THE EFFECT OF OVERCONSOLIDATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR

OF CLAYS DURING SHEAR

by
Il. J. HENKEL, B.Sc.(Eng.), A.M.I.C.E.

SYNOPSIS
A series of drained and undrained triaxial com-
pression tests have been made on samples of two
clays in order to study the effects of consolidation
history. The manner in which the strength and
pore pressure or volume changes during shear vary
with the degree of overconsolidation are recorded,
and the differences in strength in the drained and
undrained tests are compared.
Afin d’ktudier les effets du dkveloppement dti B
la consolidation, on a fait sur des Bchantillons de
deux espkces d’argile une s&ie d’essais de la com-
pression triaxiale drain& et non drainke. On a not&
la faGon dont la resistance et la pression interstitielle
ou les changements de volume pendant le cisaille-
ment varient en proportion avec le degrk de sur-
consolidation ; et on a compare les variations de la
rkistance dans les essais drain& et non drain&

INTRODUCTION
Many natural deposits of clay have been overconsolidated in their geological history and
the properties of these clays have often been studied in connexion with specific problems.
In particular the pore pressures set up during shear, and the changes in strength that may occur
when these pore pressures are able to dissipate, have been considered (Bishop and Henkel,
1953 ; Henkel and Skempton, 1955). At any one site, however, the variation in the degree
of overconsolidation is usually small and in order to get an overall picture of the effects of
overconsolidation it is necessary to carry out a study on samples prepared under controlled
conditions in a laboratory.
As part of a research programme on the shear strength of clays being carried out at the
Imperial College, the effects of ovcrconsolidation on samples consolidated under an all-round
pressure and tested in compression under constant cell pressure have been studied in detail,
and the purpose of this Paper is to present some of these results, as a first step towards an
understanding of the phenomenon. As consolidation in nature occurs under conditions of no
lateral yield these results are not directly applicable to field behaviour of clays, but it is be-
lieved they are of sufficient value to indicate, at least qualitatively, the behaviour of natural
clays.
MATERIALS USED
Remoulded samples of London Clay and Weald Clay have been used in the investigation
and the results of classification tests are listed below :-

LL I’L ~ PI
~- ___-
Weald Clay 43 18 25 40 0.6
London Clay 78 26 52 47 1.1

The Weald Clay is an estuarine deposit of the Cretaceous System while the London Clay
is a marine deposit of the Eocene series. Both clays in their natural state are heavily over-
consolidated, having natural water contents close to the plastic limit.

TEST PROCEDURE
In order to obtain a normally consolidated clay in the laboratory the samples should
ideally be prepared from a suspension or at least consolidated from a water content close to
139

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 140 D. J. HENKEL

the liquid limit. However, this process is very time consuming and difficult, and in the
investigation initial water contents corresponding to the lowest shear strength (approximately
0.6 lb/sq. in.) at which a satisfactory triaxial sample could be made, have been used. The
lowest initial consolidation pressures applied to these samples led to a change of water content
corresponding to a thirtyfold increase in consolidation pressure, and it was believed that
satisfactory normally consolidated samples would result from this procedure.
Bulk samples of each of the two clays were mixed up with distilled water to a consistency
corresponding to a shear strength of 0.6 lb/sq. in., and the laboratory vane test was used to
control the initial conditions so that all specimens started from the same water content.
The apparatus used in the tests was similar to that described by Bishop and Eldin (1950),
and before the test was commenced the drainage channel leading from the pedestal of the
triaxial cell to an external pipette was thoroughly de-aired. Specimens of the clays 3 in. long
by I$ in. in diameter were made up in a brass tube and placed on a de-aired porous stone
resting on the pedestal of the cell. After filter paper drains (Henkel and Gilbert, 1952) had
been placed round the specimen, the rubber membrane was placed in position and sealed to
the pedestal. In order to eliminate air bubbles, water was allowed to flow upwards between
the specimen and the membrane, and the membrane was gently stroked until all bubbles were
removed. The top cap was then sealed in position.
De-aired water was used as a pressure fluid in the cell, and in order to lubricate the piston
and reduce leakage from the cell during shear, machine oil was allowed to float on the water
at the top of the cell.
The cell pressure was maintained at the desired level by use of a self-compensating
mercury manometer (Bishop and Henkel, 1953) and in the majority of tests cell pressures of
120, 60, and 30 lb/sq. in. were used for the initial consolidation. The quantity of water
expelled was measured in a graduated pipette and, when no further water was expelled,
consolidation was considered to be complete. Consolidation times were 2-3 days for the
Weald Clay and 34 days for London Clay. At this stage the specimens were either tested as
normally consolidated samples or allowed to swell under lower cell pressures to produce
overconsolidated samples.
As a measure of the degree of overconsolidation, the overconsolidation ratio, defined as the
ratio of the maximum all-round consolidation pressure of the specimen to the pressure at
which the specimen was allowed to swell, had been used. For the Weald Clay samples with
overconsolidation ratios up to 24 were tested, whilst for London Clay the maximum over-
consolidation ratio was 32.
In the drained tests the volume changes accompanying the compression test were measured
by the pipette connected to the drainage system, and the cell pressure was kept constant at the
final consolidation pressure for the particular specimen. The tests were carried out at a
constant rate of strain, the time to failure being adjusted to permit full drainage (Gibson and
Henkel, 1954). For the Weald Clay failure was reached in 25-30 hours, whilst for London
Clay 48 hours was required.
Pore pressures in the undrained tests were measured at the base of the specimen, and these
tests had to be carried out fairly slowly so that a satisfactory average pore pressure could be
measured. By experiment it was found that times to failure of 4-5 hours were sufficiently
slow for both clays. In those cases where negative changes in pore pressure were expected,
swelling was allowed to take place under a back pressure or alternatively the cell pressure was
raised immediately prior to testing. The fact that this increase in cell pressure was accom.
panied by an equal increase in pore pressure provided a check that the specimens were fully
saturated.
In Figs 1 and 2 the equilibrium water content-consolidation pressure relationships for the
Weald and London Clays are shown. The rebound curves from 120, 60, and 30 lb/sq. in. are
very similar in shape and for the normally consolidated material the water content and

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 OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR 141

Fig. 1. Relation between

equilibrium water content
and consolidation pressure
for Weald Clay

WC

Fig. 2. Relation between %

equilibrium water content

and consolidation pressure
for London Clay

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 142 D. J. HENKEL

logarithm of pressure have the usual straight line relationship. These average curves have
been drawn from a large number of experimental points, but for the sake of clarity the
individual points have been omitted from the Figure.

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

Typical results for both undrained and drained tests on normally consolidated specimens
are shown in Fig. 3 for Weald Clay consolidated under a pressure of 30 lb/sq. in. In the
undrained test the increase in pore pressure Au is nearly as large as the deviator stress by the
time failure is reached while, in the drained test, a large decrease in volume, or negative
volume change, occurs. The change in volume is expressed as a percentage of the volume at
the end of the consolidation process. The compression strength measured in the drained
test is about twice as large as that recorded in the undrained test.
For comparison, the results obtained on heavily overconsolidated specimens of Weald
Clay, with an overconsolidation ratio of 24 under test cell pressure of 5 lb/sq. in., arc
shown in Fig. 4. After an initial small increase, the change in pore pressure in the undrained
test becomes negative and by the time failure is reached, at a large axial strain, the pore
pressure assumes a substantial negative value. In the drained test the initial volume change
is negative but is followed by a rapid increase in volume which continues after failure is
reached, at a comparatively small strain. The strength of the clay under undrained
conditions is substantially larger than in the drained test.
The comparison between these two sets of tests indicates the magnitudes of the changes
resulting from the extremes in the range of consolidation history considered in the investiga-
tion. In order to examine quantitatively the effect of the degree of ovcrconsolidation the
results of both the drained and undrained tests have been plotted against the overconsolidation
ratio.

UNDRAINED TESTS
For the purposes of comparison the deviator stress at failure, (al-a&, and the change in
pore pressure at failure, Au,, have been expressed as ratios of the equilibrium consolidation
pressure immediately before test, (~a~. These ratios are plotted against the overconsolidation
ratio in Fig. 5 for the Weald Clay and in Fig. 6 for the London Clay. Different symbols are
used in plotting to indicate the maximum consolidation pressure to which the particular
specimen has been subjected.*
The results for the two clays are very similar in shape showing a steady increase in the
ratio ~~
(~1-Q)~ Az~~
and a steady decrease in the ratio - with increasing overconsolidation ratio.
@3c 03c
In both cases the pore pressure changes during shear become negative at overconsolidation
ratios of roughly four, but the slopes of both the lines are greater for Weald Clay than for London
Clay. An important feature of both sets of results is that within the limits of experimental
error it can be seen that the strength and pore pressure characteristics are uniquely determined
by the overconsolidation ratio. The scatter at the higher overconsolidation ratios is fairly
large owing to the fact that small loads and pressures arc being measured, and that the
corrections that have to be applied, due to the restraints imposed by the filter paper drains
and rubber membranes, become a fairly large proportion of the total forces involved.
It is often useful to express the change in pore pressure during a test as a proportion of the
deviator stress, and the coefficient A, (Skempton, 1954) has been used to express this ratio.
The subscript is used to indicate the values of A at failure. In Figs 7 and 8, Af for the Weald
and London Clays has been plotted against overconsolidation ratio. For the normally

* Owing to the large number of tests carried out on normally consolidated material, under both undrained
and drained conditions, it has not been possible to show all the results and only the average values of the
various ratios have been pIotted.

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 OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR 143

Fig. 3. Test results from undrained and drained tests on Weald Clay
normally consolidated at 30 Ib/sq. in.

UHD~IINCD .*9*o*w

Fig. 4. Test results from undrained and drained tests of Weald Clay with an
overconsolidation ratio of 24 (test cell pressure 5 lb/sq. in.)

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 144 D. J. HENKEL

consolidated material the Afvalues are close to unity confirming the results of Casagrandc
(1953) and Bjerrum (1954). The values of Af show a rapid initial drop with increasing over-
consolidation and the Weald Clay curve falls more rapidly than that for London Clay showing
more marked dilatancy at the larger overconsolidation ratios.

Fig. 5 Variation in ~ and Auf/u3c with

USC
overconsolidation ratio in undrained tests
on Weald Clay

Fig. 6. Variation in y and Auf/a8c

with overconsolidation ratib in un-
drained tests on London Clay

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 OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR 145
DRAINED TESTS

The compression strengths measured in the drained tests have also been expressed as a
ratio of the equilibrium consolidation pressure immediately prior to the shear test and Figs 9
and 10 give the results for Weald Clay and London Clay, respectively. In these tests the final
consolidation pressure is also the minor effective stress at failure and the ratio of strength
to consolidation pressure is thus in terms of effective stresses.
The volume changes recorded during the drained tests are plotted for Weald Clay in Fig. 11
and London Clay in Fig. 12. These curves for the two clays are again similar in shape, but
the volume changes decrease more rapidly in the Weald Clay. Although the volume change-
axial strain curves for heavily overconsolidated London Clay show substantial increases in

Fig. 7. Variation in Af with over-

consolidation ratio for Weald Clay

Fig. 8. Variation in Af with overconsoli-

dation ratio for London Clay

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 146 D. J. HENKEL

volume at large strains, failure occurs before any appreciable net volume increase has taken
place.
For the Weald Clay, the overconsolidation ratio at which zero volume change takes place
in a drained test, is about 4, and very similar to the value for zero pore-water pressure change
in the undrained test. In London Clay, however, zero volume change does not occur until
an overconsolidation ratio of 9 is reached. It is again apparent from the drained test results

that both the strength ratio ef and volume changes are uniquely determined by the
a3c
overconsolidation ratio.

COMPARISON OF DRAINED AND UNDRAINED STRENGTH

Of considerable practical interest from the point of long-term stability is the comparison
between the drained and the undrained strength of samples having the same consolidation
history, and in Fig. 13 the ratio of the drained to the undrained strength has been plotted
against overconsolidation ratio for both clays. The tests described here are of limited direct
application as they represent conditions where no change in minor principal stress accompanies
the shearing process, and this is approximated to only in passive pressure problems. The
comparison is nevertheless instructive as it shows the way in which the ratio of drained to
undrained strength is affected by the degree of overconsolidation.
The ratio of drained to undrained strength for both clays in a normally consolidated state
is approximately 2, whilst for the most heavily overconsolidated specimens this ratio drops
to 0.6 for the Weald Clay and 0.8 for London Clay. These differences, although not spectac-
ular, are considerable and indicate the importance of considering long-term stability even in
passive pressure problems.
Much greater differences between drained and undrained strength occur when failure is
induced by the reduction of the minor principal stress as in active pressure conditions and an

Fig. 10. Variation in 9 in drained

tests on London Clay

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 OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR 147

Fig. il. Variation in volume changes in

drained tests with overconsolidation ratio
for Weald Clay

.I

Fig. 12. Variation in volume changes in

drained tests with overconsolidation
ratio for London Clay

Fig. 13. Variation in ratio of drained

to undrained strength with over-
consolidation ratio for Weald and
London Clays

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 148 D. J. HENKEL

example can be quoted for the Weald Clay. When a specimen is caused to fail by reducing
the minor principal stress the undrained strength is the same as that measured in a standard
test where the major principal stress is increased. The drained strength, however, is con-
siderably lower, and for a specimen of Weald Clay having an overconsolidation ratio of 24
the ratio of drained to undrained strength was 0.25.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVE STRESSES

In order to compare the undrained and the drained tests in terms of effective stresses it is
useful to plot the undrained strengths as a ratio of the minor principal effective stress at failure,
and these results are shown in Figs 14 and 15 for Weald Clay and London Clay, respectively.

Fig. 14. Variation in (ul-o&

___ in un-
Os'j
drained tests with overconsolidation
ratio for Weald Clay

Fig. 15. Variation in T in un-

drained tests with overco’nsolidation

ratio for London Clay

Due to differences in water content and effective stresses at failure no strict comparison can be
made with the drained test results expressed in similar effective stress terms in Figs 9 and 10.
Even so, the differences between these two sets of results are small, amounting to no more than
10% in the heavily overconsolidated range, and it is therefore evident that the major reason
for the differences in strength in the two types of test are the pore pressures set up in the
undrained tests during shear.
The angles of shearing resistance 4’ and apparent cohesion c’ in terms of effective stresses
determined in the two types of test are tabulated below. No problem exists in the case of
the normally consolidated material as c’ = 0 and the effective stress envelope is straight, but
it is difficult to assign a single value of c’ and +’ to cover the wide range of overconsolidation.
In order to provide values for comparison the slightly curved effective stress envelope for tests
having a maximum consolidation pressure of 120 lb/sq. in. has been considered as linear.

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 OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR 149

Normally Overconsolidated
consolidated (Maximum consolidated pressure = 120 lb/sq. in.)

Undrained Drained Undrained Drained

4 4

Weald Clay 23” 22O

London Clay 19” 18”

In each case the values of 4’ determined from the undrained tests are slightly higher than
those found in the drained tests. But if allowance is made for the differences in rate of de-
formation in the two series of tests, these results may, for practical purposes, be considered
as identical.
A more complicated analysis of these results in terms of the Coulomb-Hvorslev failure
criterion (Hvorslev, 1936 ; Gibson, 1953) was carried out by Gilbert (1954) for the Weald
Clay and by Plant (1956) for London Clay and it was found that similar values for the
fundamental parameters were obtained from both drained and undrained tests.

CORRELATION BETWEEN CHANGES IN PORE PRESSURE AND VOLUME

CHANGES DURING SHEAR
The similarity between the variations in pore pressure change and volume change with
overconsolidation ratio suggest that some fairly simple way could be found to relate the pore
pressure and volume change phenomena. A number of methods have been tried (Rendulic,
1937 : Skemoton. 1948 : Bierrum. 1954 : Gilbert, 1954 : Plant. 1956) and though considerable
success has been. achieved-for normally consolidated and lightly overconsolidated clays no
method has yet been published which gives satisfactory agreement over a wide range of
overconsolidation ratio. Work is, however, continuing on this problem and it is hoped that
further progress will be reported in this field.

CONCLUSION
The results of a series of drained and undrained tests on Weald Clay and London Clay
have been presented. They show that the pore pressures set up during shear and the volume
changes occurring during shear are profoundly altered by the consolidation history of the clay
and that the changes in behaviour are controlled almost exclusively by the overconsolidation
ratio.
The effective stress shear parameters determined from both drained and undrained tests
are very similar, and in consequence the changes in shear strength accompanying dissipation
of pore pressure can be accurately predicted.
Whilst the results themselves are of considerable interest, a number of additional points
need to be clarified. The relation between results obtained on specimens consolidated under
a uniform all-round pressure and those for specimens consolidated under conditions where no
lateral yield is permitted needs to be investigated, together with the effects of other modes of
failure. In addition, some model for the clay structure has to be found which will enable the
deformations and pore pressures to be related in a consistent and satisfactory manner.
With data based on only two clays it is not possible to relate the differences in behaviour
to the results of the classification tests in any satisfactory way. However, it is suggested that
clays of lower PI and activity will probably show greater relative changes in behaviour in
drained and undrained tests for the same degree of overconsolidation.

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 150 D. J. HENKEL: OVERCONSOLIDATION ON CLAYS DURING SHEAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work described in this Paper was initiated by Professor A. W. Skempton, and has been
carried out in the Civil Engineering Department of the Imperial College, University of London.
The Author is grateful to Dr G. D. Gilbert and Messrs J. R. Plant and F. S. Lau who carried
out the bulk of the tests.

REFERENCES
BISHOP, A. W., and G. ELDIN, 1950. “ Undrained triaxial tests on sands and their significance in the general
theory of shear strength “. Gdotechnique, I : 13.
BISHOP,A. W., and D. J. HENKEL, 1953(a)." Pore pressure changes during shear in two undisturbed
clays “. Proc. Third Int. Conf. Soil Mech., 1 : 94
BISHOP, A. W., and D. J. HENKEL, 1953(b). “ A constant-pressure control for the triaxial- compression
test “. Gkotechnique, 8 : 339.
BJERRUM, L., 1954. ” Theoretical and experimental investigations on the shear strength of soils “.
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo. Publication No. 5.
CASAGRANDE.A.. 1953. “ Prestress induced in consolidated auick - triaxial tests “. Pvoc. Third Id. Cod.,
Soil Medh., i
: 106.
GIBSON, R. E.. 1953. ” Experimental determination of the true cohesion and angle of internal friction in
clays “. Proc. Third Int. Conf. Soil Mech., 1 : 126.
GIBSON, R. E.. and D. 1. HENKEL. 1954. “ Influence of duration of tests at constant rate of strain on
measured .’ drained r strength “. Gtotechnique, 1 : 6
GILBERT, G. D., 1954. Ph.D. Thesis. London.
HENKEL, D. J., and G. D. GILBERT, 1952. ” The effect of the rubber membrane on the measured triaxial
compression strength of clay samples “. Gtotechnique, 1 : 20.
HENKEL, D. J., and A. W. SKEMPTON, 1955. ” A landslide at Jackfield, Shropshire, in a heavily over-
consolidated clay “. Glotechnique, 2 : 131.
PLANT. 1. R.. 1956. M.Sc. Thesis. London.
RENDGL&,L:, 1937. ” Ein Grundgesetz der Tonmechanik und sein experimenteller Beweis ” (” The funda-
mental law of clay mechanics and the experimental proof “). Bauingeniezcr, 18 : 459.
SKEMPTON, A. W., 1948. ” A study of the immediate triaxial test on cohesive soils “. Proc. Second Int.
Conf. Soil Mech., 1: 192
SKEMPTON, A. W., 1954. ” The pore pressure coefficients A and B “. Gkotcchnique, 4 : 143.

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