ETHICS &

GOVERNANCE

U3

ETHICAL THEORIES
S
Study orga niser
Before you begin
B b this unnit, please check
c througgh your studdy organiseer. It shows
thhe topics thaat we’ll be covering,
c th
he skills youu need to accquire (the leearning
ouutcomes) annd the activities you’ll do to help youy acquiree these skillss.

Topiccs Learning outcomes Activ

vities

3..0 Introductiion At the end

d of unit 3, you
y Readings: chappter 3 of yourr
should be able to: presscribed
3..1 Ethics of
textbbook
character: virtue  explain thhe importancee of
ethics ethical theeories; Alsso refer to on nline readinggs
listeed in Moodlee
3..2 Ethics of conduct:
c  discuss thhe main ideass
consequen ntialism behind virrtue ethics annd its Activity 3.1
and deonttology offshoot feminist
f virtuue Activity 3.2
3..3 Conclusioon ethics;
Activity 3.3
 provide ann overview of o
consequenntialist theoriies
(especiallyy utilitarianism);
 highlight the
t deontoloogical
or rights-bbased approaach to
ethics; andd
 comment on some
shortcomiings of each of
these theoories.

S
Study time
Y should be able to complete
You c thhis section by
b the end of week 3.
To complete this unit you
T y will neeed to complete the readdings and the
q
questions thhat appear at
a the end off the unit. Note:
N there is
i no tutoriaal
e
exercise this week.

Note: Reemember to login to yoour online co ourse page to:

t
 acccess additiional onlinee resources, including short films;
 coontact your course coordinator to ask question ns;
 cllarify your understandi
u ing of the id
deas and conncepts we cover
c in the
coourse; and
 diiscuss matteers relating to this courrse with oth
her students..

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3.2
 Readingss/ Resourcces
Innternet Ency
yclopaedia of Philosopphy, “Ethicss”
h
http://www. iep.utm.eduu/ethics/

Messerly, John G. The Meaning

M M off Life
htttp://reasonaandmeaningg.com/2015
5/03/09/utiliitarianism-ppart-1/
htttp://reasonaandmeaningg.com/2015
5/03/09/utiliitarianism-ppart-2/
htttp://reasonaandmeaningg.com/2015
5/03/09/utiliitarianism-ppart-3/

Seven Pillarss Institute – Kantian Duuty-based (D Deontologiccal) Ethics

htttp://sevenp
pillarsinstituute.org/moraality-101/kaantian-duty--based-
deeontologicaalethics

htttp://davespphilosophyeethics.blogsppot.com/p/eethical-egoissm-altruism
m.html
R
Retrieved onn 21 Septem
mber 2015

Sander-Stauddt, Maureenn, “Care Ethhics” in Inteernet Encycllopedia of Philosophy

P
(hhttp://www..iep.utm.eduu/care-eth/) Retrieved oon Septembber 21, 20155.

As you work
A k through thhis unit, we will y to the reelevant pages in your
w direct you
reeading for thhis unit. It is
i importantt for you to read this chhapter to bettter
unnderstand thhe conceptss discussed ini this unit.

Pre-Recordeed Lecture: View the pre-recorde

P p ed lecture fo
or unit 3. Thhis lecture has
h
allready been
n uploaded onto
o your Moodle
M pagee.

3 In trodu ction
3.0
This week, we
T w will expllore some thheories that help us to understand
u ethics and
exxplain our moral
m choices. Links will
w be madee to last weeek’s lecture on ‘Ethics as
a
Part of Philosophy’. Lett us begin by
y asking: what
w is a theoory?

The term ‘theory’ coomes from Greek theeoria. It means

T m ‘to contemplatte,
sppeculate, viiew or look at’. An intteresting pooint that Greeek theoristts highlighteed
iss that the acct of looking could takke place witth the eyes or with the mind. Moore
reecently, a thheory is deffined as an idea, a vieww or thoughht, a set of statements to
exxplain an ob bservation or
o phenomeena; or (in Science
S andd Maths) a hypothesis to
bee tested. Some exaamples of scientific theories t aree: Darwin’s Theory of
E
Evolution, Einstein’s Thheory of Reelativity andd Newton’s Third Law.

An ethical th
A heory refers to a philosoophical atteempt to classsify actionss into right
annd wrong. Ethical
E theoories are im
mportant because they offer
o insights into or
w
ways of undeerstanding good
g and baad behavior. These theoories can alsso provide uus
w pathway
with ys for makinng decisionns and analyysing issues in the field of applied
etthics.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3.3
This unit willl show how
T w ethical theeories have ddifferent areeas of focuss. Some
thheories focuus on characcter, some on
o duty or inntention andd others on
coonsequencees or outcom mes. Very offten our preeference of ethical
e theo
ory is
innfluenced byy our life exxperiences and
a our perssonalities.

Ethical theorries are usuaally dividedd into two main

E m branchees: ethics off character
annd ethics off conduct. Let
L us begin n with ethicss of charactter.

3 Ethhics of
3.1 o chaaracteer: virrtue ethics
e
The word ‘chharacter’ orriginates froom the Greek word, cha
T araktêr. It was
w first useed
too describe thhe mark on a coin. Latter its meanning was exttended to innclude any
m
mark which distinguishe
d ed one perso on or thing from anoth her. In modeern usage, it
i
reefers to the qualities thaat differentiiated one peerson from another.
a Thhese qualitiees
w the marrk of your ccharacter or the attributtes that madde you uniquue or
were
diifferent from
m others. Nowadays,
N w often usee character and personaality
we
innterchangeaably. Some authors
a idenntify six pilllars of character. Thesee include:
trrustworthineess, respect,, responsibiility, fairnesss, caring annd citizenshhip.

Shoort Film 1

Watch this shhort film onn the 6 pillarrs of characcter. The URL link forr this film iss:
W
htttp://www.yyoutube.com m/watch?v= =snS4-z4In55Y

Wh do thesee 6 pillars or
What o values meean?

ow can theyy be related to ethics stuudy?

Ho

Ethical theorries of charaacter are cloosely associated with Aristotle’s

E A viirtue ethics..
A
Aristotle (arggued that we need to edducate our eemotional reesponses in order to
deevelop a virrtuous charaacter. If ourr emotionall responses are educated properly,
w will learnn to take pleeasure or paain in the rigght things an
we nd develop practical
w
wisdom (phrronêsis). Thhis will alsoo help us to avoid comm mon vices. In order to
deevelop this wisdom andd training, we w need to rely
r on frienndships andd social
reelationshipss with other people (Staanford Encyyclopedia off Philosophy y).

Aristotle’s th
A heory calledd ‘the goldenn mean’ disscusses how w a virtue alwways lies inn
beetween two o vices. If one reaches a virtuous position
p or middle
m position, one
diisplays exceellence of character. Thhis is the poosition we shhould train or educate
ouurselves to reach. In thhe table beloow it is cleaar that the co
ourageous person
p is thee
viirtuous persson. The cooward (on thhe left colum mn) has a defect or too o little of a
nce. The rassh person (o
chharacter traiit, in this caase confiden on the right column) haas
tooo much of a character trait, in thiss case, conffidence. Th hus, the courrageous
peerson is the nicely balaanced person n of virtuouus characterr who has reeached the
goolden meann.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3.4
Defect (Vice) Mean Excess (Vice)
(Virtue)
Cowardice Courage Rashness
(too little confidence) (too much confidence)
Insensibility Temperance Self-Indulgence
(too little pleasure) (too much pleasure)
Stinginess Generous Wasteful
(miser with money) (giving large sums of money)
Shamelessness Modesty Bashfulness
(too little shame) (too much shame)

Adapted from: http://users.ipfw.edu/caseldij/Ethics/Golden%20Mean.pdf

The virtue ethics theory (highlighted above) is often used by feminists. Feminists
question women’s unfair or unequal treatment in society (by men) and work
towards liberating them and giving women rights and recognition in a society.
Let us reflect on a brief history of feminism and its discussion of male and female
virtues.

At the end of the nineteenth century, women were seen as more moral but less
intellectual then men. John Stuart Mill (who was an important thinker for ethics)
was upset by this view. He felt that society had set up ‘an ethical double
standard’ which assessed women’s and men’s morality differently. He argued
that women were taught or conditioned by society to be second to men. They
were expected to live for others and to always obey men. Therefore, women did
not choose virtues (such as ‘care’) by themselves but were programmed to follow
virtues that society imposed on them. Mill concluded that there should be one
virtue—human virtue—and women as well as men should uphold its standards
(Mill, 1970).

Some nineteenth century thinkers like Catherine Beecher proposed a more

traditional view. Beecher (argued that a woman's place was in the home and
therefore women should be encouraged to play an important role in creating and
maintaining strong families by imparting moral virtues. This was essential for
society’s well-being. Beecher also said that a woman’s most important work was
to make members of her family Christ-like. ‘The more pure and perfect women
are, the better society will be’ (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

Elizabeth Cady Stanton disagreed with the above view. She thought that men's
morals had set a poor standard for behavior in the public world. Women’s
willingness to take on the role of care-givers was a major factor contributing to
their second-class status. Stanton strongly believed that women should be taken
out of the private world (home) and pushed into the public world (workplace).
This would allow them to progress and give them more opportunities for securing
the same political, social and economic rights and rewards as men. Stanton
insisted there was a higher virtue for women to develop: ‘self-development’
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

Carol Gilligan tried to provide a balance between these views. She argued for a
language of care that highlights relationships and responsibilities. Gilligan

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.5

identified three levels: Level One: what is best for me? Level Two: What is best
for others? Level Three: What is best for me and others? Gillian believed that
when women weave their own interests together with others at Level Three, they
display a kind of thinking that is feminist (Gilligan, 1982).

In summary, some feminist thinkers feel that virtue ethics can address the
imbalance between the public and the private spheres. This understanding will
help us to recognise that certain virtues are required in public life and others in
private life. Thus, feminist theorists call for a change in how we see morality and
virtues. There is now a positive shift towards virtues displayed by women, such
as care, patience, nurturance, self-sacrifice.

3.2 Ethics of conduct:

consequentialism & deontology
Conduct simply means behaviour or actions. Ethics is about regulating conduct
or behaviour with the help of a set of moral principles or guidelines. Moral
principles may consist of the standard of conduct that a person has developed for
him/herself and the obligations or duties that a society or group has of him/her.

Theorists studying conduct like to ask: What sort of actions should we perform?
How should we behave? Two theoretical approaches are employed to address
these questions. The first is called consequentialism and the second is called
non-consequentialism or deontology. Let us begin with the theory of
consequentailism.

The term ‘consequentialism’ was first used by English philosopher, Elizabeth

Anscombe. The main argument behind this theory is that ‘ethical decisions are
based on calculating the good in terms of the consequences or the outcomes’
(Preston, 2007: 37). Or to put it differently: ‘Of all the things a person might do
at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with the best overall
consequences’ (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). This theory places an
emphasis on the end or final result of an action. Two questions consequentialists
ask are: ‘what will be the end result of my action?’ and ‘who will benefit from
my action?’

In their discussion on actions and outcomes, consequentialists argue that we

cannot know whether an action is right or wrong beforehand but we can calculate
whether an action will bring about good. If we calculate that it will bring about
good, then it is the right thing to do. If we predict that it will cause pain or harm,
then it is the wrong action to carry out. In this way, consequentialists often argue
that each situation is unique and that we need to weigh the consequences for each
situation before we decide what is right. Consider the following questions:

 Is killing always wrong?

 What about killing to save lives?

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.6

  Is it right
r to tell a lie to savee a group off people from
m being torrtured?

We can respoond to thesee questions by thinkingg about the ends

W e and meeans
arrgument. The
T end is thhe outcome or result off an action. The meanss refers to
hoow we go about
a arrivinng at the endd result. Coonsequentiaalists wouldd argue that
thhe ends justiify the meanns. It is onlly the end reesult that matters
m not th
he method oro
prrocess you use
u to obtaiin this end result.
r

Click on thiss URL link to

C t view a caartoon that captures
c thee ends and means
m
arrgument. Website
W for thhis image:
htttp://www.ppactiss.org/rresources/m
mediaarticless-cartoons/EEthics.jpg/v
view

Shoort Presentaation 2

View this sho

V ort overview
w of conseqquentialism complied by b the Founddation for
G
Genomics an
nd Populatioon Health. The URL liink for this overview iss:
htttp://www.pphgfoundatiion.org/tutoorials/moral..theories/2.h
html.

Consider thee following moral

C m dilemmma from thhe perspectiive of conseequentialistss:
htttp://www.pphgfoundatiion.org/tutoorials/moral..theories/3.h
html

Hoow would yoou respond to the dilem

mma above if you were a
consequentiallist?

Some peoplee carry out certain

c actss because thhey have theeir own inteerests at heaart
annd will bennefit from thhis action (EEthical Egooism) and others
o act for
fo the benefit
off others (Alltruism, Utilitarianism m).

Ethical egoissts argue thaat all personns should acct from theirr own self innterest and
E
doo what is beest for them
m. If I carry out an actioon and it beenefits otherrs, then this is
goood. Howeever, my priimary intereest should be to promotte my own self-interest
s t
annd do what will bring about
a the most
m benefit for me.

Altruism sim
A mply meanss to act outt of a concern for othhers withoutt expectingg a
reeward for thhis act. Alltruists link
k their well-being withh others: they are happpy
w
when others are happy and
a sad wheen others arre suffering.. As Martinn Luther Kinng
faamously saiid ‘Every man
m must decided whethher to walkk in the ligh
ht of creativve
alltruism or the
t darknesss of destrucctive selfishhness. This is the judg
gment. Lifee’s
m persisteent and urgeent questionn is: What arre you doinng for otherss?’
most

Utilitarianism
U m emphasizzes ‘happineess or pleasuure or utility y as the desirable goal
foor human ch hoice and acction’ (Preston, 2007: 36).
3 Theoriists associatted with thiss
scchool of thoought talk abbout ‘The Greatest
G Happpiness Facctor’ (GHF). Followingg
thhe GHF argu ument, an action
a that produces
p thee greatest go
ood/happineess for the
grreatest nummber of peopple is the rigght action. While
W it hass a long histtory,
uttilitarianism
m was theoriized by Jereemy Benthaam in the ninneteenth cen ntury, and

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3.7
later by John Stuart Mill. Here is a quotation by Bentham that illustrates his
theory:

‘Create all the happiness you are able to create; remove all the misery you are
able to remove. Every day will allow you, --will invite you to add something to
the pleasure of others, --or to diminish something of their pains. And for every
grain of enjoyment you sow in the bosom of another, you shall find a harvest in
your own bosom, --while every sorrow which you pluck out from the thoughts and
feelings of a fellow creature shall be replaced by beautiful flowers of peace and
joy in the sanctuary of your soul’
(Bentham, Advise to a young girl, June 22, 1830)

John Stuart Mill connected Bentham’s theory to his philosophy of liberalism or

equality. His main viewpoint was that we can maximise happiness for society by
giving individuals the freedom to determine their own good. When we calculate
the happiness or unhappiness that results from an action, everyone should be
entitled to have their happiness considered equally with everybody else. This is
similar to a rights based approach to ethics which argues that the happiness of
all people is important. Let us now turn to the second theory related to ethics of
conduct: deontology or non-consequentialism.

Deontology comes from the Greek word ‘deon’. Simply put it is the science or
study of obligation or duty. Deontology is also called duty, obligation or rule-
based ethics. Deontology relies on absolutes or fixed rules about right & wrong.
Thinkers in this field believe that moral action is essentially about following a set
of rules that forbid or require certain actions. For example, ‘Thou shalt not
commit murder’. Thus, a choice is right if it conforms to a moral norm or rule.

Deontologists also argue that moral obligation rests solely on duty. We each
have specific duties and obligations to fulfill as heads of families, managers of
companies, prime ministers of nations and so forth. In duty theory, consequences
are not important. This is probably why deontology is also called ‘non-
consequentialism’. The ends can never justify the means! (New World
Encyclopedia).

An important thinker for deontology is Immanuel Kant. According to Kant’s

theory of universal law, when we make decisions we should think about that
decision being applied to every person in the same circumstance. For example,
‘If a poor man thought of stealing, this man should think about how the world
would be if every poor man stole. Does his circumstance excuse him?’
http://www.articlesbase.com/ethics-articles/understanding-kants-categorical-
imperative-1749611.html#ixzz17N5IfB00

Another duty-based approach to ethics is rights theory. Rights are entitlements

for all human beings. Rights Theory is closely associated with seventeenth
century philosopher, John Locke. He argued that we should not harm anyone’s
life, health, liberty or possessions because they are natural rights, given to us by
God. The U.S. Declaration of Independence (drafted by Thomas Jefferson)
discusses three foundational rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Other more specific rights emerged out of these, e.g. the rights of property,
movement, speech, and religious expression. Four important points to remember

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.8

iss that humann rights are:: 1) natura
al (they are not
n inventedd or createdd by
goovernmentss); 2) univerrsal (they do
d not changge from cou untry to counntry); 3)
eqqual (rightss are the sam
me for all peeople); and 4) inaliena
able (I cannoot hand over
m rights to another perrson) (Internnet Encycloopedia of Phhilosophy). We
my W will
diiscuss humaan rights in more detaill in unit 5.

Shoort Presentaation 3

View this short

V s overvview of deeontology complied by b the Fooundation for
f
G
Genomics and
a Populaation Healtth. The URL link for this overview is: i
htttp://www.pphgfoundatiion.org/tutoorials/moral..theories/3.h
html

H would you
How y respondd to the dileemma abovee if you werre a deontollogist?

3 Coonclu sion
3.3
Ethical theorries and prinnciples can help us to make
E m decisioons more reesponsibly.
H
However, wee should be mindful thaat all theoriees have flaw
ws or failinggs. In other
w
words, no onne ethical thheory is perffect. Howevver, when ethical
e theorries are
coombined, thhey can helpp us to arrivve at the most ethically correct answer possiblle
foor each scennario. Whenn we undersstand the strrengths and weaknessess of these
thheories, we can make thhe most info formed decission when trying
t to achhieve an
etthically corrrect answerr to a dilemm ma.

Preston sugggests the ‘ethhic of respo

onse’ approaach as a preeferred theorry. This
appproach enccourages us to make a choice
c depeending on th he specific situation.
s Itt
iss sometimess called situation ethicss. See pagess 61-65 of your
y textboo
ok for a
diiscussion off the ethic of
o response theory.
t Wee will returnn to discuss this theory
inn unit 12.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3.9
DEONTOLOGY UTILITARIANISM ETHICAL EGOISM

1. Non-consequentialism 1. Utility principle: 1. All our

“deon”: duty + “logos”: Through our actions we actions/choices are
theory, account, principle. should strive to maximize originally
Duties must be followed pleasure/happiness and determined/motivated
‘regardless of the minimize pain/suffering by self-interest and
consequences of the for the most people being ethical is to put
action’ (greatest happiness for the your own
greatest number of good/interest/benefit/c
2. Good Will: Looks at people) oncern above that of
the intentions or motives everyone else > If the
behind the action rather 2. Consequentialist action produces the
than the outcomes (good- theory focusing on the best outcome for you
in-itself) ends/outcomes of an (the agent/individual)
action rather than the then it is the
3. Free-Will: A choice is means or intentions right/good/ethical
right if it conforms the behind the action > ethical action
moral norms that derive decisions must be based
not from religion but from on calculating the good in 2. Consequentialist
human terms of the consequences theory: While judging
reason/rational/reasoning of the action whether the action
capacity (which is/was good or bad,
distinguishes human 3. Cost/Benefit Analysis: ethical egoism looks at
beings from other animals) Calculates the overall the consequences
> Think whether the good and bad enjoyed/suffered by the
action is good or right consequences the action individual doing the
before acting or decision generates action
(looking at the number of
4. Moral Autonomy people affected and the 3. Encourages greed as
(Self-Rule): Being able to gravity of the pain well as competition
judge/decide/choose and suffered) between
act for one’s self (and people/companies/
being able to say No!) 4. The purpose of ethics is political
instead of following others to make world a better parties/institutions etc.
place > The right action
5. Categorical is the one that produces 4. May lead to good or
Imperative: Act only the most intrinsic good bad results (e.g. the
according to that maxim successes and failures
whereby you can, at the 5. Harm principle (Mill): of the capitalist
same time, will that it I am free to do and say economies)
should become a whatever I like as long as
universal law it does not harm other 5. May lead to an
people in society increase in the quality
6. Formula of Humanity: of service as well as
Value-in-itself: Humanity corruption/lack of
and human life/reason social responsibility
must be valued not as a
tool but in and for itself

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.10

VIRTUE ETHICS ETHICS OF CARE ALTRUISM

1. Ethics of Character: not 1. Genuine Care: 1. Acting purely out

based on
conduct/action/consequence
s/intentions but on the
character of the person
Emphasizes the importance
of acquiring a good
character through self-
cultivation and education
2. Habituation: one can
only acquire virtues by
doing the right/good action
over a long period of time
(i.e. you cannot call a new-
born baby honest but rather
a person becomes honest by
practicing honesty
throughout his/her life)
3. A good character is
acquired by applying a
standard of moral excellence > Human beings are
into your private and work
life/career/ relations >>
integrity of person
4. Practical wisdom:
applying the principles of
moral excellence into real
life > this can only be
learned through real-life
experiences
5. Golden Mean: balanced
actions are the ones that are choices deserve extra
based on the means between consideration, we are to
extremes. Example:
rashness (extreme) –
courage (mean) – cowardice affected by our actions
(extreme)
Emphasizes the
importance of genuine
care for other
people/institutions in
society (especially for
those who are most
vulnerable in society) –
starting from those who
are closest to us (family
> relatives > friends >
neighbors > local
community > society >
region > humanity)
2. It is not based on duty
or happiness but on our
social relation to others
3. All individuals are
interdependent for
achieving their interests
social animals who
cannot and should not
prioritize self-interest >
our well-being is
determined by the well-
being of those around us
including the well-being
of our environment
animals, plants etc.
4. Those particularly
vulnerable to our
consider each and every
person who may be
of a concern for other
people > Motivation
to help others or do
good
2. Encourages self-
sacrifice for
others/society/instituti
on/state etc.
3. Discourages
greed/egoism/
competition
4. Example: a mother
sacrificing her life to
save her son’s life/ a
soldier sacrificing his
life for his country
and people
5. Thinking of the
consequences suffered
or enjoyed by other
people in society
(opposite of ethical
egoism)

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.11

References
Books

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics II.7, 1106b36-1107a3)

Gilligan, Carroll. In a Different Voice, 1982, Harvard University Press.

Preston, Noel. ‘Chapter Three: Ethical Theory: An Overview’ in Understanding

Ethics, Sydney: The Federation Press, 2007, pp. 35-58.

Online Sources

‘Introduction to ethical theory’ available online at:

www.uah.edu/colleges/liberal/philosophy/.../IntroEthicalTheory.pdf

Brown, C. ‘Ethical Theories Compared’ Trinity University, available online at:

http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/intro/ethical_theories.html

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ‘Consequentialism’ available online at:

http://www.iep.utm.edu/conseque/

Stanford Encylopedia of Philosophy, ‘Egoism’ available online at:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism/

‘Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832)’ available online at:

http://www.utilitarianism.com/bentham.htm

New World Encyclopedia, ‘Deontology’ available online at:

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Deontological_ethics

‘Understanding Kant’s Categorical Imperative’ available online at:

http://www.articlesbase.com/ethics-articles/understanding-kants-categorical-
imperative-1749611.html#ixzz17N5IfB00

Mill, John Stuart (1970) The Subjection of Women, available online at:
http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy “Feminist Ethics”, available online at:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.12

 Try to attempt the activ
vities below
in your owwn time. Remmember
there is no
o face-to-face
e tutorial
this week.

A
Activity 3.11

Ethical theories & principles – Contest [approx..

time 1 hour]
Iddentify the reasoning
r used by the person
p in thhe followingg scenarios referring
r to
geeneral ethiccal theories and their paarticular principles (usee the ethicall theories
haandout). Ideentify the coorrect theorry (1 point), explain thee reasoning using a
sppecific princciple (2 points). Remem mber there can
c be moree than one principle
p or
thheory used in
i each scennario. Use one
o or more of the follo owing theorries for eachh
sccenario: UTTILITARIAN NISM, DEO ONTOLOG GY, ETHICS S OF CARE E, VIRTUE E
T
THEORY, E
ETHICAL E
EGOISM, A
ALTRUISM M.

1. I am the Manageer of Humann Resourcess at USP. Eaach year I have

h to
decidde on staff promotions
p a appraissals. While making
and m my decision, I
try my
m best to foollow the proocedures annd rules in place,
p checkk all the
reporrts and studeent evaluations very caarefully and use my besst judgmentt
as thiis is what is required off a good andd fair manag
ger.

2. My pregnant
p wiffe told me thhat she has cancer. Shee needs an extensive
e annd
long treatment
t att a hospital in New Zeaaland or Auustralia. I am
m a trusted
emplo oyee of BSP P and I mannaged to em mbezzle fundds (75000 FJD)
F from thhe
accouunts of our richest
r custoomers. I am
m aware thatt my action is unethicall
but ass long as this saves myy wife’s andd unborn chiild’s life, I am
a willing tot
pay for
f it in the future.
f

3. I beliieve we should legalizee abortion. Women

W shoould have th he right to
freelyy choose whhether or noot to give birrth. It is theeir life and therefore
t theey
must be allowedd to use theirr own judgm ment. The sttate on the other o hand
must not have thhe right to inntervene in such an imp portant deciision.

4. I thinnk zoos are useful

u and necessary
n not only becaause of the
enterttainment they produce but also beecause they teach our chhildren abouut
naturre and wildlife. Even to
ough it is evvident that most
m of the animals
a in
zoos are unhappyy and unheaalthy, childrren learn a lot
l and apprreciate
wildlife more whhen they acttually see thhese animalls. Moreoveer, zoos alsoo

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3
3.13
 provide shelter for some of the endangered species and generate job
opportunities for the locals.

5. I think it should be illegal to administer euthanasia on sick animals as the

animals cannot possibly know that they are terminally sick and
autonomously consent to active euthanasia. Therefore, human beings do
not have the moral authority to kill sick animals.

6. As climate change increases the frequency and intensity of storms and

cyclones, the cost of insurance – particularly in at risk areas – is going to
increase massively. This will mean many homes and other property will
have no financial protection against future climate-caused losses.

7. I think gays and lesbians should be allowed to get married and adopt
children. They should be able to decide about their own future. Other
people in society have no right to intervene in this decision as it is one of
the basic human freedoms to choose one’s life partner.

8. I think this Ethics unit (UU200) must remain compulsory for all USP
students. People are not only engineers or architects or businessmen or
cooks or doctors or teachers. They are also fathers, mothers, voters,
drivers, tourists, customers, and students. A person is a whole and
personal-intellectual development through critical thinking (not rules or
rules of conduct) is the key in learning how to be ethical in complex
social and business situations.

9. According to a recent research, older teenagers and young adults (18 to

24) have the highest abortion rates, while women younger than 15 and
older than 35 have the lowest. We have to allow these young women to go
through abortion because this will increase their chance to get higher
education, improve their skills and knowledge, and eventually find a
rewarding job. This way they can become independent, powerful and
resourceful individuals.

10. The legalization of abortion is also about protecting women. We will

always have abortion – it’s a fact of life. However if it was legal it would
be properly regulated, made safe, and moreover advice and consultation
would be given to make potential abortion patients realize the possible
support available to them. We cannot let those vulnerable girls go through
with it alone and suffer even more.

11. Human beings are the most destructive predators in Earth’s history. They
have already consumed or affected all habitats across the globe and
caused the extinction or endangerment of several animal species. This

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.14

 careless attitude must change right now and animal rights must also be
acknowledged.

12. I am a famous doctor working in Suva Private. I should always try my best
to treat the customers, oh sorry, I meant the patients. Medical malpractice
may cause the doctor a lot of trouble and possible imprisonment, and it is
definitely bad for one’s career. I cannot possibly tarnish my good reputation
by making major mistakes.

13. I am a very religious person. I try my best to go to mosque everyday and

pray to God. I fast everyday during Ramadan and give food to my friends
and relatives for this is what God had commanded. If I didn’t do all these,
God may send me to Hell when the judgment day comes. I don’t understand
those non-believers, how can they not pray God and risk being sent to Hell!

14. Like humans animals are individual beings in their own right and demand
our respect. They have an intrinsic value in themselves and therefore it is our
obligation as human beings not to treat them as mere objects or tools.

15. You should pay your taxes, even if your accountant has found a way for
you to not to. For otherwise, where will the government get the money to
build roads, hospitals, schools and provide necessary services. It would
affect the welfare and economy of our country and everyone would suffer
as a result.

16. Fiji has a moral duty to accept climate change refugees from Kiribati and
Tuvalu. It is our obligation as their close neighbors (with similar cultural
heritage) to provide them with shelter, food, jobs and other basic
necessities. For we know for sure that the sea level is rising and most
Pacific Island countries are genuinely and seriously affected by global
warming. I, for one, am ready to give a part of my land just outside
Labasa to one of the migrant families.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.15

 A
Activity 3..2

Character, Conduct, Law and Culture [approx. time

30-40 mins]

Inn 1990, thee Village Foono Act waas passed inn Samoa. Under
U this act, the fon
no
(vvillage counncil) was giiven powerr to deal wiith the trad
ditional and customarry
afffairs of the village.

Inn Septembeer 1993, a Western

W Saamoan mataai, Nu’ utaai Mafulu Matauita,
M w
was
shhot dead inn front of thhis family. His house and properrty were also destroyeed.
T act wass carried outt under the authority of
This o the fa’am matai (Samoan traditionnal
syystem). Matautia
M haad recently returned frrom New Zealand
Z to Lona
L villagge.
H
Here he set up a shop and a smaall bus service. After some dispu utes with thhe
m
matai in the village, including his refusal
r to paay fines impposed by thhe fono, a baan
w placed on
was o his shop and bus serrvice. This ill feeling was
w worseneed by the faact
thhat Matautia had recenntly enteredd a cricket tournamentt as a playeer for a rivval
viillage. In this
t tournamment, Lona village was beaten byy the rival village
v whicch
thhen went onn to win thhe competition. The dispute
d escaalated late in
i Septembber
w
when Matau utia stoppedd a villager from crossing his prooperty. Finaally Matauttia
w confronnted by a grroup of villlagers. Aftter they burrnt his prop
was perty, he was
w
shhot by two untitled men.m His body was duumped befo ore the gathhering of thhe
m
matai. Westtern Samoa’s Police Commission
C er describedd this incid
dent as justice
inn ‘an old barrbaric Samooan way’.

(S
Summarisedd from Law
wson, S. 1996. Traditioon versus Democracy
D in the Souuth
P
Pacific. Cam
mbridge University
U Press, Melbbourne).

1. How many
m wronngs were committed
c in the casse above? (List thesee.)

2. Use thee theory of utilitarianism

u m to discusss the action
ns of the Fon
no.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories

T 3
3.16
3. Discuss the character of an individual or group in the case above using the
theory of ethical egoism.

4. Comment on the action by village council from a deontological perspective.

5. Do you think the Fono Act violates the individual rights of Samoans?
Explain fully using the principle of moral autonomy and rights-based
approach to ethics.

Unit 3: Ethical Theories 3.17