COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Columban College, Inc

Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 2

TITLE: HYDROLOGY AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1. Understand the difference between hydrology and hydraulics
2. study their properties and behaviors.
3. apply their principles and methods

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
The study of water, including its properties and behavior, entails the application of hydrologic and
hydraulic principles and methods. Hydrologic analyses are performed to quantify the volumetric flow
rate of water draining from a watershed (i.e., drainage area) over time. The amount of water that flows
from a watershed depends on the characteristics of the watershed(e.g., size, land cover,
antecedent moisture, and steepness) and the presence of water (e.g., the intensity and duration of a
precipitation event, rate of snowmelt, or regulation from a dam).Hydraulic analyses are performed to
determine the depth of flow, flow velocity, and forces from flowing water on a surface or at hydraulic
structures. These studies are necessary components in the hydraulic design and analysis of structures

1.2 - I. Definition of Terms

a. Hydrology - The science which treats of water, its properties and laws, its distribution over the
earth's surface, etc.
b. Hydraulics - That department of science which deals with the conveyance of water or other
liquids through pipes or other artificial channels, and with the various mechanical applications of
the force exerted by moving liquids. Often used in a wider sense, corresponding to what is now
expressed by hydrokinetics or hydrodynamics.

1.2 - II. Difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics

Hydraulics dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids. Fluid mechanics provides the
theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid
power, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of
pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering disciplines, and cover
concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines,
hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.
While hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth,
including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of either earth or environmental
science, physical geography, geology or civil and environmental engineering. Domains of hydrology
include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage basin management and water
chemistry, where water plays the central role. Oceanography and meteorology are not included
because water is only one of many important aspects.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 3

TITLE: HYDROLOGY AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1. Familiarize and understand hydrology cycle
2. Study the Impact to the population.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
The hydrological cycle is usually called a recurring consequence of different forms of movement
of water and changes of its physical state on a given area of the Earth. The role of different processes in
the hydrological cycle and their description depends on the chosen spatial-temporal scales. The
terrestrial hydrological cycle is of special interest as the mechanism of formation of water resources on a
given area of the land. The main processes of this cycle include: precipitation; formation of snow cover;
snow metamorphosis and formation of ice; melting of snow and ice; interception of precipitation by
vegetation cover and storage in land surface depressions; infiltration of water into soil and vertical
transfer of soil moisture; evapotranspiration; recharge of groundwater and ground flow; river runoff
generation; and movement of water in river channel systems. The global hydrological cycle is produced
by water exchange between the atmosphere, the land, and the oceans, and its main components are
precipitation on the land and the oceans, evaporation from the land and the oceans, and runoff from
the land to the oceans. Current scientific understanding of main processes qualitative peculiarities and
models of components of the terrestrial and global hydrological cycle are considered. The peculiarities
of the modeling of the hydrological cycle of a river basin are demonstrated, taking into account the lack
of measurable characteristics of environment. Estimations of influence of irrigation, land treatment,
deforestation, and other human activities on the terrestrial hydrological cycle are presented. The role of
the terrestrial hydrological cycle in the global climate system and global change is examined. The
possible hydrological consequences of human-induced climate change are also discussed.
1.2 -I. The Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact
Water passing through the atmosphere, vegetation, soil and rock, picks up various soluble and insoluble
materials. Therefore the water begins to take on the characteristics of the environment through which it
passes.

Water quality is relevant to the intended use of water. Contamination refers to the presence or
introduction of unwanted materials into the water. In contrast, pollution refers to the presence or
introduction of damaging loads or concentrations of materials into the water. Hence, water that is being
used for industry or farming may be considered adequate, whereas the same water might not be of a
high enough quality for drinking water.

Pollutants can enter the water system either as insoluble materials or as dissolved load. Point
pollution refers to the discharge of pollutants from a specified point location while diffuse
pollution refers to the release of pollutants from a large area, where the same source is not readily
identifiable.

Water quality varies in terms of color, temperature, taste and smell. Temperature is important as it
affects the level of dissolved oxygen, chemical and biological activity. Chemical characteristics include
pH, oxygen content, and concentrations of solutes such as nitrates, pesticides and metals.

The pH level affects the solubility of certain metals, notably iron and aluminum. Dissolved oxygen is
important for the healthy functioning of aquatic ecosystems. As chemical oxygen demand (COD) and
biological oxygen demand (BOD) increase, the higher the level of pollution. COD is a measure of how
much oxygen is required to chemically oxidize all organic matter into carbon dioxide and water. BOD is a
measure of how much oxygen would be consumed if bacteria and protozoa oxidized all of the organic
matter in one liter of wastewater.

1.2 - II. Importance of hydrologic cycle

Water is one of the most precious resources in the world; it is essential for the wellbeing of humans.
Nevertheless, the use and abuse of water is a worrying trend. As the world’s population continues to
rise, and as standards of living increase, the demand for water also increases. It is not just a question
about the quantity of water but also the quality. Many areas are experiencing water shortages and
increasing episodes of contaminated water. Some impacts are direct – such as water extraction and
subsequent evaporation and/or leakage, while others are indirect such as eutrophication and climate
change (leading to increased evaporation). Most changes are negative, although there are some
examples of positive impacts such as restoration of rivers and floodplains. On balance it would appear
that the negative impacts outweigh the positive ones. Whether that can be changed remains to be seen.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 4

TITLE: HYDROLOGY AND THE GYDROLOGIC CYCLE

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1. To understand the physical meaning of different hydrologic models which capture/stimulate
selected hydrologic phenomena.
2. Demonstrate the relationship of phases of hydrologic cycle.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
From the beginning of time when water first appeared, it has been constant in quantity and
continuously in motion. Little has been added or lost over the years. The same water molecules have
been transferred time and time again from the oceans and the land surface into the atmosphere by
evaporation, dropped on the land as precipitation, and transferred back to the sea by rivers and
groundwater. This endless circulation is known as the "hydrologic cycle".

1.3 - I. Interrelationships of Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle

The illustration shows the hydrologic cycle in which water leaves the atmosphere and falls to earth as
precipitation where it enters surface waters or percolates into the water table and groundwater and
eventually is taken back into the atmosphere by transpiration and evaporation to begin the cycle again.

Evaporation

As water is heated by the sun, surface molecules become sufficiently energized to break free of the
attractive force binding them together, and then evaporate and rise as invisible vapour in the
atmosphere.

Transpiration

Water vapour is also emitted from plant leaves by a process called transpiration. Every day an actively
growing plant transpires 5 to 10 times as much water as it can hold at once.

Condensation

As water vapour rises, it cools and eventually condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust in the air.
When it condenses it becomes a liquid again or turns directly into a solid (ice, hail or snow). These water
particles then collect and form clouds.

Precipitation

Precipitation in the form of rain, snow and hail comes from clouds. Clouds move around the world,
propelled by air currents. For instance, when they rise over mountain ranges, they cool, becoming so
saturated with water that water begins to fall as rain, snow or hail, depending on the temperature of the
surrounding air.

Runoff

Excessive rain or snowmelt can produce overland flow to creeks and ditches. Runoff is visible flow of
water in rivers, creeks and lakes as the water stored in the basin drains out.

Percolation

Some of the precipitation and snow melt moves downwards, percolates or infiltrates through cracks,
joints and pores in soil and rocks until it reaches the water table where it becomes groundwater.

Groundwater

Subterranean water is held in cracks and pore spaces. Depending on the geology, the groundwater can
flow to support streams. It can also be tapped by wells. Some groundwater is very old and may have
been there for thousands of years.

Water table

The water table is the level at which water stands in a shallow well.

1.3 - II. Physical meaning of different hydrologic models

A hydrologic model is a simplification of a real-world system (e.g., surface water, soil water, wetland,
groundwater, estuary) that aids in understanding, predicting, and managing water resources. Both the
flow and quality of water are commonly studied using hydrologic models.

Conceptual models

Conceptual models are commonly used to represent the important components (e.g., features, events,
and processes) that relate hydrologic inputs to outputs. These components describe the important
functions of the system of interest, and are often constructed using entities (stores of water) and
relationships between these entities (flows or fluxes between stores). The conceptual model is coupled
with scenarios to describe specific events (either input or outcome scenarios).
For example, a watershed model could be represented using tributaries as boxes with arrows pointing
toward a box that represents the main river. The conceptual model would then specify the important
watershed features (e.g., land use, land cover, soils, subsoil’s, geology, wetlands, lakes), atmospheric
exchanges (e.g., precipitation, evapotranspiration), human uses (e.g., agricultural, municipal, industrial,
navigation, thermo- and hydro-electric power generation), flow processes (e.g., overland, interflow,
base flow, channel flow), transport processes (e.g., sediments, nutrients, pathogens), and events (e.g.,
low-, flood-, and mean-flow conditions).
Model scope and complexity is dependent on modeling objectives, with greater detail required if human
or environmental systems are subject to greater risk. Systems modeling can be used for building
conceptual models that are then populated using mathematical relationships.

Analog models

Prior to the advent of computer models, hydrologic modeling used analog models to simulate flow and
transport systems. Unlike mathematical models that use equations to describe, predict, and manage
hydrologic systems, analog models use non-mathematical approaches to simulate hydrology.
Two general categories of analog models are common; scale analogs that use miniaturized versions of
the physical system and process analogs that use comparable physics (e.g., electricity, heat, diffusion) to
mimic the system of interest.
Scale analogs
Scale models offer a useful approximation of physical or chemical processes at a size that allows for
greater ease of visualization. The model may be created in one (core, column), two (plan, profile), or
three dimensions, and can be designed to represent a variety of specific initial and boundary conditions
as needed to answer a question.
Scale models commonly use physical properties that are similar to their natural counterparts (e.g.,
gravity, temperature). Yet, maintaining some properties at their natural values can lead to erroneous
predictions. Properties such as viscosity, friction, and surface area must be adjusted to maintain
appropriate flow and transport behavior. This usually involves matching dimensionless ratios
(e.g., Reynolds number, Froude number).

A two-dimensional scale model of an aquifer.

Groundwater flow can be visualized using a scale model built of acrylic and filled with sand, silt, and
clay. Water and tracer dye may be pumped through this system to represent the flow of the simulated
groundwater. Some physical aquifer models are between two and three dimensions, with simplified
boundary conditions simulated using pumps and barriers.

Detail of the Mississippi Basin Model (US Army Corp of

Engineers, 2006)

Process analogs
Process analogs are used in hydrology to represent fluid flow using the similarity between Darcy's
Law, Ohms Law, Fourier's Law, and Fick's Law. The analogs to fluid flow are the flux of electricity, heat,
and solutes, respectively. The corresponding analogs to fluid potential are voltage, temperature, and
solute concentration (or chemical potential). The analogs to hydraulic conductivity are electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity, and the solute diffusion coefficient.
An early process analog model was an electrical network model of an aquifer composed of resistors in a
grid. Voltages were assigned along the outer boundary, and then measured within the domain. Electrical
conductivity paper can also be used instead of resistors.

A two-dimensional scale model of an aquifer.

 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 5

TITLE: HYDROLOGY AND THE GYDROLOGIC CYCLE

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1. To determine and evaluate properties of drainage

2.To apply the basic properties of drainage area.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION

A drainage basin or watershed is the area throughout which surface water drains into a particular body
of surface water. The body of water might be a stream, lake, wetland, ocean, spring or pond. Be aware
that a surface-water drainage basin is not necessarily the same as ground water drainage basin. In a
ground water drainage basin, we delineate the area throughout which groundwater drains into a
particular aquifer or out of a particular discharge area. This might or might not coincide with the
surface-water drainage basin super imposed above it. It is important to delineate a surface-water
drainage basin in any study of the water budget of an area, the impact of some activity that might affect
quality or quantity of water in a basin, or the potential development of water resources in a basin.
Topography determines the boundaries of a surface-water drainage basin. Therefore, a topographic
map can be used to make a first approximation of the basin boundaries.

1.4 – I. Philippine Watersheds

A drainage basin or watershed is the area throughout which surface water drains into a particular body
of surface water. The body of water might be a stream, lake, wetland, ocean, spring or pond. Be aware
that a surface-water drainage basin is not necessarily the same as ground water drainage basin. In a
ground water drainage basin, we delineate the area throughout which groundwater drains into a
particular aquifer or out of a particular discharge area. This might or might not coincide with the
surface-water drainage basin super imposed above it. It is important to delineate a surface-water
drainage basin in any study of the water budget of an area, the impact of some activity that might affect
quality or quantity of water in a basin, or the potential development of water resources in a basin.
1.4 - II. What is a Drainage

Drainage is an ancient practice, but apparently until recent times it was regarded as less important than
irrigation. The first drains were most likely ditches for channeling floodwaters back to the rivers. The
addition of linings of less porous materials greatly improved drainage efficiency. The most significant
20th-century development in drainage technology was the application of land-grading techniques
to facilitate uniform runoff.
Land may be smoothed with proper slopes and ditches so as to remove excess water before it enters
the soil and thus prevent erosion, leaching of nutrients, and standing pools of water on the surface, and
to permit early spring planting. If carefully planned, this smoothing also can prepare the land for surface
irrigation, thus serving two purposes by one earth-moving operation. After excess water enters the soil,
its removal is an expensive and specialized undertaking that is not directly connected with irrigation,
although it sometimes may be necessary for irrigated land. Modern drainage systems may be divided
into two categories, surface and subsurface. The typical surface system consists of field drains, field
ditches, a main collection ditch, and an outlet. As the term implies, a surface system is designed to
remove water that collects on top of the soil. Surface drainage is especially important for soils that
absorb water slowly. The field drains vary in configuration according to topography, parallel drains being
indicated for uniform surfaces and site-specific ones for areas of uneven accumulation.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 7

TITLE: WEATHER BASICS (METEROLOGY): ATMOSPHERIC WATERS

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1. to determine the Importance of Meteorology.

2.to understand Meteorology.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the study of phenomena of the atmosphere – includes the dynamics, physics, and
chemistry of the atmosphere. Meteorology is important to a wide variety of activities. A huge array of
meteorological information is freely available. With a basic understanding of the physical processes
involved you can make timely and accurate forecasts. More commonly thought of as restricted to the
dynamics and thermodynamics of the atmosphere as it affects human life.

2.1 - I. The Atmosphere: Composition, General Characteristics and Stability.

a. Weather - The state of the atmosphere; mainly with respect to its effects upon human activities.
Short term variability of the atmosphere (time scales of minutes to months).
Popularly thought of in terms of: temperature, wind, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, and
visibility.

b. Climate - Long term statistical description of the atmospheric conditions, averaged over a specified
period of time - usually decades.
2.1 - II. Why study Meteorology

• Warning of severe weather

• Agriculture

– Timing of planting, harvesting, etc to avoid bad weather, hazards to livestock

• Transport & services

– Shipping, aviation, road gritting, flood warnings,…

• Commerce

– Should a supermarket order BBQs and icecream, or umbrellas?

2.1 - III. What do we want to know?

• Temperature

• Wind speed

• Wind direction

• Clouds

– Type, extent, altitude

• Precipitation?

– Type, amount, location

• Visibility

– Fog, haze

• Humidity

• Trends in all of these

• Timing of significant changes

• Occurrence of extreme events

 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Weeks 8-9

TITLE: Weather Basics (Meterology): Atmospheric Waters

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1.To Recognize the physical growth of atmospheric clouds

2. To demonstrate earth’s energy balance.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION

Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation, growth and precipitation
of atmospheric clouds. These aerosols are found in the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere,
which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere. Clouds consist of microscopic droplets
of liquid water (warm clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase clouds). Cloud
droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when
the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory. Cloud condensation
nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect, which describes the
change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface. At small radii, the amount of
supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large, that it does not happen naturally. Raoult's
Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution. At high
concentrations, when the cloud droplets are small, the supersaturation required is smaller than without
the presence of a nucleus.

Earth's Energy Balance

Earth's Energy balance describes how the incoming energy from the sun is used and returned to space. If
incoming and outgoing energy are in balance, the earth's temperature remains constant.

Essentially 100% of the energy that fuels the earth comes from the sun. To maintain a constant global
average temperature, all of the sun’s radiation that enters Earth’s atmosphere must eventually be sent
back to space. This is achieved through Earth’s energy balance.
2.2 - I. Introduction of Cloud Physics: Nucleation, Growth and Distribution.
As water evaporates from an area of the earth surface, the air over that area becomes moist. Moist air is
lighter than the surrounding dry air, creating an unstable situation. When enough moist air has
accumulated, all the moist air rises as a single packet, without mixing with the surrounding air. As more
moist air forms along the surface, the process repeats, resulting in a series of discrete packets of moist
air rising to form clouds.
This process occurs when one or more of three possible lifting agents—cyclonic/frontal, convective,
or orographic—causes air containing invisible water vapor to rise and cool to its dew point,
the temperature at which the air becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process
is adiabatic cooling. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, so the rising air expands in a process
that expends energy and causes the air to cool, which makes water vapor condense into cloud. Water
vapor in saturated air is normally attracted to condensation nuclei such as dust and salt particles that
are small enough to be held aloft by normal circulation of the air. The water droplets in a cloud have a
normal radius of about 0.002 mm (0.00008 in). The droplets may collide to form larger droplets, which
remain aloft as long as the velocity of the rising air within the cloud is equal to or greater than the
terminal velocity of the droplets.

2.3 - I. Solar radiation and Earth’s Energy balance.

The daily change of temperature and the seasonal changes of weather are both effects of the delicate
balance of incoming sunlight and outgoing long wave radiation. On a clear and windless day, the
temperature will rise following the course of the sun. But even after noon, when solar radiation begins
to decline, temperatures will continue to rise because the land is trying to reach a balance of incoming
and outgoing energy. In winter when days are short, the peak temperatures can occur 2-3 hours after
noon. In summer when days are longer, it can be 4 to 5 pm before the highest temperatures are
reached. The coolest temperatures usually occur just around sunrise when no sunlight has hit the
ground for several hours. Planning fieldwork late in the afternoon is more likely to result in ill effects of
high temperatures and heat exhaustion in summer because of this thermal lag.

The seasons also reflect the attempts of the earth to balance incoming and outgoing energy on a larger
scale. Just like the lag of temperatures on a day, the hottest summer temperatures occur after the
maximum sunlight has been reached. In the Southeast this generally happens about a month after the
summer solstice (when the sun is highest in the sky at noon). Similarly, the coldest temperatures tend
to occur about a month after the winter solstice in December.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 10

TITLE: Weather Basics (Meterology): Atmospheric Waters

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1.To Recognize the physical growth of atmospheric clouds

2. To demonstrate earth’s energy balance.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with ocean circulation is the
means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.
The Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the large scale structure of its
circulation remains fairly constant. The smaller scale weather systems – mid-latitude depressions, or
tropical convective cells – occur "randomly", and long range weather predictions of those cannot be
made beyond ten days in practice, or a month in theory (see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect).
The Earth's weather is a consequence of its illumination by the Sun, and the laws of thermodynamics.
The atmospheric circulation can be viewed as a heat engine driven by the Sun's energy, and
whose energy sink, ultimately, is the blackness of space. The work produced by that engine causes the
motion of the masses of air and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth's
surface near the tropics to space and incidentally to the latitudes nearer the poles.
The large scale atmospheric circulation "cells" shift pole wards in warmer periods (for
example, interglacial’s compared to glacial), but remain largely constant as they are, fundamentally, a
property of the Earth's size, rotation rate, heating and atmospheric depth, all of which change little.
Over very long time periods (hundreds of millions of years), a uplift can significantly alter their major
elements, such as the jet stream, and plate tectonics may shift ocean currents. During the extremely hot
climates of the Mesozoic, a third desert belt may have existed at the Equator.
2.4 - I. General Circulation: Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation.

Winds circulate around the globe because of the rotation of the earth and the energy from the sun.

Why do I care? The general direction of the winds varies around the globe depending on factors like
latitude and proximity to oceans. The direction of the wind at various levels in the atmosphere
determines the local climate and steers around weather systems and severe weather.

The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the earth and the incoming energy
from the sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which help transport energy and
heat from the equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy from the sun at the surface as
warm air rises and colder air sinks.

2.5 - I. Temperature: Geographic Distribution

Because of the small size of the earth compared to the sun and the great distance between the two (149
million kilometers), only a minute percentage of solar radiation—one in two billion parts—is intercepted
by the earth. But even this small amount of solar radiation reaching the earth is of great significance. All
biological and many of the physical phenomena of the earth are controlled by this tiny proportion of
solar radiation.

The incoming solar radiation is known as insulation. It is received in the form of short waves which are of
electromagnetic nature. These short-wave or ultraviolet rays are absorbed partly by the atmosphere
and, on reaching the earth, are converted into long-wave radiation by reflection. The earth’s surface
receives this radiant energy at the rate of two calories per square centimeter per minute.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Columban College, Inc
Barretto, Olongapo CIty

CEV 513 HYDROLOGY

LEARNING MODULE CE01 – 1
Week 2

TITLE: Weather Basics (Meterology): Atmospheric Waters

OBJECTIVES: At the end of presenting this module, the students should be able to:
1.To Recognize the physical growth of atmospheric clouds

2. To demonstrate earth’s energy balance.

TARGET CLIENTELLE: This learning module is intended primarily for consumption of students in
engineering programs particularly BSCE
DURATION:
MAJOR CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION
The term physical constant expresses the notion of a physical quantity subject to experimental
measurement which is independent of the time or location of the experiment. The constancy
(immutability) of any "physical constant" is thus subject to experimental verification.
Paul Dirac in 1937 speculated that physical constants such as the gravitational constant or the fine-
structure constant might be subject to change over time in proportion of the Age of the Universe.
Experiments conducted since then have put upper bounds on their time-independence. This concerns
the fine structure constant, the gravitational constant and the proton-to-electron mass ratio specifically,
for all of which there are ongoing efforts to improve tests on their time-dependence.
The immutability of these fundamental constants is an important cornerstone of the laws of physics as
currently known; the postulate of the time-independence of physical laws is tied to that of
the conservation of energy (Noether theorem), so that the discovery of any variation would imply the
discovery of a previously unknown law of force.
In a more philosophical context, the conclusion that these quantities are constant raises the question of
why they have the specific value they do in what appears to be a "Fine-tuned Universe", while their
being variable would mean that their known values are merely an accident of the current time at which
we happen to measure them.
Humidity is the level of water in the air, the more water vapor in the air the higher the humidity. If the
humidity level exceeds the amount of water air can hold condensation occurs forming dew if it's warm
or frost if it's cold. When air is at a high altitude and has a high humidity then clouds start to form.
Humidity varies with temperature. Warmer air can hold more moisture. Humidity is measured in
percentages on the scale of air's ability to hold moisture. Therefore condensation occurs at 100%
humidity for a given temperature thus reducing the humidity again.
2.6 - I. Time Variation and Measurement
The presence of water vapor in our atmosphere plays a large role in determining the weather. Clouds
and precipitation occur as a result of the phase change that occurs when water vapor condenses into
liquid water. The amount of water vapor in the air is an approximation of the humidity.
2.7 - II. Geographic Distribution

The Humid Continental climate is mostly found in the

northern North America. Eastern Europe, and
northern Asia. Russia (as shown in the map). The
weather varies reasonable summers to long. Cold
winters. This climate is rarely found in the southern
hemisphere because of the ocean influence. Most of
the time, the most humid month is around in July and
the coldest month is usually
December, maybe January