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PETROPHYSICAL ROCK TYPING OF UNCONVENTIONAL SHALE
PLAYS: A CASE STUDY FOR THE NIOBRARA FORMATION OF
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THE DENVER-JULESBURG (DJ) BASIN
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by
Asm Kamruzzaman
 ProQuest Number: 10109964

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 A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of
Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Petroleum
Engineering).

Golden, Colorado
Date

Signed:

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Asm Kamruzzaman

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Dr. Manika Prasad
Thesis Advisor
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Golden, Colorado
Date

Signed:
Dr. Erdal Ozkan
Professor and Head
Department of Petroleum Engineering

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 ABSTRACT

A petrophysical rock typing has been performed based on a methodology that integrated
depositional and petrophysical rock analysis to identify distinct rock types in the Niobrara
Formation of the Denver-Julesburg (DJ) Basin. The depositional rock analysis incorporated
a literature study, interpretations of the geologic depositional setting and sequence stratig-
raphy, core descriptions, and analysis of well-log data. The petrophysical rock analysis was
carried out using experimental core data on mineralogy, pore characterization, source rock

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evaluation, micro-textural image analysis, and ultrasonic acoustic velocity and anisotropy
interpretations.
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Six Niobrara Formation lithofacies and three similar lithofacies-groups (All Marls, Middle
Chalks, and Basal Chalk) were identified in the target well interval through the depositional
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rock analysis within the context of the large-scale geologic framework. The pore-scale petro-
physical rock analysis was carried out to investigate whether these lithofacies-groups followed
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distinct rock types in the Niobrara Formation based on the analysis of experimental core data.

The conclusions reached in this study included that, based on the mineralogy, pore struc-
ture, and acoustic velocity interpretations, the Basal ”Chalk” may be a Basal Marl - at least
locally in the studied target well. However, the Basal Chalk rocks contain lowest source rock
potential and are not likely to contribute to economic hydrocarbon production for the target
well. Both the All Marls and the Basal Chalk rock-groups have higher porosity, smaller
pores, and smaller pore throats than the Middle Chalks. The rocks in the Middle Chalks
have higher stiffness and pressure compliant pores.

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 The Niobrara Formation is an unconventional petroleum system - its hydrocarbon-rich
mudrock units were deposited in a shallow marine environment and have evolved as oil- and
gas-prone source and reservoir rocks. Significant pore-scale variability in mineralogy, pore
characterization, organic matter distribution, and acoustic velocity and anisotropy properties
exist in these rocks. Hydrocarbon production from its low-porosity, nanodarcy permeability,
and interbedded chalk-marl reservoir interval is very challenging.

The petrophysical rock typing methodology adopted in this case study can be a useful
formation evaluation tool for the Niobrara Formation. It can provide valuable information
about its rock matrix, such as, the lithofacies identifications and descriptions through deposi-

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tional rock analysis, identifying reservoir and sourcing intervals, mineralogy analysis, organic
matter evaluation, pore characterization, and acoustic velocity and anisotropy properties.
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Previous Studies, Problem Statement, and Research Motivation . . . . . . . . . 2

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1.2 Research Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 Overview of the Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

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1.4 Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF THE NIOBRARA FORMATION . . . . 9

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2.1 Geologic History of the Denver-Julesburg (DJ) Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Niobrara Depositional Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

CHAPTER 3 DATA CHARACTERIZATION AND DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Existing Data Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2 Core Sample Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.3 Experimental Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.3.1 Source Rock Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.3.2 Pore Structure Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.3.3 Micro-Textural Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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 3.3.4 Velocity and Anisotropy Analysis using Acoustic Properties . . . . . . 31

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1 Niobrara Formation Lithofacies in the Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1.1 D Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.1.2 C Marl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.1.3 C Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.1.4 B Marl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1.5 B Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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4.1.6 A Marl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.2 Mineralogy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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4.3 Source Rock Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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4.4 Pore Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.5 Micro-Textural Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.6 Velocity and Anisotropy Analysis using Acoustic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 58

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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.1 Niobrara Formation Rock Types Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

REFERENCES CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 a) Map showing the location of the DJ Basin in US shale gas map
generated by US Energy Information Administration (EIA) , b) The
location of the target well in Wattenberg Field of the DJ Basin , c) The
stratigraphic column of the Niobrara Formation which is penetrated by
the target well up to a vertical depth of 7,596 feet. All figures are
modified from the original sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 1.2 The geographical location of the study area, specific target area
(Wishbone Section), and the target well. The location and the extent of
Wattenberg Field area boundary is adapted from and the base map is

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adapted from the Google.com. The target well is located about four
miles north-east of the Wishbone Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 1.3
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a) The generalized cross section of the DJ Basin and the Niobrara
Formation. b) The Niobrara Formation is the main producing interval
in the study area which is at about 7,150 feet depth, approximately 280
feet in gross thickness, and of complex stratigraphy of mixed carbonate
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mudrocks of Cretaceous age. It is consisted of four chalk (limestone)
beds and three organic rich marl and shaly-marl intervals . This figure
is generated by using the existing well log data for the target well. . . . . . 6
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Figure 1.4 The rock typing methodology for the Niobrara Formation integrates the
depositional and petrophysical rock analysis and involves geologic
lithofacies descriptions with experimental rock properties to identify
distinct rock types. The depositional rock analysis was performed to
identify various lithofacies and similar lithofacies-groups based on the
literature study of geologic depositional history and sequence
stratigraphy, core descriptions, and the analysis of the well-log data.
The petrophysical rock analysis was performed to categorize the
Niobrara Formation rock types based on the analysis of the core
experimental data which was comprised of mineralogy analysis, source
rock evaluation, pore characterization, micro-textural image analysis,
and acoustic velocity interpretations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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Figure 2.1 The North American map of Early Cretaceous (115 Ma) period showing
the rifting of Atlantic Ocean and the resulting tectonic collision
between the North American and the Pacific plates. The surging Arctic
sea from the north and the ancient Gulf of Mexico from south were
about to converge. The Sevier Orogeny was in progress. The deep blue
water color indicates deep ocean and light blue water color indicates
shallower ocean. The map is modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Figure 2.2 The westward North American plate was overriding the eastward Pacific
plate. An asymmetric retroarc foreland basin was formed and continued
subsidence due to the loading of eastward active thrust belt. This
foreland basin is present days DJ Basin. The figure is modified from . . . 11

Figure 2.3 The location map showing the DJ Basin and the present day
Wattenberg Field relative to the WIS. The mountainous western
highland areas are in brown color, and the lighter yellow areas are the

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stable plains on both sides of the WIS. The coastal plains are shown in
dark and light green colors. The darker blue area to the eastern part of
the WIS indicates major carbonate deposition areas. The cooler arctic
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currents from the north and the warmer Gulf currents from the south
inundated the subsided foreland basin during Late Cretaceous (85 Ma)
period. The map is modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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Figure 2.4 The sedimentation cycles in the WIS during 90 - 82 Ma. The coarser
siliciclastic sediments were deposited in the deeper western
accommodation space of the basin supplied by the rivers across the
alluvial plains of the highlands. The warmer Gulf currents circulated
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rich carbonate marine sediments from south which was mixed with the
siliciclastic sediments in the western portion of the basin. The biogenic
marine carbonate sediments were also produced and deposited in-situ
towards the eastern and southern WIS. The cooler currents from the
northern arctic region transported finer grained siliciclastic silts and
shales into the eastern stable platforms and caused inhibition and
dilution of carbonate production and deposition . The warmer and
cooler climate cyclicity of these paleo-currents played a role in the
lithologic and mineralogical properties of the Niobrara Formation rocks
. The map is modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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Figure 2.5 A generalized stratigraphic column in the DJ Basin showing four
highstand (transgresssive) and lowstand (regressive) sea-level
fluctuations that can be recognized in the Niobrara Formation interval.
These sequence stratigrpahic cycles are credited for the production and
dilution of the biogenic, predominantly carbonate sediments that
characterize the reservoir-prone (chalk) and source-prone (marl)
sedimentary intervals of the Niobrara Formation. The transgressive
cycles promoted the deposition of chalks with higher carbonates but
demoted the deposition of organic matter and clays. However, the
regressive cycles promoted the deposition of marls with lower
carbonates but promoted the deposition of organic matter and clays.
The figure is modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 2.6 A typical stratigraphic column in the Wattenberg Field includes

multiple reservoir and source rock intervals covering a vertical depth
from 4,300 to 7,800 feet. The common drilling depths are shown to the

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right. In ascending order of geologic age and depth, the reservoir units
include the Dakota Sandstone, J Sandstone, Codell Sandstone,
Niobrara Formation, Shannon Sandstone, and Terry Sandstone. The
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source rock intervals include the Skull Creek Shale, Graneros Shale,
Niobrara Formation, and the Pierre Shale. The Niobrara Formation is
consisted of four chalk and three marl intervals and is divided into two
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members: the Fort Hays Limestone at the base, and the overlain Smoky
Hill Member. SR=Source Rock, SS=Sandstone, LS=Limestone. The
figure is adapted and modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 2.7 A type log from a Niobrara Formation well studied by . He has divided
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the Smoky Hill Member into nine distinct chalk-rich and marl-rich units
based on the lithologic variations and using the well-log data. The GR
were used in combination with the resistivity and neutron density logs
to identify the Niobrara Formation rock units that can be correlated
across the DJ Basin . These rock units are marked along the resistivity
track with alphanumeric codes from N100-N900 where N400 is further
divided into two units (N430 and N460) in the middle chalk interval.
The figure is adapted from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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Figure 3.1 The stratigraphic column penetrated by the target well in the Niobrara
Formation interval is correlated with the existing well-log and core data.
The GR is in track 2, deep resistivity in track 3, and the log-derived
porosity values are in track 4. The routine crushed core data includes
permeability and total porosity values in track 5. The numbers and
depth locations of 12 core chips and three core plugs (discussed in next
section) used to perform various laboratory experiments are also shown
in track 2. The minimum, mean, and maximum values of GR, deep
resistivity, and thermal neutron porosity were evaluated to select the
numbers and depth locations of each core samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Figure 3.2 An example illustrating the composition and distribution of carbon

contents in an organic-rich Niobrara marl rock sample from the target
well. The TOC is the measure of the amount of organic matter present
in the rocks and is composed of three components: 1) extractable carbon
content is the already generated hydrocarbon through thermal

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maturation, 2) convertible carbon content is the
hydrocarbon-generating potential of the organic matter in the source
rocks, and, 3) residual carbon content has no hydrocarbon potential.
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The figure is modified from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Figure 3.3 An example of a pyrogram showing the results of SRA pyrolysis test.
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The time component is missing in this figure. The hydrocarbons, other
oxidized compounds and temperature are shown in various color lines.
The S1 and S2 peaks represent the free and residual hydrocarbons,
respectively. S3 peak relates to S3CO2 and S3CO curves and provides
estimate of oxygen content. S4CO2 and S4CO curves are created when
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residual organic matter is oxidized in a separate oven to yield S4 peak.

S5 peak relates to CO2 and is generated from the decomposition of
carbonate minerals. Tmax indicates the temperature at which S2 peak
occurs. The amount of carbon present in the rock samples has three
components: pyrolyzable carbon originating from pyrolysis, residual
carbon originating from oxidation, and mineral carbon originating from
carbonate decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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Figure 3.4 An example of subcritical nitrogen adsorption isotherms recorded at
-197.3o C for a marl rock sample. The gas-isotherms and associated
hysteresis patterns were formed when the volume of dosed nitrogen
molecules on grain surface was measured at constant temperature over
relative equilibrium adsorption pressure (p/po ) range of 0.075-1.0 at
constant temperature. The shape of the isotherms and hysteresis
patterns were used to qualitatively determine the types of pores present
in the absorbent. The zoomed-in inset figure shows the forced-closure
feature of the desorption isotherm at relative pressure (p/po ) range
between 0.40-0.60 and suggests the presence of pore-sizes smaller than 4
nm diameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Figure 3.5 The commonly observed type-II adsorption isotherm and type-H3
adsorbtion isotherm hysteresis patterns observed in the Niobrara
Formation rocks. The figure is adapted and modified from . . . . . . . . . 28

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Figure 3.6 An example of MICP intrusion curve generated for a marl rock sample. . 30

Figure 3.7 The CT scanning was performed prior to the acoustic experiment to
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evaluate the fractures and bedding plane orientations. The rock
samples were treated as VTI medium. The compressional (Vp) and
shear (Vs) velocities were recorded at 0o , 45o , and 90o directions to the
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bedding under increasing confining pressure stages of up to 3,000 psi. . . 31

Figure 3.8 The components of the core jacket used in the acoustic measurements is
made of flexible plastic material. The 1.5 inch diameter core samples
(grey color) were inserted into the core jacket (yellow color). The P-
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and S-wave transducers (crystals) were glued on outer surface of the

core jacket and wired to the oscilloscope and trigger source. The core
plugs were insulated from outside with endcaps which provided
mechanical integrity from elevated confining pressure and sealed the
jacket chamber from mineral oil exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Figure 4.1 The characteristic log responses of the target well in the Niobrara
Formation interval. The GR, resistivity, neutron-density porosity, and
density logs were used to identify six lithofacies. Thickness of the
Smoky Hill Member (about 260 feet) is also shown. The gas-effect
features generated from the cross-overs of neutron- and density porosity
logs were also used as lithofacies selection criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 4.2 The pie-charts generated using the XRD mineralogy data (in wt.%)
illustrate the mineralogy compositions of the Niobrara rock units. Six
identified lithofacies and the GR track are shown to the left for
correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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Figure 4.3 The representative core images of six Niobrara Formation lithofacies in
the target well. The length-scale is shown and the six identified
lithofacies and the GR track are shown to the left for correlations. . . . . 39

Figure 4.4 The ternary diagram generated by using the mineralogy data of 12 core
samples indicate that the Niobrara Formation rocks in the target well
are largely dominated by carbonate minerals (Niobrara average 59.6
wt.%). The carbonate content in the Middle Chalks (average 69.8
wt.%) is higher than in the All Marls (average 59 wt.%); the Basal
Chalk (average 46.8 wt.%) contains the lowest carbonate content. . . . . . 43

Figure 4.5 The pie charts generated by using the mineralogy data of 12 core
samples showed that the Basal Chalk contains highest clay (average
24.2 wt.%) followed by the All Marls (average 17.9 wt.%) and the
Middle Chalks (average 12.5 wt.%). The illite (Niobrara average 9.93
wt.%) and the mixed-layered illite/smectite (Niobrara average 7.11

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wt.%) are the dominant clay minerals in these rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 4.6 The LECO TOC values measured across the Niobrara Formation
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suggest, according to , that the organic-richness in the target well
interval is very good except for the Basal Chalk which has a fair
organic-richness. The All Marls lithofacies have very good to excellent
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organic-richness compared to the Middle Chalks with good
organic-richness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Figure 4.7 The Tmax and HI were cross-plotted to evaluate the type and quality
of kerogen present in the Niobrara Formation rocks. This figure showed
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that the kerogen present is in between type II and III and lies in the
wet-gas/oil maturity window. However, the highly mature organic
matter (vitrinite reflectance, Ro, about 1.2%) present in the target well
rocks may provide misleading information about the kerogen type. The
interpretations of the geologic depositional history indicates that the
kerogen in these rocks was deposited from the marine sediments in the
shallow marine environment of the WIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Figure 4.8 The peak amplitudes of S2 in the SRA pyrograms for all three
lithofacies-groups indicated that the All Marls have highest
hydrocarbon generative potential, followed by the Middle Chalks and
the Basal Chalk (Figure 4.8b, c, and d). Since the cores were not
preserved, the S1 peaks may provide unreliable information. . . . . . . . . 48

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Figure 4.9 The characteristic shapes of the isotherms and the hysteresis pattern
for the N2 gas adsorption indicated the presence of micro-, meso-, and
macropores present in the Niobrara Formation rock matrix
(Figure 4.9a). The isotherms from the All Marls (Figure 4.9b) reach
high relative-pressure and exhibit sharp forced-closure suggesting the
presence of larger amount of micro- and mesopores but lesser amount of
macropores. The Middle Chalks (Figure 4.9c) isotherms reach lower
relative-pressure and demonstrate dull forced closure suggesting the
presence of lesser amount of micro- and mesopores but larger amount of
macropores. The isotherms from the Basal Chalk (Figure 4.9d) showed
similar observations as the All Marls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Figure 4.10 The PSD of all Niobrara samples demonstrated a bimodal PSD with a
minor micro- and mesopores peak (at less than 4 nm) and a major
macropores peak (at 40-110 nm) (Figure 4.10a). The downward facing
PSD curves beyond 100 nm pore diameter suggest that the bulk fraction

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of the measurable porosity is less than one micrometer in pore diameter.
The All Marls and the Basal Chalk PSD demonstrated a bimodal PSD
(Figure 4.10b and Figure 4.10d, respectively) with a minor micro- and
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mesopores peak at less than 3 nm pore diameter and a major
macropores peak at 40-80 nm pore diameter. The Middle Chalks PSD
showed a trimodal PSD with a negligible micro- and mesopores peak at
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less than 4 nm and two macropores peaks one at 50-80 nm pore
diameter and another at 90-110 nm pore diameter (Figure 4.10c). The
All Marl and Basal Chalk PSD increased with increasing clay contents
(Figure 4.10b and Figure 4.10d, respectively) and the Middle Chalks
PSD decreased with decreasing clay contents (Figure 4.10c). . . . . . . . 52
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Figure 4.11 The MICP intrusion curves for all samples (Figure 4.11a) showed a
bimodal TSD with a major peak at 6-10 nm throat diameter and a
minor peak at 60-80 nm throat diameter. The All Marls and the Basal
Chalk (Figure 4.11b and Figure 4.11d, respectively) showed a unimodal
TSD with a major peak at 6-10 nm throat diameter. pore-throat
diameter peak at 6-10 nm. The Middle Chalks (Figure 4.11c) showed a
bimodal TSD with a major peak at 6-10 nm throat diameter and a
minor peak at 60-80 nm pore throat diameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Figure 4.12 The SSA for the All Marls and the Basal Chalk have larger SSA than
the Middle Chalks. With larger SSA, the All Marls and the Basal
Chalk facies also contain higher porosity and larger PSD than the
Middle Chalks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

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Figure 4.13 The Niobrara SSA showed a positive correlations with increasing
mixed-layer illite/smectite clay contents except two outliers from All
Marls with higher porosity (average 7.1%) and higher TOC (average
TOC 2.98 wt.%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Figure 4.14 The FESEM images from the All Marls representing A Marl
(Figure 4.14a), B Marl (Figure 4.14b), and C Marl (Figure 4.14c). The
All Marls lithofacies group contains high clay, high carbonate, and high
TOC and show large amount of triangular and elongated calcite
grain-based interparticle (interP) pores. The clay minerals are
pervasive and have produced clay-hosted intraparticle (intraP) pores.
Highly mature kerogen have produced good amount of organic
matter-hosted pores and the long dimensions of visible pores range
from nano- to micrometers in diameter. Cal=Calcite, OM=Organic
Matter, Qtz=Quartz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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Figure 4.15 The FESEM images from the Middle Chalks representing B Chalk and
C Chalk lithofacies. This group contains good amount of triangular,
elongated, and distorted calcite-cemented and calcite grain-based interP
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pores filled with clay particles and organic matter. The clays have
produced good amount of clay-hosted intraP and intercrystalline intraP
pores. The shrinkage cracks were created due to the dehydration of the
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clays. There are also fossil intraP pores observed that were originated
from the chemical dissolution of the calcite minerals. Moderate amount
of organic matter-hosted pores are seen in the matrix. The long
dimensions of visible pores range from nano- to micrometers in
diameter. Cal=Calcite, OM=Organic Matter, Py=Pyrite. . . . . . . . . . 57
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Figure 4.16 Two representative FESEM images from the Basal Chalk (D Chalk)
shows very low amount of calcite grain-based triangular interP pores
filled with mostly clays. The clays have produced good amount of
triangular and elongated intraP pores. The sample contains very low
TOC and shows negligible amount of organic matter-hosted pores. The
long dimensions of visible pores are less than one micrometer in
diameter. Cal=Calcite, OM=Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Figure 4.17 The Vp and Vs data for the All Marls showed higher velocity than the
Basal Chalk (Figure 4.17a and c, respectively). For these rock groupes,
the bedding plane parallel (o ) velocity was faster than the diagonal (o )
and orthogonal (o ) velocities. The percent increase in velocity was low
with bedding parallel waves and a minor hysteresis was observed at
lower confining pressures (0-5 MPa). The velocities for the Middle
Chalks (Figure 4.17b) rendered inconclusive observation due to the
experimental errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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Figure 4.18 The  parameter and γ parameter for the All Marls showed sharp
anisotropy decrease at lower confining pressures (0-5 MPa) than the
Basal Chalk (Figure 4.18a and c, respectively). However, the anisotropy
change for both of these rock groups was negligible at higher confining
pressures (10-20.68 MPa). The anisotropy interpretation for the Middle
Chalks was inconclusive due to the experimental errors (Table 4.4b).
The data calculation compatibility issues restricted accurate estimation
of the δ anisotropy at lower confining pressures (0-5 MPa). . . . . . . . . 62

Figure 5.1 The average calcite, total clay, and quartz contents for three rock types
in the Niobrara Formation interval of the target well. This figure
displays that the All Marls with moderate calcite, moderate clay, and
moderate quartz contents have marl mineralogy based on the
mineralogy classifications of . The Middle Chalks with highest calcite
but lowest clay and lowest quartz contents and have chalk lithology.
However, the Basal Chalk with lowest calcite but highest clay and

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highest quartz contents has marl lithology. Based on the mineralogy
analysis, the rocks in the Basal Chalk may belong to the Basal Marl
lithofacies-group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
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Figure 5.2 The comparative pore geometry information for all three rock-groups
are reported in this figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
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Figure 5.3 a) The representative FESEM image from the All Marls shows the
significantly larger amount of organic matter widely distributed in the
rock matrix with higher amount of organic matter-hosted finer micro-
and mesopores which also generate smaller pore throat sizes. There is
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also a good amount of clay-hosted finer pores present in this sample. b)

The representative FESEM image from the Middle Chalks shows a
significantly larger amount of calcite-hosted meso- and macropores
including a larger amount of shrinkage cracks or fissures which create
slot-type pores generating larger pore throat sizes. c) The representative
FESEM image from the Basal Chalk shows almost negligible amount of
organic matter-hosted pores but significantly higher amount of
clay-hosted finer micro- and mesopores generating smaller pore throat
sizes. Cal=Calcite, OM=Organic Matter, Qtz=Quartz. . . . . . . . . . . 67

Figure 5.4 The comparative acoustic velocities of all three rock-groups are shown
in this figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure 5.5 The comparative organic-richness and the source rock potential
properties of all three rock-groups are shown in this figure. . . . . . . . . 69

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 This table reports the depth locations and types of core samples used in
this study. Various core experiments performed are also listed in this
table which include the source rock analyzer (SRA) pyrolysis, TOC
estimation, N2 gas adsorption, mercury intrusion capillary pressure
(MICP), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), computer
tomography (CT scanning), and ultrasonic acoustic (ACS) measurements. . 21

Table 4.1 The mineralogy data (in wt.%) for 12 core chips studied in the target well
are reported in this table. The data values at each studied core sample
depth location is estimated as weighted average of the adjacent values of

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the existing XRD data. Tot.=Total, I/S=Mixed-layered Illite/Smectite. . . 37

Table 4.2 The geochemical data for 12 core samples acquired from the SRA
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pyrolysis experiment is reported in this table includes the LECO TOC in
wt.%, volatile/extractable hydrocarbon content (S1) in mg HC/g rock,
remaining/convertible hydrocarbon content (S2) in mg HC/g rock,
hydrogen index (HI) in mg HC/g TOC, oxygen index (OI) in CO2 /g
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TOC, production index (PI), Tmax in o C, and the calculated vitrinite
reflectance (Ro) in %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Table 4.3 This table reports various measured pore properties for all the studied
samples which include the BET SSA (in m2 /g), N2 pore diameter (in
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nm), N2 porosity (in %), MICP pore diameter (in nm), MICP porosity
(in %), and GRI porosity (in %). SSA=Specific Surface Area, PD=Pore
Diameter, TD=Throat Diameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Table 4.4 Vp, Vs data measured in this study for the All Marls (B Marl plug ID
BM1, length 4.87 cm, bulk density 2.47 g/cc). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Table 4.5 Vp, Vs data measured in this study for the Middle Chalks (C Chalk plug
ID CC1, length 4.71 cm, bulk density 2.47 g/cc). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Table 4.6 Vp, Vs data measured in this study for the Basal Chalk (D Chalk plug ID
DC2, length 4.56 cm, bulk density 2.47 g/cc). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Table 5.1 The key petrophysical parameters of three lithofacies-groups are reported
as cut-off average values which include the total clay (wt.%), calcite
(wt.%), quartz (wt.%), TOC (wt.%), S1 (HC g/rock), and S2 (HC
g/rock). Gp=Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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Table 5.2 The comparative pore structure interpretations for all three
lithofacies-groups are reported in this table. Gp=Group,
mic=Micropores, mes=Mesopores, mac=Macropores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The breadth of my thankfulness to my thesis advisor, Dr. Manika Prasad is vast - she
trusted me for this research endeavor and taught me both consciously and unconsciously
in this journey. She ensured that I understood the value of a good work. She leads her
research-team with vision and wisdom and it has been an honor to be her student. I sincerely
appreciate her time, efforts, and ideas to make my research experience pleasant, rewarding,
and productive.

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I am thankful to Dr. Thomas Davis for supported my work with three key fundamentals:
finance, enthusiasm, and flexibility. My particular thanks to him for accepting me to the
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multidisciplinary research-group in the Reservoir Characterization Project (RCP) consor-
tium. Every time I visited the office of the petroleum engineering department head to meet
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Dr. Erdal Ozkan, I would ask, ”Do you have few minutes?” and he would always reply, ”I
am never busy for you.” My genuine thanks to him for all his supports and directions. I am
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sincerely thankful to Jack Brieg for spending hours with me on thesis advice and ideas. He
has taught me some important basics of petrophysics and research philosophy and I certainly
felt lucky to have him in my thesis committee.

My ardent gratefulness to Janel Anderson and the Anadarko Petroleum Corporation for
their continuous sponsorship to my work and providing me with the core samples and data.
Sue Anderson was a great mentor: she was resourceful, understanding, and helpful - my
earnest thanks to her. I would like to thank Tom Bratton and Weiping Wang for their
research and experimental supports.

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