infiltrate and contaminate
huge subterranean and surface water flows, and the subterranean waters since these waters
later has had rest periods tied to long regional comprise the reserves for future generations
droughts, but it always recuperates its space. and it is necessary to protect them from all type
of contamination.
The solution to Lake Enriquillo’s grave regional
water problem, which preoccupies the The city of Santo Domingo produces on a
government and the country is to relocate the daily basis around 3,500 tons of solid waste,
farmers, cattlemen and the inhabitants of the of which a third correspond to the National
zone, outside the lake’s maximum flood fringe, District and two thirds to the province of
preferably to the zone el El Limón in Jimaní, Santo Domingo, garbage which is made up
and to the zone of Tamayo-Galván, because if of largely by paper, cartons, metals, plastic,
you cannot relocate the lake, then relocate the glass, ceramics, textiles, wood, decomposed
people, because the fluctuations in the lake vegetables, etc. which should be reclassified,
will continue in a permanent manner. picked up in a timely and effective manner for
Organic materials are susceptible for the 10. The Church, Water
conversion to fertilizer that improve the and the Environment
productivity of the agricultural soil without On October 21st, 2010 we were invited by
risking contamination to the soil and subsoil, the Dominican Episcopate Conference,
metals would go to foundries for their low cost the Pastorate University and by the
reutilization, glass would go to grinding plants Environmental Pastorate to give a main
for their marketing and reutilization, plastic conference in the forum entitled as “Ecology
materials would go to processing plants, and and the Environment: Reality, Challenges and
all that cannot be process and taken advantage Commitment”, to present there a realistic
of would them be deposited in a natural clayish diagnosis of the current environmental in
substratum sanitary land fill with the goal that the Dominican Republic.In our dissertation
leachates would not contaminate neighboring we expressed that the Dominican Republic
subterranean waters. finds itself today in a real environmental
349
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
emergency as the result of the high of thousand of poor people gather at our river
contamination of surface and subterranean banks with which they severely contaminate
waters product of the irrational management these waters and expose themselves to the
of solid and liquid wastes from residences, elevated dangers derived from the flooding
homes, industries, hotels, livestock and generated by rains, storms and hurricanes.
irresponsible mining.
We put forth that while reforestation programs
We demonstrated that Dominican cities lack are very timid and are concentrated along the
sanitary sewer systems and for that reason sides of highways so that people believe that
the discharge of raw sewage from residences there is a will to repopulate the forests, the
go to the subsoil through improvised filter lumber mills have once again multiplied in all
wells that drain to the same subterranean of our mountain ranges, although this time they
waters that we take advantage of through drill receive the name of forest management plans
wells which produce severe contamination authorized by environmental authorities and
of the subterranean waters with high levels that reduces the rainfall regimen.
of coliform bacteria, generating multiple
gastrointestinal diseases whose treatment is We pointed out the that the Ministry of
very costly to the Dominican State. Environment applies an entirely erroneous
policy regarding the extraction of aggregated
We stated that almost all of the country’s from rivers and rock quarries but sanctions
rivers have been converted into urban sewers the smaller businesses that apply correct
that receive the raw residential and industrial environmental sustainability policy extracting
sewage, the acid waters generated by outside only from the river terrace, above the ground
mining and a large part of the garbage, water level and reforesting and leveling the
and it just suffice to see the high levels of mined soil, while allowing companies that
contamination of the Ozama, Isabela, Haina, deprecate the riverbeds all types of liberties,
Margajita, Yuna, Camú, Yaque del Norte, opening ground water lagoons to remove
Yaque del Sur, Higüamo and Duey rivers. aggregates below subterranean water level
and contaminate the waters.
We informed that many of the mayorships
understood that the best place to deposit We reiterate that the Ministry of Environment
garbage was at the .river bank, since in behaves as a collecting agency and not like a
that manner each time that the river rose it regulatory agency, and that all this ministry’s
would drag the garbage downstream which decisions are contrary to the country’s
we classified as barbaric and irrational on environmental interests, citing as an example
behalf of the municipal governments. We the case of the cement plant in Los Haitises
emphasized that the absence of a Territorial and the case of irregular environmental license
Land Planning Ordinance was a violation of which supports the Barrick Gold mining
Art. 30 of Environmental Law 64-00, and that company, indicating that in environmental
lack of land planning provokes that dozens of terms the country is not protected.
350
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
The conference that was given in the presence
of Mons. Agripino Núñez Collado, Rector of
the Pontificate Catholic University Mother
and Teacher; Rev. Ramón Alonso, Rector of
the Catholic University of Santo Domingo,
Mons. Nicanor Peña, Bishop for the Diocese
of La Altagracia, Rector of the Catholic
University of the East and Vice President for
the Dominican Episcopate Conference; and
Mons. Jesús María de Jesús Moya, Bishop for FIG.10. Acid Water is Constantly Flowing from
the Barrick Gold Installations
the Diocese of San Francisco de Macorís and
President of the National Commission for the
University Pastorate. 11. Water Contamination
Due to Mining Operation
There were also present Rev. Francisco In the analysis of acidic waters and loaded
Ant. Jiménez R., Secretary General for with heavy metals coming from the gold and
the Dominican Episcopate Conference silver mine managed by the mining company
and Executive Secretary of the National Barrick Gold the water’s pH is found to be 2.1,
Commission for the University Pastorate, Rev. the electrical conductivity of water has a value
Fausto Ramón Mejía, Rector of the Catholic of 4,580 μS/cm, and that the iron content is
University of the Cibao; Rev. Alfredo de superior to 2,000 milligrams per liter, which
la Cruz, Rector of the Catholic University indicates that these waters are contaminating
Nordestana; Rev. José Goris, Rector for the dam of Hatillo, the country’s biggest dam,
the Santo Tomás de Aquino Seminary; Rev. which stores 440 million cubic meter of water
Francisco Escolástico, S.J, Rector of the and upon it depends all the rice zone of the
Specialized Institute for the Loyola Superior lower Yuna, and in the near future the city of
Studies and Jovanny Krawinkel, Secretary Santo Domingo will require near to 8 cubic
General for the Ecological Pastorate. meters per second from this dam.
FIG.1. Geographic Location of the Republic of Source: MAGA, UPIE, Laboratorio de SIG (2001).
Guatemala FIG.2. Watersheds Map of Guatetmala
exceeding abundantly resource demand. The
annual average availability of surface and
groundwater is estimated at 97.120 million m3.
The superficial water sources in the country
are divided into three hydrographic regions
(FIG. 2.) expressed in 38 river basins and 194
inland water bodies.1 Groundwater in the
country have been divided into four hydro-
geological regions: (i) quaternary alluvial
plains of the South Coast, which are believed
to be formations with greater potential
for these waters, (ii) the volcanic plateau
of tertiary rocks and quaternary tectonic
depressions filled with pyro clastic deposits,
which form the plateau, with a potential
occurrence of such relatively large water
depths, (iii) the highland mountain crystalline
granite of igneous and metamorphic rocks,
which is training with fewer occurrences of
the country, and (iv) the Northern region
of sedimentary rocks karstified Cretaceous Source: MAGA 2001
limestone, where groundwater occurs in FIG. 3. Recharge Areas of Guatemala
karst conduits, which despite its importance,
its dynamics has been poorly studied.2 The 1 PREPAC (2005): Inventory of inland water
bodies of Guatemala, with emphasis on
annual renewable groundwater is estimated
fisheries and aquaculture. 878 pages.
at 33.699 million m3, which are considered
within the overall availability of 97.120 million 2 Defined by Carlos Muñoz Palacios (1992):
Master Plan for Irrigation and Drainage
m3 (FIG. 3.).
354
GUATEMALA
Despite the annual availability of surface information consisting of monthly statements,
and groundwater, physical evidence such it has only generated average annual balance
as dry river on the south coast and lakes in 1975 (INDE), 1992 (UNESCO-INSIVUMEH)
disappearing in south-east, besides the and 1994 (PLAMAR). Indeed, the fact that
increase of population demands for better the hydrological regime depends solely
water service especially in the metropolitan on rain and underground storage, plus
area, and growing conflicts over water use in the average rainfall occurs in six months,
various parts of the country indicate that there makes a significant difference on the rivers
are areas and periods of significant deficits. flow between the rainy and the dry period.
This deficits cannot yet be rightly identified Table 1 and Table 2 show the availability of
because the national information system water (liter / capita / day) annual national
haven’t produced the required hydrological and for the driest month.
Pacific
23,990 22.0 728.47 31 5,897,817 52.5 245.8 10,897
Ocean
Caribbean
34,259 31.5 1,180.53 34 3,450,840 30.7 100.7 30,030
Sea
Gulf of
50,640 46.5 1,297.63 26 1,888,539 16.8 37.3 60,225
Mexico
Total 108,889 100.0 3,206.63 29 11,237,196 100.0 103.2 25,116
Source: SEGEPLAN (2007).
Table 2. Water Availability in the Dry Season Months (National and by Drainage Basin)
Drainage Area % Q medium Q Population % % liters/
Basin (km2) area (m3/s) (liters/s/km2) (2002) People People/km2 People/
day
Pacific
23,990 22.0 291.39 12 5,897,817 52.5 245.8 4,218
Ocean
Caribbean
34,259 31.5 354.16 10 3,450,840 30.7 100.7 8,580
Sea
Gulf of
50,640 46.5 402.27 8 1,888,539 16.8 37.3 18,531
Mexico
Total 108,889 100.0 1,047.81 10 11,237,196 100.0 103.2 8,372
Source: SEGEPLAN (2007).
355
GUATEMALA
The annual returns on the month of drought
in each of the sides are proportional,
because there are wet lands and dry lands.
However, the slope of the Gulf of Mexico
has more per capita availability because of
the lower population density and greater
volume flow. When comparing the annual
per capita availability, the Gulf of Mexico is
6 times higher than the Pacific and 2 times
higher than the Caribbean Sea in the driest
month, the ratio is 4 and 2 times in the
annual bases, respectively.
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
DB DB DB DB Gulf DB
DB Gulf Total Total
Concept Indicators Pacific Caribbean Pacific of Caribbean
of Mexico Country Country
Ocean Sea Ocean Mexico Sea
I. Water Capital 3,079.65 22,973.03 40,922.06 33,224.75 97,119.84 755.28 1,042.67 846.55 2,644.50
Drainage Basin of
728.47
Pacific Ocean
Drainage Basin of
1,297.63
Gulf of México
Drainage Basin of
1,053.55
Caribbean Sea
357
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Pacific of Carib- Country Pacific of Carib- Country
Concept
Ocean Mexico bean Ocean Mexico bean
Sea Sea
flow volume volume volume volume volume volume volume volume
(m3/seg) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3) (mill m3)
Agroindustrial
(washing cane and 206.00 6.15 40.08 252.23 41.20 1.23 8.02 50.45
other)
c. Industry and
other processing 291.28 13.84 37.51 342.63 24.27 1.15 3.13 28.55
activities
Manufacturing
(80m3/USD1000 285.28 11.84 35.51 332.63 23.77 0.99 2.96 27.72
VA)
Construction
6.00 2.00 2.00 10.00 0.50 0.17 0.17 0.83
industry
358
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Pacific of Carib- Country Pacific of Carib- Country
Concept Ocean Mexico bean Ocean Mexico bean
Sea Sea
V. Irrigation
return water 1,097.45 49.21 320.61 1,467.27 182.91 8.20 53.44 244.55
(infiltration)
VI. Generation
contaminated 1,060.93 137.63 340.90 1,539.46 129.57 13.31 40.43 183.31
water
Domestic origin 388.17 106.00 173.52 667.69 32.35 8.83 14.46 55.64
Agricultural origin 493.85 22.15 144.28 660.27 82.31 3.69 24.05 110.05
Of all the water used in the country, 1.540 million m3. This, for lack of sewage treatment
million m3 of wastewater is generated (only 5% and inability of the sources of pollution fully
are treated), generally discharged untreated diluted, become low-quality water available.
into surface streams or bodies of water, so that The previous balance indicates a relationship
automatically limit or hinder subsequent uses. between balance and availability of 0.98.
Additionally, 40% of water used in irrigation
returns to the rivers to infiltrate. As shown in Table 3, in the month of dry season
of 2005 there’s a surplus of 2.309 million m3
Given the country’s water capital and at the national level, reducing the balance-
total consumptive demands, there’s an capital ratio to 0.87. Doing the analysis, as in
original surplus of 87.524 million m3; to the previous case (an annual report), it follows
this the volumes of non-consumptive use, that there is a total demand of 42.9% available.
the contaminated water and of return are Pacific Ocean side, as mentioned above, has
added, giving an annual balance of 94.984 the highest water demand, also makes use of
359
GUATEMALA
the available 92.4% in this region, while the due to the discontinuity of hydrometric and
Gulf of Mexico, only 15.3% and in 32.7% of meteorological stations in time and physical
the Caribbean Sea. The data show that the location, making it necessary to reinstall and
water capital of the Pacific watershed, 74.9% give continuity to the operation of the few
is used for consumption, 17.2% for energy stations (“strategic”) that it will have, but they
producing sector, implying a balance of 7.9%. belong to different entities, so it is advisable
However, adding water use non-consumptive, to consolidate the information into a single
contaminated water and irrigation return, the institution like the INSIVUMEH or INDE.
availability of low quality water increases, and
obtained a surplus of 66.4% of the available The following is a description of the water
at the beginning of the month. demand by 2025 from baseline scenario,
and Table 6 shows the calculations used to
4. Water Balance and determine the water balance. For domestic
Scenarios to 2025 use demand, the information was available
Throughout this section the projected demand at the National Institute of Statistics
for the various uses of water in 2025, and the on population projections 2000-2020,
water balance is described. For each of the following the trend for 2020 was projected
sector water uses, according to growth rates, for 2025.
an estimate demand was projected for the For projection data service coverage to
year 2025; there are three possible scenarios: the report on the implementation of the
optimistic, pessimistic and normal trend. Table 4 Millennium Development Goals (targets 10
shows the conditions that define each scenario, and 11, SEGEPLAN 2005), was extended
while growth in demand for applications in for 2025. The same endowments and
each scenario is shown in Table 5. Taking into efficiency data contained in this report
account that there is not enough information were undertaken, to estimate the current
for the preparation of monthly water balance, demand (2005).
360
GUATEMALA
Table 5. Annual Growth Rates of the Water Demand Uses for Each Scenario
In the case of irrigation water was considered Human Consumption: For 2025 it is estimated
that for the next 20 years, following the trend that Guatemala will have a total of 19.96
of the past 20 years, the country will double million inhabitants, 7.26 million more than in
the area under irrigation, improving the 2005, equivalent to 4.0 million homes. In the
proportion of lower-power systems such as Pacific watershed will be 9.4 million people,
irrigation sprinkler and drip. 4.5 million in the Gulf of Mexico and 6.1 million
in the Caribbean Sea. The rate of piped water
An expansion was made in the case of industry, coverage is estimated at 86.5% nationally,
assuming a growth rate of this economic with 90% for urban areas and 84.2% for rural
activity of 2.5% annually, a figure that may areas. In these circumstances it is estimated
seem conservative given the expectation that that water demand for domestic use will be
it could generate the validity of the new trade 2.010 million m3 distributed into 57.7% for
and investment treaties it has signed the the Pacific watershed, 14.8% for the Gulf of
country but also takes into account that the Mexico and 27.4% for the Caribbean Sea.
new models of investment in industries with Irrigation: In the case of irrigation, water
technology will be greater savings of inputs, demand by 2025 is estimated at 7.410 million
including water. The same annual growth rate m3, also the highest demand will focus on the
was estimated to calculate the water demand Pacific watershed where the best farmland
of the other branches of economic activity, of the country is located, although given
this could be short for the case of hotels irrigation potential in the department of
and tourism if the country is to position and Petén, many new areas of irrigation in soils
expand their strengths and attributes in the with some limitations will be established in
development of inbound tourism. that department.
361
GUATEMALA
Table 6. Water balance – Normal Trend (estimated for 2025, national and by Drainage Basin
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
I. Water Capital 3,079.65 22,973.03 40,922.06 33,224.75 97,119.84 755.28 1,042.67 846.55 2,644.50
Households with 3,286,387 1,114.59 269.37 517.04 1,901.00 92.88 22.45 43.09 158.42
home service
Households
with community 212,727 30.73 11.12 17.09 58.94 2.56 0.93 1.42 4.91
service
Households with
other services 329,165 11.19 13.33 13.33 37.85 0.93 1.11 1.11 3.15
(water well)
Households with-
out service (poor 215,811 4.07 3.99 4.19 12.25 0.34 0.33 0.35 1.02
access)
4,044,091
b. agricultural use 5,879.67 260.82 1,779.41 7919.89 986.62 43.67 300.57 1,330.87
Irrigation (312,000 5,487.25 246.06 1,603.07 7336.37 914.54 41.01 267.18 1,222.73
ha in the Country)
Livestock and
other agricultural
uses (2.0 millons 54.87 2.46 16.03 73.36 4.57 0.21 1.34 6.11
UA)
Agroindustrial
(washing cane and 337.55 12.30 160.31 510.16 67.51 2.46 32.06 102.03
other)
362
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Cari- Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Pacific of Mé- bbean Country Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country
Ocean xico Sea Ocean xico bbean
Sea
c. Industry and
other processing 473.46 21.40 60.19 555.05 39.46 1.78 5.02 46.26
activities
Manufacturing
(80m3/ 467.46 19.40 58.19 545.05 38.96 1.62 4.85 45.42
USD1000 VA)
e. Other eco- 8.49 2.43 1.22 12.13 0.59 0.17 0.08 0.84
nomic activities
Hotels and
Restaurants
(27,038 availabi- 5.66 1.62 0.81 8.09 0.47 0.13 0.07 0.67
lity of beds per
day. 50%)
Commerce and 2.83 0.81 0.41 4.04 0.12 0.03 0.02 0.17
others
IV. Total non-
consumptive 2,601.31 2,465.51 2,230.65 7,297.47 216.77 205.46 185.89 608.12
demands
Hydropower 141.21 2,601.02 2,465.51 2,230.65 7,297.18 216.75 205.46 185.89 608.10
Drainage Basin of 50.33
Pacific Ocean
Drainage Basin of 47.71
Gulf of México
Drainage Basin of 43.17
Caribbean Sea
Thermal Energy
(Except coge- 3910 mill 0.29 0.00 0 0.29 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01
nerators mills) kv/h
363
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Cari- Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Pacific of Mé- bbean Country Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country
Ocean xico Sea Ocean xico bbean
Sea
V. Irrigation
return water 2,194.90 98.42 641.23 2,934.55 365.82 16.40 106.87 244.55
(infiltration)
VI. Generation
contaminated 1,744.49 217.56 594.87 2,556.92 219.45 21.45 71.21 312.12
water
Domestic origin 649.92 166.77 308.92 1,125.61 54.16 13.90 25.74 93.80
Agricultural 888.93 39.86 259.70 1,188.49 148.16 6.64 43.28 198.08
origin
Industrial origin 198.85 8.99 25.28 233.12 16.57 0.75 2.11 19.43
Origin of other
economic activi- 6.79 1.94 0.97 9.70 0.57 0.16 0.08 0.81
ties
Balance (surplus 19,390.23 40,654.60 32,067.90 92,112.73 217.17 1,009.98 672.89 1,655.16
or deficit)
Source: SEGEPLAN (2007).
Industry: As already indicated, the projection under which Guatemala has gestated in
of industrial consumption was under the public opposition to the development of the
assumption of an annual growth rate of sector, any investment in this area is subject
2.5%, and consequently the water demand to make use of good practice environmental
for this sector is estimated at 555 million and perhaps improve the royalty rates that
m3, for the phenomenon location, most currently prevail. It has been estimated an
of this demand is also concentrated in the annual demand of 1.5 million m 3.
Pacific watershed, although several industrial
complexes expect high demand for water Tourism and Other Services: A conservative
to move the department of Guatemala to forecast has been done for these sectors
places fewer restrictions on this resource, as by assuming growth rates in water demand
is happening in the Pacific coastal plain, close similar to the behavior of the industrial sector,
to Puerto Quetzal Escuintla and in the region which means that by 2025 demand will be
of Teculután in Zacapa. 12.1 million m 3.
Mining: It has been assumed that mining Energy: The country has a tendency to
would have a similar behavior as the industry, favor investment in hydroelectric, from the
364
GUATEMALA
standpoint of the public sector, however, will generate a total of 2.557 million m3 of
much of civil society has formed a popular contaminated water in the country, with the
front against the establishment of such consequences that this situation represents
investments in that game interests and a volume of irrigation return waters of 2.935
pressure groups emerge the need to cover million m3.
the increased energy demands of society and
economy, whose annual demand is estimated By relating the net annual water availability
to grow by 7% (110 MW). For the calculation in the country of 97.120 million m3 with the
of water demand in this sector has been amount of consumptive demands, described
considered by 2025 hydropower will cover earlier, would reflect a surplus of 92.113
a cumulative annual rate of 2.5% of annual million m3. By 2025, a 10% of the average
increase in energy needs for the country. In flow for each side, would be expected to be
that sense this non-consumptive use of water an ecological flow, as the first natural water
is estimated at 7.297 million m3. user, so that when subtracted from the gross
or capital water supply there will be a net
Balance: The water balance projected to availability of 87.408 million m3 of water for
2025, part of a water supply or capital, different users, and the surplus will be 82.401
assuming no significant changes in spatial million m3.
distribution of water in the country. In this
regard, the offer or gross availability of water In the pessimistic scenario, Table 7, surplus
equivalent to 97,119.8 million m3, distributed by 2025 without considering the ecological
at 23.7% on the Pacific watershed, 42.2% flow, will be 92,932 million m3 and for the
in the Gulf of Mexico and 34.28% in the optimistic scenario, Table 8, the surplus will
Caribbean Sea. be 90,348 million m3.
The demand for all consumptive and non In the dry season, the situation could be
consumptive uses in 2025 in baseline was difficult for the Pacific watershed for any of
estimated at 17.796 million m3, including the scenarios, since 2025 the driest month
consumptive use reaches 10.499 million m3 of the year could be found in the following
and the demand for non-consumptive use is scenario: water supply or capital is 755
estimated at 7.298 million m3. Hydroelectricity million m 3 and if we discount the ecological
would use 41.0% of total estimated water flow will be 566 million m3, the consumptive
usage in the country, for human consumption use will reach 1.056 million m3, which means
would go up 11.3%, 44.5% in irrigation, a water deficit of 301 or 490 million m3
the remaining uses would consume 3.2%. (without and with ecological flow). Water
According to data from consumptive use, use for electricity generation will require 217
human consumption used for 19.1%, 75.5% million m3; will generate 379 million m3 of
irrigation and industry 5.3%, and other contaminated water, which would mean that
uses will consume the remaining 0.1%. The at some points of river water runs into rivers
consumption of previous volumes of water are almost sewage.
365
GUATEMALA
The watershed of the Caribbean Sea in 2025 It should motivate the hydrological study
also show moderately difficult situation, that includes the ecological flow with
because in the driest month of the year as proper weighting for each ecosystem,
a consumptive use 320 million m3 which but more important is to create planning
represents 56% of available water (573.47 units, watershed level and / or micro, so
million m3 less the ecological flow), if we add the same should be institutionalized. There
the non-consumptive water requirement have been no efforts to collect rain water
for power generation would be consuming or wastewater treatment. In general, there
88.2% of available water in that watershed. is no advocacy work to reduce the risk of
The watershed of the Gulf of Mexico in 2025 flooding in places where pollution occurs.
show a situation manageable because the There is not a general understanding, nor
demands of the different uses represent is invested in environmental education, so
about 25% of water supply. they should be socializing for people to
take charge of their own projects.
Due to the non uniformity of temporal and
spatial distribution of water, poor quality and Because of climate change, the availability of
lack of governance, we conclude that there is water can´t be predicted, but the uses and
a water risk, Lake Amatitlan being an example. enhancing will be maintained.
Table 7. Water Balance - Pessimistic Trend (Estimated for 2025)
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Cari- Total
tors Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country Pacific of Mé- bbean Country
Ocean xico bbean Ocean xico Sea
Sea
I. Water Capital 3,079.65 22,973.03 40,922.06 33,224.75 97,119.84 755.28 1,042.67 846.55 2,644.50
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Cari- Total
tors Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country Pacific of Mé- bbean Country
Ocean xico bbean Ocean xico Sea
Sea
Households with 3,286.387 1,089.90 258.26 501.65 1,849.80 90.82 21.52 41.80 154.15
home service
Households
with community 212.727 29.95 10.45 16.36 56.76 2.50 0.87 1.36 4.73
service
Households with
other services 329.165 14.06 16.39 16.48 46.93 1.17 1.37 1.37 3.91
(water well)
Households
without service 215.811 5.13 4.91 5.19 15.23 0.43 0.41 0.43 1.27
(poor access)
4,044.091
b. agricultural use 5,317.51 234.73 1,601.47 7,153.71 893.12 39.30 270.52 1,202.95
Irrigation
(312,000 ha in the 4,938.52 221.45 1,442.76 6,602.73 823.09 36.91 240.46 1,100.46
Country)
Livestock and
other agricultural
uses (2.0 millons 49.39 2.21 14.43 66.03 4.12 0.18 1.20 5.50
UA)
Agroindustrial
(washing cane 329.6 11.07 144.28 484.95 65.92 2.21 28.86 96.99
and other)
c. Industry and
other processing 462.45 20.94 58.82 542.21 38.54 1.75 4.90 45.19
activities
Manufacturing
(80m3/USD1000 456.45 18.94 56.82 532.21 38.04 1.58 4.74 44.35
VA)
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
368
GUATEMALA
Table 8. Water Balance – Optimistic Trend (Estimated for 2025)
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB Pacific DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Ocean of México Cari- Country Pacific of Cari- Country
bbean Ocean México bbean
Sea Sea
I. Water Capital 3,079.65 22,973.03 40,922.06 33,224.75 97,119.84 755.28 1,042.67 846.55 2,644.50
a. Water supply Hogares 1,200.30 306.58 569.44 2,076.32 100.03 25.55 47.45 173.03
and sanitation país
Households with 3,286.387 1,158.92 280.17 537.67 1,976.76 96.58 23.35 44.81 164.73
home service
Households with 212.727 31.95 11.57 17.77 61.29 2.66 0.96 1.48 5.11
community service
Households with
other services 329.165 7.02 11.47 10.74 29.23 0.59 0.96 0.90 2.44
(water well)
Households with-
out service (poor 215.811 2.41 3.37 3.26 9.04 0.20 0.28 0.27 0.75
access)
4,044.091
b. agricultural use 7,083.15 312.98 2,135.29 9,531.42 1,189.46 52.41 360.69 1,602.55
Irrigation (312 000 6,584.70 295.27 1,923.68 8,803.65 1,097.45 49.21 320.61 1,467.28
ha in the Country)
Livestock and
other agricultural
uses (2.0 millons 65.85 2.95 19.24 88.04 5.49 0.25 1.60 7.34
UA)
Agroindustrial
(washing cane and 432.60 14.76 192.37 639.73 86.52 2.95 38.47 127.94
other)
369
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
c. Industry and
other processing 747.73 32.78 94.34 874.85 62.31 2.73 7.86 72.90
activities
Manufacturing
(80m3/USD1000
741.73 30.78 92.34 864.85 61.81 2.56 7.69 72.06
VA)
Construction
6,00 2,00 2,00 10,00 0,50 0,17 0,17 0,84
industry
d. Mining 0.00 1.56 0.78 2.34 0.00 0.10 0.10 1.51
Gold Mines - 822 m /
3
0.00 0.78 0.00 0.78 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.00
Marlín día
Other mines and
other mining
products 0.00 0.78 0.78 1.56 0.00 0.08 0.08 0.16
(estimation)
e. Other eco-
23.83 6.81 3.40 34.04 1.65 0.47 0.24 2.36
nomic activities
Commerce and
7.94 2.27 1.13 11.34 0.33 0.09 0.05 0.47
others
317.47
Energía hidráulica 141.21 3,809.59 3,611.11 3,267.12 300.93 272.26 890.66
10,687.82
Energía térmica
3910 mill
(excepto ingenios 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01
kv/h
cogeneradores)
V. Irrigation
return water 2,633.88 118.11 769.47 3,521.46 438.98 19.68 128.25 586.91
(infiltration)
370
GUATEMALA
Supply and annual water use in Guatemala Situation for the driest month
Indica- DB DB Gulf DB Total DB DB Gulf DB Total
tors Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country Pacific of Mé- Cari- Country
Ocean xico bbean Ocean xico bbean
Sea Sea
VI. Generation
contaminated 1,550.79 174.43 500.84 2,226.06 198.37 17.64 61.94 277.94
water
Domestic origin 480.12 122.63 227.78 830.53 40.01 10.22 18.98 69.21
Agricultural 829.67 37.20 242.38 1,109.25 138.28 6.20 40.40 184.88
origin
Industrial origin 224.32 9.83 28.30 262.45 18.69 0.82 2.36 21.87
Origin of other
economic 16.68 4.77 2.38 23.83 1.39 0.40 0.20 1.99
activities
Balance (surplus 18,102.69 40,553.89 31,691.81 90,348.39 39.18 998.73 620.39 1,658.30
or deficit)
Source: SEGEPLAN (2007).
Table 9. Irrigable Area Based in Agrologic Classes (I to IV) And Rainfall Deficit (km2)
372
GUATEMALA
this has been overcome by the sprinkler which Table 10. Guatemala: Estimation by Main Crops
Irrigated area
demands the 45.6% of the water with such
use can also be regarded as satisfactory that Crops Hectares %
the country has systems drip irrigation as this Banana tree 22,400 7.18
increases the efficiency of water use.
Sugarcane 168,490 54.00
Flowers and 2,800 0.90
Major producers keep records of how much foliage
water they consume; others only use it because
Lemon 3,500 1.12
of the low importance they give because it
does not represent a cost. Those who consider Mango 3,500 1.12
its cost, because of pumping systems, are
Berries 350 0.11
concerned and that is why preferring drip
African Palm 30,800 9.87
irrigation. Furthermore, information access
hasn’t be systematized yet. Papaya 980 0.31
pineapple 2,100 0.67
Along with the irrigation water, it has been
estimated water consumption for other Banana 8,400 2.69
agricultural purposes (coffee benefit, water Grass 14,000 4.49
for livestock, poultry, water exchange in the Other permanent 2,170 0.70
1,500 hectare of shrimp ponds and others), as Melon 5,530 1.77
water demand is fairly lower than irrigation,
Tomato 2,800 0.90
although the unit consumption of these
Onion 1,320 0.42
activities can be quite high and polluted.
Other vegetables 42,900 13.75
and annual crops
6. Water and Industry
TOTAL 312,040 100.00
The primary industry consumes a significant
water quantity. Unfortunately the state has no Source: Estimated data. 2002-2003 Agricultural
Census; (SEGEPLAN 2007).
records of water consumption in the industries
of Guatemala and these data are provided
to the public by the industry themselves, so consumption of this sector it has been followed
no one can estimate their efficiency. In this the approach of the report of the Integrated
chapter an estimation of the volume of water Strategy for Water Resources in Costa Rica
demanded by the industry, including mining (2005), in which to make projections of water
and tourism is done. consumption for this sector is set a parameter
of 80 m3 per each $ 1,000 of added value. For
Industrial activity is concentrated in the Guatemala the figure of 80 m3 was adjusted
metropolitan area of Guatemala (MAG), with an increase of 25%. The Guatemalan
press the demand for the service provided industry in 2004 produced the equivalent of
through piped water supplies in the most USD 3565.9 million in added value at current
cases of groundwater. To estimate the water prices. The structure of industrial production
373
GUATEMALA
Table 11. Data Used to Estimate Irrigation Water Demand (Thousands of Hectares)
Equivalent
cultivation
Sugarcane 181.6 110.0 2.1 56.0 13.5 500 12
Table 12. Irrigation Water Demand (Million m3) by System and Drainage Basin
Other
Drainage Total % Sprinkling Drip Flood system
Basin
374
GUATEMALA
indicates that 66.8% comes from direct water used in processing minerals. Depending
consumer-oriented processes, production for on the hydrogeology of the area, the volume
intermediate consumption accounts for 27.5%, of water extracted can be very important. The
while production for capital goods is 5.7%. regional impact may not be important, but the
local impact can be significant.
Under this configuration the water
consumption in industry was estimated at In the case of the Marlin Project, which
332.6 million m3, which focuses on the MAG, extracts gold and silver in the highlands of
in which it is located around 80% of industrial San Marcos, the environmental impact study
value added of the country. Additional to indicates it will take to process 1.5 million m3
the MAG, there are small industrial in the of water per year, of which 1.2 million will
departments and municipalities of Escuintla, come from reservoirs lines and 0.3 million
Quetzaltenango and Teculután. As already from groundwater.
mentioned, the industry has now solved
the water supply through its direct and free The total requirements will be 4,110 m3 per
access to wells and springs. However, over- day, of which 822 m3 would come from the
exploitation of aquifers and some high cost well and the recycling of tailings pit 3,288 m3.
and represents a substantial investment The company has entered into operations
(power and deeper wells), and an estimated and hopes to exploit 2.1 million ounces gold
medium-term are not sustainable because it and 28.4 million ounces of silver, contained in
is felt beat down the yield of groundwater. 13.2 million tons of material.5 In the national
Also, the construction industry is an budget is appropriated an annual water
activity that cannot develop without water. consumption of 0.3 million m3 for the mining
Estimates of the Regional School of Sanitary project in San Marcos and up to two times for
Engineering (ERIS) of the University of San mining projects that are developed elsewhere
Carlos (USAC), suggest that to build a 60 in the country.
m2 house is required about 10 m3 of water.3
Based on this indicator has been estimated, 3 Elías, Carlos Alberto, et al. Determinación del
very roughly, the water requirement in this agua no contabilizada y análisis tarifario del
sistema de agua de Planes de Bárcenas, en
branch of economic activity. revista Agua, Saneamiento & Ambiente, ERIS,
Facultad de Ingeniería, USAC – 2005.
The mining is gathering again in Guatemala
To exploit nickel requires 500 m3 of water per
with the opening of the Marlin gold mine 4
ton of product, one would expect a production
in San Marcos, the possible return of nickel of 14,000 to 24,000 tons per year the plant into
operation. Communication: Departamento
mining operations in Izabal and the granting of
de Control Minero, Dirección de Minería,
other reconnaissance and exploration licenses Ministerio de Energía y Minas.
from the Ministry of Energy and Mines.4 The
Assessment Report Marlin Project, gold and
mining industry has a dual effect on water 5
silver mining in San Miguel and Sipacapa,
availability, on one hand refers to water that San Marcos. Comisión especial de la USAC,
Guatemala, marzo de 2005.
is removed along with other minerals and the
375
GUATEMALA
Guatemala it’s targeting the inbound tourism in the country (household water, stream to
as an important element for economic any homes or public). Remain significant
development (one of the three axes of the differences in coverage between urban and
Competitiveness Agenda 2005-2015), hoping rural areas. By 2002 urban coverage reached
to keep over one million tourist arrivals per 89.4% of households recorded, and the rural
year, two of the four most-visited sites are population stood at 59.6% (Table 13).
associated with water bodies (Atitlan and Rio
Dulce) and the State has established river In Guatemala urban households represent
basin authorities, although partly by its low 50.2% of the total and up 46.1% of
budget results are not visible. In 2004, the the population, while rural households
country had a total availability of beds per constitute 49.8% of the total made up
day of 27,038, which, according to a report of 53.9% of the population.
the Guatemalan Institute of Tourism, has an
occupancy rate of 48.9%. Despite the improvement in the coverage
rate expressed in relative terms, in absolute
Based on these data and with an average terms there is still a significant number of
consumption of 500 liters per day and Guatemalan households that get water
bed occupancy rate of 50% was reached through carry (shallow wells, rivers or lakes
to estimate demand for this sector, which or other precarious forms). According to
has added a similar amount for the use of population census 2002 this means a total
restaurants in general so that this branch of 116,395 and 443,196 urban households
of economic activity demand 4.93 million to rural households exceeding a total of
m3 of water per year. Based on the data approximately three million people, which
from this sector has also estimated the shows certain inequities between the two
water consumption of the other activities of areas and within urban, between different
commercial and service sector. social strata .
In conclusion, more information about the Like many countries, Guatemala has
pollution produced by industries and agro- committed to meeting the Millennium
industries is needed. Development Goals among which is that of
halving the proportion of people who in 2000
had no access to a reliable source of water
7. Human Water Supply: that had not the basic sanitation service.
Quantity, Quality and Access
The piped water supply has improved Empirical evidence indicates that, even when
significantly in Guatemala, as evidenced the water service coverage has significantly
by data from the last three censuses of improved, the quality of service is not
population and housing. Water coverage necessarily good, of all existing services only
increased from 52.3% in 1981 to 68.4% in 15% of provides previously treated water
1994 to achieve in 2002 74.6% of households for domestic purposes and the provision
376
GUATEMALA
therefore is not continuous and with proper is 132.46 million m3 (15.9%), while in the
pressure to supply. Caribbean Sea is 217.07 million m3 (26.0%).
Additionally, charges for the services As will be evident later with the other
will not even cover operating expenses applications, the potable water sector is
and maintenance that has resulted in the where most problems are present, and
deterioration of existing infrastructure, the satisfying them is a great challenge due to
subsidy for urban areas and expanding the the dispersion of the rural population and
service through alternative systems-trucks in many cases, technical difficulties to its
tanks, for example-also of dubious quality delivery point.
and cost significantly higher than those of a
traditional system, to the detriment of the Coverage data indicate that must be
needs of rural and / or marginal areas of cities. addressed as a priority in rural areas and the
metropolitan area and improve the quality of
The demand for the entire population of existing services. The need to modernize the
the country according to the allocations water and wastewater subsectors is clearly.
provided in Table 14, is 834.8 million m3
(only in Guatemala City, the Municipal Water In relation to the overall management of water,
Company, EMPAGUA, produces about 120 drinking water and sanitation subsector is
million m3 of drinking water per year). Since linked first as a user, i.e. as a rights holder to use
the population is located mainly in the Pacific water-water entering the distribution system,
watershed, there is demand of 485.28 million to best practices in water use; and control of
m3 (58.1%) in the Gulf of Mexico demand wastewater systems, water exiting the system.
Table 13. Households by Type of Service Water and Urban and Rural Sectors, 2002
Total
Type of water service % Urban % Rural %
Country
Table 14. Criteria to estimate the current demand for domestic water in Guatemala.
378
GUATEMALA
productive use and control is a decisive forms of supply. In relationship with water
factor for the policies of poverty reduction, prices, in urban and rural areas, charges for
especially in reducing infant and maternal the services will not even cover operating
mortality rates and does not contribute to expenses and maintenance that has resulted
improve the country’s competitiveness. With in the deterioration of existing infrastructure,
the Regulation of Downloads and Reuse of the subsidy for urban areas and extending the
Wastewater and Sludge Disposal, adopted in service through alternate systems, -tank trucks,
May 2006, is expected to a gradual process of for example- also of dubious quality and cost
decontamination to be completed in 18 years. significantly higher than those of a traditional
system, to the detriment of the needs of rural
The greatest challenge now is setting up and / or marginal areas cities.
surveillance and institutional coordination
necessary to implement and monitor The rates for water consumption are not very
operational compliance with these provisions. effective, except for the recovery in certain
sectors by the municipal water company
9. Water in Urban Areas in the city of Guatemala (EMPAGUA),
As noted in Chapter 7, 89.4% of the population Agua Mariscal and other municipal water
of the country’s urban areas has water supply companies as Quetzaltenango and Santa
coverage; the urban population represents Elena and San Benito. The average monthly
46.1% of the total. However, around 625,000 fee for the service of drinking water
people still do not have access to it through nationwide is Q.4.5, when it’s need it to be
household connection (116,395 households). Q.30, Villa Nueva subsidizes monthly water in
Q.1 million (1 US$ = Q. 7.5).
In relationship with service quality, the
empirical evidence indicates that even when
the water service coverage has significantly
6 Population equivalents: The way to relate the
improved, its quality is not necessarily good pollution load generated by agribusiness and
because of all existing services, only 15% of industry with the pollution load generated by
the municipalities is by a factor called equivalent
previously treated water is used for domestic population. The way to do this is to divide the
burden of pollution generated by agribusiness
purposes and provision is not continuous or is and industry, calculated by multiplying the
characterized of having the adequate pressure discharge of water by the concentration of BOD
and COD, between the pollution loads generated
(the largest proportion of this percentage is by a person, calculated by multiplying 200 liters
per day per 250 milligrams per liter BOD (0.01825
the urban area). On urban areas the proper tons / year).Population equivalents: The way to
coverage reaches 76.7% of households, while relate the pollution load generated by agribusiness
and industry with the pollution load generated by
the rural level is only of 16.8%. the municipalities is by a factor called equivalent
population. The way to do this is to divide the
burden of pollution generated by agribusiness
The percentages of loss in water service and industry, calculated by multiplying the
discharge of water by the concentration of BOD
systems in urban areas reach 50%, while in and COD, between the pollution loads generated
by a person, calculated by multiplying 200 liters
rural areas the efficiency of water distribution per day per 250 milligrams per liter BOD (0.01825
pipeline is 90% (10% loss) and 80% in other tons / year).
379
GUATEMALA
The average price per cubic meter that
EMPAGUA charges is Q.1.80, while its
production cost is Q.3.50. Irrigation systems
pay no fees for water use, so there’s no
motivation for having more efficient uses,
although the shortage in some areas have
changed to a lower loss method. The
water supply for the MAG and other urban
features includes two major challenges: the
overexploitation of aquifers, with consequent
increases in pumping costs, and the access to
new sources that are outside their jurisdiction,
SOURCE: EMPAGUA, 2006. REFERENCE PROYECTO
which often leads to conflicts. In the first EMERGENCIA I . WELLHEAD ELEVATION
case the solution to the problem depends FIG. 5. Declines in Groundwater Levels in the
Metropolitan Area of Guatemala
crucially on ordering the current exploitation
of aquifers, through various management reaches 76.7% of households, while the rural
tools, whose application is the consensus level is only of 16.8%. Wastewater is treated
between the parties. In the second case, it at a few places (only 5% nationally), so that
would be necessary to consider allocation the wastewaters flows into rivers and surface
and compensation mechanisms. water, polluting other water resources.
A case study conducted as part of the 11. Water and Public Health
Strategy for Integrated Management of The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare
Water Resources was the over-exploitation of (MSPAS) report of 2004 shows that were
aquifers in the metropolitan area of Guatemala. seen nationally 779,152 people with
FIG. 5 shows the changes between 2002 gastrointestinal problems, especially diarrhea
and 2006 in the groundwater level in wells I also in the statistical report of the Guatemalan
EMPAGUA Emergency Program, which show Social Security Institute (IGSS) for the same
the tendency to deepen the water table. year, indicates that the total care consultations
exceeded 650,000. In other words, it handled
10. Water and Sanitation more than 1.400,000 events, which means
In sanitation matters improvements in that 12% of the total national population
coverage rates also have been noticed. Table was affected. The average cost per visit, plus
15 indicates that coverage has improved with diagnostic tests and medicine per person
proper disposal (toilet and toilet washable), reported, by the IGSS in that year for treatments
24.8% of households in 1981 to 46.9% in associated with diarrheal disease, is Q. 287.68
2002, but is still too low to ensure an adequate per event. The public sector spends annually
quality of life for population, with almost six an amount greater than the Q. 400.000,000
million people with no access to this basic (around $ 50 million U.S. dollars) due to
service. In urban areas the proper coverage gastrointestinal diseases transmitted by water.
380
GUATEMALA
Table 15. Households by Type of Sanitary Service, as Census Year
When performing a correlation with the Table 16. Departments in Order of Highest Proportion
of the Total Reported Cases of Gastrointestinal Illness
indicators developed by WHO regarding the
in the Total Population
impact of investments in water supply and
sanitation on health, is shown that at least a Department %
10% reduction in diarrheal diseases could be 1. Izabal 33
achieved by investing $ 1 in them. We can 2. San Marcos 21
conclude that for every $ 1 invested in these
3. Alta Verapaz 21
items would achieve a reduction of U.S. $ 5
4. Retalhuleu 19
from the budgets of MSPAS and IGSS and
thus free up at least $ 5 million budgets. 5. Jutiapa 15
6. Chiquimula 15
Table 16 shows the departments ordered 7. Huehuetenango 15
from highest to lowest proportion of 8. Quetzaltenango 14
morbidity reported of water-related 9. Sololá 12
gastrointestinal diseases.
10. Zacapa 12
The Second Progress Report Card for the
National Level 12
Millennium Development Goals in Guatemala
(2006) expresses literally “Getting families Source: MSPAS 2004, cited by SEGEPLAN 2007
to have continuously drinking water and
adequate sanitation is a fundamental goal. In
fact, the family that enjoys these conditions a 10% increase in the proportion of urban
will enjoy better health, better education ... households with adequate water, there is the
and contributes in particular to improve the likelihood that child malnutrition would fall by
women situation... is conducive to better care 8.2% overall, and if the percentage of families
for the environment ... “Invariably, the lack of who can’t access to appropriate services be
these basic services is highly associated with reduced from 13.68% to 3.68%, the reduction
high levels of poverty and extreme poverty”. of maternal mortality from 153 to 116.33 per
This Second Report ensures that if there was 100,000 live births (p. 219).
381
GUATEMALA
12. Water and Economy quantities of water, this includes a variety of
Although, even if the share values of natural craft production. The construction industry
resources haven’t been quantified yet in is impossible without water. There is still a
the national economy, including water, good margin of power generation based on
is easy to assume that more than the half hydropower, currently generates about 500
of the nation’s GDP comes from the use MW, equivalent to 35% of the total energy
and exploitation of natural resources, production, taking the country a potential of
as Guatemalan society is economically 4,000 MW and with the rising oil price makes
dependent on natural resource exploitation. it more feasible.
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is Q. The great importance that the inbound
225,000 million and 71% of it depends on tourism represents to the country, which
four major sectors of the economy, namely: a) seeks not only the cultural but also the
agriculture, b) industry, c) trade, d) transport, natural environment, where water stands out
storage and communications. The agricultural as a central element of scenic beauty and
sector (23% of GDP) depends entirely on the necessary for the start value of this service,
water. Agricultural production is cyclical, is this sector also, becomes a serious applicant
sown at the onset of the rains and harvested at for water quantity and quality. Moreover, the
the end of them. Perform off-season farming, government mining policy which favors these
means adding ”artificial” water on the floor”. holdings represent a substantial increase in
It is estimated that the country watered a local and focus on the demand, consumption
little over 310,000 hectares; this has required and disposal of water still worthless, with
investment, whose financial value is taken the addition that some of these holdings
into account, but is not always the direct are located in the headwaters of watersheds
contribution of water to increase yields of where there is less availability of water
agricultural crops, as an important variable to naturally and from where it can contaminate
look sustainably national water capital. surface and groundwater sources.
a comprehensive plan land use planning, have occurred and does not have the power
strengthen the comprehensive management to implement its programs depend on other
of natural resources strengthen the response entities of government and society. Its ability
capacity of vulnerable people, better to influence is very limited, scarce financial
information about threats and promote a resources or circumstantial, as the post Stan
culture of disaster risk reduction. allocation, and therefore has not been possible
to develop the set of studies to identify local
Finally, it is important to highlight the state’s risks and threats and to recommend the
institutional response on the issue of risk respective measures prevention, management
management, to the effects of extraordinary and disaster mitigation.
meteorological events. While government
laws and policies facilitate the adoption of a 15. Legislation
national system of risk management, in practice Throughout the legal history of the country,
this system has not been integrated. The the response of the State against legal
National Coordinator for Disaster Reduction and judicial issue of water has evolved in
(CONRED), whose nature is eminently response to the specific needs of the country
coordination with powers to declare areas (sectoral laws and institutions), but now the
of risk, is responsible for bringing together realities of the country have changed so
these efforts at all stages, prevention, care, existing legislation is inadequate. It means,
management and reconstruction, in reality its has covered certain aspects of the property,
scope has been reduced only to participate easements, use, development and protection
in the processes of emergency once disasters of water, without incorporating the national
385
GUATEMALA
Table 21. Legislation Related to Water others. Historically, constitutions were
incorporated into the public domain various
Topic Laws
categories of water.
Property and Constitución; Ley de
Easement expropiación, Ley de
reservas territoriales del Parallel to the debate over the ownership of
Estado, Código civil de water, there is the debate on rights acquired
1963; y Código penal.
under civil law and land reform, and how they
Use Código civil de 1963.
should regulate those from the Indian law, all
Development Constitución; Código civil of which the State has not responded, and
de 1933 ; Código municipal;
Código de salud; Ley de the commitment contained in the Agreement
transformación agraria; on Resettlement of Uprooted Communities
Ley de minería; Ley de
hidrocarburos; Ley de by Armed Conflict, to regularize water rights
pesca; Ley general de of its population.
energía; y Ley orgánica del
INGUAT.
Rights for fishing, energy, mining and
Protection Constitución; Ley hydrocarbons are considered by sectoral
de protección y laws as accessories to a major right-mining,
mejoramiento del medio fishing, etc. The procedure for assignment is
ambiente; Ley forestal; y
Ley de áreas protegidas. part of the main right and in any case not
exists without the existence and coordination
Source: SEGEPLAN (2007) between different public entities.
FIG. 3a Overexploited Aquifers FIG. 3b. Intensity of Groundwater Use per State
The decrease in groundwater levels has ones, plus differential settlement and cracking
caused the disappearance of springs, native of the soil (Moreno et al. 2010). In addition, it
vegetation, wetlands, rivers, lakes and local affects surface water concessionaries, who go
ecosystems, apart from reducing flow and yield without compensation.
in the rivers, lakes and wells they supply. On the
other hand, it has increased extraction cost, 5. Uses
reduced quality, stimulated sea water intrusion Consumptive use of water is classified as
in costal aquifers, and salinization of inner follows:
• Agricultural, which includes livestock and
aquaculture;
• Public supply, for public and domestic
urban use;
• Self-supplied industry in addition to agro-
industrial uses, services and commerce;
• Thermoelectricity for non-hydroelectric
generating plants.
The situation is different in small rural began industrial development. The hydro-
communities, such as in “ejidos” or agrarian agricultural development model, valid until
communities, or simple villages, as the 1980´s, produced 86 irrigation districts.
these manage their own water resources. So-called “great irrigation” includes 561,388
Centralization of concessions and water users who can irrigate a maximum of
management by the seat of municipal 3,265,589 ha. For this purpose they count
governments has been a source of conflict in on approximately 300 thousand structures,
the entire country, more so when municipalities 50 thousand km of channels, 30 thousand
have favored new developments. km drainage, and 70 thousand km of roads
Communities have been capable of self- (Palerm et al., 2010). In spite of the above,
managing their water resources by forming in reality, not all irrigation districts are for
committees by honorary participation. “great irrigation” as the surface of 36% of
Compared to municipal and operating these is below 5 thousand ha and in 32% it
agency management, they operate with is between 5 thousand and 20 thousand ha
profit, pay for the use of electricity and (Palerm et al., 2009).
keep fees low. In contrast, municipal and
operating agency management keep large At the same time, there are approximately
payrolls, operate in the red while subsidizing 2,956,032 ha of irrigation considered under
payment of electricity with other income and “minor irrigation” also known since 1972 as,
by charging higher fees. “irrigation units” or “irrigation units for rural
development (URDERAL -Unidades de Riego
5.2 Use in Agriculture para el Desarrollo Rural)”.
At the beginning of the XXth century, Federal The government has provided little follow
Executive and Legislative powers chose to up on these irrigation areas and much of
re-launch the nation based on a model of the existent information was lost when the
hydro-agricultural development (Palerm et institutions supervising minor irrigation, i.e
al., 2010). With time, Mexico stopped being “juntas de aguas” or “water committees”
a predominantly agricultural country and on behalf of Dirección General de
402
MEXICO
Table 3. Characteristics of Cities with more than 500,000 Inhabitants
Population with Endowment L/ Physical Net use liters/ Commercial Year reported
City access to tap pers./day efficiency pers./day Efficiency
water
403
MEXICO
Aprovechamientos Hidráulicos of the SARH, • Insufficient institutional capacity.-
URDERALES for CADER of the SARH’s DDR, During the XXth century, minor irrigation
water for ejidos and rural communities on organizations went through abrupt
behalf of the Ministry for Agrarian Reform, changes caused by modifications in
were discarded. legislature; while most recent legislation
promotes smaller organizations
Thus at present, there is little official instead of recognizing those already
information available on the number of in existance. An additional problem is
users, irrigated surface, cultivation patterns that modules continue to be controlled
and the most basic statistics on agricultural excessively by CONAGUA within water
production and water volumes used. districts.
Nevertheless, it is known that in 2006, the last • Over-granting of concessions for surface
year with statistical data for “irrigation units”, water and poor registration and control
these were more productive and had greater of water use in the Public Registry for
water yield than irrigation districts (Table 4). Water Rights (REPDA -Registro Público
As with “great irrigation”, the name “minor de Derechos de Agua). This registry has
irrigation” doesn´t imply that all of these areas intended to record all water anew, instead
are truly small, as there are systems reported of giving continuity to the concessions
to have a size of 10 thousand hectares (Palerm granted previously; a difficult task as there
et. al., 2009). are 6 million hectares for irrigation and
other uses of water in the country.
Production in irrigation districts has increased • Overexploited aquifers.
from 32 million in 1990, to 35 million in 2008, • Disproportionate concentration of water
without increasing the irrigation area or the within some irrigation districts.
use of water; unfortunately information in • Lack of combined management of surface
this regard is lacking for irrigation units. and groundwaters.
Parallel to this increase, gross volume of
water for irrigation –i.e. water extracted for 5.3 Industry
irrigation from the supply source, including Official information regarding water and
the volume infiltrated and evaporated industry is confusing, imprecise, hardly
during its conduction and distribution, has systematic and is not published in an
remained relatively constant at 30,000 Mm3. updated manner; industry as a unit also lacks
This improved efficiency is due to: (a) better its own information (Aboites et al., 2008).
conservation of hydro-agricultural works, Consequently, the true situation in this sector
(b) improved efficiency of water conduction is not well known.
and distribution networks, and (c) improved
techniques for land irrigation (Palerm et 5.3.1 Use and Efficiency
al., 2010). In spite of these positive results, Approximately 20% of the water used in the
irrigation districts and units suffer the country, equivalent to 130 m3/person/year,
following problems: is used industrially. In 2007, industrial use
404
MEXICO
Table 4. Comparison Between Irrigation Districts and Units in 2006,
SOURCE: Palerm et al., 2010
Number 85 39,492
Users 427,985 N/A
Gravity dams 271,061 N/A
Gravity derived 116,385 N/A
Pumped currents 5,786 N/A
Pumped wells 34,753 N/A
Physical surface area [ha] 3’496,902.00 2’956,032.00
Sown area 2’783,468.32 3’314,242.74
Harvested area 2’757,488.26 3’202,646.44
Irrigated area [ha] 2’481,807.83 2’846,296.00
Gravity dams 1’739,105.56
1’368,682.00
Gravity derived 432,817.07
Pumped currents 34,480.17
1’477,614.00
Pumped wells 275,405.03
Extracted Volume [Mm3] 30,401.30 35,060.36
Gravity dams 19,614.96 N/A
Gravity derived 6,821.98 N/A
Pumped currents 383.34 N/A
Pumped wells 3,581.02 N/A
Volume granted by concession [Mm ] 3
27,762.87 27,183.24
Surface Water 25,836.26 11,431.70
Groundwater 1,926.61 15,751.54
Production [tons] 42’966,081.58 68’703,736.56
Production value [M$] 55,936.29 87,624.29
Yield [ton/ha] 15.58 21.51
Cost in rural areas [$/ton] 1,301.87 1,239.48
Water productivity [$/m3] 1.84 2.50
Water productivity [kg/m ] 3
1.41 1.96
N/A: Not available
Sources: CONAGUA, 2007, 2008, 2009
405
MEXICO
Table 5. Consumptive use of Water In industry, According to Extraction (m3/s)
of water reached 7.2 billion m3, more than plants at 3,122.1 Mm3 due to the presence
half of which is used to cool electric power of the Petacalco coal-fired power plant
stations. Table 5 shows the distribution of (CONAGUA, 2009a). According to hydrologic
industrially used water. Some of the major region, Golfo Centro uses the most water,
consumers of water include oil refineries, iron while Pacífico Sur has the smallest volume
and steel industry, paper mills, plus industries granted by concession. With respect to use
dedicated to timber, food processing, sugar by thermoelectric plants, the Balsas River
production and manufacturing (CONAGUA, area has the greatest volume granted by
2009a). Sugar production is the main water- concession, while areas such as Noroeste,
consuming industrial activity. Pacífico Norte and Frontera Sur had no
concessions granted for this purpose in
Table 6 shows volumes granted by concession 2007(CONAGUA, 2009a). Nearly 80%
per state. The state of Veracruz consumes of the water consumed industrially is
the most water with 1,150.6 Mm3. Likewise, used in only six industrial activities: sugar
Guerrero has the greatest volume granted production, chemical, oil, cellulose and
by concession for use in thermoelectric paper, textile and beverages (FIG. 6). Of
407
MEXICO
the total industrial consumption, 50% is plants is highly diverse and may include the
used in cooling, 35% in processes, 5% for generation of electricity itself as it is based
use in boilers and 10% for services. It is on water vapor, as well as the energy needed
calculated that these volumes supply close to treat municipal sewage water used by a
to 1,400 businesses, considered being the variety of plants in the process. Unfortunately,
most important with respect to their water the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE –
use and discharge (Castelan, 2000). Comisión Federal de Electricidad) provides
no itemized information on how large these
Based on the value published by the consumptive uses are. Table 7 presents
World Economic Forum, WEF, (2009) the a summary of the estimated electricity
consumption of electricity to treat municipal consumed for various uses of water.
water (660 kWh per million liters) is close to
0.62 TWh. According to Scheinbaum et al., According to the Water Capture, Treatment
2010, consumption of water in thermoelectric and Supply Census (Censos de Captación,
Tratamiento y Suministro de Agua) performed
Table 7. Estimate of Energy Consumed to Supply,
Treat and Pump Sewage Water. by INEGI, 18% of the water supplied by the
tap water networks was used by industry and
Water National services (CONAGUA, 2009).
Consumption Estimated
5.3.2 Main Challenges
Uses km3 TWh The following are some of the most important
Irrigation 60.6 problems authorities face to implement the
Flood irrigation n.a. laws, rules and regulations needed to improve
Pumped water use, reuse and treatment in industries
irrigation n.a. 8.05 (López et al. 2010).
(tariff 9)
Public Self- • Authorities lack a detailed and precise
11.1
supply
diagnosis of the number of companies
Groundwater 6.9
with well established systems for water
Surface water 4.2 and residual water management, and the
Tariff 6 1.51 situation these systems are in.
Cutzamala 0.89 • Most industries, with the exception of
Tap water the largest ones, lack the infrastructure
2.7 0.71
treatment and human resources for adequate water
Treatment 2.5 1.65 management.
• Deficient laws and regulations which
Industrial
0.94 0.62 do not promote sanctions and fines for
treatment
polluting water, in addition to fines that are
TOTAL 13.43
so low that it is often preferable to pay them
% of national consumption 7.1%
repeatedly than to comply with the law.
408
MEXICO
• The lack of a strategic system to provide released through evapotranspiration but
incentives for industries that promote and also the blue water that eventually turns into
apply programs, actions and projects for green water, the total water volume entering
cleaner production and the efficient use, the Mexican territory, which is 1,920,725 m3/s
reuse and recycling of water. (3.93%), becomes green water by consumptive
• The lack of social responsibility on behalf use. If the volume of water included in other
of many industries. consumptive uses is ignored, (1.19%), data
• Corruption and influence peddling while suggest an environmental water flow, or water
applying laws and regulations. volume needed to feed rivers and lakes, of
about 12,018 m3/a (24.65%). These percentages
5.4 Ecological Use are still higher than those of countries like India
It has been estimated that Mexico has and Kenya, which respectively have values of
nearly 14,523 m3/s of blue water1, or 11% and 1.7% (Ruelas et al., 2010).
renewable freshwater available per year, Table 8 and FIG. 7 show the environmental
and a total of 32,215 m3/s of green water2 flow by hydrologic region. This flow fluctuates
per year corresponding to evapotranspiration
(CONAGUA, 2008). Blue water availability 1 Blue water. Water from rivers and aquifers.
is comprised by approximately 83% surface 2 Green water. Water used to produce green
biomass, entering through the roots of
water and 17% groundwater. Considering plants and released into the atmosphere
that green water includes not only the water by foliage (Lundqvist and Steen, 1999).
FIG. 7. Distribution of Blue, Green and Environmental Water Flow by Hydrologic-Administrative Region
from 155,625 Mm3/year (4,935 m3/s) in the (CONAGUA, 2008). In 2009, while budget
Frontera Sur region to negative 1,659 Mm3/ distribution showed a similar pattern (53%,
year (negative 59 m3/s) in the Valle de Mexico 23% and 21%, respectively), the investment
region. in tap water, sewage and water treatment
Articles 14 bis and 15 of the National Water decreased in favor of administration and
Law of 2004, establish that the national water preservation programs.
policy should be sustained on integrated
management of water resources per Although Watershed Councils area a CONAGUA
watershed, as well as the acknowledgment of strategy to promote decentralization and
the interaction between hydric resources and participation of water users, ecological use
air, soil, flora, fauna, other natural resources, as represented by the voice of members and
biodiversity and ecosystems, all of which are that of society is practically non-existent.
vital for water renewal. Policies for social
and economic development must recognize 6 Water and Energy
the finite nature of water resources, the 6.1 Use
importance of their ecological, economic and Energy and water are closely related resources
social uses, as well as the interconnection and are essential for human well-being.
with resources found in the watershed. In On the one hand, water is necessary to
practice however, these objectives deserve produce, transform and consume energy,
low priority within budgeting allocation. and on the other, energy is required to
pump, sanitize and treat water. In 2007, 5%
The 2008 CONAGUA budget assigned 65% of the water consumed in Mexico was used
for tap water, sewage and water treatment, to generate electricity in thermoelectric
whilst 20% was assigned for irrigation and 15% plants, while in contrast, in the United States
for administration and preservation programs in the year 2000, 39% of water was used for
410
MEXICO
FIG. 8 Water Consumption According to Source FIG. 9 Tendencies in Water Use by Pemex According
and Oil Industry Branch. to Activity (Mm3)
this purpose, nearly the same amount as in of which 3% corresponds to Pemex Exploring
agriculture (Sheinbaum et al., 2010). and Production (PEP - Pemex Exploración
y Producción), followed by Pemex Gas
Public information concerning consumption and Basic Petrochemistry (PGPB - Pemex
of energy for the various activities related to Gas y Petroquímica Básica) representing
water and sewage, is deficient, especially 18%, Pemex Petrochemistry (PPQ - Pemex
in big cities and municipalities with high Petroquímica) with 24%, and Pemex Refining
and medium voltage rates. The reason for (PR - Pemex Refinación), 55%. Nearly 52% of
this is that water and energy policies and the water consumed for refining comes from
management are under the responsibility of groundwater sources and 42% from surface
various institutions, and with the exception water, while most of the water used for gas,
of hydro-electricity, they hardly work in basic and secondary petrochemistry comes
coordination, (Sheinbaum et al., 2010). from surface sources (FIG. 8, Sheinbaum et
Water is used for a variety of activities in the al., 2010). Although the overall use of water
energy sector, although it is mostly consumed for the various activities in the oil industry
in the processing and extraction of fuels; in has been declining, water used to refine oil
addition, final consumption of energy implies showed an increase between 2005 and 2008
minimal water requirements (Sheinbaum et al., (FIG. 9). Nevertheless, the figure for these
2010). years, 120 m3/m3 product, remained below the
The main water sources for extraction value for 2000.
and processing of energy are the rivers
Coatzacoalcos, Huazuntlán, Ramos and Tamesí, These savings are the consequence of water
as well as the Salamanca, Cadereyta and Tula recycling, and it could be said that the
aquifers, among others. In 2008, the total water increases result from less efficient use. On
resources used by Pemex reached 7,540 m3/s, comparing use per product between 2001 and
411
MEXICO
Table 9. Use of Water According to Production Unit plants use closed-cycle cooling systems and
(Use Minus Discharge) in m3 Water per m3 Product in
2001 and 2008 discharge 5% water. Most of the 130 m3/s of
water used by thermoelectric plants in 2007
2001 2008 Difference (88%) came from surface water bodies. It is
worth mentioning that 76% of the water under
PEP 0.13 0.01 92
concession for this purpose is for the coal-fired
Refining 0.86 1.03 -20
plant of Petacalco located off the coast of the
Oil and basic 0.8 0.61 24 state of Guerrero, very close to the mouth of
petrochemistry
the river Balsas (CONAGUA, 2008).
Petrochemistry 6.39 4.66 27
Thus, the Petacalco plant alone consumed
Prepared with data from: Sheinbaum, et al., 2010 3.1 km3 (98 m3/s) of water to generate 13.4
TWh, while the remaining plants generated
2008, a decrease is clearly observed for PEP 185.5 TWh consuming only 1 km3 of water
and PPQ, but not for PR, where water use has (31 m3/s).
varied greatly in recent years (Table 9). The installed capacity of the national electricity
Coal-fired power plants use water for cooling, sector is calculated to increase by 17,942 MW
lubrication of equipment and fuel processing, for the year 2018, of which 2,078 MW are
while thermoelectric plants use it in generator programmed to be used in coal-fired plants.
turbines and cooling processes. Because This not only has serious implications with
thermoelectric plants use the most water, respect to water use, but also will have impact
older plants were built close to surface water on the environment and the import of coal
and use open-cycle cooling. More recent (CFE, 2009). In 2007, 122.8 km3 of water were
412
MEXICO
used in the country for hydroelectric plants,
which generate 12% of the nation’s electricity.
PEP
Fats and Oils 84 53 55 38 41 81 101 60 41
Total Suspended 297 260 228 224 229 320 306 329 222
Solids
Total Nitrogen 33.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.0
Other 71.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.0
Total Discharge 485 318 284 263 271 401 407 390 263
BOD 320 333 543 114
Heavy Metals 10 14 12
PGPB
Fats and Oils 50 53 55 50 44 133 49 96 80
Heavy Metals 4 1
PPEQ
Fats and Oils 140 156 85 59 104 133 66 76 81
Total Suspended 1,418 691 622 819 359 741 464 414 459
Solids
Total Nitrogen 113 7 7 8 9 32 34 28 24
Other 16 3 2 5 4 13 21 15 14
Total Discharge 1,687 857 715 892 475 920 574 532 578
BOD 489 300 209 333
Heavy Metals 25 12 13
Source: Sheinbaum et al., 2010
FIG. 14. Chlorination Efficiency per State for July, 2009 with Respect to the National Average
and Some Historical Data
Buying bottled water is one of the most in the western region of the city containing
expensive measures to ensure drinking water higher earning households with better water
quality. The high use of this type of water services (Soto, 2007).
could be related to various aspects such as
the world-wide growth of the sector, but there
is also evidence of a relationship between
the purchase of bottled water and deficient
water services, especially with respect to
programmed supply at specific periods,
poor quality or lack of trust in quality. For this
reason, the amount spent on bottled water is
greater in poorer homes.
The results of a survey conducted in
Iztapalapa, one of the regions in Mexico
City with the lowest income and with serious
issues regarding programmed supply and
SOURCE: MAZARI ET AL,2010
water quality, show that 91% of homes FIG. 15. Sales Volume for Bottled Water (Thousands of
consume bottled water in contrast to 61% Liters). (Source: Mazari et al., 2010)
418
MEXICO
8. Sources of Contamination
In Mexico, water contamination is mainly a
consequence of rubbish being thrown into
sewage systems, rivers and lakes, discharge
from urban and industrial centers as well as
contamination from agricultural areas, all
of which are the main producers of diffuse
contamination in the country.
Escherichia coli ,
Diarrhea/Disentery
Cholera, Campylobacter, Bacteria CONAGUA, SS
Salmonellosis, Shigellosis
Rotavirus, Norovirus,
SS
Adenovirus, Hepatitis Virus
Giardiasis, Amebiasis, SS
Protozoa
Cryptosporidium
Ascaris, Trichuris, Taenia Helminthic SS
FIG. 17 Total Volume in Concession, 2007 (Mm3) and (b) Water Productivity in Basic Values,
in 2003 Pesos, per Cubic Meter of Water in Concession, 2007.
424
MEXICO
those that register the highest volumes of availability, quantified by rainfall and total
water concessions, such as Sinaloa, Sonora and volume of concessions are not factors for
Michoacán, among others. Although, in general economic or human development. According
terms and based on the aggregate information to data from the Federal Expenditure Budget
per state, water productivity is inversely (FEB), the states with lower volumes of water
proportionate to the volume of concessions, granted by concession and higher natural water
an in-depth analysis by economic sector is availability receive less revenues to control,
necessary, according to domestic accounting manage, treat and distribute water. This
systems. However, information available about explains the higher number of inhabitants
water concessions does not allow this job to be without domestic piped-water service, the
done (Montesillo et al., 2010). higher mortality due to hydric factors and,
Although detailed information is lacking, consequently, the lower HDI. Thus, the
analysis can be performed for some sectors, volume of water in concession and the FED
such as sector 11, which involves agriculture, contribute to emphasize HDI inequality in
livestock, forest exploitation, fishing and states. Furthermore, in correlating the data of
hunting. From the information and data Table 14 we obtain that the higher the rainfall,
by Montesillo et al., (2010), it is possible the higher each of the following factors:
to conclude that states with the highest percentage illiteracy, percentage population
concession of water, such as Colima, with incomplete elementary education,
Sinaloa, Sonora, Hidalgo and Tamaulipas, percentage population in homes without
have low economic efficiency related to electricity, percentage population without
water for agriculture. On the other hand, sewers and sanitary utilities, and percentage
Federal District, Tabasco, Oaxaca, Jalisco, dwellers in homes without piped water; in
Quintana Roo, State of Mexico, the entities summary, the higher natural availability of
with the lowest concessions of water for water, the higher poverty level and, therefore,
agricultural use, have a higher productivity the lower HDI. The concession volume has no
in this regard. relation to the indexes because the correlation
coefficient in statistical terms is zero.
11.3 Rainfall, Volume Granted in
Concession and Human Development 12. Gender and Water
The correlation coefficient between HDI and Since the 1970’s, international agencies
rainfall has a negative value of - 0.141, and have promoted the participation of women
can be interpreted to mean that the higher in water management and improvement of
the natural availability of water, the lower the use efficiency and conservation as a way to
value of HDI (Montesillo et al., 2010). Likewise, increase health conditions and reduce poverty.
the relation between HDI and the total volume Consequently, Mexico recently included
of concessions per state (coefficient of -0.092) elements in its policies to achieve gender
is also negative, although because the value is equity regarding the access to, and control
low, it could imply that there is no relationship. of, water (Nazar et al., 2010). Nevertheless, in
Therefore, we can conclude that natural water many areas this has not occurred in practice.
425
MEXICO
An example is Chiapas, a state which has but also water needs are frequently used as
almost two thirds of the nation’s surface an instrument to exert control and pressure to
water, and nevertheless contains rural and form part of religious and political groups, and
especially indigenous areas where water form part of conflicts between municipalities.
services are lacking. In these areas water is Similar situations can be observed in states,
often obtained from sources such as pits, that where issues are also brought about by
are frequently polluted (84.5% of this water is pollution problems. Other examples occur in
not fit for human consumption due to its poor the north and center of Mexico, where water
bacteriological quality), and lack water in the scarcity is greater and the cost is higher. Again
dry season. As a consequence, not only does women and children suffer the most as they
water come at a high cost, which for women must carry water large distances, and employ
often implies walking up to 3 hours to fetch it; many hours in the process (Nazar et al., 2010).
Human Development
% dwellers in homes
without piped water
% dwellers in houses
% dwellers in homes
age 15 years or more
(l/h/d), 2007*
Federal Entity
more
426
MEXICO
12.1 Gender and Water for Agriculture et al., 2010). In 2002, the Ministry of Agrarian
Although the Agrarian Reform Act of 1971, Reform created the Programa de la Mujer
recognized that men and women are equal en el Sector Agrario (Program for Women
regarding land ownership, this has yet to in the Agricultural Sector, or PROMUSAG),
occur in practice. In 1990 there were 3.1 with the aim of supporting farming projects
million owners of ejidos (common lands) for women with agrarian rights; it includes
throughout the country, of which less than 661,000 women who own ejidos and
46,000 (nearly 1.4%) land deeds belonged common lands. Only 1.36% of women with
to women. There are no data on how many agrarian rights, benefit from this program
of these had access to irrigation, although in and it remain unclear if their access to water
general, women rarely participate in irrigation is sufficient. Thus, in the same way as women
units or hold water concession deeds (Nazar have traditionally been excluded from owning
Note: CONAGUA. 2007, Situación del subsector agua potable y alcantarillado, P. A-2. ** PNUD-México, 2007, Informe sobre
Desarrollo Humano, México 2006-2007: migración y desarrollo humano, p. 166.
SOURCE: Montesillo et al., 2010
427
MEXICO
land, they are also excluded from water rights do, and they also marginalize themselves from
(Nazar et al., 2010). decision-making organisms (Nazar et al., 2010).
In order to guarantee the participation of
The Blue Agenda for Women (La Agenda women, it has been suggested that they
Azul de las Mujeres), (2006) points out that in should be included in technical sessions
recent years, the policies for decentralization and decision-making as well as in the
of water management in Mexico found in agencies in charge of water policies in the
the National Water Law3 (2008), have not country, such as CONAGUA, as control of
increased financial, technical and human water resources is transferred from state
institutional capacities in women. Dávila- to localities.
Poblete (1998, 2000) analyzes how poor
women in Mexico are losing their water rights 13. Poverty
as a consequence of the transference of 13.1 National Situation
irrigation district management. In Mexico, 22 million people still lack access
With the appearance of new user associations to sewage systems and 3 million lack drinking
registers, water will be assigned to whoever water services; most of these have low
works the land and not to he or she who owns income and are greatly vulnerable (Guevara
it. Although many women do not work the land et al., 2010). According to poverty limits
they own, they nevertheless have had authority (CONEVAL, 2007)4 it has been calculated that
regarding the use of water. This is currently until 2006, 14% of the population suffered
changing under the new structures. Women nutritional poverty, 21% human capacity
have limited participation in the making of poverty and 43% income poverty. FIG. 18
public decisions due to their confinement to shows a graph of poverty degree per state.
the household, and the disadvantages they
have within communities as a consequence 13.2 Water and Absolute Poverty
of patrilocal marriage rules. Although the law FIG.19 presents the percentage water services
stipulates that the participation of users must for rural and urban populations with respect
be promoted in various organizational areas, to the presence of nutritional poverty. The
women are excluded because water rights differences are clear and a discrepancy between
are not to their names and thus their access to poor homes in rural and urban areas can be
irrigation water is informal. The law itself does observed as 70% of poor rural households
not exclude them, but deeds and traditions have access to water services compared to
3 Chapter I, Article 5, Paragraphs II and III, as 4 As stated by CONEVAL (2007), and according
reformed on April 29, 2004, states that it “shall to monthly income per capita in August of 2006,
promote the participation of water users and three kinds of poverty can be defined in rural
private individuals in the performance and areas: nutritional poverty (598.7 pesos), human
management of hydraulic works and services”, capacity poverty (707.84 pesos) and income
and “shall favor the decentralization of the poverty (1,086.4 pesos), these same categories,
management of water resources, according but in urban areas are determined by 809.87,
to the current legal framework”, respectively. 993.31 and 1,624.92 pesos, respectively.
428
MEXICO
from a waterworks connection outside the
home, or through other sources such as tank
trucks, wells, rivers, or another home. Again
the mostly clearly marked difference is between
rural households in nutritional poverty and
urban homes without nutritional poverty, as
only one in every three poor rural households
has a waterworks connection inside, while
nearly 90% urban non-poor homes do have this
service (Guevara et al., 2010). With respect
to sewage, only 30% of poor homes in rural
SOURCE : II CONTEO DE POBLACION Y VIVIENDA 2005. areas are connected to a sewage system,
INEGI. ÍNDICE DE REZAGO SOCIAL, CONEVAL.
while sewage service coverage for urban non-
FIG. 18. Degree of Poverty per State poor homes is greater than 90% (FIG. 21). It
is worth mentioning that 38% of poor rural
50% of poor urban homes (Guevara et al., homes have no access to sewage systems
2010). Poverty is also related to access to public at all and thus must face adverse conditions
infrastructure for water supply. and probably suffer greater health risks and
FIG. 20 shows how homes where there is no contamination of water sources. Finally, FIG.
poverty are more likely to have access to public 22 shows that the percentage of the total
waterworks within the home, while it is more income spent on water is greater in poor
probable for a poor home to obtain its water homes than in those that are not poor.
FIG. 19. Frequency of Water Services in Households FIG. 20 Source of Water in Households
According to Presence or Absence of Nutritional According to Presence or
Poverty (< $598.70). Absence of Nutritional Poverty.
429
MEXICO
This difference is more noticeable in urban is also evidence of a relationship between
areas where a poor home spends on average purchasing bottled water and deficient water
3.4% of its total expenses on water, compared services, especially regarding programmed
to 1.8% in a non-poor home. In other words, supply at specific periods, poor quality or
in urban areas, a poor household spends lack of trust in water quality. For this reason,
nearly twice as much (in relative terms) as a the amount spent on bottled water is greater
non-poor household. in poorer homes, as already stated above
(Soto, 2007).
Nationwide, this relationship is 1.7 to 1 and
1.6 to 1 in rural homes; thus, poor homes 13.3 Water and Relative Poverty
must sacrifice a larger portion of their Guevara et al., 2010 built a water service
income to satisfy their water needs than a backlog index considering the percentage of
home that is not poor. These data only refer private dwellings (VPH -viviendas particulares
to direct costs for services; nevertheless, as habitadas) that lack: (a) a lavatory or toilet,
already mentioned, water services are often (b) piped water from public networks and (c)
interrupted and at times, water quality is drainage.
questionable. Buying bottled water is one As a result, there are five backlog categories
of the most expensive measures to ensure (very high, high, medium, low and very low).
drinking water quality. FIG. 23 shows that backlog in water services
is mainly correlated to levels of nutritional
The high use of this type of water could poverty. In addition it was found that localities
be related to various aspects such as the with these two traits also have low indexes of
world-wide growth of the sector, but there education and health.
FIG. 21. Sewage Availability in Private Households FIG. 22. Water Cost as a Proportion of total Expenses
According to Nutritional Poverty. in Private Homes According to Nutritional Poverty.
430
MEXICO
13.4 Water Services and Education manifestations of poverty are intertwined and
According to Guevara et al., 2010, the generate a trap that hinders improvement in
Ministry of Education (SEP - Secretaría de the quality of life of people.
Educación Pública) has identified schools
with the greatest infrastructure needs using, 14. Water and Indigenous Population
among other criteria, the condition of school Mexico has great ethnic and linguistic diversity.
lavatories. FIG. 24 presents the degree of In 2005 more than 10 million indigenous
marginalization and the corresponding state people speaking over 62 languages where
of lavatories in schools with infrastructure registered throughout the entire country,
needs. As can be noted, the degree of but especially in the central and southern
marginalization is correlated to the poor state states (INEGI, 2005). In order to evaluate the
of sanitary facilities, which in a way confirms importance of Indigenous peoples in water
that the most marginalized population (and management, it is necessary to consider
the poorest) is the one dealing with this the land they live on, work and govern. The
issue. Thus, the lack of adequate sanitary debate on these territories was opened
infrastructure in schools is a problem that during the zapatista insurrection in 1994,
mainly affects children from poor homes. and although it is still to be resolved, it is
As has been recognized by UNICEF (2006), still manifest in the various perceptions of
unhygienic living conditions and the lack the political construction of the autonomy
of access to clean water have a negative of indigenous peoples in Mexico (Peña et
impact on the health, school attendance al., 2010).
and learning capacity of schoolchildren. The Unfortunately, not all participants have been
above is a clear example of how the various considered equally in the federal policies on
FIG. 23. Nutritional Poverty and Backlog FIG. 24. Degree of Marginalization with Respect to
in Water Services. the State of Lavatories in Schools with Deficiencies in
Infrastructure.
431
MEXICO
water management. To the present date, 15. Transboundary Water
indigenous peoples and communities have 15.1 Northern Border
been invisible with regards to the design and The state of Baja California is found in the
practice of these policies notwithstanding the upper northwest of the Republic of Mexico,
large volumes of water that fall on their land within the territorial strip characterized by
which feed the nation’s aquifers and currents, arid and semi-arid regions. Although the
and the extremely important role they play in region corresponds to the area where the
the conservation of vegetation coverage of the world’s major deserts are found, with their
elevated areas of watersheds (Peña et al., 2010). characteristic scarcity of water for human
consumption, the lack of water has not been
Indigenous populations and their local a limiting factor for the social and economic
governments are key factors in hydrological development of one of the most important
conservation as they sustain soil and the overall economic regions in Mexico. Here, nearly 4
health of water sources and currents in areas of million people from throughout the country
precipitation and recharge. have established their livelihood, forming a
These activities still require the native mosaic of cultures, traditions and customs
knowledge these peoples possess. There that have given rise to a new community on
are plenty of examples that prove that Mexico’s northern border (Román et al., 2010).
indigenous peoples know how to defend The main source of water is the Colorado
their natural, territorial and water patrimony River containing a volume provided annually
in highly adverse conditions in which they by the American government in accordance
confront social stakeholders with enormous to the International Waters Treaty of 1994
economic resources and political influence. (Box 1). This water supplies the municipalities
The main problem is that there are no of Mexicali, Tecate and Tijuana in the state
policies to incentivize and reinforce native of Baja California and the municipality of
knowledge and it therefore it can be lost San Luis Río Colorado in the state of Sonora
(Peña et al., 2010). for human use and productive activities.
Box 1
Treaty on the International Waters between Mexico and the United States of America. With information
from Martínez et al., 2010.
The Treaty determines that Mexico delivers water from the Rio Grande to the United States, while Mexico
receives water from the Colorado River from the US. In addition, it specifies that water delivery is accounted
for in five-year cycles and “in the case of extraordinary drought, any missing flow will be replaced during the
following cycle”. However, the term “extraordinary drought” is not explicitly defined in the treaty (Martínez
et al., 2010). To define this term, first it must be stated that a year is considered to be dry if the sum of virgin
flow (uncontrolled) is less than 3,388 million cubic meters (Mm3), or the average annual flow registered.
Likewise, a five-year dry period can be defined as one in which the sum of virgin flows is less than 16,940 Mm3
(five times the average) in five years. Because the flow to be delivered to the United States per five-year
period is 2,158 Mm3 and the anticipated water volume for use in Mexico in this same span is 9,825 Mm3, an
“extraordinary drought” could be considered to occur when the five-year virgin flow is less than 11,983 (2,158
+9,825) Mm3 (representing 71% of the average five-year flow), which implies that the sum of the surplus from
the six tributaries is equal to or less than zero.
432
MEXICO
Another source of water is the aquifer in the face of the possible effects produced by
beneath the Mexicali Valley, recharged by climate change, especially because greater
infiltration of the Colorado River as it flows drought is expected in the area in the future.
to the Gulf of California (Román et al., 2010). An increase in temperature and a decrease
In this area, the relation between the two in precipitation would result in more frequent
nations acquires an additional dimension, and more severe hydrological droughts, as
as the population of both countries shares can already be observed in the transboundary
the use of water. Not only are the frequent watersheds between Mexico and the United
droughts a cause of a variety of conflicts, States. To a great degree, the problem has
but also flooding caused by a lack of become more acute because of the important
infrastructure for control when precipitation increase in urban and industrial consumption,
is intense. Based on an analysis of water not so much due to a fall in the contribution of
availability for the five municipalities in Baja the river basins. (Roman, et al, 2010).
California, it can be stated that only Mexicali
has a permanent volume of water sufficient 15.2 Southern border (Mexico,
to cover the demand of the majority of the Guatemala and Belize)
population during the entire year. Water is ubiquitous along the border shared
by Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. Most of
Baja California receives 1,850,234 Mm3/ the Mexico-Guatemala boundary is fluvial
per year from the Colorado River, equal (53%) and corresponds to the Suchiate and
to 9.1% of its annual base flow, which is Usumacinta rivers, while nearly the entire
entirely controlled by the US government Mexico-Belize international boundary (87%)
(CILA, 2000). Not all water provided has the is determined by the Hondo River. Various
same quality as 10% is highly saline and is wetlands and numerous transboundary rivers
inadequate for direct agricultural use. of various sizes extend along both sides of
To deal with this technical problem, the international boundary between Mexico
the Mexican government has set up a and Guatemala in addition to the three
procedure in a place called “La Licuadora” aforementioned international rivers. Some
to mix these waters with those from the small lakes and lagoons are artificially divided
aquifer in order to reduce the total salt by the border, as well as groundwaters the
concentration and adapt it for productive transboundary connections of which have yet
purposes. In a way, both nations have to be studied in detail. This variety of flows
helped solve the problem regarding the and bodies of water form six transboundary
amount of water, although quality, which is river basins, two running to the Pacific Ocean,
not dealt with clearly in the aforementioned three into the Gulf of Mexico, and one into the
Treaty, has become a problem. (Román et Caribbean (Kauffer et al., 2010). Despite the
al., 2010). above, the Southern border appears to hold
little importance for the Mexican government
The situation of the transboundary watershed and its southern neighbors. Thus, information
with the United States is of even greater concern about water uses, pollution and extraction is
433
MEXICO
hard to come by, particularly from Guatemala The six transboundary river basins cover a
and Belize. On the other hand, although total area of 167,725 km2, i.e., slightly more
there is more information available in Mexico, than 1.5 times the extension of Guatemala,
its use is difficult as it is available by province about seven times the size of Belize and more
or hydrological region, rather than by river than twice the size of the state of Chiapas.
basin (Kauffer et al., 2010). For Guatemala, managing transboundary
basins represents agreeing with Mexico and
Overall, water availability is not a problem Belize to put into order or to intervene more
for the Southern border area in terms of than half of its territory; while for Belize it
quantity and quality, however the gap in basic corresponds to one fifth of its territory, and
water and sanitation services, particularly in finally for Mexico, it is only a minimal part
indigenous areas, is enormous (Kauffer et (Kauffer et al., 2010).
al., 2010). Although the area contains six
transboundary river basins, cooperation Thus, Mexico should be the most interested
regarding the sharing of water between party in the management of its shared basins
nations is virtually absent. This situation for two concrete reasons: approximately 40%
contrasts with the richness of transboundary of the surface waters of the country flow
water exchanges on a local scale. through these southern transboundary river
basins, and the entire Mexican territory in
15.2.1 Transboundary river basins these river basins are located downstream.
between Mexico, Guatemala and Belize In spite of the territorial and hydrographic
Oregon State University identifies the continuity of the six river basins and the
Suchiate, Coatan, Grijalva, Candelaria and importance due to their flow volumes,
Hondo transboundary river basins in this national policies remain strictly centered on
region. A closer analysis (Kauffer et al., national interests.
2010) reveals the existence of six basins
instead of five and the absence of official The main cooperation mechanism in Mexico
demarcation of transboundary river basins related to boundaries and water issues at
between Mexico, Guatemala and Belize as the Southern border is the International
a consequence of a the lack of consensus Boundary and Water Commission (CILA
among their governments. Four of the six -Comisión Internacional de Límites y Aguas),
transboundary river basins that have been which belongs to the Ministry of Foreign
identified are binational (shared by Mexico Relations. It is a binational commission with
and Guatemala), while two cross boundaries counterparts in Guatemala and Belize, as
between Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. well as Mexico. The Mexico-Guatemala
The four binational basins correspond to the International Boundary and Water
Suchiate, Coatan, Grijalva and Candelaria Commission were established in 1961 while
rivers, and the trinational ones are the the Mexico-Belize International Boundary
Usumacinta and Hondo rivers5. Data for these and Water Commission was created in 1993.
river basins are shown in Table 15. In 1990 Mexico and Guatemala signed the
434
MEXICO
treaty for the consolidation of the Mexico- The problem deals with the fact that the
Guatemala International Boundary and Water boundary was established in 1893 following
Commission, which was ratified and published the European method called thalweg used
in 2003. CILA’s work in the three countries has for navigable rivers, which is the deepest
basically consisted of fixing the international channel. The decreasing water quantity of
river boundaries and demarcating the agreed wetlands provokes the “evaporation” of the
land boundary between Mexico and its thalweg and consequently of the international
neighbors –established by treaties of 1882 boundary. In the Suchiate River, the concern
between Mexico and Guatemala and of 1893 is related to the river mobility which not
between Mexico and British Honduras (today only generates floods but also moves the
Belize)- with monuments and a dirt road. boundary between Mexico and Guatemala as
defined by the thalweg.
The contemporary dynamics of negotiation
between Mexico and Belize are intended In response to this issue, during six decades
to achieve an agreement to demarcate the both governments have unsuccessfully tried
blue stream boundary (located upstream to drive the river back to its bed. A binational
in the Hondo river basin) in a wetlands area or trinational agreement on transboundary
which disappears during the dry season. waters and management of shared river beds
River basin Area Number of Number of Inhabitants/km2 Forests and jungles (% of total
km2 localities inhabitants surface area in km2 per river
basin)
5 It is important to mention that only a very small part of the Usumacinta river basin belongs to Belize (16 km2).
435
MEXICO
is not a priority for the three nation states sugar cane agroindustries located in Quintana
within the dynamics of national sovereignty Roo, Mexico and in Orange Walk, Belize
centered on the establishment, demarcation (Kauffer et al., 2010). Finally, a serious issue
and ratification of the shared boundary (Kauffer for all three countries will be climate change.
et al., 2010). Attention has not been paid to Transboundary river basins are located in a
transboundary river basin issues by CILAs, continental strip of 500 kilometers between
which do not have the necessary competence, the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the
and Mexico has not signed treaties on waters Caribbean, i.e. a path for potentially strong
with its two neighbors. These agreements are hurricanes. During the last twenty years,
unthinkable today in the light of statements eight hurricanes provoked huge economical,
issued by the Guatemalan government. agricultural and infrastructure damages in
Guatemala points out that it will not sign the transboundary river basins, including loss
any international convention or agreements of lives (Kauffer et al., 2010). Cooperation
with neighboring countries because it will related to transboundary waters oriented
not commit to put the sovereignty of “its” to forest, land use and water management
natural resources, including waters, at risk. and centered on territorial planning of
This statement emphatically stresses that productive activities and human settlements
Guatemala produces water, 60% of which is today a pressing need to face a variety of
flows to Mexico, El Salvador, Belize and vulnerabilities associated with climate change
Honduras (Colom, 2009), and it is not willing along this shared boundary.
to negotiate water quantity or quality with its
neighbors (Kauffer et al., 2010). 16. Climate Change
A regional analysis using interpolation
Today, deforestation processes in trans- systems derived from results obtained from
boundary river basins contribute to soil collapse general circulation models shows that Mexico
and river sedimentation which provoke huge will present significant and unprecedented
floods in five of the transboundary river basins increases in average temperature during this
(Suchiate, Coatan, Grijalva, Usumacinta century.
and Candelaria). Likewise, water pollution Towards the end of the century, if sufficient
derived from lack of water treatment, solids mitigation measures are not adopted
waste, use of agrochemicals, mining (Grijalva, worldwide, the increase in temperature
Suchiate and Coatan) and oil industry may reach 4°C, with potentially catastrophic
pollution (Grijalva and Usumacinta in the effects on the environment and productive
state of Tabasco in Mexico and in the Peten activities. In such a scenario, water resources
department of Guatemala) is not subject to in Mexico will be severely affected. In general,
study nor considered an important issue by a negative combination of reduced water
the countries involved. availability caused by reduced precipitation
in most parts of the country and greater
In the Hondo River the main problem is the evaporation from soil and natural vegetation
discharge of wastewater and used waters from is expected, together with other increases in
436
MEXICO
water demand (Martinez et al., 2010). FIG. temperature, the results are shown in FIG. 26.
25 shows average precipitation anomalies (in As can be seen, positive anomalies are shown
mm/day) for winter and summer months in for the entire country, which imply higher
the decades of the 2050s, 2070s, and 2090s. temperatures than in the 1961–1990 baseline
period. In addition, a gradual increase is seen
As can be observed, it is generally estimated in temperature as time progresses, especially
that total precipitation will decrease gradually in the summer months in the northern and
in upcoming decades throughout most southeastern parts of the country, where
of Mexico (as compared to 1961-1990 anomalies close to 5°C are estimated for the
climatology). In the winter, this can be last decade of the century. In particular, water
especially seen in the northern and western demand for irrigation will increase if irrigation
regions of the country; and in the summer, systems are not upgraded or if irrigation
in the central and southeastern regions. It areas are not reduced. Irrigation consumes
should also be observed that by the mid 21st around 77% of available water resources in
century, positive anomalies are expected Mexico. Foreseeably, natural aquifer recharge
in the summer in small central, northern, will decrease, which in turn will increase the
and northwestern regions of the country; pressure on overdrafted aquifers and on
nevertheless, it should not be overseen that those currently in balance. FIG. 27 shows the
as the century progresses these anomalies aquifers that are currently overdrafted and
tend to invert themselves. As for surface which are located in the regions where there
FIG. 27. Overdrafted Aquifers in Regions that Will Have Temperature Increases and Precipitation Decreases
FIG. 28 Overdrafted Aquifers on the Coast under Saline Intrusion Risk Due to Sea Level Rise
438
MEXICO
will be lower recharge into the subsoil and basins, the swellings tend to be very quick
greater water evapotranspiration, while FIG. and water flows at speeds that can cause
28 shows the aquifers that will experience human casualties. On the other hand, there
greater problems due to saline intrusion. are periods of scarce precipitation and low
Thermal stress caused by global warming will river levels that lead to drought, especially
diminish the productivity of some of the most from November through April, particularly in
important crops in Mexico, which will also the central and northern areas of the country,
alter their phenological cycle. Temperature producing effects reflected in low agricultural
increase will also enhance the tendency production, death of livestock, problems to
towards eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs. supply water, etc. (Arganis et al., 2010).
The main challenge lies in incorporating the
effects of climate change into the planning 17.2 Institutional Capacity
and management of water resources. In In the year 2000, the Fund for Naturals
general terms, the water sector in Mexico Disasters (FONDEN) of the Ministry of the
should make an enormous and costly effort Interior was created to deal with the effects
to adapt to climate change. This will require of natural, unforeseeable disasters, with
deep institutional and legal changes that can magnitudes that surpass the financial capacity
translate into a more efficient and sustainable to respond of federal organizations. In 2003
management of water resources (Martínez et the Rural Population Affected by Climate
al., 2010). Therefore, it is deemed necessary Contingencies (FAPRACC) of the Ministry of
that the country invest more in research and Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development,
development in the field of climate change; Fishing and Feeding, was created and in
that commitment-binding mechanisms are 2008 it became the Program for Attention to
established among all those involved with Climate Contingencies (PACC).
this phenomenon; and that Mexican data and
models be used in scenario-development The objective of the PACC is to support low-
processes. income farming and fishing producers so they
may return to their productive activities in the
17. Extreme Contingencies shortest possible time in the presence of rare,
17.1 Overall Situation relevant, nonrecurring and unpredictable
As a consequence of its geographic, climate contingencies. As from the year 2000,
orographic and hydrologic situation, Mexico the National Center for Disaster Prevention
is exposed to the possibility of extreme (CENAPRED) analyzes the socioeconomic
contingencies. Every year, from the beginning impact of geologic, hydrometeorological,
of May to the end of October, there are up chemical and sanitary phenomena. Out of
to ten tropical storms, four or five of which a total 11576 events declared by FONDEN
turn into hurricanes that impact on either the and PACC between 2000 and 2008, 96.9%
Pacific or the Atlantic coast. The swellings were hydrometeorological, 1.6% chemical,
of the main rivers cause important flooding 1.1% geologic and 0.3% sanitary (Arganis et
in plains and low-lying towns. In small river al., 2010).
439
MEXICO
FIG. 29. Number of Disaster Declarations by Hydrometeorological Phenomena in Municipalities of the Country
TOTAL
AFFECTED DAMAGES
YEAR EVENT STATES DEATHS POPULA- COST or RAIN DESCRIPTION
TION of(Millions
dollars)
11 rivers overflowed; most im-
portant in Tamazula, Humaya,
Fuerte, Sinaloa and Culiacán.
The North part of the state
14,376 m3/s, was isolated without com-
Fuerte River, munication by telephone and
Winter
1943 Rains Sinaloa 27 600 $0.14 Huites telegraphic media. Two rail-
hydrometric road bridges, some sections
gage station. of the South-Pacific railroad,
several highways and houses
were damaged. There were
landslides. Losses in agriculture
were numerous.
442
MEXICO
Source: Arganis et al. 2010 “Prevención”, Fascículo “Inhundaciones” (“Prevention” Journal, Part “Floods”, reports from socio-
economic impact series and information from socio-economic studies.
on two core issues: on the one hand, the management by opening participation to
transformation of the legal structure for water water users6, organized society and private
governance, and on the other, an important companies. As a result, regional agencies,
decentralization process. This transformation watershed councils and agencies, and their
implies an attempt to democratize water auxiliary organs have been created and
FIG. 31. Estimation of Flood Risk in Municipalities Throughout the Country (Jiménez, 2008)
The term ‘user’, as defined in the National Water Law, refers to the user of national waters,
6
and is the moral or legal person that has a permit, concession or assignment from National
Water Commission CONAGUA, to exploit or use national waters and their inherent goods.
443
MEXICO
strengthened. This has been achieved by Resources, SARH, and in 1994 it became
creating and strengthening local authorities a decentralized agency of the Ministry of
for water regulation and management, such Environment, Natural Resources and Fishery
as the offices of the Regional Agencies of the or SEMARNAP, now the SEMARNAT.
National Water Commission, and the creation The fact that by 2009 CONAGUA con-
of new environments for participation in the centrated close to 72% of the budget
organization structure for water management assigned to this Ministry, gives an idea of the
such as Watershed Councils, the auxiliary weight the agency has within the SEMARNAT.
organs of these Councils called Groundwater CONAGUA consists of a Technical Council, a
Technical Comities or COTAS and the transfer General Director, an internal control agency
of Irrigation districts to users. and the corresponding administrative units.
(Torregrosa et al., 2010).
During these 25 years, water management
and governance in Mexico has transformed 18.2 Private Participation
from a model based on highly vertical and The foundations for private participation
centralized administrative reasoning, to a policies in modern Mexico were established
model still in development which is less in the eighties, when the conditions necessary
centralized and with a particular proposal for the democratization of water and sanitation
for social and private participation, called services in the country were created. These
by Aboites the “Commercial Environmental policies were the result of recurrent economic
Model” (Aboites, L. 2009, 2010; Torregrosa crisis that favored the submission of economic
et al., 2010). and social policies to the demands established
The reforms have been centered on the by financial organisms such as The World Bank,
areas administrated by the State, such as International Monetary Fund, Inter-American
the irrigation Districts and Water Utilities, Development Bank, among others.
nevertheless these policies have left aside,
what Aboites calls ‘town waters’ or ‘aguas The main idea behind them is that private
pueblerinas’, that correspond to the 2.5 participation allows a better and more efficient
million ha of small irrigation and the huge management of water and sanitation systems
amount of rural communities that manage (Torregrosa et al., 2010). In Mexico, private
on their own access to the resource to fulfill participation occurred in some water services
their needs. but mainly in sanitation systems. In general the
private sector has participated in at least three
18.1 Institutional Aspects main ways. (Torregrosa et al., 2010):
The evolution of the institutional framework • The comprehensive management of
is shown in Box 2. In 1989 The National systems, by which private companies that
Water Commission, CONAGUA, was created obtain a concession should invest and inject
as the main water authority at the Federal fresh private capital, although in reality they
level. It began as a decentralized agency gain access to soft credits from the State.
of the Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic In Mexico there are two comprehensive
444
MEXICO
concessions for water management, one in 18.3 Social Participation
Aguascalientes and another in Cancun, one Participation of society and water users in
contract for the administration of the service water management first occurred in Irrigation
in Navojoa, and a combined company with Districts towards the end of the eighties
the participation of Aguas de Barcelona and during the nineties with the creation
and the Municipality of Saltillo of users associations, and afterwards when
• Administration through partial service the law established the participation of
contracts such as the ones in Mexico City users and social organizations in Watershed
and Puebla, among others. In these cases Councils, and their auxiliary organisms such
the government transfers the responsibility as Sub-watershed Councils and Groundwater
of part of the administration of the system Technical Comities or COTAS. In 1994
without the need of capital investment participation of the various users of water,
• Through construction, operation and such as agriculture, industry, services and
transfer, the so called COT modality that water utilities in Watershed Councils was
has mainly taken place in the construction determined by law. During this phase, the
of treatment plants throughout the country. number of participants in Councils acting
Box 2
Evolution of the institutional Framework, with information of Rodriguez y Emanuelli , 2010.
The institutional precedent of CONAGUA goes back to 1853, with the creation of the Ministry of Public
Works, Colonization, Industry and Commerce, in charge of promoting agriculture and irrigation. In 1917, the
Water, Land and Colonization Direction was created and in 1926 transformed into the National Irrigation
Commission, CNI, mainly responsible for water management in the post revolutionary period. This
Commission depended on the Ministry of Public Works and included in its functions to built and operate
irrigation infrastructure, as well as design and implement irrigation projects and plans.
In 1947 and as a consequence of amendments to the Law of Ministries and State Departments, “water became
a jurisdiction of the Ministry of Hydraulic Resources” and in 1970, responsibility of potable water was turned
to the Ministry of Human Settlements and Public Construction (SAHOP). In 1976 the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock (SAG) and the Ministry of Hydraulic Resources (SRH) were merged into a single agency, the
Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources (SARH). In 1980 SAHOP transferred some of water services
to the state governments and in certain exceptional cases, states transferred these to municipalities. In 1982,
The Ministry of Urban Development and Ecology becomes in charge of building and operating the water
systems in the country.
From 1988 to the present, important changes have taken place in the country regarding water policy and
management; “tending to change or cancel, most of the achievements and social rights obtained until then
from inside institutional water structures”. In 1989 and within this context and the framework of the first
processes to liberalize water markets in Mexico, the National Water Commission or CONAGUA was created
by president Carlos Salinas de Gortari. From the start, CONAGUA has played a fundamental role in water
privatization in the country, although with limited success.
The creation of this new institution, in which integrates water management was centralized for the first
time, was the response to several issues. One of these was the international tendency from 1990 oriented
to restructure water management, requiring profound constitutional and institutional reforms, in most
cases designed, supported and promoted by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Mexico
followed these guidelines and began to analyze the modernization of governmental policies, specifically
water policies. This institutional transformation has been very slow due to resistance from diverse areas and
popular defense of water rights. In 2000 and in accordance to modifications to the Federal Law for Public
Administration, the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Fishery was divided into the Ministry
of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fishery and Food Supply (SAGARPA) and the Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), which as previously stated, the heads CONAGUA.
445
MEXICO
on behalf of the government was greater the participants in Watershed Councils. This
than those representing users of all kinds. reform also reinforced water management
Consequently, and in spite of participation decentralization at the watershed level with the
being open to users, the programming creation of Watershed Agencies, taken from
and coordinating of the comprehensive the French water management model, passing
management of water remained concentrated regulatory responsibility from the Federation
in government authorities. In 1997, after to a regional level. These Agencies were
having acquired experience and in response conceived as lawfully autonomous technical,
to demands from the various users of water administrative and legal units, assigned to
and social sectors, the National Water Law the General Director of CONAGUA, and with
regulations were amended and the internal faculties are to regulate, know and agree on
structure of Watershed Councils was modified regional water policy at watershed level in
for the purpose of achieving a better balance consistency with the National Water Policy.
between government and user participation.
Watershed agencies introduced an additional
The main effort in the formation of Watershed element to the institutional political and
Councils and their auxiliary agencies occurred administrative structure. Before the 2004
in 1997 when, within the institutional amendments, CONAGUA included 13
structure of CONAGUA, the Management administrative hydrological regions that
for Watershed Council Coordination was contained the 37 natural hydrological regions
created for the purpose of coordinating in the country. As from the nineties, these
the general strategy for their creation. This regional institutions were strengthened when
strategy consisted of four phases: design, CONAGUA closed some of its states level
implementation, consolidation, and finally offices and transferred several functions
operation and development. Thus, from related to potable water matters to state and
a single Watershed Council in 1993, we municipal governments, while strengthening
have today 25, in addition to 21 Watershed administration at the regional level (Torregrosa
Commissions, 26 Watershed Committees and et al., 2010).
78 COTAS throughout the country. (Torregrosa
et al., 2010) . When the National Water Law 18.4 Institutional Framework
was reformed in 2004, the legal framework at State Level
for water management at the watershed level With respect to changes at state level, these
was strengthened and the social participation have created the institutions that will be in
in councils was broadened. Therefore, charge of water management at this level,
for the first time participation at this level such as the State Water Commissions, Water
included organized society in general. These Institutes, and the creation of state water
amendments established that representatives laws, although these transformations have
of the variety of users of water resources, not occurred simultaneously in all the states in
together with society organizations, such as the national territory. Important changes have
civil societies, must represent al least 50% of also taken place at the municipal level and
446
MEXICO
are oriented to reinforce water management differences and inequities that prevail in
institutions such as water utilities as entities its population. From this perspective, the
decentralized from the municipality or the Integrated Water Resources Management
state governments. model (IWRM) should be seen as an end point
This two-level institutional transformation and not as a starting point, as a management
in water management in the county intends model with these characteristics implies the
to decentralize water administration without preexistence of citizens that exercise their
losing control of the process, as it strengthens rights and obligations, have equal access to
the state government by transferring opportunities and resources, and live within a
functions and resources to it on the one culture of democracy, all of which are far from
hand, while on the other it promotes the reality in this country. It would be convenient
creation of institutions at a regional level for to conceive the IWRM model as being built
the purpose of regulating and supervising “from the bottom up” and not exclusively
comprehensive water management at the “from top to bottom” as it’s frequently is. In
watershed level beyond state government. other words, there is the need to recuperate
This double process has created tension the large range of water management
between state governments and CONAGUA experience in the country at a variety of
regional agencies that were not solved until levels such as micro-watershed, localities
recently. The core point of this tension has and communities, where the population has
to do with the increasing tendency towards taken the solution to water access in their
state strength and autonomy which thus hands and involved local authorities to solve
demand more faculties and functions in problems together. It would be important to
water management to be able to solve their have public policies that could encourage
problems. It is also manifest in the difficulties and generalize these experiences throughout
of CONAGUA’s Watershed Agencies to the country (Torregrosa et al., 2010).
respond efficiently to the problems and The Mexican State has ceded core areas of
demands of state governments that have public space, not to society in general, but
arisen as a consequence of the recent to private interests. This can be observed
institutional changes in addition to financial in the fact that the institutional design that
issues and the lack of specialized personnel. has intended to introduce schemes for
Water, more than ever, has become a crucial participation and the IWRM model, both
factor in the shaping and consolidation of nationally and locally, has limited not only
territories of power for the control of the social participation but also the scope of
resource. (Torregrosa et al.,2010). decentralization within decision making. In
addition, the possibilities to build conditions
18.5 Water Governance and that favor the commitment of participants
Integrated Management to the drastic actions needed to slow down
The governance and integrated management the water crisis in the country are small. For
of water is a complicated task in Mexico due example, social participation is a core issue
to the huge political, economic and cultural in the design of water policy in Mexico
447
MEXICO
according to CONAGUA, but in reality the uses. Unfortunately the registry is poorly
institution has not been able to achieve updated, particularly regarding groundwater.
results that effectively reduce water demand. In Laguna Seca for example, agriculture
The Watershed Councils, COTAS, Watershed has improved accuracy with respect to the
Committees and Commissions, the Manage- number of existing wells (legal, irregular and
ment or Advisory Councils for Water and clandestine) and the total surface irrigated by
Sewerage services not represent users who various technologies (gravity and pressurized),
do not participate and they lack the sufficient thus COTAS had registered 1,123 wells while
connections with those users and then they REPDA only 656; in other words, REPDA had
are not effective instruments for accountability. a sub-registry of more than 40%. Likewise,
Indeed, they have not been able to counterweigh recovery of water rights from pre-Hispanic
the powerful participants with great influence and colonial times as well as from agrarian
in decision-making that tend to capitalize the reform is poor.
benefits. These “representative” organs have
been unable to become an interphase between 19. Legal Framework
the State and society that would allow fair, 19.1 Main Regulations
useful and binding exchanges between both The set of legal regulations and institutions
spheres, and in which commitments could created in Mexico to regulate and manage
be achieved with effective actions resulting water form a complex (and confusing)
in the reduction of water extraction and framework of laws and powers which tend
contaminating emissions. to become a labyrinth, even for the experts
(Gutiérrez and Emanuelli, 2010)
In conclusion, Mexico continues to face We can find regulations of interest both in the
problems related to centralization, limited constitution and in international treaties, as
social participation and the selective and well as federal, state and municipal norms, as
unequal distribution of benefits (Torregrosa can be observed in a much summarized way
et al., 2010). in Table 18.
18.6 Registries of Water Rights The National Water Commission has also
The Public Registry of Water Rights (REPDA issued twelve NOMs related to water which
-Registro Público de los Derechos de Agua) is establish the criteria to be observed by
in charge of water management and control. agencies operating systems for drinking water,
REPDA includes five groups of users: sanitation and sewerage. Of these twelve, six
agriculture, public supply, self-supplied are related to the rural environment:
industry and thermoelectric plants, all of which
are considered consumptive uses and finally • NOM-001-CNA-1995. Sanitary sewerage
hydro-power, a non-consumptive use. systems. Specifications for water tightness
• NOM-002-CNA-1995. Home outlet for
Table 17 shows the volumes granted under drinking water supply. Specifications and
concession in 2008 for the four consumptive testing methods.
448
MEXICO
Table 17. Consumptive Uses, According to Extraction source, 2008 (Billions of Millions m3, Km3)
Surface Groundwater
Agriculture a 40.7 20.5 61.2 76.8
Public Supply b
4.2 7 11.2 14
Self-supplied industry c
1.6 1.6 3.3 4.1
Hydro-power plants d
3.6 0.4 4.1 5.1
Total 50.1 29.5 79.8 100
NOTE: 1 km = 1 000 hm = 1 billion m . Data corresponds to volumes allocated on December 31st, 2007.
3 3 3
a
Includes agricultural, livestock, aquaculture, multiple and other headings of
the REPDA classification, as well as volumes of water still pending registration
(2.05 km3).
b
Includes public urban and domestic headings of the REPDA classification.
c
Includes industrial, agro-industrial, service and trade headings of the REPDA classification.
d
Includes all energy generation plants that are not hydropower plants.
Source: CONAGUA. Deputy Director General’s Office for Water Management.
Table 18 Main Legal Regulations Relating to Water, with Information from Rodriguez and Emanuelli, 2010
The Constitution
Most relevant articles 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th° sections of article 27; article
73, section XVII, and article 115, section III, paragraph a
449
MEXICO
These regulate concrete situations regarding water, and greatly determine how the resource is managed in
relation to its availability, quality and access.
NOM-001-ECOL-1996 Establishes the maximum Published on January 6, 1997 in the Official Journal of
permissible limits of pollutants in the Federation. The Ministry of the Environment and
wastewater discharges in national waters and goods Natural Resources SEMARNAT (Secretaría de Medio
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales), through CONAGUA,
and the Ministry of Naval Affairs supervises
compliance with this NOM, within the scope of
its respective competence. This norm establishes
that violations shall be sanctioned according to the
National Water Law and its regulations, as well as
according to the General Law on Ecological Balance
and Environmental Protection (LGEEPA -Ley General
del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente)
and the Federal Metrology and Standardization Law
(LFMN -Ley Federal sobre Metrología y Normalización)
and other applicable legal regulations.
450
MEXICO
NOM-002-ECOL-1996, which establishes the Published on June 3, 1998 in the Official Journal of
maximum permissible limits for pollutants in the Federation. Supervision of the observance of this
wastewater discharges into urban and municipal NOM corresponds to “state, municipal and Federal
sewerage systems. District governments within the scope of their
respective competence, while their personnel shall
verify, inspect and watch over these services when
necessary”. Violations shall be sanctioned according
to the General Law on Ecological Balance and
Environmental Protection (LGEEPA -Ley General del
Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente) and
other applicable legal regulations.
NOM-003-ECOL-1997, which establishes the maximum Published on September 21, 1998 in the Official
permissible limits of pollutants for treated wastewater Journal of the Federation. The object of this norm is to
reused in services to the public. protect the environment and health of the population,
and is compulsory for those public entities responsible
for the treatment and reuse of water, whether state,
municipal and Federal District governments, “in
themselves or through their public agencies” or in the
cases in which services to the public are performed by
third parties.
Supervision of this Norm corresponds to SEMARNAT,
through CONAGUA and the Ministry of Health,
according to their respective powers. Violations
to this norm shall be sanctioned according to the
General Law on Ecological Balance and Environmental
Protection (LGEEPA -Ley General del Equilibrio
Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente), the General
Health Law and other applicable legal regulations.
lNOM-127-SSA1-1994, establishes the permissible Published on January 19, 1994 in the Official Journal of
limits of water quality and the purification treatments the Federation. This norm corresponds to the health
for human use and consumption that public and sector.
private water supply systems or any moral or physical This NOM is compulsory for all agencies operating
person who distributes water in the country must public and private supply systems, or any moral or
comply with. physical person who distributes water for human
use and consumption in the entire national territory.
The norm emphasizes that “the adequate quality
of water supplied for human use and consumption
is fundamental to avoid and prevent disease
transmission” of any kind. Thus it establishes the
permissible limits to guarantee and preserve the
quality of water until its delivery to consumers.
451
MEXICO
• NOM-003-CNA-1996. Requirements these regulations, the quality of treated water
during the construction of water-withdrawal has doubled since 1996, contrasting with
wells to prevent the pollution of aquifers. what had been occurring during the seven
• NOM-004-CNA-1996. Requirements previous years (estimate according to data
for the protection of aquifers during the from CONAGUA, 2000 and 2005), and will
maintenance and rehabilitation of water- have a much more significant increase as an
withdrawal wells and for the closing of wells important volume of the residual water from
in general. Mexico City is treated (Jiménez et al., 2010).
• NOM-011-CNA-2000. Conservation
of water resources. Established Industrial
specifications and methods used to Concern for the environment began in Mexico
determine average annual availability of in 1971 when the Federal Act to Prevent and
national waters. Control Environmental Pollution (LFPCCA
• NOM-013-CNA-2000. Drinking water -Ley Federal para Prevenir y Controlar la
distribution networks. Specifications for Contaminación Ambiental) was issued. This
water tightness and testing methods. act was in force until 1982, when the Federal
Act for the Protection of the Environment
19.1.1 Development of the Regulatory (LFPA - Ley Federal de Protección al Ambiente)
Framework to Control Water Pollution was brought into effect and later prolonged
Municipal until 1988. Thus, in the period from 1971 to
Ever since 1973, when the Ministry of 1988 many industries included environmental
Hydrologic Resources established the bases sections in their organizations, although
for registration and monitoring of residual recurring economic crisis postponed many
water discharge, the description and good intentions with respect to environmental
classification of all bodies of water in the issues and businesses eventually closed down
nation and the objectives regarding its quality, their environmental areas. With the General
Mexico has had a regulatory framework to Act for Ecological Balance and Environmental
protect the quality of water. Unfortunately, Protection (LGEEPA -Ley General del
it was not carried out due to lack financial Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al
support and political willingness. Since 1982, Ambiente) of 1988 and its 1996 and 2007
efforts were made to set up regulations for reviews, a new “environmental market” was
each type of discharge, similar to those in created. Nevertheless, most businesses did
the United States. In all, 44 regulations were not create a special environmental office,
established, although because they were rather they opened one within or adjacent
hardly applied, they contributed very little to other areas such as security or hygiene
to residual water treatment and pollution (López et al., 2010). Unfortunately, personnel
control. In 1996, a new legal framework was in charge of environmental issues often lack
set up to allow the gradual control of pollution formal training in the area, and consequently
and to set up goals regarding the reuse of Mexican industries repeatedly face problems
treated water or its final disposal. Thanks to such as the following (López et al., 2010):
452
MEXICO
• High fines due to non-fulfillment of special low, and thus they were required to provide
conditions for discharge. a volume of resources and a complex
• Problems with water coming from systems institutional capacity that they lacked.
for water pretreatment. Consequently this has lead to an inability
• Increased cost of drinking and well water. to provide these services that continues to
• Drinking water scarcity. exist at present.
• Inefficient use and management of water • LAN is an instrument with a questionable
within industries. legislative technique as it relates the various
• Operation of inefficient water treatment entities that manage water resources and
systems within industries. their uses in a complex way. This makes
• Rudimentary reuse and recycling of water. is very difficult for citizens to understand
the main law and thus opens it wide
On the other hand, the lack of structural and to discretional administration practices
functional capacity on behalf of institutions of and even corruption. In addition, to the
the federal, state and municipal government present date the executive regulations
for the vigilance and supervision of industrial corresponding to the 2004 amendments
systems for the management of tap and have not been published, deterring
residual water has hindered the application of understanding with regards to how it
and the compliance with environmental laws is operating in reality and who or how
and regulations on the part of these industries decisions are being made on the matter.
ever since the publication of LFPCCA in 1971 • Deficient vigilance and compliance with
(López et al., 2010). NOMs.
• There is no clarity with respect to the
19.2 Assessment of the specific competent authorities in charge
Regulatory Framework of providing follow up to the application
The following are deficiencies in the regulatory of norms (LFMN, LAN, LGEEPA, General
framework regarding water (Gutierrez y Health Act, etc.), or when or how the
Emanuelli, 2010): surveillance processes for their observance
• Although the fact that bodies of surface will be achieved when turning to other
water are national property is relatively well applicable regulations on the subject.
established, this is not the case with bodies
of groundwater. 19.3 The Human Right to Water
• There is no clear relationship between It is important to point out that although in
public policies to be applied for the the current constitution there is no article
management of water and other aspects explicitly recognizing the human right to
such as the management of land or rural water, there are elements that allow it to be
development. recognized implicitly.
• The responsibility of water and sanitation
services was transferred to municipalities Firstly, because the right to water is closely
when the level of service coverage was very related to the rights recognized in the
453
MEXICO
constitution, such as the right to health, a DE LAS AGUAS MEXICANAS EN EL
home or to the environment (established in SIGLO XX”, CAP 2 EN “LOS RETOS
article 4), that would be impossible without DEL AGUA” CAP 3 EN El Agua en
the right to water. Secondly, because several México: Cauces y encauces Jiménez, B.,
articles in the constitution (2,4 and 27) Torregrosa M.L. y Aboites A. Editores,
establish obligations for the authorities in Academia Mexicana de Ciencias, 702
regards to the minimum essential content of pp., MÉXICO. PP. 21-50
this right (at least in the case of indigenous 4. Arganis Juárez M., Domínguez
peoples and children). Mora R., Jiménez Espinosa M., y
Also because the right to water has been Guichard Romero D. 2010 “EVENTOS
recognized in a variety of international EXTREMOS” CAP 20 EN El Agua en
documents signed by the Federal México: Cauces y encauces Jiménez, B.,
Executive and ratified by the Senate Torregrosa M.L. y Aboites A. Editores,
(Gutierrez y Emanuelli, 2010), such as many Academia Mexicana de Ciencias, 702
International Treatise on the human right pp., MÉXICO PP. 51-78
to water such as the following (Gutierrez y 5. Arreguin Cortés F., Alcocer Yamanaka V.,
Emanuelli, 2010) : Marengo Mogollón H., Cervantes Jaimes
• The Convention on the Elimination of All C., Albornoz Góngora P., Salinas Juárez
Forms of Discrimination Against Women7 G. (2010) “LOS RETOS DEL AGUA”
in 1979. CAP 3 EN El Agua en México: Cauces y
• The Convention for the Rights of the encauces Jiménez, B., Torregrosa M.L. y
Child8 in 1989. Aboites A. Editores, Academia Mexicana
• The International Covenant for Economic, de Ciencias, 702 pp. MÉXICO PP. 51-78
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)9 in 6. Caldera A.R, Torregrosa y Armentia
2002. M.L. (2010) “PROCESO POLÍTICO E
• The United Nation’s Resolution on the IDEAS EN TORNO A LA NATURALEZA
Human Right to Water and Sanitation. DEL AGUA: UN DEBATE” CAP 12. EN
459
Undeveloped Beach Sallie Peachie, Corn
Island Nicaragua
NICARAGUA
Water Resources
Table 1. Water Availability per Capita
Water
in Nicaragua Country
Guatemala
availability per
capita m3/cap.
12,121
A Strategic Overview Honduras 15,211
Belize 64,817
Editor Nicaragua 38,668
Katherine Vammen1
El Salvador 2,876
Author Costa Rica 31,318
Iris Hurtado1, Francisco Picado1, Yelba Flores1, Panamá 52,437
Heyddy Calderón1, Valeria Delgado1, Selvia Central 31,064
America
Flores1, Yader Caballero1, Mario Jiménez 1,2,
Rosario Sáenz3. Brazil 32,256 = C.A.
1. Introduction
Nicaragua is a particularly privileged country run-off per capita (m3) reaches levels of
with respect to water resources. The amount >10,000 (FIG.1). According to the
of water available per capita is 38, 668 cubic Environmental Performance Index (Yale
meters per year (m3/capita/year), i.e. greater Center for Environmental Law & Policy,
than the average for Central America. 2010) Nicaragua is considered to have
the optimum level for water stress (water
It is worth noting that its water availability is scarcity in a territory when considering
approximately four times greater than that the volume of water shared by a certain
of the United States or certain European population) with the highest possible
countries such as Switzerland (Table I.1). score of 100 points, meaning 0% of the
population living under water stress. It
When compared to the rest of the world, also has a score of 100 points for water
water availability in Nicaragua expressed as scarcity
461
NICARAGUA
The aim of this article is to provide the existing 2. Hydric Resources in Nicaragua
information on the current state of hydric From a hydrographic viewpoint, Nicaragua
resources taking into consideration the factors is divided in 21 basins distributed in two
that have an influence on their uses, and to great watersheds: the Pacific Watershed
offer a strategic overview for the purpose of (12,183.57 km2) and the Caribbean Watershed
developing plans and policies to protect and (117,420.3km2) (Table 2). FIG. 3 is a map of
improve the use and sustainability of water. Nicaraguan basins.
Caribbean Watershed
Basin Name of Basin Area Precipitation
No Main River km 2
Annual Average (mm)
45 Coco River 19,969.00 1, 927
47 Ulang river 3 777.40 2 405
49 Wawa River 5 ,371.98 2, 820
51 Kukalaya River 3, 910.25 2, 800
53 Prinzapolca River 11, 292.40 2, 586
55 Grande de Matagalpa 18, 445.00 2, 095
57 Kurinwas 4, 456.76 2,725
59 Between Kurinwas River 2, 034.20 3, 564
and Escondido River
61 Escondido River 11, 650.00 2, 722
63 Between Escondido River 1, 592.96 3,710
and Punta Gordariver
65 Punta Gorda River 2, 867.42 3, 552
67 Between Punta Gorda 2, 228.86 4, 510
River and San Juan River
69 San Juan en Nicaragua 29,824.00 1,694
River
TOTAL 117,420.23
Pacific Watershed
Basin Name of Basin Area Precipitation
No Main River km 2
Annual Average (mm)
58 Negro River 1 ,428.00 1, 859
60 Estero Real River 3, 690.60 1, 682
62 Between Estero Real River 429.00 1 ,881
and Volcán Cosiguina
64 Between Volcán Cosiguina 2, 950.66 1, 670
and Tamarindo River
66 Tamarindo River 317.62 1, 175
68 Between Tamarindo River 2, 768.69 1, 357
and Brito River
70 Brito River 274.00 1, 316
72 Between Brito River and 325.00 1, 625
Sapoa River
TOTAL 12, 183.57
Source: INETER.
464
NICARAGUA
Fifty one rivers drain into the Atlantic, four Of the 19 largest basins in Central America,
into Lake Xolotlán (also called Lake Managua) five are found in Nicaragua, two of which are
and twelve into Lake Cocibolca (also known bi-national. The basin of the San Juan River
as Lake Nicaragua), which in turn drain into (Basin Nº 69) is the second largest in Central
the Caribbean Sea through the San Juan river. America (Table 3).
The Pacific basins are smaller and its rivers
are shorter. In addition, the area has the best
Table 3. The 19 Largest Watersheds in Central America
agricultural land and is where more than 60%
of the country’s population lives (FIG. 4.). Drainage Watershed Country Area km2
México-
Usumacinta
Atlantic River Guatemala- 5,1 190.36
Belice
Atlantic San Juan Nicaragua- 42,051.61
River Costa Rica
Atlantic Patuca River Honduras 24,593.87
Atlantic Coco River Honduras- 24,345.16
Nicaragua
Atlantic Ulua River Honduras 21,396.03
Atlantic Motagua Guatemala- 18,056.56
River Honduras
Atlantic Río Grande
de Matagalpa Nicaragua 17,959.96
Pacific El Salvador-
Lempa River Guatemala- 17,882.98
Honduras
SOURCE: MONTENEGRO, S., KEYNOTE SPEECH:
NICARAGUA, A COUNTRY WITH WATER AND THIRST. Pacific Ocosito Guatemala 12,944.44
River
FIG. 4. Population Distribution in Nicaragua
Atlantic Escondido Nicaragua 11,517.81
River
Atlantic Belize River Belize 10,529.36
Twelve rivers drain directly into the Pacific
Atlantic Agua River Honduras 10,311.35
Ocean. The country includes two large
Atlantic Dulce River Guatemala 8,016.75
lakes and 18 lagoons, of which nine are in
Atlantic Sico, Tinto or Honduras 7,714.84
the Pacific region, five in the Central region Negro River
and four in the Atlantic. Furthermore, of the Atlantic Choluteca Honduras 7,430.68
four dams in Nicaragua, three are for the River
production of hydroelectricity and one for Atlantic Warunta Honduras 6,012.10
River
irrigation and fish farming. The abundant
Atlantic Hondo River Belize 5,948.14
surface water resources are seasonal and are
Atlantic Wawa River Nicaragua 5,501.60
distributed irregularly; ninety three percent Pacific Chucunaque Panama 5,043.52
are in the Atlantic region and only 7% in the River
Pacific (Table 2). There are four main aquifers Source: Yelba Flores.
in the Pacific and 21 in the Atlantic, including
the river low plains (INETER).
465
NICARAGUA
3. Uses of Water constant demand in contrast to water use by
Water extraction strategies have made a residential sector. (More details can be found
priority of groundwater use, representing in Section 3.2)
70% of the current supply volume of drinking
water. Of the total water extracted in 2008, Water demand by the domestic sector has
the farming sector consumed the greatest increased annually as a result of the country’s
volume (83%), followed by the industrial high population growth of between 1 and
sector (14%) and finally the domestic sector 2% (1.7% annually according to the National
(3%) (Table 4), and this water consumption Institute for Statistics and Census [INEC -
pattern is estimated to continue in the coming Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos],
years. Furthermore, agriculture relies mainly 2005, 1.3% annually according to the National
on groundwater sources. These waters are Institute for Information on Development
concentrated in the Pacific region within the [INIDE-Instituto Nacional de Información de
Departments of León and Chinandega, and Desarrollo], 2008).
the main crops they irrigate are sugarcane,
rice, sesame, tobacco and sorghum. In contrast, according to data published by
the Banco Central de Nicaragua, from 2008
Table 4. Water Use per Sector in 2008 to 2010 the increase in water demand by
the residential sector was nearly 13% (BCN,
Total water Water use per sector
extraction in (% mm3) 2010). Nevertheless, municipal supply has
Nicaragua (mm3) not increased accordingly. Such population
Farming Domestic Industrial growth puts increasing pressure on water
Domestic
sources as national demand will grow year
1,794.9 83% 3% 14% by year, no matter the competition between
Source: (MAGFOR, 2008; CONAGUA and WWC, the aforementioned sectors. Moreover, it
2006)
has been estimated that 94% of surface
The estimated total water demand in water sources are renewable, while 70% of
Nicaragua is 13,462.18 mm3/year (PHIPDA, groundwater sources are not (FAO-Aquastat,
2003). 2005). (More details in Sections 3.5 and 5.1.)
According to the Empresa Nicaragüense
de Acueductos y Alcantarillados –ENACAL 3.1 Water for Human Consumption:
(Nicaraguan Company for Aqueducts and Quantity and Access
Sanitation) (BCN, 2010) (Banco Central de 3.1.1 Water Availability for Human
Nicaragua, 2010. Nicaragua en Cifras 2010.), Consumption
water demand in the 14 years prior to 2008, Although Nicaragua has abundant surface
excluding the Departments of Matagalpa and groundwater sources that allow its current
and Jinotega, has followed the performance demand to be satisfied, these sources have an
shown in FIG. 5. It can be observed that important seasonal component. Consequently,
Nicaraguan industry is one of the sectors there is variation in the estimated data
with the lowest water use with a relatively published on the national availability of water.
466
NICARAGUA
SOURCE: BANCO CENTRAL DE NICARAGUA YEAR BOOK 2001 - 2008. INFORMATION DOES NOT INCLUDE THE
DEPARTAMENTS OF JINOTEGA AND MATAGALPA
FIG. 5. Billed Use and National Production of Water
These estimates vary between 137, 448 and Atlantic Coast- apart from being the largest
192, 690 Mm3/year (PANic, 2001–2005; FAO (46 600 km2), has a greater availability of
Aquastat, 2005), and only 7% correspond to the surface water resources, while the Central
country’s Pacific watershed. Considering the area has an intermediate nature with some
water availability figure of 192, 690 Mm3/year rivers with a constant flow and productive
and that the Nicaraguan population for 2010 is valleys of groundwater.
5, 995, 928 inhabitants (https://cia.gov/library/
publications/the-world-factbook/), the amount Lake Colcibolca has the greatest surface
of water per capita would be 32.14 x 1000 m3. water potential for consumption with an
area of 8,264 km2, and an average discharge
In spite of the great volume of surface waters volume to the San Juan River of 12,614.4
available in the country, the main water supply mm3/year. Law 620 of the Ley General de
source is groundwater because surface waters Aguas Nacionales (General Water Law), has
are more polluted. Groundwater is found declared the lake as a natural reserve destined
within quaternary alluvial aquifers co-existing for human use and irrigation in the future (La
with tertiary pyroclastic sands and quaternary Gaceta, 2007b).
volcanic deposits in fractures in the Nicaragua
Depressions and the Pacific and Caribbean 3.1.2 Availability of Surface Water
Plains. The main aquifers are found in the The surface water available in Nicaragua
Pacific region as geological formations favors is approximately 309,284 mm3/year (IEA-
the presence of groundwater (FIG. 6.). As MARENA, 2001). Nearly 44% of this water
mentioned above, agriculture mainly relies makes up the national surface runoff. However,
on groundwater in this part of the country. this information is only an approximation of
In contrast, the Atlantic area -also called the the real values as hydrometric information
467
NICARAGUA
3.2.2 Water Sources for Industrial Use 3.2.3 Industrial Use and Consumption of
In the same way as in other human societies Water
(WWAP, 2006), Nicaraguan industry has been Water has a variety of industrial uses: as
strategically established near sources of clean a raw material, as a solvent, for transport,
water (surface and groundwater) not only to heating or cooling, etc. According to data
be able to exploit it, but also for the spilling from the World Bank (2201) the volume
of wastewaters. of water used industrially in Nicaragua
in the year 2000 was 30.0 Mm3. However
A large number of industries are concentrated information for billed use reported by
in Managua’s industrial park, on the cost of ENACAL for that year (Table 7) corresponds
Lake Xolotlán. While mid-sized industries only to 2.5% of this amount (Figure 5).
obtain their water supply (ENACAL, 2005)
from drilled wells that have not yet been In the year 2000 the industry value added
inventoried, the remaining industries are (IVA) and the industrial water productivity,
supplied by ENACAL (INEC, 2003). Processing defined as the ratio between the IVA and the
technologies currently used do not allow annual volume of water extracted by industry
optimal use of water, so it later becomes part from the source, was US$0.48 billion and
of industrial effluents. 14.34 US$/m3, respectively (WWAP, 2006).
471
NICARAGUA
For the year 2005, the industry value added Table 8. Agricultural Land Use in Central America
was approximately US$0.75 billion. Although
this figure is greater than previous years, it Agricultural % of GIP
Land Use from % Irrigated
is lower than the IVA for the rest of Central Country
(% total Agriculture Land
America (WWAP, 2006). The low levels of area) (% 1999)
industrial water productivity are reflected Guatemala 41,6 23 6,6
in the unrealistic value of the resource and
Honduras 6,1 19 3,4
its poor industrial use. This is common in
countries where the fees for industrial water Belize 77,4 10 4,4
uses are low, as the case of Nicaragua. In
Nicaragua 32,0 16 3,7
other Central American countries industrial
El 62,3 32 3,2
water productivity ranges from 9 -17 US$/m3.
Salvador
Excluding the departments of Matagalpa and
Costa Rica 55,7 11 25
Jinotega, water consumed by industry during
the years 2000, 2001 and 2002, was 739,775 Panamá 28,6 7 4,9
m3, 847, 085 m3 and 849,236 m3, respectively; 43,4 16,8 7,3
of these, 60% to 65% were used by industries Source: World Bank: Agricultural Land Use; Selected
in Managua (INEC, 2003). Countries, 2001.
During this period, nearly 812,000 m3 were The Central Bank of Nicargua (BCN -Banco
billed, representing 0.75% of the average Central de Nicaragua) reports in its 2001-2008
total billed consumption of 233 × 106 m3 yearbook that agriculture, forestry and fishery
for the entire system, including industry, contributed 19.1% of Nicaragua’s GIP in 2008,
government, domestic and commercial use thus showing the importance of agricultural
(INEC, 2009). Although FIG. 5 shows that activities in the country’s economy.
billed-consumption for the industrial sector
remained constant from the 1990’s to 2008, From 2000 to 2008, more individuals worked
this does not mean there has not been an in agricultural and fishery activities, form 27%
increase in water use. To date, the system to 30%, than in any other economic sector
for “charging fees for the use, exploitation, (BCN, 2009: based on projections from INIDE,
discharge and protection of hydric resources” Home Surveys to Measure Employment,
as established by Law 620, General Law for 2005). Stockbreeding remained constant in
National Water of 2007, has yet to exist. the past decade at between 9% and 10% of
the GIP (CONAGAN, 2009).
3.3 Agricultural Uses
Agriculture has historically been the It is worth noting that the contribution of
country’s main economic activity and agriculture to the GIP fell from 20.1% in
Nicaragua has one of the highest rates of 2006 to 19.1% in 2008 as a consequence of
agricultural land use in Central America hurricane Felix which caused considerable
(Table 8). losses in the sector. Agricultural activities
472
NICARAGUA
are closely linked to water availability in At the beginning of the 1970´s the area
Nicaragua. Indigenous peoples practiced with irrigation infrastructure was estimated
subsistence farming and settled on the to be greater than 40,000 ha, basically for
shores of water sources. In colonial times, the irrigation by spraying and gravity, with an
country became part of the global market available groundwater volume under intensive
and started to export agricultural products, exploitation of 1,076 Mm3 (Table 9). By 1978,
a situation which has prevailed unchanged to the irrigated surface increased to 70,000 ha. The
the present day. use of automated spraying irrigation systems
began in the 1980´s, although these systems
The most fertile land is found in the Pacific are currently semi-abandoned (FAO, 1992).
Lowlands where there is also availability of
high quality water.
Table 9. Groundwater Availability in 1973
At present, total irrigated land is somewhere
between 30,000 and 50,000 ha and the Annual Available
Basin Area (km2)
main crops cultivated are: sugar cane (66%), Volume (Mm3)
rice (25%), bananas (3%) and other fruits, 1A 1B
vegetables and basic grains (1%) (IEA- León-
1,548 462 528
MARENA, 2001). In the Central region, Chinandega
surface waters do not cover the entire Villa
217 29 54
regional demand and groundwater sources Salvadorita
are limited. Nagarote 562 54 114
Los Brasiles-
123 4 5
Cocibolca Lake has been considered a Chiltepe
potential source for crop irrigation in the Tipitapa 938 44 118
future, as it has an estimated irrigation Nandaime-
456 48 120
potential of close to 15,000 Mm3/year (IEA- Rivas
MARENA, 2001). Sinecapa-
585 54 114
Viejo
3.3.1 Historical Background Sébaco-
259 12 23
1.82% of the Nicaraguan territory (2,372.73 Darío
km2) is currently occupied in the cultivation Total 4,688 707 1 076
of permanent crops. Irrigation agriculture 1 A. Without substantial modification of the current
began in the 1950’s and the main irrigated conditions of the aquifer
land is found in the departments of León 1 B. Under “intensive exploitation”
Note: No information available from the Somotillo-
and Chinandega, on the perimeters of Estero Real, North Coast of Managua Lake, Estelí and
lakes Nicaragua and Managua, and in Jalapa Valley areas.
Nandaime-Rivas, as well as in the valleys Source: Inventory and Property Register of Natural
of Sébaco, Estelí and Jalapa in the North- Resources 1973.
Central region.
473
NICARAGUA
Regarding surface waters, a volume of Likewise, increased energy fees and frequent
4,977,340 m3 was planned to irrigate 36,970 interruption in energy supply have contributed
Mz through six reservoirs (Table 10). to the decrease in irrigated area (CCO, 1998).
Table I0. Planned Use of Surface Waters (by Means of
Reservoirs) in 1973 In 1991, agricultural groundwater use and
needs were small compared to ENACAL
Irrigable
Reservoir Area2 extractions for domestic or industrial (Table 12).
Place River Volume1
(m3) (Mz) Potential water for irrigation from groundwater
sources is estimated at 17,196 Mm3 and from
Mata de Villanueva 529,840 13,850
Caña surface sources at 16.23 Mm3, including Lake
Mata Palo Negro 1,109,660 10,840 Nicaragua with 15,800 Mm3, the Viejo River
Juigalpa Mayales 201,600 2,830 with 100 Mm3 and three possible reservoirs
Toro Negro Sinecapa 304,140 1,890 with 100 Mm3 (CCO, 2001).
La Calabaza Grande-
Matagalpa 1,645,110 3,220 Table 12. Use of Groundwater by Sector, 1991.
Mal Paso Villanueva 1,186,990 4,340
Sector Extraction (Mm3)
Total 4,977,340 36,970
1
Collection volume based con estimates from the INAA/ENACAL 98.01
Bureau of Reclamation
2
Based on an annual irrigation lamina of 1,750 mm Municipal 6.65
per reservoir
Industry 5.88
Source: Diagnosis of Irrigation Potential, modified
table, 1977. Agriculture 1.24
Total 111.82
Irrigated surface area increased until the Source: Kokusai, Kogyo, 1993. Summary of Study of
year 1991 (Table 11). However, from then Water Supply in Managua.
on, records report a fall, mainly as a result
of pumping equipment deterioration by In the Pacific region close to 30% of the
lack of maintenance (high import costs for potential groundwater is used together
spare parts) and lack of technical services for with 15% of exploitable surface waters.
equipment operation. Most of the water collected (surface and
Table 11. Progression of Irrigated Surface Area groundwater) is used to irrigate 75,000 ha
Year Area (ha)
(CCO, 2001). Table 13 shows worldwide
1970 63,000 efficiency per irrigation method and water
1985 86,000 source with systems in good conditions.
1991* 93,000 Efficiency decreases because of deterioration
1993 30,000 of spraying mechanisms, lack of leveling in
Estimate for 1996 61,000 gravity systems, and poor technical service
Estimate1** 1998 61,000 and maintenance. Efficiency in rice irrigation
* Historical maximum systems is high due to soil permeability.
** According to consulter Overall, irrigation system efficiency in
Source: CCO, 2001. Nicaragua is calculated to be less than 20%.
474
NICARAGUA
Table 13. Estimated Irrigation Efficiency per Type of 3.3.2. The State of Irrigation in Nicaragua
System and Water Source
Eleven planning units called “current
System Water Source Efficiency irrigable surface” which include irrigation
Spraying/Pivot Groundwater 63% infrastructure have been considered (Table
Gravity Groundwater 51% 14), with a total surface of close to 61,000
ha. There are approximately 1,200,000 ha
Rice Groundwater 63%
of available land at an altitude of up to 200
Spraying/Pivot Surface water 42%
masl (Table 14). Taking water availability
Gravity Surface water 34% into account, especially the waters of Lake
Rice Surface water 42% Cocibolca, an additional area of 230,000
Source: PARH (1997): Plan de Acción de los Recursos hectares have been contemplated.
Hídricos en Nicaragua.
Table 14. Land Availability and Potential Irrigation Area; with Area of Maximum Potential Based on Available
Land and Hydric Resources
Land Availability and Potential Area of Maximum Potential Based on Available Land and Hydric
Irrigation Area Resources
Total Area
Zone Regions Source Planning Unit Area
(ha)
Golf of Fonseca Surface/
162,800 North Pacific 1 and 2 71,000
(Pacific) groundwater
Managua Lake
Central Pacific
(Central– 138,300 Groundwater 3-7 18,000
Central
Lacustrine)
Cosiguina–
Tamarindo 178,600 South Pacific Groundwater 4 3,200
(Pacific)
Carmen–Bahía
185,500 Lower North Groundwater 11 800
Salinas (Pacific)
Nicaragua Lake
436,700 Lower Central Surface water 8 and 11 6,800
(Lacustrine)
Inter-
mountainous 108,200 Lower South Groundwater 9 and 10 13,000
valleys
TOTAL 1 ,210,100 Nicaragua Lake Surface water 5, 9 and 10 120,000
70%
TOTAL Surface/30% 232,800
Groundwater
Source: CCO, 1998.
475
NICARAGUA
3.4 Other Uses The total water demand for energy generated
Ninety four percent of Nicaragua’s hydroelectric by the projects identified by the MEM is
resources are concentrated in the Atlantic estimated at 481 Mm3 (FIG. 8.).
watershed. According to hydric availability,
the potential for generating hydroelectricity FIG. 8 shows the hydroelectric projects
has been estimated to be of up to 3,760 MW. requiring a specific surface water volume
Hydropower generation increased 8.0% in provided by natural waterfalls or the
2000 with respect to the total amount of energy damming of river water. The plants currently
generated until then, resulting in per capita use in operation, Centroamerica and Santa
of 474 kWh. Although hydropower generation Barbara, rely on the diversion of the Tuma
continues to rise, per capita consumption River in the 48m high Mancotal dam which
continues to be the lowest in the region. forms the artificial reservoir of Lake Apanás.
This reservoir has an average altitude of 956.5
3.4.1 Hydroelectricity masl, a surface area of 58 km2, and a storage
Because Nicaragua largely depends on volume of 440 Mm3, of which 310 Mm3 are
imported oil to generate its electricity, the active storage thus allowing the regulation of
demand for electricity by both its population the variable flow of the Tuma River.
and the activities related to development,
is only partially satisfied. In the year 2006,
hydropower represented 10% of the electricity
generated in the country. HIDROGESA, a
public company, operates the two existing
hydroelectric plants (Centroamerica and
Santa Barbara). In view of these facts, the
Ministry of Mining and Energy (MEM –
Ministerio de Energía y Minas) has identified
the renewable energy potential and level of
use in the country, as shown in Table 15.
478
NICARAGUA
Table 20. Per Year Water Use in Agriculture, region on account of the highly concentrated
Municipal GIP and Fees.
population and industry, in addition to the
Water strong agricultural activity in this part of the
Year
Use in Agriculture Industrial Water country (OPS-OMS, 2004) (Section IV.1).
Agriculture GIP (US$) Fee (US$/m3)
(mm /year)
3
the Central regions and part of the Atlantic 4. The Environmental Situation
(Table 23), 50% of which belong in types of Hydric Resources
C1-1, C2-S1 and C2-S2. Pollution of surface and groundwaters
Of the total area studied (Table 24), 85.06% is prevalent throughout the country as a
can be widely used for irrigation of all crops consequence of agriculture, discharge of
without restriction, except for those extremely non-treated domestic, industrial and agro-
sensitive to salinity (INETER, 2004). industrial wastes into lakes and rivers, and
Table 24. Area of Water Class Without Restriction for Irrigation Compared to Total Area Studied.
FIG. 11. Shows Production of Solid Wastes Per Industrial Sector Nationwide.
482
NICARAGUA
chemical oxygen demand (COD) and and the lagoons of Masaya and Tiscapa are
suspended solids (SS) in three municipal highly eutrophized and consequently have
effluents that discharge into natural receiving become useless. As part of the project to
bodies. In all cases, COD and SS do not fulfill save and reclaim Lake Xolotlán, a new
the values established in decree 33-95 (180 mg/l residual water treatment plant began
and 80 mg/l, respectively).The new regulation operating in February 2009, treating 75%
for pouring of residual waters into receiving of the total volume of residual waters
bodies and sanitary sewerage, yet to be in put produced by the city of Managua.
into practice, determines a figure of 10 mg/l Table 26 shows some aquatic ecosystems
for TP, which is considered to be very high as it that receive crude liquid and solid wastes
promotes eutrophication in surface waters. thus breaking down the resource and limiting
Aquatic ecosystems such Lake Xolotlán its use.
Table 25. TP, COD and SS results in Effluents for Municipal Waters.
483
NICARAGUA
Table 26. Bodies of Water Receiving liquid and Solid Wastes.
Wastes
Body of water Solid Liquid
Domestic Industrial Domestic Industrial
Acome x x
River(Chinandega)
Atoya River (El x x
Viejo)
Chiquito River x x x x
(León)
La Zopilotera River x x x x
(Chichigalpa)
El Realejo Estuary x x
Xolotlán x x x x
Tiscapa x x x
Xiloá x
Cocibolca x x x x
Masaya x
Río de Oro (Rivas) x x
Fonseca River x
Malacatoya
Mayales x x
Acoyapa x
Tepenaguasapa x x
Source: CIRA/UNAN, 2007, Flores, S., 2005, MARENA, 2004c, and MARENA, 2003.
4.3. Impact of Heavy Metals tanneries and the lead used in the production
Contamination by heavy metals from both of batteries are examples of metal pollutants
human and natural sources has been the of human origin.
cause of the most important pollution
problems with respect to the quality of hydric 4.3.1. Problems Caused by Arsenic
resources (UNICEF, 2004; Altamirano, 2005). Arsenic causes natural contamination of
Certain areas in the Central and Northern groundwater in certain areas of the country
regions are polluted by arsenic from natural as a consequence of the presence of
sources, while craterous lagoons in the volcanic formations. The main sources of
Pacific, such as Apoyo, Xiloá, Asososca de arsenic are mineralized or hydrothermally
León and Apoyeque also have high levels of modified tectonic structures found parallel
arsenic (Parello et al., 2008). Mercury used to the Nicaraguan Graben, while faults and
in small-scale mining, chromium used by fractures near the flow of groundwater allow
484
NICARAGUA
the pollutant to enter the aquifer (Altamirano y of human origin with the most serious
Bundschuh, 2009). FIG. 13 shows the location environmental impact in the world. In
of seven drinking water sources with arsenic Nicaragua mercury is mainly used in
concentrations above the norm (>10μg/l, WHO) uncontrolled amalgamation and distillation
according to several monitoring campaigns by activities involved in gold mining, resulting
the Center for Research on Aquatic Resources not only in pollution of the environment
of the National Autonomous University of but also human exposure to the element
Nicaragua (Centro para la Investigación (Lacerda, 2003; Telmer et al., 2006). Although
en Recursos Acuáticos de la Universidad gold mining activities have declined and
Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua) (CIRA/ represent <0.8% of Nicaragua’s GIP, there
UNAN). A study on the presence of arsenic are still two large and three small active
in groundwater in the Northwest and mining companies. The use of mercury in
Southwest regions of Nicaragua (Estrada, amalgamation is concentrated mainly in small-
2002) focused mainly on water sources near scale mining in Santo Domingo, Distrito de
mineralized bodies altered by hydrothermal Coco Mina and Bonanza. The total mercury
events in tectonic structures parallel to emitted by Nicaragua in the past 100 years is
the Nicaraguan depression and found five estimated at 40 tons (Andre et al., 1997), and
anomalous areas (El Zapote, Santa Rosa del recent annual emissions vary from 60 to 180
Peñón, La Cruz de la India, Susucayán and kg (Andre et al., 1997, and Velásquez, 1994).
Rincón de García) with an arsenic content Likewise, Lake Managua has been affected
greater than 10 μg/L. All of these wells are by liquid wastes with high content of mercury
found in extremely poor areas. from the Hercasa-Elpesa (Pennwalt) complex
which operated from 1967 to 1992 along the
4.3.2. Problems Caused by Mercury south coast of the lake, and produced sodium
Mercury is considered to be the contaminant hypochlorite and chlorine gas.
4.6. Some Specific Pollution However, Lake Xolotlán not only receives
Problems in the Country waste waters from the city, but also pollutants
4. 6.1. Basin Nº 69, San Juan River from the municipal dump, called La Chureca.
Basin Nº 69 includes the San Juan River and This dump originated spontaneously and
the great Nicaraguan lakes, Lake Xolotlán unplanned in 1972 as a rubble deposit to
and Lake Cocibolca that are part of the most receive debris from the earthquake that
important hydric resources in the country and devastated the city in that year. Currently
key factors for its development. As mentioned the dump has a surface of 47 ha and receives
earlier, Lake Colcibolca has in addition been 1,200 tons of untreated and unclassified
declared as national drinking water reserve; solid wastes daily (CIRA/UNAN, 2009). The
its average flow into the San Juan River (475 “Impact Assessment of Leachate from the
m3/s) is not currently used. City of Managua Landfill called La Chureca,
to the Waters of Lake Xolotlán, to the Aquifer
4.6.1.1. Lake Xolotlán Affected and to Acahualinca Lagoon” project
The pollution present in Lake Xolotlán (also found evidence of infiltration of leachates
known as Lake Managua) has drastically into the subsoil and lake. The presence
limited the use of its waters. The capital of leachates in Lake Xolotlán has caused
city of Managua, with 24.4% of Nicaragua’s pollution by recalcitrant organic substances
population (1,335,204 inhabitants) in 2009, and minerals, compounds which make
is located on its southern shore. The lake reclamation of the lake even more difficult.
has a surface of 1,016 km2 and a basin of The problem is serious, as solid wastes can
488
NICARAGUA
be found directly in the lake when its waters Limnologic studies by CIRA/UNAN have
are highest during the months of heavy revealed the speeding up of eutrophication
rainfall. By means of the “Comprehensive processes in recent decades. This has been
Development of the Acahualinca District detected as an increase in phytoplankton
(Managua)” the Mayoralty of Managua in biomass, structural simplification of phyto-
coordination with the Spanish Agency for and zooplankton, and the predominance
International Cooperation for Development of cyanophytes, blue-green algae that are
(AECID - Agencia Española de Cooperación eutrophication indicators. (Procuenca San
Internacional para el Desarrollo), is currently Juan, 2004a y b).
developing a proposal to reduce the effects
of leachates both in the lake as well as in the These changes have been brought about
groundwater. The project includes sealing the by the increase in macronutrient flow from
dump, installing a leachate treatment plant tributaries, the basins of which have suffered
and the proper classification of solid wastes deforestation, as well as the conversion of
reaching the landfill. extensive areas for livestock pasture (FIG. 16)
and the resulting erosion (Vammen, 2006).
4.6.1.2. Lake Cocibolca The main tributaries of Lake Cocibolca in
Lake Cocibolca is the largest body of surface Nicaragua, the rivers Malacatoya (in its three
water in Central America and is also the largest sections), Mayales, Acoyapa, Oyate, Piedra
tropical lake in the American continent. It (mid-section), Camastro, Tule and Sapoá
has a highly important hydric potential for contain total phosphorus concentrations
Nicaragua, as its waters are of good quality above those that are recommended by the
and fit for human use. It is worth mentioning Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
that the average flow at its only outlet at San avoid eutrophication in lotic bodies of water
Carlos, the start of the San Juan River, is 475 (fast moving) (CIRA/UNAN, 2007). The EPA
m3/s or 41 Mm3/d as calculated by INETER. recommends the total phosphorus (TP)
489
NICARAGUA
guideline value of 0.05 mg/l for all currents of the resource and the deterioration of
entering a lake or reservoir. All surface flows the ecosystem by industrial and domestic
discharging its waters into Lake Cocibolca are effluents” (General Law for National Waters,
used as drinking troughs, for crop irrigation Law 620, La Gaceta, 2007b). The National
(Malacatoya River), and receive various Assembly also ordered the establishment
discharges from municipalities (Mayales of the “Commission for the Sustainable
River), as well as wastes from dairy processing Development of the Lake Cocibolca and San
and tanneries, among others. The waters of Juan River Basin” for the purpose of preparing
Lake Cocibolca are used to flood extensive the Plan for Comprehensive Management for
areas dedicated to growing rice while the Basin Nº 69.
ecosystem itself receives the irrigation return
water. Data obtained by CIRA/UNAN from 4.6.2 Basin Nº 64
2002 and 2003 on the nutrient loading of Basin Nº 64 is found in the northwest of
surface waters in Lake Cocibolca, show that Nicaragua, between the Cosigüina volcano
the Oyate and Tepenaguasapa tributaries found and the Tamarindo River (Figure 3) and
on its eastern shore are the main contributors of contains the most productive aquifers in the
phosphorus pollution with 41 and 123 tons per country (27.5 x 109 m3; UN, 1974). The aquifer
year respectively, as well as nitrogen pollution covers an area of 1,300 km2 and sustains a
with 123 and 345 tons per year respectively. population of nearly 700,000 inhabitants
This equals 92% of the total received by the (16% of the total population of Nicaragua), as
ecosystem through rivers. Results show that well as the most extensive and fertile land for
greater input occurs during the first rains when agriculture in the nation. Productive activities
soil lacks vegetation in areas used for farming mainly involve growth of agricultural exports
activities (Flores, S., 2005). by monoculture and intensive mechanization.
The main crops currently at risk and produced
The General Law for National Waters for export are sugarcane (65%), peanuts
recognizes the importance of adopting (29%) and bananas (6%); these receive a large
measures to avoid the degradation of waters quantity of agricultural chemicals and are
in the basin: “the lake must be considered a irrigated by 74.4% of the water extracted from
natural clean water reserve of high national the aquifer (MARENA, 2008a y b). Because
interest and priority, and it is necessary the León-Chinindega aquifer is shallow and
to establish the specific mechanisms and unconfined, it is highly vulnerable to pollution
regulations that guarantee and regulate by pesticides. Between 1950 and 1980, the
water productivity, while simultaneously most widely used pesticides were highly
ensuring the maintenance and increase of persistent organochlorines. From 1973 to
flow that allow the development of economic 1981, 70,270 tons of pesticides were applied,
activities, without detriment to the quantity 80% for the growing of cotton (Briemberg,
and quality of water production, forbidding 1994). Several studies have shown the
introduction and culture of exotic invasive presence of dieldrin, pp-DDT, pp-DDE, pp-
species, as well as avoiding contamination DDD, and toxaphene above the norm for
490
NICARAGUA
drinking water at depths of 12 meters below generated an increasing concern relative
the water table in three sample wells located to pollution in ecosystems and draining of
in various fields, historically used to cultivate toxic substances into rivers, coastal lagoons
cotton (Delgado, 2003). These compounds and fisheries next to the Caribbean Sea. As
were also found in soils (Briemberg, 1994; 93% of the country’s surface waters flow into
CIRA/UNAN, 1999a; Centro Humboldt, 2001). Nicaragua’s Caribbean coast, the “Monitoring
The León-Chinandega aquifer in addition of Pesticide Runoff into the Nicaraguan
includes a deeper system that is recharged Caribbean” project is being put into action
in the mountains, while the shallow system is by CIRA/UNAN, under the coordination of
recharged from the central plain (UN, 1974). MARENA and within the framework of the
regional project “Colombia, Costa Rica and
The deeper aquifer is highly vulnerable to Nicaragua; Reducing Pesticide Runoff in the
climate change and to flow conditions of Caribbean Sea” (Proyecto RepCar, 2009). In
the local rivers. Agro-chemicals found in this way, information on runoff and impact
the shallow system are a risk to the deeper of pesticides along the Caribbean coast will
aquifer due to greater pumping of water or be available, concretely with respect to the
drought conditions that reduce river volume outlet of three basins: (a) Basin Nº 45 Coco
and promote water exchange between the River (bi-national basin shared with Honduras
two systems (Delgado, 2003; CIRA/UNAN, where the Coco or Wangki River hydrographic
1999b, and Calderón, 2003). Pollution system, the longest in the nation, is found); (b)
assessment of aquifer vulnerability shows Basin Nº 61 corresponding to the Escondido
that it increases during rainy years (MARENA, River (connected to the coastal lagoon
2008a), especially during extreme events known as the Bluefields Bay, which receives
such as hurricane Mitch, as floods carry all pesticides applied on crops in the northern
kinds of contaminants to wells. The aquifer part of the basin, and (c) Basin Nº 63 between
also is very dynamic as a consequence the Escondido River and Punta Gorda (where
of its great permeability. A toxicological a large part of the population from the Región
analysis of the soil and waterwells in the Autónoma Atlántica Sur-RAAS lives).
Posoltega area performed after hurricane
Mitch found organochlorinated pesticides in 5. Water and Sanitation
concentrations above the EPA norm in eight 5.1 Water Demand for
wells and organophosphates in eleven wells Human Consumption
(CIRA/UNAN, 1999a). Nicaragua has experienced a significant
demographic expansion in the past 50 years;
4.6.3 Contamination of the Caribbean its population has grown from 1,049,611
Watershed inhabitants in 1950 to 5,142,098 inhabitants
The rapid spread of the agricultural border to in the year 2005 (INEC, 2005).
the Caribbean coast (Figure IV.5), soil erosion
caused by fast deforestation, and the wide According to projections on population
use of pesticides in agriculture have together growth, demography in the country is
491
NICARAGUA
expected follow the same pattern in 2010, (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation states
therefore water demand is expected to rise that Nicaragua covered 98% use by means of
accordingly. Considering population data improved water sources in urban areas, while it
and the rate of population increase in the only covered 68% in rural areas in 2008. Piped
most recent census (INEC, 2005), the current water, the most adequate system to improve
population in Nicaragua is estimated at the health of the population, reached 88% in
5,600,591 inhabitants who require 379.94 2008 in urban areas, and only 27% in rural ones
Mm3 of water per year. According to the 2001 (PCM, 2010).
State of the Environment Report (Informe del
Estado del Ambiente), ENACAL estimated
the demand in 2010 to be 340 mm3. In order
to estimate water demand, the provision
recommended by NTON 09003-99 norm of
the Nicaraguan Institute for Aqueducts and
Sanitation (INAA - Instituto Nicaragüense de
Acueductos y Alcantarillados) was considered
and a 25% loss was assumed. Table 17 shows
population estimates and water demand per
department for the year 2010.
SOURCE: SINIA-MARENA, 2009.
Precise official data on water demand are FIG. 17. Clean Water Production ENACAL period 2004-
2008.
lacking, because the existing water demand is
not covered in its totality by the Aqueduct and
Sanitation Distribution Company (ENACAL). 5.2. Supply Networks in Urban Areas
According to the most recent data, drinking According to figures by ENACAL in the
water coverage is 85% in urban areas, and draft for the IV Report on the State of the
there is thus a gap between water demand Environment (SINIA-MARENA, 2009), 85% of
and supply services. Nevertheless, the urban population has access to clean water
distribution company has made the necessary services through supply network systems,
effort to increase water supply. FIG. 17 shows which means that within urban areas there
an increase of 9.23% in water production by is still a considerable percentage of the
ENACAL in the period from 2004 to 2008. population with no access to drinking water,
whether it is because these persons are not
According to data from ENACAL (2007), 71.7% registered or because they are supplied by
of the Nicaraguan population has drinking other means.
water infrastructure, either through a dwelling
or a communal connection. The nation’s Likewise, groundwater is the main clean water
urban areas are supplied by 155 distribution supply source because most the population
stations covering 180 communities. The and the main towns and cities are located
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program in the Pacific region, where surface water is
492
NICARAGUA
hardly available and there are great deposits equipment, high degree of leakage due to
of groundwater. obsolete distribution networks, frequent and
lengthy power interruptions, unorganized
This situation forces exploitation of groundwater network growth and not less importantly, the
as the main supply source, consequently gap existing between water production and
increasing distribution costs due to the energy increasing demand by the population.
needed to collect and send water through the According to the Executive Head of ENACAL,
network, therefore limiting development of more than half of its users receive water
the sector because of high investment costs. partially (a few hours a day) and nearly half
In the country, clean water is supplied in of the country’s population does not receive
urban areas by ENACAL, the decentralized services from the company. Only 46% of
companies AMAT (Empresa Aguadora the 286.97 mm3 of water supplied annually
de Matagalpa) and EMAJIN (Empresa de by ENACAL are billed, thus restricting
Acueductos y Alcantarillados de Jinotega), development in the sector because of lack of
in addition to several municipalities and resources for investment (ENACAL, 2008a).
private land developers. ENACAL manages Service quality is most affected from 7:00 am
76% of the clean water systems in the country. and 5:00 pm when demand is highest, mainly
Table 27 summarizes information for the 222 due to issues with pumping pressure and the
drinking water supply systems, 154 of which existing deficit between supply and demand.
come from groundwater.
Problems concerning service continuity
Most of the networks for drinking water become acute during the dry months, the
supply in the country are in poor condition, most difficult being February, March, April
affecting the quality of service, specifically and May, when water rationing plans must be
continuity of supply. ENACAL, the country’s implemented not only in the capital, but also
water distribution company, reports that the in the remaining departments of the Pacific
main supply problems are caused by the and Central regions (FAO-CEPAL, 2009).
following factors: limited or no maintenance Between 2002 and 2007, ENACAL invested
of the network system or pumping US$167,669.30 in clean water and sanitation
Table 27. Number of Supply Systems per Type of Supply Source.
493
NICARAGUA
works. According to the 2008-2012 high technology plants which demand a
Institutional Development Plan, ENACAL considerable amount of energy to operate
intends to raise drinking water coverage form and are expensive to maintain; among
77% to 88%; increase time of uninterrupted them the inverse osmosis (desalination)
service from 15 to 22 hours per day; and plant stands out, although unfortunately it
elevate water production from 271.06 Mm3/ is currently disabled due to high operation
year (8.59 m3/s) to 296.57 Mm3/year (9.40 and maintenance costs (ENACAL, 2008a).
m3/s) (ENACAL, 2008a). Most of the water purification plants in the
country are found in the northern and central
5.3. Water Treatment for regions; the most important and largest ones
Use in Urban Areas are located in the cities of Ocotal, Juigalpa,
As already mentioned above, groundwater Boaco and Camoapa. In the Atlantic region,
supplies 70% of total drinking water, while the desalination plant collects water from
the remaining 30% comes from surface or Bluefields Bay to supply the city that bears
subsurface water (FAO-CEPAL, 2009). This the same name, involving high operation and
results from more than 86% of the population maintenance costs. (ENACAL, 2008a).
living in the Pacific watershed (20% of the
territory) which hold only 6% surface water Before water is delivered through distribution
(Montenegro, 2009). networks, it is disinfected by chlorination.
In relation to the issues involved in water
These demographic and hydrographic purification and disinfection, various non-
characteristics have led various governments governmental organizations, national
to direct their attention towards strategies that universities and cooperation agencies have
exploit underground hydric resources, not only come up with community development
because the water collection and disinfection projects that rely on the application of a variety
works are cheaper, but also because of the of water treatment procedures such as filtration
high quality of these waters. The situation techniques, exposure to solar radiation and
has involved inconsistent technological aeration, among others. 1,200,000 homes
development; while capability and experience in Nicaragua receive water and sanitation
in the exploitation of groundwater, such as services form Drinking Water and Sanitation
well drilling and disinfection techniques, Committees (Comités de Agua Potable y
are more highly developed, technology for Saneamiento –CAPS; http://capsnicaragua.
collection and purification of surface water blogspot.com), rural community organizations
has lagged behind. There are 17 water which execute organization and operation
purification plants in Nicaragua: four rely on practices to supply these services.
slow sand filtration, 12 on rapid sand filtration
and one is a desalination plant. Most water 5.4. Current Situation and
purification plants in the country have low Coverage of Sewerage Services
cost technology and rely on the hydraulic In spite of the efforts of various national
energy of the system. There are only three governments to improve sanitation, the
494
NICARAGUA
situation continues to be poor. According to systems have exceeded their useful life and
the 2005 census, only 25% of the population they must be expanded, renovated and in
living in Nicaragua has access to a sewerage some cases closed down and replaced.
system, although this figure increases to 59% if
the term “sanitation” is broadened to include Sewage systems are made of cement piping
the use of latrines and privies. Nevertheless, with manholes built with bricks. They have
this continues to be deficient, considering main and secondary collectors and separate
that the country’s population is greater than collection systems for rain and wastewaters.
five million inhabitants (FAO-CEPAL, 2009). As a consequence of the age and poor
management of the sewage system, it is in
Similar to drinking water, the gap in sanitation poor condition, and several branches are
between urban and rural areas is significant: blocked and cut off due to accumulation of
43% of urban population has lavatories, while fats, solids and sediments from rivers (FAO-
the figure drops to only 2.1% in rural areas. CEPAL, 2009). Storm sewer systems are less
Within the rural population, most have access vast than sanitary sewers, which results in
to latrines, although 30% have no access to any illegal connections between storm and sanitary
type of sanitation services at all (INEC, 2005). sewers and limits proper functioning. During
very heavy rains, water flowing through pipes
This implies that a large percentage of exceeds their designed capacity and often
individuals practice outdoor defecation, which leads to collapse of the sanitary sewage systems
is a threat to human health. In 2008 Nicaragua (FAO-CEPAL, 2009).
reported 21% outdoor defecation in rural
areas, 4% in urban areas and 11% in the entire 5.5. Volume of Wastewater Produced
population (PCM, 2010). Because official data on the volume of
wastewater produced in Nicaragua are
Sewage services are only available to less lacking, estimates for the volume of
than 42% of the population, with urban domestic wastewaters produced for the
peripheries and rural areas mainly lacking year 2010 have been based on the fact
the service (ENACAL, 2008a). This leads to that wastewater production represents
inadequate disposal of grey water which approximately 80% of clean water use. The
flows through yards, streets, channels or results can be seen in FIG 18.
ravines; a good part filters into the soil and
the remaining part drains into a surface 5.6. Coverage and Percentage
water body. According to ENACAL’s 2008- Treated Wastewater
2012 National Development Plan, 36 cities Thirty-six cities in Nicaragua have sanitary
have sewerage systems, representing 20% sewage systems of which only 27 have
of municipal and departmental capital cities wastewater treatment plants; therefore only
found in the Pacific and Central regions of the 38% of collected wastewaters are treated
country. However the issue becomes even (SINIA-MARENA, 2009). It is important to
more alarming knowing that most sewage note that although Nicaragua has 215 cities
495
NICARAGUA
considered to be urban areas (Arguello, presented by ENACAL in its IV Report on
2008), only 27 treat their wastewater, and the State of the Environment, wastewater
thus only 12.5% of urban wastewaters are treatment increased from 17% in 2006, to
treated. Sanitary sewage that is not treated 31.4% in 2008.
is discharged into bodies of surface waters
(rivers and lakes), indiscriminately polluting Wastewaters that flow through sanitary
hydric resources (FAO-CEPAL, 2009). In rural systems consist of grey water, raw sewage
areas, the situation is even worse as there is and in the rainy season, rainwater from certain
no treatment of wastewaters whatsoever. This homes that have an illegal connection to the
is a consequence of the sector’s development system. This situation results in a high organic
policies which are focused on supplying composition of domestic wastewaters, as
water for human use, providing latrines and well as a high concentration of nutrients such
health education, leaving management of as nitrogen and phosphorus, in addition to
wastewater aside; thus waste or grey water abundant pathogens, sediments and detritus.
flows along streets, avenues and riverbeds
(FAO-CEPAL, 2009). 5.7. Wastewater Treatment Systems
Traditionally in Nicaragua, stabilization
ponds have been considered an alternative
to wastewater treatment. Of the 27
treatment plants in the country, 13 use
this method to treat sewage. In addition,
the Managua plant has an anaerobic
reactor followed by facultative lagoons
and a maturation pond, six Imhoff tanks
with ascending flow anaerobic filters, five
septic tanks with anaerobic ascending flow
filters, a septic tank system with anaerobic
SOURCE: PERSONAL COMPILATION (CIRA/UNAN) ascending filters, a septic tank system with
BASED ON POPULATION PROJECTION (INEC, 2005) AND
NTON DATA FOR CLEAN WATER SUPPLY (INAA, 1999). infiltration ditch and a system made of
FIG. 18. Estimate for the Current Production of primary sedimentation, biological trickle
Domestic Wastewater in the Country. filter and secondary sedimentation (FAO-
CEPAL, 2009).
In 2008, total treated domestic wastewater
was calculated at 44.6 mm3/year (1.41 m3/s). Systems operating properly are efficient
In early 2009, the largest water treatment at removing organic load and suspended
plant in Central America began operating solids, but inefficient at removing nutrients
in Managua. It treats 66.6 mm3/year (2.11 and pathogens. Most domestic wastewater
m3/s), thus increasing the total volume of treatment systems however, are in an
wastewater treated in the country (ENACAL, advanced state of deterioration due to
2008). According to the latest figures lack of maintenance and poor operation
496
NICARAGUA
as well as design shortcomings that range of only six treatment plants were reused in
from inadequate sizing to the absence of agriculture, specifically forestry plantations
preliminary works for the initial treatment and tall-growing crops (CEPIS-OPS, 2002).
of inflows, leading to serious environmental
problems for the bodies of water that receive The percentage of treated wastewater that is
the treated effluent. An example of this is reused is currently unknown, but most often
Lake Masaya which suffers a high degree of treated effluents are poured into bodies of
eutrophication because it directly receives surface waters such as lakes and rivers, and
the effluent from the oxidation pond of the a small percentage is used in seepage pits,
Masaya municipality (FAO-CEPAL, 2009). a practice used in certain compact plant
treatment systems found in urban areas.
5.8. Applied Technology for the
Treatment of Wastewaters 5.10. Present Situation of Distribution
Presently, all existing treatment plants for and Sanitation Networks
domestic wastewater operate by means Considering that water supply systems are
of physical, biological, aerobic, anaerobic designed for a period of 25 years, most
processes or in combination with hydraulic drinking water distribution networks in
systems. Treatment systems found in middle urban areas in Nicaragua are obsolete. The
to high-class urban areas, which have sprung fact that their useful life is over, in addition
up in recent decades, use conventional to the poor maintenance given to pipes and
technology. The most common among these pumping equipment, have resulted in serious
systems are compact activated sludge plants, problems regarding water leaking out during
which require electricity for their operation. distribution, mainly due to rusted or broken
pipes. Other aggravating circumstances
With respect to industries, treatment include the connections made by spontaneous
technology has focused on conventional human settlements in which pipes lacking
options: activated sludge, biological filters, adequate technical specifications are used
compact treatment plants, etc. In these thus increasing the frequency and amount of
cases, technology depends greatly on the water leakage in the networks. A considerable
characteristics or components of the effluent. amount of investment is needed to restore
and extend the existing waterworks systems.
5.9. Reuse of Water
In Nicaragua, the reuse of treated water is As to sanitary sewage networks, the situation
an uncommon practice, possibly because is even more precarious; as mentioned
treatment systems in the country have been previously, 36 of the 215 cities considered to
shown to be inefficient to remove pathogens be urban areas have sewage systems, and the
and this hinders the use of treated waters coverage is only 50%. The problem however
for a variety of activities such as irrigation, becomes acute when considering the state of
field application, cleaning, and aquaculture, obsolescence in which most of the existing
among others. From 2000-2002 the effluents sewage systems are found in, in addition to
497
NICARAGUA
the inadequate use the systems are given water in their homes and is thus forced to
by people that pour domestic rainwater into supply themselves through communal and
them and in some cases, even solid wastes. individual wells, rainwater or surface water
This situation, which is evident in the constant from rivers, lagoons or shallow reservoirs
blockage issues and spilling of wastewaters in used for livestock watering. From a sanitary
various manholes on streets and avenues and viewpoint, this represents an important
the noxious smells and runoff of grey water, health risk. Nevertheless, the situation is even
has placed the sanitation system on the verge more serious in the Atlantic region because
of collapse (ENACAL, 2008). 80% of the population has no direct access to
drinking water at all.
Such a dramatic situation demands greater
investment in the sector to allow restoring,
extension and maintenance of the sanitation
networks, together with campaigns to
increase environmental awareness and
education that will lead to better service,
coverage and function.
In 2008 it was estimated that 5,276 rural Disperse communities present the greatest
aqueduct systems supplied the same number supply challenges as people often have to
of small rural communities (ENACAL, 2008). walk several kilometers to find a source of
The distribution of these water supply systems water. The supply system is conditioned by
per department is shown in FIG. 19. how long the network has existed, plus the
yield and building of wells. An additional
The departments of Matagalpa, León, Estelí factor that hinders access to the resource are
and Jinotega have most rural waterworks; new and illegal connections to the system
in contrast, the North Atlantic regions have by middle to high-class condominiums and
the least amount of works and are thus the developments which lack their own wells and
most depressed area regarding the drinking result in pressure loss in the supply networks.
water sector. It is estimated that half of
the rural population in the Pacific region Supply in rural areas is covered by small
of Nicaragua has no access to drinking systems, of which the most commonly used
498
NICARAGUA
are hand-dug wells (PEM –pozo excavado Domestic wastewaters in rural areas go
a mano), drilled wells (PP -pozo perforado), untreated, although there have been isolated
mini-aqueducts by electric pumping (MABE¬ experiences with the use of the technologies
–mini acueductos por bombeo eléctrico), applied in urban areas. These are individual
mini-aqueducts by gravity (MAG –mini treatment systems that deal with grey
acueductos por gravedad), collection from waters; they use biofilters or filter beds by
springs (CM -captaciones de manantial). Up way of artificial wetlands. Another common
to the year 2002, there had been 4, 886 works practice is the use of septic tanks that lack
registered for all the systems mentioned soil waterproofing and thus become potential
(ENACAL, 2005). sources of pollution.
umbilical cord and human milk (Cruz Granja, people in Nicaragua are drinking arsenic-
1995; Lacayo, 1995; CIRA/UNAN, 1997), contaminated water (UNICEF-ASDI, 2004).
while there is also a high prevalence of chronic
renal disease and patients with chronic renal 8. Legal Framework
failure (Marín, J. 2007), apart from sterility, The first regulations related to water
cancer and congenital malformations which resources in Nicaragua were established in
very probably are related to the nephrotoxic, the Civil Code, the legal instrument with a
carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic vision, scope and spirit dating from 1904. It
effects of these compounds. established a privatizing influence on natural
resources and determined that water is
As regards to arsenic, natural contamination subject to special regulations, as stated in
with this element has been detected in Article 723: “Everything regarding public
Nicaragua in water for human use in the waters, particularly those that are navigable
following regions: Northwestern (Villanueva, and fluctuating, rainwater, channels, private
Santa Rosa del Peñón), North central (Madriz, aqueducts and other works concerning the
Nueva Segovia), Central (Valle de Sébaco) use of water; and finally to all plant substances,
and in the Department of Chontales (La whether land or aquatic, are subject to special
Libertad, locality of Kimuna) (Altamirano and by-laws” (Official Journal, 1904). More than
Bundschuh, 2009). Conservative estimates 50 years went by before the first law to try
have determined that approximately 55,700 to regulate natural resources, called “Ley
505
NICARAGUA
General Sobre Explotación de las Riquezas Law 217 contains 22 Articles dealing with
Naturales” (General Law for the Exploitation various aspects with regards to water
of Natural Resources) (1958) (La Gaceta, Nº resources; however, they have not been
83, April, 1958) was enacted; nevertheless, applied on account of the lack of an institution
once again water was left out of the legal in charge of implementing it and protecting
framework. Because of the absence of a the resource. The National Policy for Water
clearly-defined legal framework, the most Resources (La Gaceta, 2001) relies on
widely applied norms were those found in management per watershed as the foundation
the Civil Code which recognizes the private for the integrated governance of water
property of water and in the name of individual resources in Nicaragua. It also determines
rights has allowed the contamination of water the importance of water as national wealth of
resources in the entire country. public domain to satisfy the basic needs of the
population, respecting principles of social and
Nearly 100 years passed before the first laws gender equity. The policy foresees the impact
that intended to protect water resources of climate change when it states in Article 2:
in a comprehensive manner were passed “The objectives of the National Policy for
by means of the General Law for the Water Resources are the use and integrated
Environment and Natural Resources (Ley management of hydric resources in line with
General del Medio Ambiente y los Recursos the social and economic requirements of
Naturales [Ley 217]) (La Gaceta, 1996), development and in accordance with the
promulgated and put into effect in 1996. For capacity of ecosystems, in the benefit of
the first time, the law modified the concepts present and future generations, as well as to
relating to privatization and individual rights prevent natural disasters caused by extreme
found in previous laws, and established legal hydrological events”.
consistency with the Constitutional provision
found in Article 102 which states: “Natural The legislative history of water regulation
resources are national patrimony. reaches its peak in September of 2007, when
the first law to regulate hydric resources is
The preservation of the environment, as approved and passed becoming the first
well as the conservation, development and valid legal instrument for the sustainable
exploitation of natural resources is a concern management of water. This law established a
of the State”. Along these lines, Law 217 comprehensive regulatory framework in line
states in Article 72: “Water, in all of its states, with the National Policy for the administration,
is of public domain. In addition, the State conservation, development, use, sustainable
owns the beaches of oceans, rivers and lakes; and equitable exploitation of hydric resources
riverbeds and basins of natural water deposits; in the country, as well as the preservation
salinitrous lands, firm ground found up to thirty of their quantity and quality. (C. García,
meters beyond the maximum waterline or the President of the Environmental Commission
permanent banks of rivers and lakes, and the of the National Assembly). The General
stratum or deposits of groundwaters”. Law for National Waters (Law 620) and its
506
NICARAGUA
norms make an emphasis on the integrated River Basin” (Gaceta, 2007a) was created,
management of water based on the country’s and its function is to make, approve and
hydrographic and hydrogeologic basins, sub- follow the Plan for Action Territorial Planning
basins and micro-basins. The most important for Basin Management (Montenegro, 2009).
component of the Law is the creation of the
National Water Authority (ANA - Autoridad On the other hand it is important to add
Nacional del Agua) in Art. 24, which states: that the Plans for Municipal Development
“The National Water Authority (ANA) is include an addition element for water
hereby created and will be the decentralized management, as it establishes in Art. 6 of
organ of the Executive Power as regards to the Law for Municipalities (Law 40) that
water, with its own legal status, administrative “municipal governments have competence
and financial autonomy and with technical- in all matters that have incidence on socio-
regulatory, technical-operational, control and economic development, conservation of the
follow-up capacities to exercise the nationwide environment and natural resources within
administration and management of water their territorial circumscription”.
resources, according to the present Law and
its norms”. Likewise, the General Law for the Environment
and Natural Resources of Nicaragua (Art. 83)
ANA (Art. 25) is responsible for putting the states that autonomous governments and
creation of basin agencies to the consideration municipalities can determine the maximum
of the National Council for Water Resources amounts of water to be extracted within their
(CNRH - Consejo Nacional de Recursos jurisdiction.
Hídricos). In addition, ANA also organizes and In 2010, the National Water Authority was
coordinates the Information System for Hydric established and is currently developing the
Resources, which determines the availability of foundations to apply Law 620.
national waters regarding quantity and quality,
and establishes the inventory of water uses 9. References
and users. This system covers geographic, 1. Agenda 21-Nicaragua. Aspectos del
meteorologic, hydrologic and hydrogeologic desarrollo sostenible referentes a
information and includes the handling of data los recursos naturales en Nicaragua.
bases, operation and maintenance of networks http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/
and circulation of the information obtained (La natlinfo/countr/nicara/natur.htm#toxic
Gaceta, 2007b). Another important aspect of 2. Altamirano, M. y Bundschuh, J.
Law 620 is that it recognizes Lake Cocibolca, (2009). Natural arsenic groundwater
the largest in Central America and the largest contamination of the sedimentary
tropical Lake in the American continent, as aquifers of southwestern Sébaco
a national reservoir of drinking water as a Valley, Nicaragua. Geoquímica del
way to stop the pollution of its waters. As a arsénico en América Latina.
result, the “Commission for the Sustainable 3. Altamirano, M. (2005). Distribución
Development of Lake Cocibolca and San Juan de la contaminación natural por
507
NICARAGUA
arsénico en las aguas subterráneas 11. Briemberg, J. (1994). An investigation
de la subcuenca suroeste del Valle de of pesticide contamination of
Sébaco, Matagalpa-Nicaragua. groundwater sources for urban water
4. http://www.cira-unan.edu.ni/media/ distribution systems in the Pacific
documentos/MaxAltamirano.pdf. Region of Nicaragua. Final Report 3,
5. Álvarez Castillo, José Antonio (1994). CIDA Awards for Canadians.
Niveis de contaminacao das águas 12. Calderón, H. (2003). Numerical
da Bacía do rio Atoya por resíduos modeling of the groundwater flow
de pesticidas organoclorados e system in a sub-basin of the Leon-
organofosforados aplicado na cultura Chinandega aquifer, Nicaragua. MSc
do algodão Bacía de rio Atoya Thesis. University of Calgary, Calgary,
Chinandega, Nicaragua America Alberta.
Central. Tesis de Maestría (Universidad 13. CATHALAC, PNUD, GEF (2008).
Federal do Paraná Brasilia). Síntesis regional: Fomento de las
6. Andre, L., Rosen, K., Torstendahl, J. capacidades para la Etapa II de
(1997). Minor field study of mercury adaptación al cambio climático en
and lead pollution from gold refining Centroamérica, México y Cuba.
in central Nicaragua. Department of Edición final [E. Sempris, M. Chiurliza,
Environmental Engineering, Lulea Joel Pérez, R. Carrillo y M. Tuñon
University of Technology, Lulea. (eds.)].
7. Argüello , O. (2008). Revisión y 14. CCO (2001). Cuerpo de Ingenieros
actualización de la estrategia del de los Estados Unidos de
sector de agua potable y saneamiento, América, Distrito de Mobile y
2008-2015, Nicaragua/Informe final. Centro de Ingeniería Topográfica
Managua, julio de 2008. Regionalización. Biofísica de tres
8. Banco Mundial (2001). Recurso hídrico regiones del Pacífico de Nicaragua.
per cápita por año de los países http://www.sam.usace.army.mil/en/
centroamericanos y otros países de wra/Nicaragua/WRA%20SPANISH.pdf
referencia. www.aguayclima.com/ 15. CAPS Nicaragua (2009). http://
agua/inicio.htm capsnicaragua.blogspot.com
9. BCN (2009). Banco Central de 16. Carvalho, Fernando P., Villeneuve, J. P.,
Nicaragua. Nicaragua en cifras. http:// Cattini, Chantal, Tolosa, Inmaculada,
www.bcn.gob.ni/publicaciones/ Montenegro Guillén, S., Lacayo,
nicaraguacifras/Nicaragua%20en%20 M. y Cruz, A. (2002). Ecological risk
cifras%202007%20WEB.pdf assessment of pesticide residues in
10. BCN (2008). Banco Central de coastal lagoons of Nicaragua. The
Nicaragua. Anuario de Estadísticas Royal Society of Chemistry, Journal of
Económicas 2001-2008. http://www. Environmental Monitoring, 4, 778/787.
bcn.gob.ni/publicaciones/anuario/ 17. Castillo Hernández, E., Calderón
Anuario%20estadistico%202008.pdf Palma, H., Delgado Quezada, V.,
508
NICARAGUA
Flores Meza, Y. y Salvatierra, T. (2006). Nicaragua: Estudio Isotópico y de la
Situación de los recursos hídricos Contaminación del Acuífero León-
en Nicaragua. Boletín Geológico y Chinandega, Nicaragua. Informe final.
Minero. (Situation of Water Resources 25. CIRA/UNAN (2009). Centro para la
in Nicaragua). Instituto Geológico y Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos
Minero de España, 117 (1):127-146. (Informe final de la Primera Campaña
18. Catastro e Inventario de Recursos de Muestreo, Proyecto “Evaluación
Naturales (1973). Ministerio de del Impacto de los Lixiviados del
Economía, Industria y Comercio. Basurero de la Ciudad de Managua,
19. Centro Humboldt (2001). La Chureca, a las Aguas del Lago
Caracterización hidrogeológica, Xolotlán, al Acuífero Afectado y a la
hidroquímica, bacteriológica y de Laguna Acahualinca”. CIRA/UNAN,
plaguicidas en las aguas subterráneas Managua.
del municipio de Posoltega. Managua, 26. CIRA/UNAN (2008). Centro para la
Nicaragua. Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos.
20. CEPAL, GTZ (2009). Cambio climático Informe final de Evaluación y
y desarrollo en América Latina y el monitoreo de la calidad del agua
Caribe: una reseña. http://www.eclac. del Lago de Managua, Proyecto de
cl/dmaah/noticias/paginas/6/34886/ apoyo a la ejecución del Programa
libro-cc.pdf de Saneamiento Ambiente del Lago y
21. CEPAL (1999). Nicaragua: evaluación la Ciudad de Managua, Contrato de
de los daños ocasionados por el Préstamo BID 1060/SF-NI.ENACAL e
huracán Mitch, 1998. Sus implicaciones INETER.
para el desarrollo económico y social y 27. CIRA/UNAN, 2007. Análisis de
el medio ambiente. la relación entre las presiones
22. CEPIS-OPS (2002). Centro antropogénicas y el estado de la
Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria contaminación del Lago Cocibolca
y Ciencias. Tratamiento y uso de de Nicaragua. Integración de datos
aguas residuales en América Latina, biológicos, físicos y químicos con
Inventario regional del manejo de las datos geoespaciales e información
aguas residuales. Convenio IDRC- de la cuenca hidrográfica del Lago
CEPIS 2000-2002. Cocibolca. CIRA/UNAN–Fundación
23. CIA, The World Factbook. https://cia. Ciudad del Saber.
gov/library/publications/the-world- 28. CIRA/UNAN (1997). Plaguicidas
factbook organoclorados en sangre de madres
24. CIRA/IAEA (1999). Proyecto ARCAL del Departamento de Chinandega,
XXXI. Caracterización de los acuíferos Cuadra Leal, J., Cruz Granja, A. y
para la gestión sustentable de los Lacayo, M. Informe.
recursos hídricos subterráneos 29. CIRA/UNAN (1999a). Centro para la
en áreas urbanas. Informe de Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos.
509
NICARAGUA
Diagnóstico de la calidad toxicológica 36. ENACAL (2008a). Empresa
de las aguas y suelos y calidad Nicaragüense de Acueductos y
bacteriológica de las aguas del Alcantarillados Sanitarios. Plan de
municipio de Posoltega. Managua, Desarrollo Institucional 2008-2012:
Nicaragua. Estrategia sectorial de agua propuesta
30. CIRA/UNAN (1999b). Centro para la por ENACAL, diciembre de 2008.
Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos. Managua. http://www.enacal.com.ni/
Proyecto ARCAL XXXI. Caracterización media/imgs/informacion/LIBRO%20
de los acuíferos para la gestión ENACAL%20CAMBIO%20ENERO-05.
sustentable de los recursos hídricos pdf
subterráneos en áreas urbanas. 37. ENACAL (2008b). Empresa
Informe Nicaragua. Estudio isotópico y Nicaragüense de Acueductos y
de la contaminación del acuífero León- Alcantarillados Sanitarios. Revista.
Chinandega. Managua, Nicaragua. Informe de Gestión 2008, diciembre
31. CIRA/MEL/DIPS, 1996-1998. Fate, de 2008. Managua. http://www.enacal.
Cycling and Environmental Effects com.ni/media/imgs/informacion/
of Agrochemical Residues from LIBRO%20ENACAL%20CAMBIO%20
Cotton Culture in Coastal Lagoon ENERO-05.pdf
Environments of Nicaragua. First year, 38. ENACAL (2007). Empresa
Second year, Third year, and Final Nicaragüense de Acueductos y
Reports. Alcantarillados Sanitarios. ABC sobre
32. CONAGAN (2009). Comisión el recurso agua y su situación en
Nacional Ganadera de Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Segunda edición. http://
Comunicación personal con el Gerente www.enacal.com.ni/media/imgs/
General de CONAGAN, Dr. René informacion/ABCdelAgua1.pdf
Blandón. 39. ENACAL (2005). Empresa
33. CONAGUA y WWC (2006). Comisión Nicaragüense de Acueductos y
Nacional de Agua y World Water Alcantarillados Sanitarios. Efluentes
Council, Datos de extracción de agua industriales que se descargan al
en Centroamérica. Presentado en el alcantarillado sanitario de Managua.
Foro Mundial del Agua México, 2006. Gerencia Ambiental. Unidad de
34. Cruz Granja, Adela (1995). Pesticidas Vertidos Industriales, agosto de 2005.
organoclorados na gordura corporal 40. ENDESA (2007). Encuesta
de mulheres Nicaraguenses. Tesis de Nicaragüense de Demografía y Salud,
Maestria Universidad de Brasilia. 2006-2007. http://www.ops.org.ni/
35. Delgado, V. (2003). Groundwater index.php?Itemid=34&func=fileinfo&i
Flow System and Water Quality in a d=524&option=com_remository
Coastal Plain Aquifer in Northwestern 41. FAO-CEPAL (2009). Los recursos
Nicaragua. M.Sc Thesis. University of hídricos de Nicaragua. http://
Calgary, Calgary, Alberta. coin.fao.org/medias/fao-nic-
510
NICARAGUA
recursoshidricos-capal-pdf potable en Nicaragua. Tesis para
42. FAO (1992). Food and Agriculture optar al grado de Magíster Scientae
Organization of the United Nations. en Agroforestería Tropical. CATIE,
Estudio Subsectorial del Riego Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Privado. Vol. II de II (Anexo 4, 5, 6, 7). 48. GWP-CA (2006). Asociación Mundial
43. FAO-Aquastat (2005). Groundwater to para el Agua, Capítulo Centroamérica.
surface water renewal ratio calculated Situación de los Recursos Hídricos en
from total annual internally generated Centroamérica: Hacia una Gestión
groundwater and surface water Integrada / Ed. Virginia Reyes G., 3ª
volumes in the Aquastat database. Ed., San José, C. R.
www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/ 49. Hydrological Bulletin (1991).
main/lvOct05 Limnology of Lake Xolotlán (Lake
44. FAO-AQUASTAT (2003). Water Managua), Nicaragua. Journal of the
Resources, Development and Netherlands Hydrobiological Society.
Management Service, Information Vol. 25(2), 1991.
System on Water and Agriculture, 50. IEA-MARENA (2001). Informe Estado
Land and Water, General Summary del Ambiente en Nicaragua 2001.
Latin America and the Caribbean. 51. INAA (1999). Instituto Nicaragüense
www.fao.org/AG/agl/aglw/aguastat/ de Acueductos y Alcantarillados
regions/lac/index3.stm (NTON 09003-99). Normas técnicas
45. Fekete, B., Vörösmartz, C. y W. Grabs para el diseño de abastecimiento y
(2002). Global Composite Runoff potabilización del agua. Managua.
Fields, CSRC. UNH. Deichmann, U., 52. INEC (2006). Instituto Nacional de
Gridded Population of the World. Estadísticas y Censos. Informe del VIII
http://www.ciesin.org/datasets/gpw/ Censo de Población y IV de Vivienda,
globaldem.doc.html Censo 2005. Managua.
46. Flores, S. (2005). Flujo de 53. INEC (2005). Instituto Nacional de
macronutrientes (fósforo y nitrógeno) Estadísticas y Censos. Encuesta de
del Subsistema Hidrológico Lago Hogares para la Medición de Empleo.
Cocibolca: Estimación de carga Informe general.
superficial en relación al uso del 54. INEC (2005). Instituto Nacional de
suelo. Centro para la Investigación en Estadísticas y Censos. Informe de VIII
Recursos Acuáticos de Nicaragua de Censo Poblacional y IV de Viviendas,
la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de 2005-2006. Revista.
Nicaragua (CIRA/UNAN). Managua, 55. INEC (2003). Instituto Nacional de
Nicaragua. Estadísticas y Censos. Compendio
47. González, H. C. (2006). Identificación Estadístico 2000-2002.
de bosques y sistemas agroforestales 56. INETER (2006). Instituto Nicaragüense
importantes proveedores de servicios de Estudios Territoriales. Boletín
ecosistémicos para el sector agua Hidrogeológico.
511
NICARAGUA
57. INETER (2004). Proyecto de Medición de Nivel de Vida.
Mapificación Hidrogeológica e 66. International Water Management
Hidrogeoquímica de la Región Central Institute (2007). The Comprehensive
de Nicaragua. Assessment of Water Management in
58. INETER (2000). Estudios hidrológicos Agriculture, System Wide Initiative on
e hidrogeológicos en la región de Water Management (SWIM). (www.
Chinandega–León–Nagarote (acuífero iwmi.cgiar.org/assessment)
de Occidente). Instituto Nicaragüense 67. IPCC (2007). Informe del Grupo
de Estudios Territoriales–Ministerio Intergubernamental de Expertos del
Agropecuario y Forestal (MAGFOR). Cambio Climático. Cambio climático
59. INETER, Instituto Nicaragüense de 2007, Informe de síntesis. http://www.
Estudios Territoriales. Datos sobre ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/
la hidrología de Nicaragua. http:// ar4_syr_sp.pdf
www.ineter.gob.ni/Direcciones/ 68. Jiménez García, Mario, Montenegro
Recursos%20Hidricos/index.html Guillén, Salvador y Yoshiaki Yasuda
60. INETER (1997). Dirección General de (2007). Contaminación por mercurio
Meteorología. Perspectivas de las en el lago Xololtán y la salud de
precipitaciones en Nicaragua ante un poblaciones humanas que habitan en
evento ENOS, Documento técnico. zonas costeras.
Gutiérrez, M., INETER. 69. Jiménez García, Mario, Montenegro
61. INETER/OIEA (1997). Estudio Guillén, Salvador y Yoshiaki Yasuda.
hidrogeológico del acuífero de Contaminación por mercurio en
Occidente. OIEA-INETER. NIC/8/009. Nicaragua. (2009). El caso de la
Informe interno. empresa Pennwalt. Universidad y
62. INETER (1994). Clasificación de Ciencia, UNAN-Managua, Año 4,
humedad disponible en Nicaragua. No.7, julio-diciembre de 2009.
http://www.ineter.gob.ni/ 70. Kokusai, Kogyo (1993). Resumen del
Direcciones/meteorologia/estudios/ Estudio de Suministro de Agua en
clasificacion%20de%20humedad.htm Managua.
63. INETER (1989). Estudio hidrogeológico 71. Krásný, J. (1995). Hidrogeología de la
e hidroquímico de la región Pacífico zona Pacífica de Nicaragua. Servicio
de Nicaragua. Geológico Checo-INETER. Informe
64. INIDE (2006). Instituto Nacional de interno.
Información de Desarrollo, Compendio 72. Lacayo Romero, Martha (1995).
estadístico 2003-2004 y Anuario Pesticidas organoclorados no leite
Estadístico 2006. humano de maes Nicaragüenses. Tesis
65. INIDE (2005). Perfil y características de Maestría, Universidad de Brasilia.
de los pobres en Nicaragua 2005, 73. Lacerda, L.D. (2003). Updating global
Instituto Nacional de Información de Hg emissions from small-scale gold
Desarrollo, Encuesta de Hogares sobre mining and assessing its environmental
512
NICARAGUA
impacts. Environmental Geology. 43, sostenible en América Central,
308-314. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa
74. La Gaceta (2007a). Diario Oficial de la Rica, San José.
República de Nicaragua, No. 159. Ley 81. MAGFOR (2008). Ministerio
No. 626, Ley que Crea la Comisión de Agropecuario y Forestal de
Desarrollo Sostenible de la Cuenca del Nicaragua. Subprograma Desarrollo y
Lago Cocibolca y del Río San Juan. Reactivación del Riego para Contribuir
Publicada el 21 de agosto de 2007. a la Seguridad Alimentaria en
75. La Gaceta (2007b). Diario Oficial Nicaragua. Octubre de 2008.
de la República de Nicaragua, No. 82. MAGFOR (2004). Ministerio
169. Ley No. 620, Ley General de Agropecuario y Forestal de
Aguas Nacionales. Publicada el 4 de Nicaragua. Situación actual en el
septiembre de 2007. uso de plaguicidas e importaciones
76. La Gaceta (2001). Diario Oficial de autorizadas. Dirección del Registro
la República de Nicaragua, No. 233, Nacional y Control de Insumos
Decreto No. 1072001 del Presidente Agropecuarios. http://www.inta.gob.
de la República, La Política Nacional ni/guias/uso_plaguicidas
de los Recursos Hídricos. Publicado el 83. MAGFOR (2002). Ministerio
7 de diciembre de 2001. Agropecuario y Forestal. Dirección
77. La Gaceta (1996). Diario Oficial de la General de Estrategias Territoriales,
República de Nicaragua, No. 105. Ley Mapa forestal.
217, Ley General del Medio Ambiente 84. MAGFOR (1997). Ministerio
y los Recursos Naturales de Nicaragua. Agropecuario y Forestal. Sistema de
Publicada el 6 de junio de 1996. Información Geográfica, Nicaragua,
78. La Gaceta (1995). Diario Oficial de potencialidades y limitaciones de sus
la República de Nicaragua, No. 118. territorios.
Decreto No. 33-95, Disposiciones 85. MARENA (2009). Ministerio de
para el Control de la Contaminación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
Proveniente de las Descargas de Segunda Comunicación Nacional.
Aguas Residuales Domesticas, Ante la Convención Marco de las
Industriales y Agropecuarias. Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio
Publicado el 26 de junio de 1995. Climático, versión prensa,
79. La Gaceta (1958). Diario Oficial de presentación julio de 2009.
la República de Nicaragua, No. 83, 86. MARENA (2008a). Ministerio de
Ley General sobre Explotación de las Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
Riquezas Naturales. Publicado el 17 de Informe Técnico Nicaragua Cuenca
abril de 1958. No. 64. Proyecto “Fomento de las
80. Losilla, M., H. Rodríguez, Schosinsky, capacidades para la Etapa II de
G., Stimson, J. y Bethune, D. (2001). adaptación al cambio climático en
Los acuíferos volcánicos y el desarrollo Centroamérica, México y Cuba”.
513
NICARAGUA
PAN10–00014290. Informe Estado del Ambiente en
87. MARENA (2008b). Ministerio de Nicaragua 2003. Segundo informe
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. GEO.
Escenarios de cambio climático de 93. MARENA (2004b). Ministerio de
Nicaragua a partir de los resultados Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
del modelo PRECIS [Centella, A., Sistema Nacional de Información
Bezanilla, A. (eds.)]. Proyecto Segunda Ambiental, SINIA, Imágenes del
Comunicación Nacional sobre Cambio Satélite Landsat, 2001-2003.
Climático, NIC10–00036532. Oficina 94. MARENA (2004c) Ministerio de
Nacional de Desarrollo Limpio, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
MARENA. Bases de la Política Nacional sobre
88. MARENA (2008c). Ministerio de la Gestión Integral de los Residuos
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Sólidos, Nicaragua, julio de 2004.
Segundo inventario nacional de gases 95. MARENA (2004d). Ministerio de
de efecto invernadero, Nicaragua, Año Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
de referencia 2000. Primer inventario nacional de fuentes
89. MARENA (2007). Ministerio de y emisiones de dioxinas y furanos.
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Nicaragua.
Propuesta Plan Ambiental de 96. MARENA (2003). Ministerio de
Nicaragua 2005–2011. Borrador final. Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
Gobierno de Nicaragua. Ministerio del Plan de Acción Nacional ante el
Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales, Cambio Climático. Proyecto Primera
marzo de 2007. Comunicación Nacional ante el
90. MARENA (2005a). Ministerio de Cambio Climático [S. Heumann, G.
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Wilson V., F. Picado T. (eds.)]. PNUD–
Informe de Evaluación de la NIC/98/G31–MARENA.
vulnerabilidad actual de los sistemas 97. MARENA (2003). Ministerio de
recursos hídricos y agricultura en la Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
Cuenca No. 64. Oficina Nacional de Informe Estado del Ambiente en
Desarrollo Limpio. Proyecto regional: Nicaragua. Managua, Nicaragua.
Fomento de las capacidades para 98. MARENA (2001). Ministerio de
la Etapa II de adaptación al cambio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
climático en Centroamérica, México y Informe Estado del Ambiente en
Cuba. Nicaragua. Managua, Nicaragua.
91. MARENA (2005b). Ministerio del 99. MARENA–PNUD (2000). Evaluación de
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Plan la vulnerabilidad y adaptación de los
Nacional de Erradicación de la Basura, recursos hídricos de Nicaragua ante el
noviembre de 2005. cambio climático. Cruz Meléndez, O.
92. MARENA (2004a). Ministerio de et al. Proyecto Primera Comunicación
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Nacional sobre Cambio Climático,
514
NICARAGUA
PNUD–NIC/98/G31–MARENA. 108. Montenegro Guillén, S. y Jiménez
100. Marín Ruiz, J. (2007). Insuficiencia renal García, M. (2007). Presencia y
crónica en Nicaragua. Presentación concentración de residuos de
en Congreso Multidisciplinario de plaguicidas y contaminantes
Investigación Ambiental 2007. biológicos en el agua de pozos para
101. MEM (2008). Ministerio de Energía y consumo humano en localidades de
Minas. Potencial y aprovechamiento antiguas plantaciones bananeras en
de los recursos renovables en el occidente de Nicaragua. Proyecto
Nicaragua. CNU. Informe final. 1.
102. MIFIC (2006). Ministerio de Fomento, 109. Montenegro Guillén, S. (2006). Gran
Industria y Comercio. Propuesta de Lago Cocibolca, ¿reserva nacional de
la Política Industrial de Nicaragua. agua potable para Nicaragua? www.
Proyecto NI-10-00046784 (versión ecoportal.net/content/view/full/59427
preliminar). 110. Montenegro Guillén, S. (2003). Lake
103. MINSA (2007). Ministerio de Salud. Cocibolca/Nicaragua. In Lakenet
Boletín epidemiológico, semana 51, (ed.) World Lake Basin Management
año 2007. http://www.minsa.gob.ni. Initiative, Regional Workshop
104. MINSA (2003). Ministerio de Salud. for Europe, Central Asia and the
Situación epidemiológica de la Americas, held at St. Michael’s
leptospirosis en Nicaragua, Semana College, Vermont, June 18-21, 2003.
Epidemiológica, No. 40, año 2003. 111. Nicaraguan Research Center for
105. Montenegro, S. (2009). Nicaragua, Aquatic Resources (CIRA/UNAN)
un país con agua y sed. Conferencia and National Institute for Minamata
magistral. El Guacal 2, 2009. Disease, Japan (2007). Final Report
106. Montenegro, S. (2009). Nicaragua- on Environmental Contamination from
Plan de Gestión del Gran Lago Mercury in Lake Xolotlán, Nicaragua:
Cocibolca, Aplicación de Criterios Human Health Risk Assessment to
GIRH en la Organización del Interamerican Development Bank.
Plan de Gestión. http://www. 112. OPS (1996). Organización
gwpcentroamerica.org/uploaded/ Panamericana de la Salud. Vigilancia
content/category/1924515248. Ambiental. Fundación W.K. Kellogg.
pdf y http://www.gwptoolbox. Serie HSP-UNI/Manuales operativos
org/index.php?option=com_ PALTEX.
case&id=216&Itemid=41 113. OPS-OMS (2004). Organización
107. Montenegro Guillén, S. y Jiménez Panamericana de Salud. Estrategia
García, M. (2009). Residuos de sectorial de Agua Potable y
plaguicidas en agua de pozos en Saneamiento de Nicaragua, noviembre
Chinandega, Nicaragua. Universidad de 2004.
y Ciencia, UNAN-Managua. Año 4, 114. OPS/OMS-DANIDA (2002).
No.7, julio-diciembre de 2009. Diagnóstico sobre la exposición y
515
NICARAGUA
efectos del uso de los plaguicidas en Informe técnico final sobre agua y
la Región Autónoma del Atlántico clima, Enfrentando la variabilidad del
Norte, RAAN. Serie Diagnósticos 16. clima en una cuenca transfronteriza
Proyecto Plagsalud. Organización de América Central: la Cuenca del
Panamericana de la Salud- Río San Juan, Proyecto PROCUENCA.
Organización Mundial de la Salud http://www.oas.org/sanjuan/spanish/
Nicaragua, febrero de 2002. documentos/dialogo/dialogo/04-
115. ONU (1974). Organización de tecnical_report/03-BasinDescription.
Naciones Unidas. Investigaciones html
de aguas subterráneas en la región 122. PROCUENCA-SAN JUAN (2004b).
de la costa del Pacifico. Zona de Integración de los estudios básicos
Chinandega. Vol. I y II. New York. del Proyecto “Formulación de un
116. PANic (2001). Plan Ambiental de Programa de Acciones Estratégicas
Nicaragua para los años 2001-2005. para la Gestión Integrada de los
Gobierno de Nicaragua. Recursos Hídricos y el Desarrollo
117. Parello, F., Aiuppa, A., Calderon, H., Sostenible de la Cuenca del Río San
Calvi, F., Cellura, D., Martinez, V., Juan y su Zona Costera”.
Militello, M., Vammen, K., Vinti, D. 123. Programa Conjunto del Milenio
(2008). Geochemical characterization (OMS/UNICEF) de Seguimiento
of surface waters and groundwater del Abastecimiento de Agua y del
resources in the Managua area Saneamiento (PCM) (2010). Progresos
(Nicaragua, Central America). en materia de saneamiento y agua.
Applied Geochemistry, doi: 10.1016/j. Informe de actualización.
apgeochem.2007.08.006 124. PNUD (2007-2008). Programa de las
118. PARH (1997). Plan de Acción de los Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo.
Recursos Hídricos de Nicaragua. Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano,
Evaluación rápida de los recursos 2007-2008.
hídricos. 125. PNUD (2006). Programa de las
119. PHIPDA (2003). Plan Hidrológico Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo.
Indicativo Nacional y Plan Anual Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano.
de Disponibilidad de Agua, 2003. Más allá de la escasez: poder, pobreza
Diagnóstico de los recursos hídricos y la crisis mundial del agua.
por cuenca hidrográfica. 126. PNUMA-MARENA (2000). Reducción
120. Picado, F. (2008). Fluvial transport del escurrimiento de plaguicidas al
and risk of mercury in a gold mining mar Caribe. Informe Nacional de
area. Tesis Doctoral de la Universidad Nicaragua. Proyecto GEF (Global
de Lund, Suecia, Departamento Environment Facility). Dirección
de Ecología, Ecología Química y General de Control Ambiental.
Ecotoxicología. Dirección de Vigilancia y Control
121. PROCUENCA SAN JUAN (2004a). Ambiental.
516
NICARAGUA
127. Proyecto RepCar (2009). Proyecto proceso de eutrofización del lago
“Colombia, Costa Rica y Nicaragua: Cocibolca, Nicaragua y sus causas
Reduciendo el Escurrimiento en la cuenca. Eutrofización en
de Plaguicidas al Mar Caribe” América del Sur, consecuencias y
(GEF-REPCar), “Monitoreo del tecnologías de gerencia y control,
Escurrimiento de Plaguicidas al Caribe Instituto Internacional de Ecología,
Nicaragüense”. http://cep.unep.org/ Interacademic Panel on International
repcar/coastal-monitoring Issues, 35-58.
128. Proyecto RepCar (2010). Proyecto 136. Vargas, O. R. (2007). Centroamérica:
Reduciendo el Escurrimiento de Las Metas del Milenio, Centro de
Plaguicidas al Mar Caribe. Informe Estudios de la Realidad Nacional
de país sobre importaciones de (CEREN).
plaguicidas correspondiente al 137. Velásquez, G. (1994). Diagnóstico da
periodo 2004-2009, Nicaragua. contaminacão ambiental gerada pela
129. SINIA (2008). Sistema Nacional atividade mineraria sobre os Rios
de Información Ambiental. Medio Súcio, Mico e Sinecapa, Nicaragua.
ambiente en cifras: Nicaragua 2004- MSc Dissertation, Centro de
2007. Managua. http://www.sinia.net. Geociencias, Univesidade Federal do
ni Para, Belém.
130. SINIA-MARENA (2009). Borrador del 138. WWAP (2006). UN-Water/World
Informe Estado del Ambiente, GEO, Water Assessment Programme. Water,
2007-2008. a shared responsibility. The United
131. http://www.sinia.net.ni Nations World Water Development
132. Telmer, K., Costa, M., Angélica, R. Report 2.
S., Araujo, E. S., Marice, Y. (2006). 139. Weyl, R. (1980). Geology of Central
The source and fate of sediment America. Beiträge zur Regionalen
and mercury in the Tapajós River, Geologie der Erde, Gebrüder
Pará, Brazilian Amazon: Ground- and Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung,
space-based evidence. Journal of Science Publishers, Stuttgart.
Environmental Management, 81, 101- 140. World Bank: Agricultural Land Use;
113. Selected Countries (2001).
133. UNICEF-ASDI (2004). Contribución al 141. Yale Center for Environmental Law
estudio de cinco zonas contaminadas & Policy (2010), Environmental
naturalmente por arsénico en Performance Index 2010. http://epi.
Nicaragua, octubre de 2004. yale.edu/
134. UNICEF, ENACAL, MINSA (2005).
Evaluación rápida de la calidad del
agua de bebida. Informe final.
135. Vammen, K., Pitty, J., Montenegro
Guillén, S. (2006). Evaluación del
517
Peru, Cordillera Blanca
PERU
in Peru
A Strategic View
uneven distribution of the water resources.
One hundred and six basins have been
identified by the National Resources Institute
of Peru (INRENA). Three macro drainage basins
Julio M. Kuroiwa contain these major basins: the Pacific Basin,
the Atlantic Basin and the Lake Titicaca Basin,
Laboratorio Nacional de Hidráulica. which are shown in FIG. 1. The Pacific Basin is
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Lima, Perú. composed by hydrographic systems that are
located on the Western Slope of the Andes.
Key words: Peru, water resources, water Most of the Rivers are short and very steep.
availability, environment, water issues, water Most of the rivers´ divides are located at over
management, research and development.
5,000 m above the sea level and watercourses
are less than 150 km long. The Atlantic Basin
(or Amazon Basin) is composed by river systems
1. Introduction that are located on the Eastern Slope of the
This paper summarizes the current situation Andes and convey water from the highlands to
of water resources availability in Peru. A the Amazon River or a major tributary. The Lake
brief description of Peru’s spatial water Titicaca Basin is a closed system that includes
resources distribution and population has other sub basins in Bolivia and ends in two
been included. Water uses and future lakes: Lake Poopó and Coipasa Salt Lake.
trends are quantitatively explained. Water
related disasters are briefly described in Although one may think of Peru as a country
this document. Recent government efforts with abundant water resources, with an
to strengthen national, regional and local average 77,534 m3/inhabitant/year, water
water authorities and users have also been resources are very unevenly distributed. The
commented. The implications of new water majority of the Peruvian population lives along
related laws are summarized. Finally, research the basins that convey water into the Pacific
efforts made by a few universities are Ocean. FIG. 2 shows the population density
presented as examples of works conducted distribution. Darker shades show greater
in the water resources area. population density per region. The Peruvian
Coast is a very arid area, ranging from hyper
2. Hydric Resources arid environments in the South and Central
Peru, with an area of 1,285,216 km2 and a current areas and semi arid areas in the North. The
population of 28,220,764 million inhabitants as precipitation is virtually zero at sea level and
of October 2007, is located on the center of the near the divides the precipitation is less than
West Coast of South America. The presence 900 mm/year. Precipitation mostly occurs
of the Peruvian Current (locally known as between mid November and mid April. FIG. 3
Humboldt Current), the Andes range and the shows a typical view of the Coast.
519
PERU
Table 3. Total Annual Volume and Percentages of Wastewater with and Without Treatment.
Negative trends in precipitation patterns FIG. 8. Yanamarey Glacier Between 1982 and 2005.
have been observed in Chile and part of the (Morales Arnao, 1982, 1997 and 2005).
Western Coast of South America. Southern
Peru may be affected by diminished water 7. Institutional Framework
availability. Positive trends in precipitation The importance politicians, entrepreneurs
have been observed in the Amazonian and the society at large gave to Peru’s natural
region, which may lead to more frequent resources is reflected in Peru’s national coat
flooding in riverside areas. of arms (or Great Shield) which shows a
Vicuña, a Quinoa tree and a cornucopia,
The Andean glaciers are disappearing which represent the Animal, Vegetal and
due to an increase in air temperature Mineral Kingdom, respectively. This reflects
at high altitudes and diminishing trend the importance natural resources have in
in precipitations. Figure 8 (Morales- Peru’s economic life. In fact, Peru has been
Arnao, 1982 – 1997 – 2005) shows glacier a supplier of raw materials to industrialized
Yanamarey evolution in the course of 23 countries for about 200 years.
years. The same phenomenon has been
observed in all Peruvian glaciers. Therefore, Peru is a Unitarian country. Its constitution
water reserves in form of ice and snow are establishes that natural resources, renewable
diminishing at a fast rate and may adversely or not, are property of the State and its
affect water availability in the near future. exploitation is given in concession to the
527
PERU
private sector, provided that previously INRENA officers championed the publication
established conditions are fulfilled (Peru’s of a non-official document called “National
Constitution, 1993). A large portion of Strategy for Peru´s Continental Water
Peru’s income is based on the exploitation Resources Management” in which they
of its natural resources, particularly mining included views from 7 ministries which are:
activities, large scale fishing, and others. a) Agriculture; b) Defense; c) Economy and
Agricultural and food industry is becoming Finance; d) Mines and Energy; e) Housing,
increasingly important as well. The lack of Construction, Water Supply and Sewerage; f)
planning and control of economic activities Health and g) Production (FIG. 9).
has led to environmental disasters that have
caused the contamination of soil and water In recent years, the growth of water use
of a number of basins. Air pollution also because of population growth, new economic
occurs as a consequence of transportation activities that require water, increase of
of contaminants. Damages caused by the polluted waters, and increase of conflicts
environment led to the creation of the among users has led to the Government and
Ministry of the Environment in 2008. the society and large to demand the creation
of a National Water Authority that dealt with
The institutions in recent years were water issues from a comprehensive point of
responsible care of water resources in Peru
were:
Henry Vaux, Jr. One partial exception is the fact that virtually
the entire population of the United States is
University of California served with healthful drinking water supplies
and adequate sanitation services. Yet, the
aging of public water supply systems, the
1. Introduction continuing emergence of contaminants that
In the United States, the availability of water, can threaten domestic water supplies, the
the patterns of use and the problems of water inadequacy of some rural sanitation systems,
management are highly variable both in terms and the looming need to update and renew
of time and location. This variability means some urban systems means that even this
that it is frequently difficult to generalize about problem must inevitably be on the U.S. water
the features of the waterscape. Nevertheless, resources agenda. In spite of the fact that the
the most prominent and consistent descriptor challenges of providing adequate drinking
of the water situation in the United States is water and sanitation manifest themselves in
that water is scarce. different ways in the United States, the menu
of water problems throughout the countries
With the possible exception of times of flood of the Americas is quite similar.
there is generally not enough water to meet all
of the wants for it, given its availability, levels The description of the water resources of the
of use and the circumstances under which it United States and the associated management
is managed. The pervasive existence of water problems that follows illustrates the
scarcity and the fact that it is continuing to commonality of water problems throughout
intensify, results from the fact that demands the hemisphere. To be sure, differences from
for water continue to grow as its population country to country are likely to be both of
and economy grow while supplies remain degree and extent. Similarly the regional
either static or in decline. Declines can be variability of the water resource situation in
caused by deteriorating water quality, ground the U.S. and the associated management
water overdraft, and shifting trends in the problems tends to be manifested as
quantities, timing and form of precipitation. differences of degree and extent. This lesson
The impact of these factors differs from region emerges for the sections of this contribution
to region and this means that scarcity itself, that follow. The characterization of water
535
UNITED STATES
resources and management challenges is Annual precipitation in the eastern regions
organized and discussed in five sections. averages between 650 mm and 1500 mm
First, the variability in water occurrence and annually. The region is dominated by three
the availability of supply across the nation. climate types: a humid subtropical climate,
Second, current and anticipated patterns of which is found in the mid- and southeastern
water use in different regions. portion; a humid continental climate with
warm summers which is found in the mid-
Third, the state of water resources research and near northern portions; and a humid
in the United States and the extent to which continental climate with cool summers which
research is likely to deliver the new science is found in the far northern portions.
needed to address the challenges of the
future. In the fourth and final section, the The dry western region has more variability
principal water management challenges both in terms of the magnitude of
facing the U.S. and the possibilities for precipitation and the number of climate
successfully addressing those challenges. types. Precipitation ranges from less than
125 mm annually in the arid southwestern
2. The Occurrence and desert to more than 2500 mm annually in
Availability of Water the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest.
The magnitude and timing of precipitation With the exception of the moister northwest
varies substantially from place to place across and the high mountain ranges, precipitation
the country. In quantitative terms, precipitation throughout most of the western region tends
levels are commonly divided into two general to be between 250 and 500 mm annually.
realms, demarcated by the 100th meridian. This
is the line that separates the relatively moist Three climate patterns are the rule. They are:
eastern portion of the country, (where rainfall mid-latitude desert climate with very low
generally exceeds 500 mm annually), from the rainfall; semiarid steppe climate which occurs
relatively dry western portion of the country, over the western plains and the Great Basin;
(where rainfall is generally less than 500 mm and alpine climate which is manifest in the
annually.) Annual precipitation levels of 500 higher mountain ranges. To these three must
mm are thought to be particularly significant be added two climate types which are found
because that is the minimum level under which in proximity to the west coast. The southern
rainfed agriculture can be conducted profitably west coast that includes much of California
over time. In areas where precipitation is has a Mediterranean climate while the
less than 500 mm, supplemental irrigation is more northerly reaches have a Marine West
almost always required if agriculture is to be coast climate with large amounts of rainfall.
both productive and profitable. Rainfall amounts and seasonality in this latter
region stand in contrast to the remainder
As shown in FIG. 1, the climates of the moist of the western region. Precipitation varies
eastern region of the country, and the dry temporally as well as spatially. Some climates
western region, are quite different. vary interannually. Thus, for example, the
536
UNITED STATES
Mediterranean climate of the southern west events recur periodically, and those too range
coast is characterized by a rainy period from from moderate to severe.
November to April and a dry period from
May through October. The climate of the arid The extent of precipitation which falls as snow
southwest entails two wet seasons - a winter can also be important in a temporal sense.
season and a monsoon season from late July Significant areas of the arid west rely on spring
to early September when more than 90% of snowmelt as an important source of water. In
the precipitation occurs. By contrast, the mid- places where snow is common in the winter
latitudes of the eastern part of the country months, spring snowmelt tends to skew the
tend to have a moderate climate with rainfall impacts of precipitation toward the spring.
in relatively equal amounts in all seasons. The Precipitation is generally partitioned among
southeastern U.S. is subject to hurricanes that evaporation, deep percolation and runoff.
can bring enormous amounts of precipitation The quantities of surface supplies available to
that introduce large distortions into local support consumptive and instream uses are a
patterns of precipitation. function of run-off which is some fraction of
precipitation. That fraction is dependent upon
In addition to annual variations which are a host of factors which differ from place to
characteristic of specific climate types, place and time to time. However, precipitation
periods of flood and drought have been provides a reasonable approximation of
present throughout recorded history. Thus, the relative magnitudes of available surface
virtually every region of the country tends to water in different regions of the country. As
experience recurring droughts that can range illustrated in FIG. 2, nationwide surface water
from moderate to severe. Similarly, flood accounts for approximately 77% of total
537
UNITED STATES
freshwater diversions exclusive of those used is stored in aquifers and does not respond
for thermoelectric production. The remaining directly, in terms of recharge, to shortfalls
23% comes from ground water resources. in precipitation means that it tends to be
readily available, at least over the short run
in times of drought. In addition, dewatered
pore space in the nation’s aquifers provide
very significant storage capacity (Alley, Reilly
and Franks, 1999). The health of the nation’s
ground water is a matter of some concern.
Ground water overdraft threatens the
sustainability of available quantities of water
while ground water contamination, especially
with toxic waste, threatens its quality. As a
general rule, the quantity of water available
for extraction on a long term basis can be no
more than the annual rate of recharge. When
more water is extracted than is discharged,
the ground water is said to be overrated.
Persistent overdraft cannot be sustained
FIG 2. Sources of Water Supplies in the United States indefinitely because overdraft results in the
decline in the level of the water table as
The United States has substantial ground more water is extracted than is recharged.
water resources and virtually no region Persistent overdraft means that ultimately
of the country completely lacks ground the water table will drop to a point where at
water. FIG. 3 shows the location of nation’s least some subset of the extractors can no
principal aquifers or ground water bodies. longer extract economically and extractions
The importance of ground water lies in the will decline.
fact that it is a significant source of drinking
water in every state. Ground water is also Persistent overdraft leads to a number of
an important source of agricultural water in problems. First, in most areas surface water
the arid and semi-arid western states where and ground water are linked. Where this
irrigation is practiced extensively. Moreover, occurs, reduction in water tables will tend
the quantities of ground water available to accelerate the rate of recharge at the
in storage are significant and can provide expense of surface water flows. Second,
extra supply on a temporary basis if surface land subsidence, or a settling of the land
supplies are not available. Thus, ground water surface, is frequently the result of persistent
can provide important protection in times ground water overdraft. Galloway, Jones and
of drought when surface supplies are not Ingebritsen (1999), report that more than 80%
available in the usual quantities. (Alley, Reilly of the land subsidence in the United States is
and Franks, 1999). The fact that ground water attributable to ground water overdraft. Third,
538
UNITED STATES
overdraft can lead to significant declines in through land surface/aquifer interactions
ground water quality. Most commonly this or surface water/ground water interactions.
happens when coastal aquifers are overdrawn Land surface/ground water interactions are
and sea water intrusion results. Quality dominated by non-point source discharges.
declines can also be experienced in inland In irrigated areas, percolating waters-
aquifers where good quality water is extracted sometimes attributed to overirrigation-can
from the upper layers of the aquifer, thereby carry pesticide, herbicide and other chemical
allowing poor quality, often saline waters to residues into ground water. Similarly,
be drawn upward. livestock operations can lead to aquifer
contamination with excessive nitrogen and
Overdraft occurs to some extent in all regions other contaminants. Toxic wastes which were
of the U.S. Along the Atlantic Coastal Plain it historically disposed of underground or in
has had significant impacts on surface water landfills of various sorts pose a particular
flows. In West Central Florida and along the problem. In many areas well-head regulations
Gulf Coast, sea water intrusion has been have help to reduce contamination but to
significant. The High Plains overlie the famous date non-point source pollutants remain very
Ogallala Aquifer which holds enormous difficult to control.
volumes of water but recharges very slowly
and in some places not at all. On the southern Surface water/ground water interactions can
High Plains the drawdown has had significant also damage ground water quality by carrying
economic impacts on agriculture in the region pollutants in the surface water to ground water
which has been supported historically by through surface ground water interactions.
ground water. The inland Pacific Northwest Microbial contamination frequently can occur
has also been subjected to substantial ground in this way if the overlying surface waters are
water drawdown. Again, overpumping by badly polluted to begin with. Point source
agricultural users has been the cause. Finally, contaminants in surface waters have been
there has been substantial ground water regulated reasonably effectively by both
overdraft in the southwest desert and in rural national and state governments but non-point
aquifers in California. In all of these instances source contaminants in surface supplies remain
efforts to attenuate the overdraft have been a problem. There are two important principles
only partially successful. As a result, the that govern the regulation of ground water
problem of persistent overdraft continues contamination. First, it is virtually always cheaper
to threaten the sustainability of aquifers in to prevent ground water contamination in the
many regions (Alley, Reilly and Franks, 1999; first place than it is to clean it up after the fact.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2003). The other Second, ground water tends to move much
major threat to the sustainability of ground more slowly than surface water and frequently
water resources in the U.S. is ground water is not in contact with light. The result is that
contamination. In addition to the salt water the self cleansing properties of ground water,
intrusion which is mainly caused by overdraft, including dilution, are less effective to those of
ground water can be contaminated either surface waters. (Alley, Reilly and Franks, 1999).
539
UNITED STATES
541
UNITED STATES
3. Water Use which accounts for 31% of withdrawals and
Water use in the United States is usually thermoelectric power production which
counted in terms of combined withdrawals accounts for 49%. There are two significant
from both surface and ground water. differences between these uses. First, a very
high proportion of irrigation withdrawals is
Total daily withdrawals average about 1.5 used consumptively by the crop itself, and
X 1012 liters. As shown in FIG. 4(a) below return flows to both ground and surface
80% comes from surface water and 20% waters, if any, tend to be quite modest. By
from ground water. FIG. 4(b) summarizes contrast, thermoelectric water is used for
the fact that 84.8% comes from freshwater
sources while 15.2% from saline. (Saline
water is used for cooling and for some
industrial application). Finally, FIG. 4(c) shows
approximately 77.4% of fresh water comes
from surface supplies with the remaining
22.6% coming from ground water.
FIG. 4A. Total Fresh and Saline Water Source FIG. 4C. Fresh Water by Source
542
UNITED STATES
cooling purposes and a very small proportion In geographic terms, the four largest water
of it is used consumptively. Most is returned using states are California, Texas, Idaho
to the river. A second important difference is and Florida. Together they account for
that all irrigation withdrawals are freshwater approximately one-fourth of the total water
while some withdrawals for thermoelectric withdrawals in the United States. California
are saline waters. It should also be noted topped all states with the largest with-
that the great majority of thermoelectric drawals of any state. California withdrawals
uses occur in the eastern half of the country accounted for 11% of the national total
(hydroelectric power predominates in the and more than three quarters of those
west) while the great majority of irrigation withdrawals were devoted to irrigation. Texas
water use occurs in the west where irrigated ranked second with about 7% of the national
agriculture is predominant. Other uses are total. In Texas, water is used predominantly
shown together with thermoelectric and for irrigation and thermoelectric power
irrigation in FIG. 5 below. production. About 33% of all freshwater
withdrawals are devoted to irrigation with 40
percent devoted to thermoelectric power. In
addition, a little more than 60% of the saline
water withdrawals were for thermoelectric
power. Idaho ranked third and 85% of its
withdrawals went to irrigated agriculture
with another 13% going to aquaculture.
Idaho’s withdrawals were all freshwater and
accounted for nearly 5% of the national
total. Florida’s freshwater withdrawals were
allocated mainly to irrigation and public
supply but total freshwater withdrawals
were significantly smaller than saline water
FIG. 5. Water Uses By Sector withdrawals which were used almost
exclusively for power plant cooling (Kenny,
The most recent year for which data Barber, Hutson, Linsey, Lovelace and
are available (1995) indicates that in the Maupin, 2009).
aggregate, consumptive use equaled 25%
of total withdrawals. This figure can be quite The patterns of withdrawals and use in these
misleading, however, since the withdrawals four states that account for a quarter of the
for thermoelectric cooling account for nearly nation’s withdrawals mirror generally the
half of all withdrawals, yet only 1.95% of patterns found across the nation. Water for
those withdrawals are used consumptively. irrigation dominates in the western states as
Consumptive use in irrigated agriculture, illustrated by California and Idaho and partly
by contrast, is a little over 60% of the water by Texas. Western states tend not to use
withdrawn for agriculture. large quantities of cooling water because
543
UNITED STATES
they rely on hydroelectric power generation flood control, aquatic biodiversity and water
and, as a result, have small demands for resources research. Water research began in
cooling water in thermoelectric generation. the 19th century at about the same time as
Thus, these western states tend to use the discovery of bacteria. Much of the early
very small amounts of saline water. Only water research of the first decades of the 20th
about a quarter of California’s withdrawals century focused on public health problems.
are saline and Idaho has none at all. Texas There was some early work on pollution, and
has significant demands for cooling water beginning in the mid-1930s, some work on
which is the largest single use. Most of these flood control as federal legislation created new
demands for cooling are met with freshwater, federal obligations for flood control. Science
however. Florida is generally representative in general became much more important
of Southeastern and Middle Western states. during and immediately after World War II
65% of its withdrawals are for thermoelectric and water science received a major boast
cooling water and only 16% for irrigation from the Senate Select Committee on Water
which is used to supplement normal season Resources which recommended a much larger
rainfall. Patterns of use in most states, then, role for the federal government in the conduct
tend to be driven in part by available water of water research. Authorizing legislation and
supplies and also by the high productivity funding followed in short order and the federal
of irrigated agriculture in the west and the water research establishment began to grow
relative absence of good hydroelectric (National Research Council, 2004).
generating sites in the east.
Although the decades of the 1960s and 1970s
4. Water Resources Research were times of growth in water resources
in the United States research, federal support of that research
As a general rule, in the United States, the began to stagnate in the 80s and 90s and
national government is responsible for the has remained static through the first decade
governance and regulation of instream flows of the 21st century. A review of the federal
and instream uses while the states typically water research enterprise shortly after the
govern and regulate consumptive use. turn of the century revealed that it was beset
with a number of problems even though the
Thus, most rights to divert water and use it total value of resources available to support
consumptively are granted and regulated by water research, when adjusted for inflation,
the states. The federal government not only had remained quite stable. The evidence
regulates instream uses such as navigation, shows that total federal spending on water
environmental uses and flood control, it is resource research was around US$700 million
also responsible for those aspects of water (in constant 2000 dollars) in the 70s and
resources management that have widespread was at that level during the first years of the
benefits and that are difficult to withhold from 21st century. Although there is controversy
“consumers” if they are unwilling to pay. These over whether this is an adequate amount,
so-called “public goods” include mainstream spending on water research has remained
544
UNITED STATES
relatively static when compared with the programs of water research and supporting
growth in population, gross domestic product such research at the nation’s Universities.
and total federal outlays. Yet, perhaps more There is no mechanism for setting national
importantly there are other symptoms that water research priorities. There is no process
suggest that the federal research enterprise through which aggregate performance of the
is not in particularly good shape to meet the federal government in the water research area
challenges which lie ahead (some of those can be assessed periodically and revised to
challenges are described in the next section). ensure that the nation is getting the most for
its water research dollar (National Research
Many Actors, Little Coordination: Water Council, 2004).
resources research is conducted by no less
than ten federal agencies. It is fragmented, Table 2. Federal Agencies with Minor Role in
Supporting Water
lacks strategic coherence and is susceptible
to unneeded duplication. Five of the federal Percentage Federal
Agency Water Research
agencies, listed in Table 1 below, account (Abbreviation) Budget, in 2000
for almost 88% of total funding though no
U.S. Department 1%
agency contributed more than 25% of the of Health & Human
funding. Services (DHSS)
U.S. Bureau of 2%
Table 1. Federal Agencies with Major Role in Reclamation (USAR)
Supporting Water Research
National Oceanic
Percentage Federal & Atmospheric 4%
Agency Water Research Budget, Administration
(Abbreviation) in 2000 (NAA)
U.S. Department of 17% U.S. Department of 4%
Agriculture (USDA)
Energy (DOE)
U.S. Geological 18%
Survey (USES) National
Aeronautics & Space 2%
National Science 22% Administration
Foundation (NSF ) (NASA)
U.S. Department of 15% Source: (NRC, 2004)
Defense (DOD)
U.S. Environmental 15% The pattern of research topics in the federal
Protection Agency
portfolio fails to reflect modern priorities. The
Source: (NRC, 2004)
emphasis and funding support provided to
the various research subjects does not reflect
There are an additional five agencies whose current topical research priorities. Specifically,
support levels total approximately 12%. They research on water law, water demand and
are listed in Table 2 below. The problem here is other institutionally relevant topics are now
not with the alignment of agencies within the funded at levels significantly below the levels
two categories but with the fact that there are they were funded at 30 years ago. Moreover,
many agencies independently carrying out water supply augmentation and conservation
545
UNITED STATES
fall into the same categories. It is clear that further discussion and they provide both a
substantial new investment must be made sense of the diversity of water resource issues
in these categories if the challenges of the facing the United States as well as the case for
future are to be. The current water research urgency in dealing with them.
portfolio is heavily weighted toward short-
term research. If the nation is to be prepared Managing Water Scarcity.
for the problems that it will face a decade or Water scarcity is pervasive in the United States
two hence, the portfolio will need to devote and new methods and processes must be found
a substantial proportion of its funding to to aid in managing scarcity. The cities of the arid
research focused on longer term challenges and semi arid southwestern U.S. are the fastest
(National Research Council, 2004). growing cities in the country. These include
Denver, Phoenix Albuquerque, Las Vegas and
What is needed is a coordinated, strategic Los Angeles. All will require additional supplies
approach to the national water research to support anticipated population growth and
effort which will set strategic goals, prioritize yet it is unclear where that water will come
the research needed to help achieve those from. The current flow regimes of the Missouri
strategic goals ensuring that the topical River jeopardize three species which have been
balance is appropriate to the modern declared endangered. The recommendations
problems and those that can be foreseen for improving the habitats of these species
on the horizon, allocate the limited research would require increases in river flows during
funds to the priority areas of research, and the spring and declines during the summer.
conduct honest retrospective e analyses to The summer declines would adversely impact
ensure that the funds are spent efficiently the navigability of the river and make it both
and yield the results that are sought. To do more difficult and more expensive to ship the
less means that the United States and those substantial agricultural harvest in the basin. The
that rely on its research enterprise will be less situation has resulted in an impasse because
well equipped to meet the challenges of the there it is not possible to improve the habitat of
future than they could be. the three species in question while protecting
the historical navigability of the Missouri River
5. Major Water Issues Facing the U.S. (National Research Council, 2002).
The United States faces many water issues
and challenges. Some of these are site specific The situation in the Klamath Basin of southern
or regional in nature. Others will manifest Oregon and northern California is quite
themselves almost everywhere in the nation and similar. There irrigation water was cut off
these present urgent challenges that will have so that river flows and lake levels could be
to be addressed on a continuing basis. There manipulated to benefit several endangered
may be as many as several dozen such issues species. Conflict emerged when irrigators
and a discussion of the relative urgency of each and scientists alleged that the science behind
is beyond the scope of this contribution. Rather, the decision to cut off irrigation flows was
six compelling issues have been selected for flawed. An impasse of sorts emerged here
546
UNITED STATES
as well because there was insufficient water most healthful in the world. Yet there are
to serve both the perceived environmental two distinct threats which will have to be
need for water and the irrigation contracts dealt with in the future. The first, focuses on
(National Research Council, 2003). the list of new and potential contaminants
which threaten the raw water supplies on a
The manifestations of scarcity are not confined continuing basis. The second focuses on an
to the western regions of the country. aging water and sanitation infrastructure
Glennon (2002) documents examples from which will have to be largely rebuilt in the
across the nation in which excess ground coming century. As economic development
water withdrawals have caused the drying continues, the appearance of new chemicals
up of streams and rivers and a cascade of and their residues will likely accelerate. Such
social conflicts, economic hardship and chemicals are developed for specific purposes
environmental degradation. In many cases, and frequently confer large benefits on
the problem is worsened because existing society. Yet, at the time they are introduced,
legal systems do not recognize that surface their behavior and fate in the environment
and ground water are interconnected. The are unknown. There is a clear propensity
waters of the Potomac River were the focus for raw water supplies to be contaminated
of a dispute between Maryland and Virginia in not just by newly developed chemicals but
the early years of the 21st century. Ultimately with chemicals that have been heavily used
this dispute had to be resolved by the U.S. in the past and may not have been properly
Supreme Court. And there is extant another disposed of.
dispute between the states of Georgia,
Alabama and Florida that focuses around the Thus, for example, chemicals ranging from
efforts of Atlanta, Georgia to secure sufficient the residues of pesticides and fertilizers
water to support anticipated population have appeared in ground water some
growth. The manifestations of scarcity are no decades after their use began. Over the last
longer restricted to dry western regions but years, a chemical used in the manufacturing
are now part of the water management picture processes for munitions, rocket fuels and
nationwide. New methods will have to be fireworks has appeared in California’s ground
found to resolve the resulting conflicts and to waters. This chemical is suspected of being a
help ensure that the nation gets optimal return human carcinogen and is known to interfere
from an increasingly limited water supply. with human thyroid hormone production.
These are not isolated examples. Chemicals
Protecting the Nation’s of all sorts - new and old - have appeared
Drinking Water Supplies. and will continue to appear in the nation’s
Over the last 100 years the U.S. has made ground and surface water. Methods to detect
enormous investments in its water treatment these chemicals in the environment early on
and distribution system. The result has and to develop technologies for treating and
been that the aggregate water supply has removing them from drinking water supplies
been among the safest, most reliable and will be sorely needed. Ideally, it would be
547
UNITED STATES
desirable to further the development of the requirement that more than one hectare
screening protocols which would allow an of wetlands must be restored for each hectare
early assessment of how new chemicals are destroyed; only 70% of the required land area
likely to behave in the environment and was actually restored or created (National
characterize the possibility for contamination. Research Council, 2001). In addition, many
The second threat to the integrity of the of the mitigation efforts were not monitored
nation’s drinking water supplies is the aging and there was full compliance with only about
infrastructure. In the coming decades there half the permits issued. This is attributable
will be failures of urban distribution systems, in part to the lack of adequate scientific
some of which are well over 100 years old. information on which to base mitigation
Drinking water treatment plants will have to efforts. Specifically, restoration ecology is not
be replaced, and will need to be designed currently well enough understood to allow
in ways that will permit them to adapt to such efforts to go forward.
new challenges in maintaining drinking
water quality. It is not even clear that simply There are a number of other areas where the
replacing existing systems makes sense. making of policy is hampered by the lack of
The need to replace distribution systems adequate scientific information. These include:
under miles of paved urban areas points 1) Treatment of drinking water supplies. The
to the importance of considering more policies required to govern adequate drinking
decentralized types of systems which serve water will require additional science on the
well defined communities or even individual fate and transport of new chemicals in the
dwellings should be examined. There is also environment as well as information about the
the very real issue of how the replacement of effectiveness of new and existing treatment
such systems can be financed. Early estimates technologies in removing harmful and
of total costs are staggering. potentially harmful contaminants. 2) The use
of water in agriculture. Agriculture is a major
Can an Effective Water consumptive user of water and is seen by
Policy be made? many as the supplier of last resort to support
There is much evidence that many federal water new, high valued uses. Yet the demands for
policies are either ineffective or only partly agricultural products will continue to grow
effective. Thus, for example, many hectares of as the world’s population grows. In addition,
wetlands have been lost to development over agricultural water management contributes
the years in spite of the fact that wetlands to the pollution of ground and surface water
are enormously productive biologically and and to the erosion of some lands.
provide all manner of environmental services.
In 1990 the federal government enacted a These non-point sources of contamination
policy that required that there be no net loss have been extremely difficult to regulate
of wetlands. It required that there had to be effectively. 3) The maintenance and
mitigation where wetlands were destroyed or preservation of aquatic habitats. There is
modified. The evidence shows that despite insufficient knowledge about the quantities
548
UNITED STATES
of water to support aquatic habitats. There predicted and those that are uncertain. Urban
is also insufficient knowledge about the water supply systems may be vulnerable as
relationship between aquatic and terrestrial will existing agricultural systems. What will
habitats. Without better knowledge in be required is the development of water
these areas it will be difficult to devise management technologies and techniques
policies which can protect and enhance which permit water to be managed far more
environmental flows, amenities and services. adaptively than has been the case in the past.
4) The management of floods and droughts Thus, for example, investing in enormous
will require additional scientific information new surface water storage capacity makes
if they are to be managed effectively. This little sense when it is unclear how much, if
is particularly so because of the specter of any, additional water might be available to
global climate change which likely will lead to store. A more adaptive strategy would be
a higher frequency of extreme events. to rely on empty pore space underground
as a storage medium. This latter strategy
Adapting Water Management has the advantage of being much cheaper
Systems to Global Climate Change. since evaporative losses that are associated
The specter of climate change promises not with surface water storage facilities would be
only changes in the frequency of extreme avoided. In addition, underground storage
events such as floods and droughts, but can be utilized, if needed, with relatively
also fundamental changes in the availability short lead times and thus is better adapted
of water as precipitation and how natural to managing uncertain water availability and
rates of demand (such as evapotranspiration) water demands.
respond to altered climatic circumstances.
Although substantial resources have been Managing Regional Water Systems.
expended for basic climate change research, Throughout the U.S. there are numerous
there has been little funding and little effort examples of large scale water systems that
to develop better methods for managing have been heavily man-modified which are
water resources in a more uncertain and less now under intense pressures from the need
stable environment. The management of to address growing demands for water even
water resources has been identified as one while protecting the aquatic ecosystems
of the weakest elements of climate change which supply those demands. There are two
integrated assessments. (National Assessment major examples. They are the Sacramento-
Synthesis Team, 2001). At a minimum, climate San Joaquin River/ San Francisco Bay Delta
change will require that more attention has in California and the Greater Everglades
to be paid to uncertainty over the availability Ecosystem in southern Florida. These are
of water supplies across time and space. considered in turn. The Sacramento-San
The development and implementation of Joaquin/San Francisco Bay Delta is one of
risk management strategies will be critical in the most man-modified deltaic systems in the
coping with the many changes that climate world. Historically, most of it was a wetland
change could bring, both those that can be which was drained and channeled to permit
549
UNITED STATES
agriculture to be practiced on some 60 islands world. Over the years there have been major
that were reclaimed. Subsequently, the Delta encroachments on the system for the purposes
was used as a transport facility from which of developing agricultural and suburban
water flowing from the north was extracted land and for the purposes of providing flood
and pumped southward to serve agricultural control to protect development in central
and urban demands. Although the Delta has and southern Florida. About a decade ago it
been subject to extensive modification it still became obvious that without extraordinary
serves as a habitat for a highly diverse biota efforts the unique Everglades ecosystem
some of which has been introduced. A number would become so modified that it would be
of the species found in the Delta have been lost. Restoration plans are being prepared and
listed as rare and endangered. The agencies debated, (National Research Council, 2008)
charged with managing waters there must find
a way to protect and enhance those species This situation is also fraught with complexity
while continuing to supply water contractors and uncertainty. Restoration of water flows
to the south (National Research Council, 2010; which were previously modified for flood
Lund et al. 2010). control purposes is at the heart of the
restoration effort. Part of the problem is that
At its heart, the problem with water water must be stored and the only available
management in the Delta is a problem of storage sites are subterranean limestone
managing scarcity. There is no evidence to quarries. The feasibility of using such quarries
suggest that the environment of the Delta can is in question but even if that question can be
be reasonably protected while the reliability of favorably resolved, issues of restoration biology
water exports to the south can be increased. remain. It is unlikely that vast portions of the
Yet, the ecosystem is so complicated and the Everglades could be restored exactly to their
interrelationships between water demands original condition, so there are issues of what
and flows on the ecosystem so poorly approximations are reasonable yet feasible
understood, that it is not at all clear what for restoration purposes. The complexity and
strategies have some positive chance to be sheer size and diversity of the ecosystem
workable. Clearly, the approach must be one means that ways will have to be found to
of adaptive management. Equally clearly, the manage large-scale risk and uncertainty. The
approach must recognize that the fundamental costs of further restoration and modification
problem is scarcity and the days when all of these two giant systems are enormous.
uses can acquire additional water without There is some likelihood that even if sizeable
interfering with other uses are over. The sheer investments are made, restoration goals
complexity of the situation is the overriding cannot be achieved. There is simply not
factor, however, and it is unclear even whether enough knowledge about how these large
systems this complicated can be susceptible to systems work and not enough understanding
effective management. The Greater Everglades of all of the complex interrelationships. Yet, the
Ecosystem in central and southern Florida management problems of the Sacramento-
is a wetland system unlike any other in the San Joaquin Delta and the Greater Everglades
550
UNITED STATES
Ecosystem are not unique. Solving problems 2001. Climate Change Impacts on
that arise in connection with the management the United States: The Potential
of this sort of very large, very complex water Consequences of Climate Variability and
systems are likely to become the rule rather Change (Washington, DC: U.S. Global
than the exception in the future. Solutions Change Research Program).
are likely to come incrementally and as the 9. National Research Council.
result of sophisticated schemes of adaptive 2001mCompensating for Wetland Losses
management must be carefully devised and Under the Clean Water Act. (Washington,
thoroughly vetted in advance. DC: The National Academy Press).
10. National Research Council. 2002. The
6. References Missouri Ecosystem: Exploring Prospects
1. Alley, William M. Thomas E. Reilly and for Recovery.
O. Lehn Franks. 1999, Sustainability of 11. (Washington, DC: The National Academy
Ground Water. Press).
2. Resources. U.S. Geological Survey 12. National Research Council. 2003.
Circular 1186. Pp79 Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the
3. Center for Sustainable Systems, Klamath River Basin: Causes of Decline
University of Michigan. 2010 . U.S. Water and Strategies for Recovery (Washington,
Supply and Distribution Fact Sheet. DC: The National Academy Press).
Publication No. CSS05-17. 13. National Research Council. 2004.
4. Galloway, D.L. D.R. Jones and S.E. Confronting the Nation’s Water
Ingebritsen, eds. 1999. Land Subsidence Problems: The Role of Research
in the United States. U.S. Geological (Washington, DC: The National Academy
Survey Circular 1182. 179 pp. Press). pp. 310.
5. Lennon, Robert. 2002. Water Follies: 14. National Research Council. 2008.
Groundwater Pumping and the Fate of Progress Toward Restoring the
America’s Fresh Waters. (Washington, Everglades: The Second Biennial Review
DC: The Island Press). (Washington, DC: The National Academy
6. Kenny, J.F., N.L. Barber, S.S. Hutson, K.S. Press).
Linsey, J.K. Lovelace and M.A. Maupin. 15. National Research Council. 2010.
2009. Estimated Use of Water in the Scientific Assessment of Alternatives for
United States in 2005. U.S. Geological Reducing Water Management Effects on
Survey Circular 1344. 52 pp. Threatened and Endangered Fishes in
7. Lund, Jay R., Ellen Hank, William E. California’s Bay Delta. (Washington, DC:
Fleenor, William A. Bennett, Richard E. The National Academy Press).
Howitt, Jeffrey F. Mount , and Peter B. 16. U. S. Geological Survey. 1999. Ground
Moyle. 2010. Comparing Futures for the Water Atlas of the United States
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Berkeley, 17. U.S. Geological Survey. 2003. Ground
CA: The University of California Press). Water Depletion Across the Nation. USES
8. National Assessment Synthesis Team. Fact Sheet 1034-03. November
551
Embalse Clavellinos, Estado Sucre, Venezuela.
Photo: Dr. Ernesto J. González
VENEZUELA
1
Laboratorio de Limnología, Instituto de Bi- 2. Hydric Resources
ología Experimental de la Universidad Central Venezuela has abundant water resources,
de Venezuela especially in the Southern region (Rodríguez-
1
Punto Focal Nacional de Venezuela - IANAS, Betancourt & González-Aguirre, 2000).
Programa de Aguas Volume of water resources are calculated in
1320 km3 per year (Cañizales et al., 2006). The
Hidroven, Laboratorio de Plancton
2
occupancy process of the National territory
was characterized by a progressive population
concentration on the Andean-Coastal arch
Keywords: Water resources, problems and of the country and, specifically, in the big
management of water resources, legal cities located in North-Central area, which
instruments, regulatory standards, Venezuela.
have less water availability (Rodríguez-
Betancourt & González-Aguirre, 2000;
1. Introduction Cañizales et al., 2006).
Venezuela has abundant water resources,
distributed in seven hydrographic systems Water demand in Venezuela is associated to
and 16 hydrographic regions. The country irrigation, industrial-urban uses, and electric
accounts with more than 100 reservoirs, which power production (Rodríguez-Betancourt &
have been built in order to satisfy diverse González-Aguirre, 2000). Navigation, and
purposes: drinking and industrial water recreation uses represent relatively minor
supplies, irrigation, flood control, recreation demands with a non-consumptive character.
and hydroelectric power production. To satisfy water demand, a total of 110 reservoirs
have been built in Venezuela (MINAMB, 2006),
So many anthropogenic activities are developed which serve for diverse purposes: drinking
in Venezuelan hydrographic regions, which and industrial water supplies, irrigation, flood
are affecting water quality of stream, lakes control, recreation and hydroelectric power
and reservoirs. Some of these problems are: production (González et al., 2004a; MINAMB,
eutrophication, pollution, lowered water flow, 2006; González et al., 2009a).
high water demand for watering, domestic and
industrial uses, among others. In Venezuela, However, their misuse and human activities in
there are lots of regulatory standards and laws their basins have generated several problems,
553
VENEZUELA
among them: fish culture without a previous (the rainy season or “winter”); the dryer and
limnological evaluation (Infante et al., 1992; hotter remainder of the year is known as
1995), agrochemical pollution (Infante et al., “summer”, though temperature variation
1992) and eutrophication (González & Ortaz, throughout the year is not as pronounced as
1998; Ortaz et al., 1999; González et al., 2004b). in temperate latitudes (Gobierno en Línea,
2009). Venezuela has 24,127,351 of inhabitants
To treat or solve some of these problems, some (estimated for 2004), especially in the Andean
remedial measures have been suggested (i.e., and Coastal regions, with a mean density of
González et al., 2002; Estaba et al., 2006), as 28.9 inhabitants per square kilometer.
well as the creation of protected areas and
regulatory standard issues for nutrient control Biogeographically, Venezuela is situated in
in sewage (Gaceta Oficial, 1995), in order to the Neotropical region, which includes the
protect the water bodies and their water quality. Caribbean, Amazon, Guiana, and Andean
Domains (Cabrera & Willink, 1980); therefore,
The purpose of this study is to depict a the country has several altitudinal steps,
general view and analyze some practices, laws several types of vegetation and fauna, and
and regulatory standards related with water several and distinctive basins. In Venezuela,
management in Venezuela. there can be distinguished 7 hydrographic
systems: Caribbean Sea, Orinoco River, Gulf
3. Venezuela in the World of Paria, Casiquiare – Río Negro, Esequibo
Venezuela is located in the Northern region of River, Lake Maracaibo and Lake Valencia
South America, between 00° 38’ 53” and 12° (FIG.1). Among them, Orinoco system is the
11’ 46” latitude N and between 58° 10’ 00” most important, grouping 49 sub-basins that
and 73° 25’ 00” longitude W (MINAMB, 2006), drain their waters to the main channel of the
covering an area of 916,445 km2. Venezuela is Orinoco River, which represents 94.436%
bordered to the North by the Caribbean Sea of total drained volume in Venezuelan
and the North Atlantic Ocean, to the East by hydrographic basins (FIG. 2) (Rodríguez-
Guyana, to the South by Brazil and Colombia, Betancourt & González-Aguirre, 2000), and
and to the West by Colombia. discharges its waters to the Western Atlantic.
A particular system is Lake Valencia, which
Although Venezuela is entirely situated in is an endorheic basin and receives water
the tropics, its climate varies from humid from tributaries originated in the South
low-elevation plains, where average annual region of the North-Central Cordillera; this
temperatures range as high as 28 °C, to hydrographic basin represents only 0.029%
glaciers and highlands (the “páramos”) of total drained water volume.
with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C.
Annual rainfall varies between 430 mm3 in the More recently, Cañizales et al. (2006)
semiarid portions of the Northwest to more distinguished 16 hydrographic regions
than 4,000 mm3 in the Southern region. Most in the previous classification (FIG. 3): 1)
precipitation falls between June and October Lake Maracaibo – Gulf of Venezuela, 2)
554
VENEZUELA
“Falconiana”, 3) Central – Western (Tocuyo – Regional hydrological companies administrate
Aroa – Yaracuy), 4) Lake Valencia, 5) Central the works dealing with conduction, treatment
(Tuy – Central Littoral), 6) Central – Eastern, and distribution of potable water to the
7) Eastern, 8) Central “Llanos” (lowlands), 9) cities, while that National Institution for
Central – Western “Llanos”, 10) High Apure, Rural Development manages watering affairs
11) Apure, 12) High Orinoco, 13) Caura, (MINAMB 2007).
14) Caroní, 15) Cuyuní, and 16) Delta. It is
outlined that the least water drained areas of
the country comprise the densest population 3,65%
FIG. 1. Hydrographic Systems of Venezuela. Modified FIG. 3. Hydrographic Regions of Venezuela. Modified
from MINAMB (2006). from MINAMB (2006)
555
VENEZUELA
Ministry of Environment grouped national Eutrophication:
reservoirs in eight circuits, according to their Eutrophication has been reported for many
geographical locations, in order to plan their water bodies in Venezuela, and many of them are
maintenance (Table 1). used for drinking water supply to the main cities
of the country. Caracas City and its metropolitan
5. Some Problems Related area (ca. 4,000,000 inhabitants) receive water
with Water Management from the Taguaza, Tuy and Guárico River basins,
So many anthropogenic activities are developed through the “Tuy River System” (González et
in Venezuelan hydrographic regions, which al., 2009a), a complex web of pipelines which
are affecting water quality of stream, lakes connects 9 reservoirs: Camatagua, Lagartijo,
and reservoirs. Some of these problems are: Taguaza, Quebrada Seca, Ocumarito, Taguacita,
eutrophication, pollution, lowered water flow, Macarao, La Pereza and La Mariposa. Only
high water demand for watering, domestic Lagartijo, Taguaza and Taguacita reservoirs are
and industrial uses, among others. located in protected areas; the rest of them
Table 1. National Circuit of Reservoirs, Grouped According to Geographical Regions, for the Planning of their
Maintenance. Modified from Minamb (2007).
Nº 6 (6) Zulia & Falcón El Tablazo, Machango, Burro Negro, Socuy, Matícora, Tulé
Táchira & Uribante, La Honda, Doradas, Las Cuevas, Camburito, Caparo, Borde
Nº 7 (9) Mérida Seco, La Vueltosa, Santo Domingo
Nº 8 (7) Bolívar Caruachi, Copapuicito, El Palmar, Macagua, Puente Blanco, San Pedro,
Tocoma
556
VENEZUELA
are impacted by anthropogenic activities in to Maracaibo City (ca. 3,000,000 inhabitants),
their basins, reflecting the consequences of the and it showed low transparency and high
eutrophication process: high phosphorus and nitrogen concentration (Páez et al., 2001).
nitrogen concentrations, high phytoplankton
and macrophyte densities, cyanobacteria Pollution
blooms, and bad water quality (Infante et al., Many reservoirs receive tributaries with
1992, 1995; Ortaz et al., 1999; González et al., pollutants, which are not quantified and,
2003; González, 2008; González et al., 2009a). therefore, represent risks for human health
Ortaz et al. (1999) observed residual water from
Reservoirs from the North-Central region of a galvanic factory runs freely through the La
the country are affected by human activities Pereza reservoir basin. This residual water has
too. Pao-Cachinche reservoir, which is used not been studied yet.
for drinking water supply to Valencia, Maracay
and San Carlos Cities (2,000,000 inhabitants) Adjacent areas of Guanapito reservoir (which
and for watering of agriculture fields, received supply drinking water to 44,000 inhabitants
tributaries with untreated wastewater from from Altagracia de Orituco population), are
Valencia City (1.7 million inhabitants), and waste used for extensive livestock, fruit culture and
water from poultry and pig farms (González et horticulture, which directly supply fertilizers
al., 2004a; 2004b). Bad water quality and high and biocides to the water body through runoff
phytoplankton density were common facts and through its tributaries (Infante et al., 1992;
before the application of artificial destratification González et al., 2009a). Biocide concentrations
process (Estaba et al., 2006). Other reservoir, need to be quantified.
Suata, which is used for watering of the
neighboring fields, received high concentration Heavy metals have been found in sediments
phosphorus load from its main tributary and from many reservoirs. Álvarez et al. (2007)
the poultry farms that surrounded the water registered concentrations of Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and
body. Total phosphorus concentration reaches Zn higher than the values considered as base
up to 2400 µg/l, producing high biological in Quebrada Seca, Lagartijo and La Pereza
productivity (González et al., 2009b). reservoirs. The presence of this contamination
in sediments could be related to the water
Reservoirs from Venezuelan lowlands pumped to these reservoirs by the Tuy River,
(“llanos”) are impacted by the use of fertilizers which receives high industrial and waste water
in their neighboring lands, generating discharges (González et al., 2009a).
eutrophication problems (Infante et al., 1995;
González, 2000). Cyanobacteria dominated Lowered water flow and high water demand:
phytoplankton community in most of The growing water demand from some cities
them. Reservoirs from the Western region could have a negative effect on the water
of Venezuela also showed eutrophication level of some reservoirs. This is the situation of
problems. Tulé reservoir is a shallow water Agua Fría, an oligotrophic reservoir located in a
body that is used for drinking water supply National Park, which provides drinking water to
557
VENEZUELA
Los Teques City (ca. 172,000 inhabitants). This environmental aspects of water resources and
could affect its water quality, because submersed water quality (MINAMB, 2006), and claims that
aquatic vegetation could be exposed out of water is public domain, as the Civil Code does
the water, allowing its decomposition and too. Other group of important laws is listed
the following nutrient release to the reservoir below (according to MINAMB, 2006):
(González, 2002; González et al., 2009a). - Forestry Law of Soils and Waters (1966):
Declares public utility of hydrographic
Another example can be drawn in the basins, watercourses and waterfalls
Camatagua reservoir, which actually is the protection.
biggest water reserve for Caracas City. In - Organic Law of Environment (1976):
recent years, it suffered a significant volume It refers, holistically, to environmental
diminution, affecting water supply to Caracas. protection, included water components
This change could be attributed to the human and water bodies.
activities in the basin (mainly deforestation), and - Penal Law of Environment (1992):
probably, due to the change in the rainy pattern Establishes sanctions for those actions and
in this region. Water level remained, from 2001 activities that damage the environment.
to 2004, more than 20 m below its normal - Law-Decree of Coastal Zones (2001):
operation level, generating a rationing program Regulates administration, use and
in the drinking water supply for Caracas City management of these zones, in order to
(González et al., 2009a). obtain their conservation and sustainable
utilization, including protection of biological
6. Legal Instruments and some diversity, control of environmental
Regulatory Standards for Water deteriorating activities and control of
Management in Venezuela pollutants from terrestrial and aquatic
In Venezuela, there are lots of regulatory sources, wastewater treatment, economical
standards and laws concerning the valuation of natural resources, among other
water conservation and water resources resolutions.
management, which constitute examples - Law for Dangerous Substances, Materials
of good practices related to water resource and Residues (2001): Forbids aerial
management. application of biocides on water bodies
destined for human consumption, watering
The principal of them is the National and livestock.
Constitution of Bolivarian Republic of - Law of Lands and Agrarian Development
Venezuela, promulgated in 1999. (2001): Favors rational utilization of waters
that could be used for irrigation and
Elsewhere the traditional resolutions about aquiculture.
the country sovereignty over its aquatic - Organic Law for Potable Water Lending and
spaces (lacustrine and fluvial freshwaters, Sanitation (2001): Attributes competition to
territorial sea and interior seawaters), National the Municipalities for control and lending
Constitution established articles related with of water services.
558
VENEZUELA
- Organic Law of Aquatic and Insular 7. Institutions Related with Water
Spaces (2002): Promotes international Management and Research
cooperation concerning with transbourdary There are many Institutions related with water
hydrographic basins and water courses. management and research in Venezuela.
- Law of Fishing and Aquiculture (2003): MINAMB (2006) shows a list of some
Consecrates the precaution principle of the institutions related with National Public
aquatic environment. Administration:
- Organic Law for Planning and - Ministry of Environment. This Ministry is
Management of Territory Ordination (2005- the National Authority on Water.
2006): Established resolutions to guide - Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
the planning and management of territory - Ministry of Planning and Development.
ordination, according to ecological - Ministry of Agriculture and Lands.
principles. - Ministry of Health.
- Law of Waters (actually is discussed in - Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
the National Assembly): It will establish - Ministry of Science and Technology.
resolutions about water uses. - Public State and Municipality Administration.
Other sub-legal regulations, concerning It concerns Governors and Majors.
with juridical protection of water and water - Public Decentralized Administration and
bodies, are: Governmental Enterprises. Such as PDVSA,
- Standards for Regulation and Control Regional Corporations of Development,
of Water and Hydrographical Basins Autonomous Institutions.
Utilization. -National Universities and Centers of
- Standards for Classification and Control of Research. They include one Institute of
Water Bodies and Liquid Effluents Quality Limnology and some Laboratories of
(Decree 883, 1995). Limnology.
Standards about Evaluation of - Hydrological companies, private companies
Environmental Deteriorating Activities. that depend or are ascribed to Ministry of
Standards for Regulation of Activities Environment, deal with drinking water supply
that Promote Flow Change, Channel and sanity.
Obstruction and Sedimentation Problems
(1992). 8. Examples of Practices related
- Decree that rules Reservoir and Adjacent with the Water Management
Area Uses (1991). and Quality in Venezuela
There are some examples related with the
Venezuelan State has a relevant concern about practices dealing with water management
water resources, although some bad practices and quality in Venezuela. Venezuelan State,
can be observed in some regions of the country. as previously mentioned, has a relevant
Other examples of good and bad practices concern about water resources, and issued
related with water management in Venezuela many regulatory standards in order to assure
will be illustrated in the following sections. the protection of natural (water) resources
559
VENEZUELA
and the good water quality that is supplied 2008, because of the lack of a systemic and
for diverse purposes. Elsewhere, Ministry of periodical removal of plants. Plants covered
the Environment has invested high amounts more than 50% of water surface by February
of money to recover the water quality in some 2009, and a new removal plan is been
reservoirs, and has invested a lot of time to applied today. Eutrophication sources are still
organize communities in order to capacitate present around the reservoir, and therefore,
them for solving their problems and protect if not controlled, E. crassipes will increase in
their natural resources. Some examples will be numbers once again.
depicted in the following paragraphs.
Table 2. Water Quality in La Mariposa Reservoir
before, during and after the Presence of
8.1. La Mariposa Reservoir Case: Eichhornia Crassipes.
Such problems include: scarcity and pollution of water, the need for
better water management, the lack of ecological order, the impact of
climate change on the water cycle and the low investment in research and
technological development in countries.
Hence the idea of writing this book which consists of 15 chapters, most of
them written by several authors who take care of the particularities and
needs of their countries. This work brings together the opinions and
knowledge of 66 specialists in the field of water coming from Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, United States,
Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Dominican Republic and Venezuela
which comprise the Water Program of IANAS.