!

The concentration formula;

"#$%!$%!&%!$'()*+&,+!&%!+#-!.)*'/0&!+#&+!#&1!')0!&,1!')0&*!'&%%!$,20/1-13!"#$%!
+$'-!$+!$%!4/%+5!
!
!"#"$%!
!
,6!')0!
76!')0&*!8')09:;!
<!6!=)0/'-!8:;!

How to predict how an acid will work?

>)/!2&,!&2+/&00?!@)*A!)/+!#)@!&,!&2$1!')0-2/0-!@$00!B-#&=-!@#-,!$+!$%!(0&2-1!
$,+)!@&+-*3!"#$%!$%!=-*?!%$'(0-3!C00!?)/!#&=-!+)!1)!$%!@)*A!)/+!@#$2#!')0-2/0-!$%!
&2$1!D!&,1!+#-,!A,)@!+#&+!&,!&2$1!')0-2/0-!@$00!1),&+-!$+%!#?1*)E-,!$),!+)!@&+-*3!!
!
F70!8&G;!H!FIJ!!!KK!
!
L)@!?)/!&2$1!')0-2/0-!$%!F70!&,1!+#-*-.)*-!+#-!FH!$),!.*)'!+#-!F70!')0-2/0-!$%!
1),&+-1!+)!@&+-*3!"#-!@&+-*!@$00!B-2)'-!FMJH!8+#-!@&+-*!@$00!$,2*-&%-!B?!),-!F!
')0-2/0-!&,1!+#-!2#&*E-!),!+#-!@&+-*!@$00!&0%)!$,2*-&%-!B?!N!+#-*-.)*-!$+!@$00!,)+!
B-!O,-/+*&0P!2#&*E-!&,?')*-;3!!
FMJH!$%!&!#?1*),$/'!$),!$+!$%!+#-!%&'-!&%!FH!%$,2-!@&+-*!$%!,-/+*&03!"#$%!$),!$%!
).+-,!/%-1!+)!2&02/0&+-!+#-!(F!).!+#-!%)0/+$),3!"#-!70Q!$%!)B+&$,-1!.*)'!+#-!F70!
&,1!$%!+#-!*-'&$,$,E!(*)1/2+!&.+-*!#?1*)E-,!#&%!B--,!*-')=-13!!
!
F70!8&G;!H!FIJ80;!!!FMJH8&G;!H!70Q!8&G;!
!
&'()"'(**+!,"-'+!")'+"./"01!0+!)2()31!"45./67"81+,"9*:"
"#-!')*-!#?1*),$/'!$),!2),2-,+*&+$),!E)-%!/(!+#-!0)@-*!+#-!(F!E-+%3!(F!$%!&!
*-&1$,E!).!#)@!%+*),E9@-&A!+#-!&2$1!)*!B&%-!$%3!R+!$%!B&%-1!),!&!%2&0-!B-+@--,!NQ
NS!+*&1$+$),&00?T!#)@-=-*!$+!2&,!')=-!$,+)!,-E&+$=-!(F!&,1!)=-*!NS!+))3!"#-!
.)*'/0&!.)*!(F!$%5!
!
(F!6!Q0)ENUVFHW!
!
;1"-'+!<"
F?1*)E-,!$),%!$,2*-&%-!6!(F!1-2*-&%-%!6!%)0/+$),!B-2)'-%!')*-!&2$1$2!
F?1*)E-,!$),!.&00!6!(F!$,2*-&%-%!6!%)0/+$),!B-2)'-%!')*-!B&%$23!
!

!
!

Difference between acids;

"#-*-!$%!&!1$..-*-,2-!B-+@--,!&2$1%3!"#$%!1$..-*-,2-!0$-%!$,!#)@!'&,?!F>XYJZ[L!
$),%!+#-!&2$1!2),+&$,%3!!
!
\#-,!&,!&2$1!#&%!),0?!),-!#?1*)E-,!$),!$+!$%!A,)@,!&%!'),)(*)+$23!
\#-,!&,!&2$1!#&%!+@)!#?1*)E-,!$),!$%!A,)@,!&%!1$(*)+$23!
\#-,!&,!&2$1!#&%!+#*--!#?1*)E-,!$),!$%!A,)@,!&%!+*$(*)+$23!
!
Z[L[YC::>!+#-!')*-!#?1*)E-,!$),%!?)/!#&=-!D!+#-!]"YJLZ[Y!!+#-!&2$1!
B-2)'-%3!"#$%!$%!B-2&/%-!+#-!2),2-,+*&+$),!).!#?1*),$/'!$),%!E)-%!/(!&,1!?)/!
%/11-,0?!#&=-!&!E*-&+-*!2),2-,+*&+$),!).!+#-'!&=&$0&B0-3!Y-'-'B-*!+#&+!+#$%!$%!
4/%+!&!E-,-*&0!*/0-!D!%$,2-!+#-*-!&*-!2&%-%!@#-*-!&2$1%!&*-!*-0/2+&,+!+)!E$=-!&@&?!
$+%!#?1*)E-,!$),%!$,!+#-!.$*%+!(0&2-3!!
!
^)*!-_&'(0-!$.!@-!0))A!&+!FM`JS!T!@-!A,)@!+#&+!$+!#&=-!+#*--!#?1*)E-,!$),%!+#&+!
$+!2&,!()+-,+$&00?!E$=-!&@&?3!]$,2-!$+!#&=-!M!#?1*)E-,!$),%!@-!@)/01!+#$,A!+#&+!$+!
@)/01!B-!),-!).!+#-!%+*),E-%+!&2$1%3!F)@-=-*!$+!$%,P+a!"#$%!$%!B-2&/%-!+#-!M!
#?1*)E-,%!&*-!,)+!1),&+-1!&%!-&%$0?3!!
!
"#$,A!).!+@)!(-)(0-!(-*%),!C!&,1!(-*%),!b3!`-*%),!C!#&=-!0$++0-!'),-?!B/+!E$=-%!
&@&?!&!0)+!8cUd;!+)!2#&*$+?3!`-*%),!b!E$=-%!ecU!&!?-&*333!-=-,!+#)/E#!(-*%),!b!
#&%!M!+$'-%!')*-!'),-?!+#&,!(-*%),!C3!\#)!@$00!2),+*$B/+-!')*-K!`-*%),!C!3333!
-=-,!+#)/E#!#-9%#-!#&%!0-%%!'),-?!+#-?!O1),&+-P!+)!&!E*-&+-*!-_+-,+a!
!
How does a diprotic acid behave in water?
C!1$(*)+$2!&2$1!@$00!#&=-!+@)!')0-2/0-%!&,1!+#-*-.)*-!@$00!B-!2&(&B0-!).!1),&+$,E!
+@)!FH!')0-2/0-%3!:-+P%!#&=-!&!0))A!&+!%/0(#/*$2!&2$1!&,1!#)@!$+!B-#&=-%5!
!
N;!"#-!.$*%+!#?1*)E-,!$),!$%!1),&+-1!+)!+#-!@&+-*3!\-!,--1!+)!%#)@!+#$%!$,!I!
%+-(%!%$,2-!@-!#&=-!+@)!#?1*)E-,!$),%!+#&+!2&,!B-!1),&+-13!
!
FI]JS!8&G;!!H!!FIJ!80;!!!FMJH!8&G;!H!F]JSQ!8&G;!
!
`0-&%-!,)+-!+#&+!$,$+$&00?!+#-!*-&2+$),!$%!<[Y>!%+*),E!%$,2-!+#-!()+-,+$&0!).!
%/0(#/*$2!&2$1!1),&+$,E!&,!#?1*)E-,!$),!$%!+#-!ZY[C"[]"!+#-*-.)*-!+#-!*-&2+$),!
@$00!E)!&B)/+!ffd!.)*@&*1a!"#$%!(*)1/2-1!&!'&%%$=-!1*)(!$,!(F3!
!
I;!"#-!%-2),1!*-&2+$),!$%!,)+!O&%!2)'(0-+-P!&%!+#-!.$*%+3!]$,2-!,)@!?)/!&*-!
@)*A$,E!@$+#!F]JSQ!@#$2#!$%!%+$00!&,!&2$1$2!')0-2/0-!#)@-=-*!+#-!()+-,+$&0!).!
1),&+$,E!#?1*)E-,!$),!$%!0-%%3!"#$%!@$00!'-&,!+#&+!+#-!1*)(!).!(F!$,!+#-!I,1!

!
!

-G/&+$),!$%!,)+!&%!%$E,$.$2&,+!&%!+#-!.$*%+!),-!@&%3!!
!
F]JSQ!8&G;!!H!FIJ!80;!"!]JSIQ!8&G;!H!FMJH8&G;!
!
"#-!B&2A9.)*+#!&**)@!$%!(0&2-1!+#-*-!),!(/*()%-!+)!%#)@!+#&+!+#-!I,1!*-&2+$),!$%!
,)!0),E-*!&%!()@-*./0!&%!+#-!.$*%+!),-!@&%3!>)/!%#)/01!&0%)!@*$+-!$+!)/+!+#-!%&'-!
@&?!$,!+#-!-_&'a!!
!
A point or two on conjugate acids/bases;
")!/,1-*%+&,1!+#$%T!@-!,--1!+)!*-.-*!B&2A!+)!)/*!-_&'(0-!).!#?1*)2#0)*$2!&2$1!$,!
@&+-*5!
!
F70!8&G;!H!FIJ80;!!!FMJH8&G;!H!70Q!8&G;!
!
Y-'-'B-*!@#&+!#&((-,-1K!"#-!#?1*)2#0)*$2!&2$1!1),&+-1!$+%!%(&*-!#?1*)E-,!+)!
@&+-*3!JA!@#&+!@&%,P+!'-,+$),-1!B-.)*-!$%!+#&+!&2$1!&,1!B&%-%!&*-!,)+!2)'(0-+-!
*-&2+$),%3!!
"#&+!'-&,%!+#&+!+#-*-!&*-!+@)!&**)@%!&!B&2A!&,1!.)*@&*1!),-333!
!
;1"'1-"01=+"-+",++"1!>?"1!+"(221-:"
Z))1!G/-%+$),3!"#-!*-&%),!.)*!),0?!),-!&**)@!$%!+#&+!!F70!1),&+-%!$+%!#?1*)E-,!
$),%!+)!&!E*-&+!-_+-,+3!F?1*)2#0)*$2!&2$1!@$00!*-&2+!%)!+#&+!&0')%+!ffd!).!$+!$%!
2),=-*+-1!$,+)!FMJH!&,1!!70Q3!!"#-!)+#-*!Nd!@$00!B-!&!bC7g!*-&2+$),!).!FMJH8&G;!
&,1!70Q!8&G;3!
!
&'()"3,"31!3@()31!:"
$),$h&+$),!*-.-*%!+)!#)@!'&,?!RJL!')0-2/0-%!+#-!&2$1!(*)1/2-%3!"#-!')*-!$),%!$+!
(*)1/2-%!+#-!]"YJLZ[Y!$+!$%!D!%$,2-!$),$h&+$),!2&,!),0?!)22/*!@#-,!?)/!1),&+-!
&!#?1*)E-,!$),3!R),$h&+$),!&00)@%!+#-!&2$1$2!%)0/+$),!+)!2),1/2+!-0-2+*$2$+?a!]$,2-!
+)!2),1/2+!-0-2+*$2$+?!?)/!,--1!iJ<RLZ!7FCYZ[!&,1!$,%$1-!+#-!&2$1$2!%)0/+$),!
8-%(-2$&00?!.*)'!&!%+*),E!&2$1;!?)/!@$00!#&=-!F[C`]!).!')=$,E!2#&*E-3!!
!
&'()",38!3A30(!0+"'(,")'+"$>B""31!"'(C+"1!")'+",?,)+=:"
"#-!70Q!$%!*-.-**-1!+)!&%!+#-!2),4/E&+-!B&%-!).!F703!"#$%!$%!B-2&/%-!@#-,!+#-!
*-&2+$),!1)-%!E)!B&2A@&*1%!8$,!+#-!)11!Nd!).!+$'-;!+#-!70Q!$%!&2+/&00?!&2+$,E!&%!&!
B&%-!+)!*-.)*'!F703!R+!+&A-%!+#-!#?1*)E-,!$),!.*)'!+#-!FMJH!&,1!+#-!*-&2+$),!$%!
*-=-*%-13!!
F)@-=-*!%$,2-!F70!$%!&!=-*?!%+*),E!&2$1!')%+!$+!O*-2*-&+-1P!@$00!*-&2+!&E&$,3!"#$%!
1?,&'$2!@$00!2),+$,/-!+)!*-)22/*3!!
!
!

!
!

"#-!*/0-!).!2),4/E&+-%!&*-!&%!.)00)@-15!
"#-!%+*),E-*!+#-!&2$1!+#-!\[Cg[Y!+#-!2),4/E&+-!B&%-!
"#-!@-&A-*!+#-!&2$1!+#-!]"YJLZ[Y!+#-!2),4/E&+-!&2$13!
!
"#-!%+*),E-*!&!B&%-!+#-!\[Cg[Y!+#-!2),4/E&+-!&2$1!
"#-!@-&A-*!&!B&%-!+#-!]"YJLZ[Y!+#-!2),4/E&+-!&2$13!
!
7),4/E&+-%!&*-!).+-,!@*$++-,!&%!D03E"412"F(,+7G"01!H98()+"F(,+"4"12"(03E73!
"#-*-.)*-!$,!)/*!-_&'(0-!).!#?1*)2#0)*$2!&2$1!.*)'!&B)=-!@)/01!'-&,!+#&+!+#-!
,)+&+$),!).!@*$+$,E!)/+!+#-!2),4/E&+-!$%5!F70!9!70Q3!
!
&'?"3,")'+2+"("F(0I"2+(0)31!:"
b-2&/%-!FMJH8&G;!&,1!!70Q!8&G;!2)00$1-!&,1!*-.)*'!F703!"#-!*-&2+$),!$%!')*-!
()@-*./0!.)*@&*1!+#-,!B&2A3!
!
How to predict how a base will work?
C!B&%-!@$00!2*-&+-!JFQ!$,!+#-!(*)1/2+%3!"#-%-!JFQ!@$00!2&/%-!+#-!(F!+)!YR][3!])!&%!
&!*/0-!@#-,-=-*!?)/!%--!FMJH!&%!&!(*)1/2+!$,!+#-!-G/&+$),!$+!$%!&,!$,1$2&+$),!+#&+!
+#-!%)0/+$),!$%!C7RXR7!D!),!+#-!)+#-*!#&,1!JFQ!E$=-%!&,!$,1$2&+$),!).!bC][3!
!
JK(=*>+<!
!
LFM!H!FIJ!!!LFSH!H!JFQ!!

C''),$&!$%!&!B&%-3!"#-*-.)*-!@-!A,)@!+#&+!&!B&%-!@$00!C77[`"!#?1*)E-,!$),%3!
"#$%!@$00!'-&,!+#&+!+#-!&''),$&!@$00!+&A-!&!#?1*)E-,!$),!.*)'!@&+-*3!"#$%!@$00!
0-&=-!?)/!@$00!JFQ!&%!&!(*)1/2+3!!
!
Acid and Base reactions;
"#-*-!&*-!.-@!*-&2+$),%!+#&+!?)/!'/%+!*-'-'B-*!$,!2#-'$%+*?!+#&+!$,=)0=-!&2$1%!
&,1!B&%-%3!"#-%-!$,20/1-5!
!
D03E"(!E"F(,+"
C2$1!&,1!B&%-!@$00!&0@&?%!E$=-!?)/!%&0+!&,1!@&+-*3!"#$%!%&0+!$%!&,!$),$2!2)'()/,1!
&,1!+#-!*-&**&,E-'-,+!).!$),%!!.*)'!+#-!&2$1!&,1!B&%-3!"#$%!$%!).+-,!A,)@,!&%!&!
,-/+*&0$h&+$),!*-&2+$),!Q!!#)@-=-*!(0-&%-!1)!,)+!&00)@!+#-!,&'-!+)!1-2-$=-!?)/3!
j/%+!B-2&/%-!$+!$%!2&00-1!&!,-/+*&0$h&+$),!*-&2+$),!$+!1)-%,P+!'-&,!+#&+!+#-!.$,&0!(F!
).!+#-!%)0/+$),!$%!k3!"#$%!$%!B-2&/%-!&0+#)/E#!+#-*-!&*-!,)!#?1*)E-,!$),%!(*-%-,+!
D!+#-!%&0+!(*)1/2-1!2&,!#&=-!$+%!)@,!/,$G/-!(F3!!
!
[_&'(0-!).!,-/+*&0$h&+$),!*-&2+$),5!
F708&G;!H!7&8JF;I!8&G;!!!7&70I!8&G;!H!FIJ!80;!

!
!

!
D03E"(!E"L+)(><"
"#$%!*-&2+$),!'/%+!#&=-!&!(/*-!'-+&0!(&*+$20-!*-&2+$,E!@$+#!&,!&2$13!"#$%!
2)'B$,&+$),!@$00!&0@&?%!(*)1/2-!%&0+!&,1!#?1*)E-,!E&%!FI!3!Y-'-'B-*!+#&+!?)/!
2&,!+-%+!.)*!#?1*)E-,!E&%!B?!1)$,E!+#-!()(!+-%+3!
!

[_&'(0-5!
FLJM!8&G;!H!l,!8%;!!!!"#$%&'()!$*+(!,!-)!$.(!
!
!"#$%&'$%()*&+%"&,-.'&*)/!
\#-,!+#-%-!+@)!*-&2+!+#-?!@$00!2*-&+-!2&*B),!1$)_$1-T!@&+-*!&,1!%&0+3!!Y-'-'B-*!
+#&+!?)/!2&,!+-%+!.)*!+#-!(*-%-,2-!).!2&*B),!1$)_$1-!B?!1)$,E!+#-!0$'-!@&+-*!+-%+!
D!0$'-@&+-*!+/*,%!'$0A?!$,!+#-!(*-%-,2-!).!2&*B),!1$)_$1-3!!
!
F70!8&G;!H!7&7JM!8%;!!!7&70I!8&G;!H!7JI8E;H!FIJ80;!!