P.S.R.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI-626 140

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

YEAR: I SEMESTER: I

ENGINEERING PRACTICES
LABORATORY
(12F1Z9)

LAB MANUAL [Group – B]

I
 P.S.R.ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI-626 140

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Class/ Semester : I/ I

Sub & Code : 12F1Z9 - Engineering Practices Laboratory – [Group – B]

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

 STUDY OF SYMBOLS

 SIMPLE WIRING CONNECTION

 STAIRCASE WIRING

 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

 MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER

 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

 STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING COLOR CODING

 MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO

 STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES

 HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT

II
 STUDY OF SYMBOLS
AIM:
To study the various symbols used in electric circuits.
COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL DESCRIPTION

WIRE CONNECTIONS

To pass current very easily from one part

Wire
of a circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes
Wires joined omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered slightly to form two T-
junctions, as shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary
to draw wires crossing even though they
are not connected. I prefer the 'bridge'
Wires not joined symbol shown on the right because the
simple crossing on the left may be misread
as a join where you have forgotten to add a
'blob'!
POWER SUPPLIES

Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive
(+).
Cell
A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined
together.
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is
more than one cell. The larger terminal (on
Battery
the left) is positive (+). The smaller
terminal (on the right) is negative (-).
Supplies electrical energy.
DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing in
one direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply AC = Alternating Current, continually
changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if
Fuse the current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.

1
 Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Transformer
Energy is transferred between the coils by
the magnetic field in the core. There is no
electrical connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic
circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the
Earth
power supply, but for mains electricity and
(Ground)
some radio circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as ground.
OUTPUT DEVICES: LAMPS, HEATER, MOTOR, etc.
A transducer which converts electrical
energy to light. This symbol is used for a
Lamp (lighting)
lamp providing illumination, for example a
car headlamp or torch bulb.
A transducer which converts electrical
energy to light. This symbol is used for a
Lamp (indicator)
lamp which is an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.
A transducer which converts electrical
Heater
energy to heat.

A transducer which converts electrical

Motor
energy to kinetic energy (motion).

A transducer which converts electrical

Bell
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Buzzer
energy to sound.

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic

field when current passes through it. It may
Inductor have an iron core inside the coil. It can be
(Coil, Solenoid) used as a transducer converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy by pulling on
something.
Switches
A push switch allows current to flow only
Push Switch
when the button is pressed. This is the
(push-to-make)
switch used to operate a doorbell.

2
 This type of push switch is normally closed
Push-to-Break
(on), it is open (off) only when the button
Switch
is pressed.
SPSTS = Single Pole Single Throw
On-Off Switch Switch. An on-off switch allows current to
(SPSTS) flow only when it is in the closed (on)
position.
SPDTS = Single Pole Double Throw
Switch. A 2-way changeover switch directs
2-way Switch the flow of current to one of two routes
(SPDTS) according to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw
Dual On-Off Switch. A dual on-off switch which is
Switch often used to switch mains electricity
(DPSTS) because it can isolate both the live and
neutral connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw

Reversing Switch Switch. This switch can be wired up as a
(DPDTS) reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT
switches have a central off position.

An electrically operated switch, for

example a 9V battery circuit connected to
the coil can switch a 230V AC mains
Relay
circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Resistors

Resistor A resistor restricts the flow of current, for

example to limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor is used with a
capacitor in a timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor
symbol:
This type of variable resistor with 2
contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to
Variable Resistor control current. Examples include:
(Rheostat) adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit.

3
 This type of variable resistor with 3
contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used
Variable Resistor to control voltage. It can be used like this
(Potentiometer) as a transducer converting position (angle
of the control spindle) to an electrical
signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set when
Variable Resistor
the circuit is made and then left without
(Preset)
further adjustment. Presets are cheaper
than normal variable resistors so they are
often used in projects to reduce the cost.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor stores electric charge. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
Capacitor
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This
type must be connected the correct way
Capacitor round. A capacitor is used with a resistor in
polarized a timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.

A variable capacitor is used in a radio

Variable Capacitor
tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer)

is operated with a small screwdriver or
Trimmer Capacitor similar tool. It is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
DIODES

A device which only allows current to flow

Diode
in one direction.
LED
A transducer which converts electrical
Light Emitting
energy to light.
Diode

A special diode which is used to maintain a

Zener Diode
fixed voltage across its terminals.

4
 Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

TRANSISTORS

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

Transistor NPN used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

Transistor PNP used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

A transducer which converts sound to

Microphone
electrical energy.

A transducer which converts electrical

Earphone
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Loudspeaker
energy to sound.

A transducer which converts electrical

Piezo Transducer
energy to sound.

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really

Amplifier it is a block diagram symbol because it
(general symbol) represents a circuit rather than just one
component.

5
 A device which is designed to receive or
Aerial
transmit radio signals. It is also known as
(Antenna)
an antenna.

METERS AND OSCILLOSCOPE

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

Voltmeter Voltmeter must be connected across the
terminal.
An ammeter is used to measure current. It
Ammeter is always connected in series with the
circuit.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter
Galvanometer which is used to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure
Ohmmeter resistance. Most multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the
shape of electrical signals and it can be
Oscilloscope
used to measure their voltage and time
period.
SENSORS (INPUT DEVICES)
A transducer which converts brightness
(light) to resistance (an electrical
LDR
property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
A transducer which converts temperature
Thermistor
(heat) to resistance (an electrical property).
LOGIC GATES
A NOT gate can only have one input. The
'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of
a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
NOT
input, so the output is true when the input
is false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

AND The output of an AND gate is true when all
its inputs are true.

6
 A NAND gate can have two or more
inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
NAND showing that it is a Not AND gate. The
output of a NAND gate is true unless all its
inputs are true.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs.

OR The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
NOR that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its inputs
are true.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.

EX-OR The output of an EX-OR gate is true when
its inputs are different (one true, one false).

An EX-NOR gate can only have two

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
showing that it is a Not EX-OR gate. The
EX-NOR
output of an EX-NOR gate is true when its
inputs are the same (both true or both
false).

RESULT:
Thus the various symbols in electric circuits were studied and drawn.

7
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

LAYOUT DIAGRAM:

8
 SIMPLE WIRING CONNECTION

AIM:

To study and practice the various types of electrical wiring circuit

connections.

REFERENCE:

1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No. TOOLS QUANTITY (No.)

1. Tester 1

2. Electrician Knife 1

3. Wire Cutter 1

4. Screw Driver 1

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Single Pole One Way Switch - 3 No.s

2. Lamps - 3 No.s

3. Wires - Required

4. Two Pins or Three Pins Wall Socket - 1 No.

5. Batten Holder - 3 No.s

THEORY:

Any conductor which is composed of a conducting material, and is uniform

in diameter and circular in cross section is called wire. A length of single insulated

conductor or two or more such conductors each provided with its own insulation

which are laid up together is called a cable. A cable consists of the following three

main parts: a) Conductor, b) Insulation Covering and c) Protective covering.

9
10
CONDUCTOR:

Any pure metal which offers low resistance to the passage of electric current

is called a conductor. The current is taken from one place to the other by means of

a conductor. Copper is used as a conductor in majority of applications.

INSULATION CONVERING:

It is the covering which bounds the current flow in a definite path. The

insulation of the cable must be strong enough because a leakage current will start

giving electrical shocks and cause fire.

PROTECTIVE COVERING:

It protects the insulation covering against any mechanical injury.

VARIOUS TYPES OF WIRES:

The various types of wires are vulcanized Insulation Rubber(VIR) wires,

Cab Type Sheathed(CTS), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) wires,flexible

Wires,etc…out of these for house hold applicatios PVC wires are used.

PRECAUTIONS:

 The circuit should be checked by series test lamp.

 Bare portion of the conductor should not come out of the terminal and the

insulation of the conductor should keep up to the end of the terminal.

 All the connections should be tight.

 All the switches should be connected in positive wire.

 Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.

PROCEDURE:

 First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.

 The circuit is made with the given material.

 The output is verified by switching ON the switches.

RESULT:

Thus the various electrical circuit connections were made and studied.

11
STAIRCASE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

12
 STAIRCASE WIRING

AIM:

To construct and control the status of lamp using two way switch by Stair –

Case wiring.

REFERENCE:

1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No. TOOLS QUANTITY (No.)

1. Tester 1

2. Electrician Knife 1

3. Wire Cutter 1

4. Screw Driver 1

5. Combination Plier 1

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Two Way Switches - 2 No.s

2. Lamp - 1 No

3. Wires - Required

4. Lamp Holder - 1 No

PRECAUTIONS:

 The circuit should be checked by series test lamp.

 Bare portion of the conductor should not come out of the terminal and the

insulation of the conductor should keep up to the end of the terminal.

 All the connections should be tight.

 All the switches should be connected in positive wire.

 Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.

13
 LAYOUT DIAGRAM:

TABLULATION:

Sl.NO Switch A Switch B Output-Lamp

1 1 2 OFF

14
PROCEDURE:

 First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.

 The connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

 The output table is verified by switching ON the switches.

RESULT:

Thus the stair – case wiring was constructed and output was verified.

15
FLUORESCENT TUBE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

16
 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

AIM:

To construct and study the working of a fluorescent lamp circuit.

REFERENCE:

1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No. TOOLS QUANTITY (No.)

1. Tester 1

2. Electrician Knife 1

3. Wire Cutter 1

4. Screw Driver 1

5. Combination Plier 1

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Choke - 1 No.

2. Starter - 1 No.

3. Tube light holder, frame - 1 No.

4. Tube light - 1 No.

5. Connecting wires - Required

PRECAUTIONS:

 All the connections should be tight.

 Twisting of wires should be avoided.

 Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.

THEORY:

The fluorescent tubes are usually available in lengths of 0.61 m and 1.22 m.

The various parts of fluorescent tube include.

17
18
 1. Glass tube

2. Starter

3. Choke

4. Fluorescent materials

5. Filaments

The inside surface of the fluorescent tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent

material in the form of powder. The tube also contains low pressure argon gas and

one or two drops of mercury. The two filaments are coated with electron emissive

material. The starter (initially in closed position) puts the filaments directly across

the supply mains at the time of starting, there by initiating emission of electrons.

After 1 or 2 seconds the starter switch gets opened. The interruption of current

makes the choke to act like ballast providing a voltage impulse across the

filaments. Due to this, ionization of argon takes place. Mercury vapour arc

provides a conducting path between the filaments. The starter used may be of

thermal starter or glow starter whose function is to complete the circuit initially for

preheating the filaments (to initiate emission of electrons) and then to open the

circuit for high voltage across choke for initiating ionization.

PROCEDURE:

 First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.

 The connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

 The output is verified.

RESULT:

Thus the fluorescent lamp circuit connection was given and studied.

19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(0 – 10A) MI 300V, 10A, UPF

P 10 A M L
A
D C V L
P O
230 V, 1 Φ S V (0 – 300V) MI A
T D
50 Hz, A.C.
S

N 10 A

1 Φ Variac

(0 – 270V)

TABULATION:

Multiplication Factor = …………….

Voltage Current Wattmeter Reading (Watts)

S.No.
(Volts) (Ampere) Observed value Actual value

20
 MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER

AIM:

To measure the Power consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using

Wattmeter.

REFERENCE:

1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. APPARATUS TYPE / RANGE QUANTITY

1. Ammeter (0 – 10A) MI 1

2. Voltmeter (0 – 300V) MI 1

3. Wattmeter 300V, 10A, UPF 1

4. Single Phase Resistive Load 1

5. Connecting Wires Required

FORMULA USED:

 Multiplication Factor = Current Coil Rating x Voltage Coil Rating x Power Factor

Full Scale Reading of Wattmeter

 Actual Power in Watts = Observed Reading x Multiplication Factor

THEORY:

A wattmeter is an instrument specially designed to measure average power

consumed by a load. It has two coils:A current coil that measures the current and a

voltage coil that measures the voltage. The wattmeter takes into account the phase

shift, if there is any between the current sensed by its current coil and the voltage

sensed by its voltage coil. If the voltage drop across as measured the voltage coil is

Vm cos(ωt + Ф) A, then the average power P measured by the wattmeter in watts is

½ Vm Im Cos Ф,where Ф = is the power factor angle. The voltage coil of the

wattmeter, its reading will be 0.707 Vm.

21
22
PRECAUTIONS:

 Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position, during starting

period.

 No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.

PROCEDURE:

 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

 Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the single phase

variac.

 Resistive load is switch ON.

 Load is gradually increased and the ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter

readings are noted.

RESULT:

Thus the power consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.

23
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(0 – 10A) MI Energy Meter

P 10 A S1 C1 C2 L1
A
D L
P P1 P2 O
S V A
230 V, 1 Φ T (0 – 300V) MI
50 Hz, A.C.
D
S

N 10 A S2 L2

1 Φ Variac
(0 – 270V)

TABULATION:

Energy Meter Constant = …………………

Actual True
Sl. Voltage Current Power Time Number of %
Energy Energy
No. (Volts) (Ampere) (Watts) (Seconds) Revolutions Error
(KWh) (KWh)

24
 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM:

To measure the Energy consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using

Single Phase Energy Meter.

REFERENCE:

1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. APPARATUS TYPE / RANGE QUANTITY

1. Ammeter (0 – 10A) MI 1

2. Voltmeter (0 – 300V) MI 1

3. Single Phase Energy Meter 1

4. Stop Watch Analog 1

5. Single Phase Resistive Load 3 KW, 230 V 1

6. Connecting Wires Required

FORMULA USED:

 Actual Energy in KWh = Power in Watts x Time Taken in Seconds

1000 x 3600

 Power in Watts = Voltage in Volts x Current in Amperes

 True Energy in KWh = No. of Revolution / Energy Meter Constant

 % Error = True Energy – Actual Energy x 100

Actual Energy

THEORY:

An induction type meter is commonly used. It consists of two magnets, the

upper and lower magnets. The upper magnet carries a pressure coil, which is made

up of a thin wire and has large number of turns. This coil has to be connected in

parallel with the supply. The lower magnet carries the current coil which is made

25
26
up of a thick wire and has only few turns. This coil is to be connected in series with

the load. An aluminum disc mounted on the spindle is placed between the upper

and lower magnets. The disc can rotate freely between the magnets. Another

permanent magnet called as brake magnet is used for providing breaking torque

on the aluminium disc.

The power consumed is measured in terms of number rotations of the disc.

For example 1800 revolutions of the disc means 1 KWH power consumed by the

load connected to the energy meter.

PRECAUTIONS:

 Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position, during starting

period.

 No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.

PROCEDURE:

 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

 Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the single phase

variac.

 Resistive load is switch ON.

 Load is gradually increased and the ammeter, voltmeter & Energy meter

readings are noted.

RESULT:

Thus the Energy consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.

27
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:

RESISTOR STANDARD COLOUR CODE TABLE:

Colour Value Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 x100
Brown 1 x101 ±1%
Red 2 x102 ±2%
Orange 3 x103
Yellow 4 x104
Green 5 x105 ±0.5%
Blue 6 x106 ±0.25%
Violet 7 x107 ±0.1%
Grey 8 x108 ±0.05%
White 9 x109
Gold x10-1 ±5%
Silver x10-2 ±10%
None ±20%

28
 STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING COLOR CODING

AIM:

To study the measurement of value of resistance using color coding

REFERENCE:

1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Resistors

2. Multimeter

THEORY:

A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance in the circuit.

Resistance is basic property of conducting material and is given by

R = ρL/ A

Where,

ρ - Specified resistivity.

L - Length of the material.

A - Area of cross section of material.

We have a number of type of resistors such as carbon composition, metal

film, carbon film wire wound and variable resistors.

In our laboratory carbon resistors are used. For resistance of the order of

mega ohms, we use powdered carbon mixed with a suitable building material in

the proper proportion. Carbon resistors are quite cheap, but the value of resistance

may be easily affected by atmospheric changes and is also susceptible to high

tolerance.

29
TABULATION:

Resistance Value by Resistance Value

Sl. No.
Colour Coding (Ω) by Multimeter (Ω)

30
IDENTIFICATION MARKING OF RESISTORS

Universally recognized approaches have been established to identify the

electrical values. Two such markings are

(i) Colour code.

(ii) Alpha numeric code.

Normally in our laboratories low wattage general purpose resistors are

used. In this colour coding method is used to identify the value of the resistance.

In our colour coding method the value of the resistance is coded on the

resistor using three or four colour bands. The first two colour band gives the first

two significant digital values. The third band gives the value of multiplier. Fourth

band gives the tolerance value.

RESULT:

Thus the value of resistor using colour coding was studied and measured.

31
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Measurement of AC Voltage amplitude and frequency

AFO CRO

TABULATION:

Maximum voltage , Peak- to- RMS

Time in Seconds
Vm in Volts Peak Voltage Frequency
Sl.
Voltage Vrms f = 1/T
No Per No of Actual Per No of Actual
Vpp= 2Vm = Vm / in Hz
division divisions Value division divisions Value
in Volts In Volts

1.

2.

3.

4.

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 MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO

AIM:
To measure the following when a sinusoidal voltage is applied.
1. Peak – Peak Magnitude of the Voltage,
2. RMS Value of the Voltage
3. Time Period
4. Frequency,
REFERENCE:

1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE
(NO.S)
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) Analog 30 MHz 1
2. Audio Frequency Oscillator Digital 2 MHz 1
3. Bread Board 1
4. Connecting Probes, wires As Required

FORMULA USED:
Measurement of unknown frequency = FV / FH … (Hz)
= Number of loops cut in the horizontal axis
Number of loops cut in vertical axis
Where,
FV – frequency of waveform given to the vertical plane
FH – frequency of waveform given to the horizontal plane
VRMS = Vm / √ 2 … (Volts)
f = 1 / T … (Hz)
ω = 2 π f … (radian)

33
MODEL GRAPH: (Using CRO)
AC input Voltage:

Measurement of DC Voltage amplitude and frequency:

RPS (0-30V) CRO

TABULATION:
SI.No. Applied Voltage Number of Volt/Division Measured
(V) divisions Voltage (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.

34
THEORY:
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile as laboratory
instrument for studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for
measurement of voltage, current and frequency. It generates the electron a high velocity,
deflects the beam to create the image and contains a phosphor beam, to screen where the
electron beam becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various electrical signals and
voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope.
Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron
beam and high voltage is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal
voltage supply is required for other control circuits of the oscilloscope. Electron beam
deflects in two directions horizontal on X axis and vertical on Y axis.
For measurement of direct voltage, firstly the spot is centered on the screen without
applying signal any voltage to the deflection plates. Then direst voltage to be measured is
applied between a pair of depletion plates and deflection of the spot is observed on the
screen. The magnitude of the deflection multiplied is the deflection factor gives the value of
direct voltage applied.
In case of measurement alternating voltage of sinusoidal waveform it is applied between a
pair of deflection plates and the length of the straight line is measured. Knowing be
determined the deflection sensitivity the peak to peak value of applied ac voltage can be
determined.

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The sinusoidal voltage is applied with the help of AFO.
3. Readings are taken for different magnitudes and frequencies.

RESULT:
Thus the Peak – Peak Magnitude of the voltage, RMS Value of the Voltage, Time
Period, Frequency are measured with help up CRO.

35
 AND GATE OR GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM: LOGIC DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7408 : PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7432 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE: TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

S.No S.No
A B Y=A.B A B Y=A+B
1. 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0
2. 0 1 0 2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 0 3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 1 4. 1 1 1

36
 STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES

AIM:

To verify the truth table of basic logic gates of AND, OR, NOT, NAND,

NOR, EX-OR gates.

REFERENCE:

1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Digital IC trainer kit 1

2. AND gate IC 7408 1

3. OR gate IC 7432 1

4. NOT gate IC 7404 1

5. NAND gate IC 7400 1

6. NOR gate IC 7402 1

7. EX-OR gate IC 7486 1

8. Connecting wires As required

THEORY:

a. AND gate:

An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation.

It is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ only if all

the input signals are ‘1’.

b. OR gate:

An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is

an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ if any of the

input signal is ‘1’.

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 NOT GATE NAND GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM: LOGIC DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7404: PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7400 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: CIRCUIT DIARAM:

TRUTH TABLE: TRUTH TABLE:

S.N INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

o A Y = A’ S.No
A B Y = (A. B)’
1. 0 1 1. 0 0 1
2. 1 0 2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 0

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c. NOT gate:

A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation

operation. It is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal

which is the reverse of the input signal. A NOT gate is also known as

an inverter because it inverts the input.

d. NAND gate:

A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate. The output of the NAND

gate will be ‘0’ if all the input signals are ‘1’ and will be ‘1’ if any one of

the input signal is ‘0’.

e. NOR gate:

A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate. The output of the OR gate

will be ‘1’ if all the inputs are ‘0’ and will be ‘0’ if any one of the input

signal is ‘1’.

f. EX-OR gate:

An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,

A B = ( A . B’ ) + ( A’ . B )

It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B

being equal to one. The exclusive OR is a function that give an output

signal ‘0’ when the two input signals are equal either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

PROCEDURE:

 Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

 For all the ICs 7th pin is grounded and 14th pin is given +5 V supply.

 Apply the inputs and verify the truth table for all gates.

39
 NOR GATE EX-OR GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM: LOGIC DIAGRAM

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7402 :

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7486 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:
TRUTH TABLE:
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
S.No S.No
A B Y = (A + B)’ A B Y=A B
1. 0 0 1 1. 0 0 0
2. 0 1 0 2. 0 1 1
3. 1 0 0 3. 1 0 1
4. 1 1 0 4. 1 1 0

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RESULT:

The truth table of all the basic logic gates were verified.

41
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Half Wave Rectifier:
P

IN 4007
100 μF
230 V, 50 Hz
1 Φ Supply 1 KΩ CRO

N
Step-down Transformer
(0 – 12V)

Full Wave Rectifier:

D1 D2

230 V, 50 Hz
1 Φ Supply

D4 D3 100 μF

1 KΩ CRO
N

TABULATION:

Without Filter With Filter

Rectifier T (mS)
Vm (V) T (mS) Vm (V)
Charging Discharging
Half Wave Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier

42
 HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:

To obtain the output of Half wave and Full Wave rectifier and to plot

the characteristics.

REFERENCE:

1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

QUANTITY
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE
(NO.S)

1 Diode IN 4001 4

2 Resistor 1 KΩ 1

3 Capacitor 100 μF 1

Transformer Step-down 230 V / 1

4
(12 – 0 – 12) V

5 CRO Analog 30 MHz 1

6 Bread Board 1

7 Connecting wires and probe As Required

THEORY:

Half wave rectifier converts alternating voltage into unidirectional

pulsating voltage. The half wave rectifier circuit using a diode with a load

resistance R. The diode is connected in series with the secondary of the

transformer and the load resistance R, the primary of the transformer is being

connected to the supply mains. The AC voltage across the secondary winding

changes polarities after every half cycle. During the positive half cycles of the

input AC voltage i.e. when upper end of the secondary winding is positive

with respect to its lower end, the diode is forward biased and therefore

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WAVEFORMS:

Vin (V)
Vm

0
Time

Vout (V)
Output of Half Wave Rectifier without filter

0
Time
Vm
Output of Half Wave Rectifier with filter

Time

Vm Output of Full Wave Rectifier without

filter

Time
Vm
Output of Full Wave Rectifier with
filter

0
Time

44
current conducts. During the negative half cycles of the input AC voltage i.e.

when lower end of the secondary winding is positive with respect to its upper

end, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. Thus for the negative

half cycles no power is delivered to the load. Since only one half cycles of the

input wave is converted as output, it is called as Half Wave Rectifier.

In Full Wave Rectifier the diode D2 and D4 will conduct during

the positive half of the input signal and during the negative half cycle of the

input signal the diode D1 andD3 conducts. Hence both the half cycles are

converted into output and the efficiency is high compared with the half wave

rectifier.

PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Input waveform’s magnitude and frequency was measured with the

help of CRO.

3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained in the

CRO.

4. Output waveform’s magnitude and time period was measured.

5. Graphs were plotted for Half wave and Full wave rectifier outputs.

RESULT:

Thus the output of Half wave and Full wave rectifiers were obtained

and the curves were plotted.

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46
 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT

AIM:

To measure the resistance to earth / insulation resistance of the order of

mega ohms.

REFERENCE:

1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu – VRB Publishers.

2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar – D D Publications.

THEORY:

Megger is the equipment used in this experiment. It is an instrument

for testing the insulation resistance of the order of mega ohms.

PRINCIPLE:

A megger consists of an EMF source and a Voltmeter. The voltmeter

scale is calibrated in ohms. In measurement, the EMF of the self contained

source should be equal that of the source used in calibration. The deflection of

the moving system depends on the ratio of the currents in the coils and is

independent of the applied voltage. The value of unknown resistance can be

found directly from the scale of the instrument. Figure shows the detailed

diagram of a megger. It consists of hand driven dc generator and ohmmeter, a

small permanent magnet. Hand driven dc generator generates a EMF about

500V. The permanent dc meter has two moving coils. First one is deflecting

coil and another one controlling coil. The deflecting coil is connected to the

generator through a resistor R. The torque due to the two coils opposes each

other. It consists of three terminals E, L and G.

OPERATION:

When the terminals are open circuited, no current flows through the

deflecting coil. The torque due to the controlling coil moves the pointer to one

end of the scale. When the terminals are short circuited, the torque due to the

controlling coil and the pointer is deflected to the other end of the scale, i.e.

47
48
zero mark. In between the two extreme positions the scale is calibrated to

indicate the value of unknown resistance directly. The unknown insulation

resistance is connected across E and L terminals. The effective insulation

resistance is the combination of insulation volume resistance and surface

leakage resistance. The guard wire terminal makes the surface leakage current

to by pass the instrument hence only insulation resistance is measured.

RESULT:

Thus the resistance to earth / insulation resistance of the order of mega

ohms can be measured.

49