Neuroanatomy: the structure of the nervous system.

To learn how the nervous system functions, you

must learn how the nervous system is put together.

The nervous system can be divided into several connected systems that function together. Let's start with
a simple division:

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

Let's break the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system into more parts.
Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal
cord. The average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3 pounds). The brain contains
about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) and trillions of "support cells" called glia. The spinal cord is about
43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral
column, the collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord, is about 70 cm long. Therefore,
the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column.

For brain weights of other animals, see brain facts and figures.

Did you know? A stegosaurus dinosaur weighed approximately 1,600 kg but had a
brain that weighed only approximately 70 grams (0.07 kg). Therefore,
the brain was only 0.004% of its total body weight. In contrast, an adult
human weighs approximately 70 kg and has a brain that weighs
approximately 1.4 kg. Therefore, the human brain is about 2% of the
total body weight. This makes the brain to body ratio of the human 500
times greater than that of the stegosaurus. See "My Brain is Bigger
than Your Brain" for more about brain size.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral

nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that
project to skeletal muscle.
The picture on the left shows the somatic motor system. The cell body is located in either the brain or
spinal cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic
nervous system is divided into three parts: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous
system and the enteric nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscle of the
viscera (internal organs) and glands.

This picture shows the general organization of the autonomic nervous system. The preganglionic neuron
is located in either the brain or the spinal cord. This preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic
ganglion. The postganglionic neuron then projects to the target organ. Notice that the somatic nervous
system has only one neuron between the central nervous system and the target organ while the
autonomic nervous system uses two neurons.

The enteric nervous system is a third division of the autonomic nervous system that you do not hear much
about. The enteric nervous system is a meshwork of nerve fibers that innervate the viscera
(gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder).

The following table shows how the nervous system can be divided. The bottom row of the table contains
the names of specific areas within the brain.
Divisions of the Nervous System

Telencephalo Dienceph Mesence

n alon phalon

Metencephal Myelence
on phalon

HEAR IT! Click on a word to hear how it is pronounced. These are "wav" files.
Amygdala | Basal Ganglia | Cerebellum | Cerebral Cortex | Corpus Callosum
Diencephalon | Hippocampus | Hypothalamus | Medulla | Mesencephalon
Metencephalon | Myelencephalon | Pons | Tectum
Tegmentum | Telencephalon | Thalamus
From a top view, notice how the brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. Each hemisphere
communicates with the other through the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers. (Another smaller fiber
bundle that connects the two hemispheres is called the anterior commissure).

Some differences between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS):

1. In the CNS, collections of neurons are called nuclei. In the PNS, collections of neurons are
called ganglia.

2. In the CNS, collections of axons are called tracts. In the PNS, collections of axons are
called nerves.

In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be functionally divided in three ways:

1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous system from sense organs
or motor (efferent) - carry information away from the central nervous system (for muscle control).

2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the spinal cord with the
periphery.

3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system or visceral - connects the
internal organs with the central nervous system.

Brain Structures

Cerebral Cortex

Functions:

1. Thought
2. Voluntary movement

3. Language

4. Reasoning

5. Perception

The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree). This is because the cortex is a sheet of
tissue that makes up the outer layer of the brain. The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6
mm. The right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers called
the "corpus callosum." In higher mammals such as humans, the cerebral cortex looks like it has many
bumps and grooves. A bump or bulge on the cortex is called a gyrus (the plural of the word gyrus is
"gyri") and a groove is called a sulcus (the plural of the word sulcus is "sulci"). Lower mammals, such as
rats and mice, have very few gyri and sulci.

Cerebellum

Functions:

1. Movement

2. Balance

3. Posture

The word "cerebellum" is derived from the Latin word for "little brain." Located behind the brain stem, the
cerebellum is similar to the cerebral cortex because it has hemispheres and a cortex that surrounds the
hemispheres.

Brain stem

Functions:

1. Breathing

2. Heart Rate

3. Blood Pressure
The brain stem refers to the area of the brain between the thalamus and spinal cord. Structures of the
brain stem include the pons, medulla oblongta, tectum, reticular formation and tegmentum. The brain
stem is important for maintaining basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.

Hypothalamus

Functions:

1. Body Temperature

2. Emotions

3. Hunger

4. Thirst

5. Circadian Rhythms

The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at the base of the brain. The
hypothalamus is only 1/300 of the total brain weight. One function of the hypothalamus is the control of
body temperature. The hypothalamus detects changes in body temperature and sends commands to
adjust the temperature. For example, the hypothalamus can detect fever and respond by sending a
command to expand capillaries in the skin. The expansion of the capillaries cools the blood and results in
a drop in body temperature. The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary.

Thalamus

Functions:

1. Sensory processing

2. Movement

The thalamus receives sensory information from other areas of the nervous system and sends this
information to the cerebral cortex. The thalamus is also important for processing information related to
movement.

Limbic System

Functions:

1. Emotions
2. Memory

The limbic system (or the limbic areas) is a group of structures that includes the amygdala, the
hippocampus, mammillary bodies and cingulate gyrus. These areas are important for controlling the
emotional response to a given situation. The hippocampus is also important for memory.

Hippocampus

Functions:

1. Learning

2. Memory

The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning.

Basal Ganglia

Functions:

1. Movement

The basal ganglia are a group of structures, including the globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic
nucleus, putamen and substantia nigra, that are important in coordinating movement.

Midbrain

Functions:

1. Vision

2. Audition

3. Eye Movement

4. Body Movement
 The midbrain includes structures such as the superior and inferior colliculi and red nucleus. There are
several other areas also in the midbrain.

Now that you have read about the areas of the brain, take a look at where these areas are located:

Check out the glossary for definitions of other brain areas.

Travel through the brain with the incredible Brain Fly-Through game. (Requires the FLASH plug-in
for your browser.)

John Adams
(2nd President
of the US) and
his son, John
Quincy Adams
(6th President
Did you know? of the US),
were both born
in Braintree,
Massachusetts.

Description of the nervous system

Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and
branch out to every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan
Medical School.
Neurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause
chemicals known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the
NIH noted. There are over 100 trillion neural connections in the average human brain,
though the number and location can vary. For example, a new study published January
2018 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that out
of the 160 participants studied, the brains of highly creative people have more
connections among three specific regions of the brain than less creative thinkers.

"You have these three different systems that are all located in different parts of the
brain, but they are all co-activated at once," said lead study author Roger Beaty, a
postdoctoral fellow studying cognitive neuroscience at Harvard University. "People
who are better able to co-activate them [came] up with more-creative responses."

A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication process
typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond. Signals travel along an alpha motor
neuron in the spinal cord 268 mph (431 km/h); the fastest transmission in the human
body, according to Discover magazine.

Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send
feedback to the central nervous system about the body's surrounding environment,
according to the American Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in the
central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, transmit signals to activate the
muscles or glands. [Here's What You'd Look Like as Just a Nervous System]

Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that support,
protect or nourish nerve cells, according to the Oregon Institute of Health and Science
University.

The brain's connections and thinking ability grew over thousands of years of
evolution. For example, a virus bound its genetic code to the genome of four-limbed
animals, and the code can still be found in humans' brains today, according to
two papers published in the January 2018 journal Cell. This code packages up genetic
information and sends it from nerve cells to other nearby nerve cells, a very important
process in the brain. [An Ancient Virus May Be Responsible for Human
Consciousness]
Find out about the workings of the brain and nerves.
Credit: Ross Toro, Livescience.com contributor

Diagnosing nervous system conditions

There are a number of tests and procedures to diagnose conditions involving the
nervous system. In addition to the traditional X-ray, a specialized X-ray called a
fluoroscopy examines the body in motion, such as blood flowing through arteries,
according to the NIH.

Other standard neurological exams include an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), CT

scan, and an electroencephalogram (EEG), which records the brain's continuous
electrical activity. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a procedure that measures
cell or tissue metabolism and brain activity to detect tumors or diseased tissue or
tumors, the NIH noted.

A spinal tap places a needle into the spinal canal to drain a small amount of cerebral
spinal fluid that is tested for infection or other abnormalities, according to the NIH.

Diseases of the nervous system

"Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty that people
have is pain, and much of that is nerve-related," according to Dr. Shai Gozani, founder
and CEO of NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. "There are 100 million people
who live with chronic pain."

According to the Mayo Clinic, patients with nerve disorders experience functional
difficulties, which result in conditions such as:

1. Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause

seizures

2. Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects movement

3. Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked
by the body's immune system

4. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a

motor neuron disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers
physical function
5. Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells
in the brain to degenerate

6. Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts

mental functions, particularly memory.

Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular
disorders such as:

1. Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to
the brain is obstructed;

2. Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter
period of time but mimic stroke symptoms; and

3. Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is specifically bleeding in the space between

your brain and the surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or
rupturing of a weak blood vessel;

Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect
the nervous system, the NIH noted.

Treatments vary from anti-inflammatory medications and pain medications such as

opiates, to implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices, Gozani said. "Many
people also turn to herbal and holistic methods to reduce pain, such as acupuncture."

Human reproductive system, organ system by which humans reproduce

and bear live offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally constructed,
and functioning properly, the essential features of human reproduction are (1)
liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, (2)
internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells, (3) transport
of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the
blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of
the uterus, (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child
during the entire period of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the
placenta, and (7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the
maternal organs to virtually their original state.
 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

For this biological process to be carried out, certain organs and structures are
required in both the male and the female. The source of the ova (the female
germ cells) is the female ovary; that of spermatozoa (the male germ cells) is
the testis. In females, the two ovaries are situated in the pelvic cavity; in
males, the two testes are enveloped in a sac of skin, the scrotum, lying below
and outside the abdomen. Besides producing the germ cells, or gametes, the
ovaries and testes are the source of hormones that cause full development of
secondary sexual characteristics and also the proper functioning of the
reproductive tracts. These tracts comprise the fallopian tubes, the uterus,
the vagina, and associated structures in females and the penis, the sperm
channels (epididymis, ductus deferens, and ejaculatory ducts), and other
related structures and glands in males. The function of the fallopian tube is to
convey an ovum, which is fertilized in the tube, to the uterus, where gestation
(development before birth) takes place. The function of the male ducts is to
convey spermatozoa from the testis, to store them, and,
when ejaculation occurs, to eject them with secretions from the male glands
through the penis.
At copulation, or sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina, and
spermatozoa contained in the seminal fluid (semen) are ejaculated into the female
genital tract. Spermatozoa then pass from the vagina through the uterus to the
fallopian tube to fertilize the ovum in the outer part of the tube. Females exhibit a
periodicity in the activity of their ovaries and uterus, which starts at puberty and ends
at the menopause. The periodicity is manifested by menstruation at intervals of about
28 days; important changes occur in the ovaries and uterus during each reproductive,
or menstrual, cycle. Periodicity, and subsequently menstruation, is suppressed during
pregnancy and lactation.
This articles describes the organs, both male and female, that are involved in human
reproduction. The reproductive process itself is covered in other articles. For a
detailed discussion of the series of changes that occur in a woman’s body as her fetus
develops, see pregnancy. For a description of the stages of labour and
delivery, see parturition. For the development of the unborn child during
gestation, see human embryology. For coverage of the many diseases and disorders
that can affect the reproductive organs, see reproductive system disease.
Development Of The Reproductive Organs
The sex of a child is determined at the time of fertilization of the ovum by
the spermatozoon. The differences between a male and a female are genetically
determined by the chromosomes that each possesses in the nuclei of the cells. Once
the genetic sex has been determined, there normally follows a succession of changes
that will result, finally, in the development of an adult male or female. There is,
however, no external indication of the sex of an embryo during the first eight weeks of
its life within the uterus. This is a neutral or indifferent stage during which the sex of
an embryo can be ascertained only by examination of the chromosomes in its cells.
The next phase, one of differentiation, begins first in gonads that are to become testes
and a week or so later in those destined to be ovaries. Embryos of the two sexes are
initially alike in possessing similar duct systems linking the undifferentiated gonads
with the exterior and in having similar external genitalia, represented by three simple
protuberances. The embryos each have four ducts, the subsequent fate of which is of
great significance in the eventual anatomical differences between men and women.
Two ducts closely related to the developing urinary system are called mesonephric,
or wolffian, ducts. In males each mesonephric duct becomes differentiated into four
related structures: a duct of the epididymis, a ductus deferens, an ejaculatory duct, and
a seminal vesicle. In females the mesonephric ducts are largely suppressed. The other
two ducts, called the paramesonephric or müllerian ducts, persist, in females, to
develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and part of the vagina; in males they are
largely suppressed. Differentiation also occurs in the primitive external genitalia,
which in males become the penis and scrotum and in females the vulva(the clitoris,
labia, and vestibule of the vagina).
 Differentiation of the external genitalia in the human embryo and fetus. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

At birth the organs appropriate to each sex have developed and are in their adult positions but are
not functioning. Various abnormalities can occur during development of sex organs in embryos,
leading to hermaphroditism, pseudohermaphroditism, and other chromosomally induced
conditions. During childhood until puberty there is steady growth in all reproductive organs and
a gradual development of activity. Puberty marks the onset of increased activity in the sex glands
and the steady development of secondary sexual characteristics.
In males at puberty the testes enlarge and become active, the external genitalia enlarge, and the
capacity to ejaculate develops. Marked changes in height and weight occur as hormonal secretion
from the testes increases. The larynx, or voice box, enlarges, with resultant deepening of the
voice. Certain features in the skeleton, as seen in the pelvic bones and skull, become accentuated.
The hairin the armpits and the pubic hair becomes abundant and thicker. Facial hair develops, as
well as hair on the chest, abdomen, and limbs. Hair at the temples recedes. Skin glands become
more active, especially apocrine glands (a type of sweat gland that is found in the armpits and
groin and around the anus).
In females at puberty, the external genitalia enlarge and the uterus commences its periodic
activity with menstruation. The breasts develop, and there is a deposition of body fat in
accordance with the usual contours of the mature female. Growth of axillary (armpit) and pubic
hair is more abundant, and the hair becomes thicker.
The Male Reproductive System
The male gonads are the testes; they are the source of spermatozoa and also of male
sex hormones called androgens. The other genital organs are the epididymides; the
ductus, or vasa, deferentia; the seminal vesicles; the ejaculatory ducts; and the penis;
as well as certain accessory structures, such as the prostate and the bulbourethral
(Cowper) glands. The principal functions of these structures are to transport the
spermatozoa from the testes to the exterior, to allow their maturation on the way, and
to provide certain secretions that help form the semen.
External genitalia
The penis
The penis, the male organ of copulation, is partly inside and partly outside the body.
The inner part, attached to the bony margins of the pubic arch (that part of the pelvis
directly in front and at the base of the trunk), is called the root of the penis. The
second, or outer, portion is free, pendulous, and enveloped all over in skin; it is termed
the body of the penis. The organ is composed chiefly of cavernous or erectile tissue
that becomes engorged with blood to produce considerable enlargement and erection.
The penis is traversed by a tube, the urethra, which serves as a passage both
for urine and for semen.

The human penis.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The body of the penis, sometimes referred to as the shaft, is cylindrical in shape when
flaccid but when erect is somewhat triangular in cross section, with the angles
rounded. This condition arises because the right corpus cavernosum and the left
corpus cavernosum, the masses of erectile tissue, lie close together in the dorsal part
of the penis, while a single body, the corpus spongiosum, which contains the urethra,
lies in a midline groove on the undersurface of the corpora cavernosa. The dorsal
surface of the penis is that which faces upward and backward during erection.
The slender corpus spongiosum reaches beyond the extremities of the erectile corpora
cavernosa and at its outer end is enlarged considerably to form a soft, conical,
sensitive structure called the glans penis. The base of the glans has a projecting
margin, the corona, and the groove where the corona overhangs the corpora cavernosa
is referred to as the neck of the penis. The glans is traversed by the urethra, which
ends in a vertical, slitlike, external opening. The skin over the penis is thin and loosely
adherent and at the neck is folded forward over the glans for a variable distance to
form the prepuce or foreskin. A median fold, the frenulum of the prepuce, passes to
the undersurface of the glans to reach a point just behind the urethral opening. The
prepuce can usually be readily drawn back to expose the glans.
The root of the penis comprises two crura, or projections, and the bulb of the penis.
The crura and the bulb are attached respectively to the edges of the pubic arch and to
the perineal membrane (the fibrous membrane that forms a floor of the trunk). Each
crus is an elongated structure covered by the ischiocavernosus muscle, and each
extends forward, converging toward the other, to become continuous with one of the
corpora cavernosa. The oval bulb of the penis lies between the two crura and is
covered by the bulbospongiosus muscle. It is continuous with the corpus spongiosum.
The urethra enters it on the flattened deep aspect that lies against the perineal
membrane, traverses its substances, and continues into the corpus spongiosum.

The two corpora cavernosa are close to one another, separated only by a partition in
the fibrous sheath that encloses them. The erectile tissue of the corpora is divided by
numerous small fibrous bands into many cavernous spaces, relatively empty when the
penis is flaccid but engorged with blood during erection. The structure of the tissue of
the corpus spongiosum is similar to that of the corpora cavernosa, but there is more
smooth muscle and elastic tissue. A deep fascia, or sheet of connective tissue,
surrounding the structures in the body of the penis is prolonged to form the
suspensory ligament, which anchors the penis to the pelvic bones at the midpoint of
the pubic arch.

The penis has a rich blood supply from the internal pudendal artery, a branch of the
internal iliac artery, which supplies blood to the pelvic structures and organs, the
buttocks, and the inside of the thighs. Erection is brought about by distension of the
cavernous spaces with blood, which is prevented from draining away by compression
of the veins in the area.
The penis is amply supplied with sensory and autonomic (involuntary) nerves. Of the
autonomic nerve fibres the sympathetic fibres cause constriction of blood vessels, and
the parasympathetic fibres cause their dilation. It is usually stated that ejaculation is
brought about by the sympathetic system, which at the same time inhibits the desire to
urinate and also prevents the semen from entering the bladder.
The scrotum
The scrotum is a pouch of skin lying below the pubic symphysis and just in front of
the upper parts of the thighs. It contains the testes and lowest parts of the spermatic
cord. A scrotal septum or partition divides the pouch into two compartments and arises
from a ridge, or raphe, visible on the outside of the scrotum. The raphe turns forward
onto the undersurface of the penis and is continued back onto the perineum (the area
between the legs and as far back as the anus). This arrangement indicates the bilateral
origin of the scrotum from two genital swellings that lie one on each side of the base
of the phallus, the precursor of the penis or clitoris in the embryo. The swellings are
also referred to as the labioscrotal swellings, because in females they remain separate
to form the labia majora and in males they unite to form the scrotum.
The skin of the scrotum is thin, pigmented, devoid of fatty tissue, and more or less
folded and wrinkled. There are some scattered hairs and sebaceous glands on its
surface. Below the skin is a layer of involuntary muscle, the dartos, which can alter
the appearance of the scrotum. On exposure of the scrotum to cold air or cold water,
the dartos contracts and gives the scrotum a shortened, corrugated appearance;
warmth causes the scrotum to become smoother, flaccid, and less closely tucked in
around the testes. Beneath the dartos muscle are layers of fascia continuous with those
forming the coverings of each of the two spermatic cords, which suspend the testes
within the scrotum and contain each ductus deferens, the testicular blood and lymph
vessels, the artery to the cremaster muscle (which draws the testes upward), the artery
to each ductus deferens, the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve, and the
testicular network of nerves.
The scrotum is supplied with blood by the external pudendal branches of the femoral
artery, which is the chief artery of the thigh, and by the scrotal branches of the internal
pudendal artery. The veins follow the arteries. The lymphatic drainage is to the lymph
nodes in the groin.
The testes
The two testes, or testicles, which usually complete their descent into the scrotum
from their point of origin on the back wall of the abdomen in the seventh month after
conception, are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords. Each testis is 4 to 5
cm (about 1.5 to 2 inches) long and is enclosed in a fibrous sac, the tunica albuginea.
This sac is lined internally by the tunica vasculosa, containing a network of blood
vessels, and is covered by the tunica vaginalis, which is a continuation of the
membrane that lines the abdomen and pelvis. The tunica albuginea has extensions into
each testis that act as partial partitions to divide the testis into approximately 250
compartments, or lobules.
 Structures involved in the production and transport of semen. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Each lobule contains one or more convoluted tubules, or narrow tubes,

where sperm are formed. The tubules, if straightened, would extend about 70 cm
(about 28 inches). The multistage process of sperm formation, which takes about 60
days, goes on in the lining of the tubules, starting with the spermatogonia, or primitive
sperm cells, in the outermost layer of the lining. Spermatozoa (sperm) leaving the
tubules are not capable of independent motion, but they undergo a further maturation
process in the ducts of the male reproductive tract; the process may be continued
when, after ejaculation, they pass through the female tract. Maturation of the sperm in
the female tract is called capacitation.
Each spermatozoon is a slender elongated structure with a head, a neck, a middle
piece, and a tail. The head contains the cell nucleus. When the spermatozoon is fully
mature, it is propelled by the lashing movements of the tail.

The male sex hormone testosterone is produced by Leydig cells. These cells are
located in the connective (interstitial) tissue that holds the tubules together within each
lobule. The tissue becomes markedly active at puberty under the influence of the
interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; this
hormone in women is called luteinizing hormone. Testosterone stimulates the male
accessory sex glands (prostate, seminal vesicles) and also brings about the
development of male secondary sex characteristics at puberty. The hormone may also
be necessary to cause maturation of sperm and to heighten the sex drive of the male.
The testis is also the source of some of the female sex hormone estrogen, which may
exert an influence on pituitary activity.
Each testis is supplied with blood by the testicular arteries, which arise from the front
of the aorta just below the origin of the renal (kidney) arteries. Each artery crosses the
rear abdominal wall, enters the spermatic cord, passes through the inguinal canal, and
enters the upper end of each testis at the back. The veins leaving the testis and
epididymis form a network, which ascends into the spermatic cord. The lymph
vessels, which also pass through the spermatic cord, drain to the lateral and preaortic
lymph nodes. Nerve fibres to the testis accompany the vessels; they pass through the
renal and aortic nerve plexuses, or networks.
Structures of the sperm canal
The epididymis, ductus deferens (or vas deferens), and ejaculatory ducts form the
sperm canal. Together they extend from the testis to the urethra, where it lies within
the prostate. Sperm are conveyed from the testis along some 20 ductules, or small
ducts, which pierce the fibrous capsule to enter the head of the epididymis. The
ductules are straight at first but become dilated and then much convoluted to form
distinct compartments within the head of the epididymis. They each open into a single
duct, the highly convoluted duct of the epididymis, which constitutes the “body” and
“tail” of the structure. It is held together by connective tissue but if unraveled would
be nearly 6 metres (20 feet) long. The duct enlarges and becomes thicker-walled at the
lower end of the tail of the epididymis, where it becomes continuous with the ductus
deferens.
The ductules from the testis have a thin muscular coat and a lining that consists of
alternating groups of high columnar cells with cilia (hairlike projections) and low cells
lacking cilia. The cilia assist in moving sperm toward the epididymis. In the duct of
the epididymis the muscle coat is thicker and the lining is thick with tufts of large
nonmotile cilia. There is some evidence that the ductules and the first portion of the
duct of the epididymis remove excess fluid and extraneous debris from the testicular
secretions entering these tubes. The blood supply to the epididymis is by a branch
from the testicular artery given off before that vessel reaches the testis.

The ductus deferens, or vas deferens, is the continuation of the duct of the epididymis.
It commences at the lower part of the tail of the epididymis and ascends along the
back border of the testis to its upper pole. Then, as part of the spermatic cord, it
extends to the deep inguinal ring. Separating from the other elements of the spermatic
cord—the blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels—at the ring, the ductus deferens
makes its way through the pelvis toward the base of the prostate, where it is joined by
the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. A part of the ductus that is dilated and
rather tortuous, near the base of the urinary bladder, is called the ampulla.
The ductus deferens has a thick coat of smooth muscle that gives it a characteristic
cordlike feel. The longitudinal muscle fibres are well developed, and peristaltic
contractions (contractions in waves) move the sperm toward the ampulla. The mucous
membrane lining the interior is in longitudinal folds and is mostly covered with
nonciliated columnar cells, although some cells have nonmotile cilia. The ampulla is
thinner-walled and probably acts as a sperm store.
Accessory organs
The prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands
These structures provide secretions to form the bulk of the seminal fluid of an
ejaculate. The prostate gland is in the lesser or true pelvis, centred behind the lower
part of the pubic arch. It lies in front of the rectum. The prostate is shaped roughly like
an inverted pyramid; its base is directed upward and is immediately continuous with
the neck of the urinary bladder. The urethra traverses its substance. The two
ejaculatory ducts (see below) enter the prostate near the upper border of its posterior
surface. The prostate is of a firm consistency, surrounded by a capsule of fibrous
tissue and smooth muscle. It measures about 4 cm across, 3 cm in height, and 2 cm
front to back (about 1.6 by 1.2 by 0.8 inch) and consists of glandular tissue contained
in a muscular framework. It is imperfectly divided into three lobes. Two lobes at the
side form the main mass and are continuous behind the urethra. In front of the urethra
they are connected by an isthmus of fibromuscular tissue devoid of glands. The third,
or median, lobe is smaller and variable in size and may lack glandular tissue. There
are three clinically significant concentric zones of prostatic glandular tissue about the
urethra. A group of short glands that are closest to the urethra and discharge mucus
into its channel are subject to simple enlargement. Outside these is a ring of
submucosal glands (glands from which the mucosal glands develop), and farther out is
a large outer zone of long branched glands, composing the bulk of the glandular
tissue. Prostate cancer is almost exclusively confined to the outer zone. The glands of
the outer zone are lined by tall columnar cells that secrete prostatic fluid under the
influence of androgens from the testis. The fluid is thin, milky, and slightly acidic.
 Sagittal section of the male reproductive organs, showing the prostate gland and seminal vesicles. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc.

The seminal vesicles are two structures, about 5 cm (2 inches) in length, lying
between the rectum and the base of the bladder. Their secretions form the bulk of
semen. Essentially, each vesicle consists of a much-coiled tube with numerous
diverticula or outpouches that extend from the main tube, the whole being held
together by connective tissue. At its lower end the tube is constricted to form a straight
duct or tube that joins with the corresponding ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory
duct. The vesicles are close together in their lower parts, but they are separated above
where they lie close to the deferent ducts. The seminal vesicles have longitudinal and
circular layers of smooth muscle, and their cavities are lined with mucous membrane,
which is the source of the secretions of the organs. These secretions are ejected by
muscular contractions during ejaculation. The activity of the vesicles is dependent on
the production of the hormone androgen by the testes. The secretion is thick, sticky,
and yellowish; it contains the sugar fructose and is slightly alkaline.
The bulbourethral glands, often called Cowper glands, are pea-shaped glands that are
located beneath the prostate gland at the beginning of the internal portion of the penis.
The glands, which measure only about 1 cm (0.4 inch) in diameter, have slender ducts
that run forward and toward the centre to open on the floor of the spongy portion of
the urethra. They are composed of a network of small tubes, or tubules, and saclike
structures; between the tubules are fibres of muscle and elastic tissue that give the
glands muscular support. Cells within the tubules and sacs contain droplets of mucus,
a thick protein compound. The fluid excreted by these glands is clear and thick and
acts as a lubricant; it is also thought to function as a flushing agent that washes out the
urethra before the semen is ejaculated; it may also help to make the semen less watery
and to provide a suitable living environment for the sperm.
Ejaculatory ducts
The two ejaculatory ducts lie on each side of the midline and are formed by the union
of the duct of the seminal vesicle, which contributes secretions to the semen, with the
end of the ductus deferens at the base of the prostate. Each duct is about 2 cm (about
0.8 inch) long and passes between a lateral and the median lobe of the prostate to
reach the floor of the prostatic urethra. This part of the urethra has on its floor (or
posterior wall) a longitudinal ridge called the urethral crest. On each side is a
depression, the prostatic sinus, into which open the prostatic ducts. In the middle of
the urethral crest is a small elevation, the colliculus seminalis, on which the opening
of the prostatic utricle is found. The prostatic utricle is a short diverticulum or pouch
lined by mucous membrane; it may correspond to the vagina or uterus in the female.
The small openings of the ejaculatory ducts lie on each side of or just within the
opening of the prostatic utricle. The ejaculatory ducts are thin-walled and lined by
columnar cells.
The Female Reproductive System
The female gonads, or sexual glands, are the ovaries; they are the source
of ova (eggs) and of the female sex hormones estrogens and progestogens.
The fallopian, or uterine, tubes conduct ova to the uterus, which lies within the
lesser or true pelvis. The uterus connects through the cervical canal with the
vagina. The vagina opens into the vestibule about which lie the external
genitalia, collectively known as the vulva.
External genitalia
The female external genitalia include the structures placed about the entrance to the
vagina and external to the hymen, the membrane across the entrance to the vagina.
They are the mons pubis (also called the mons veneris), the labia majora and minora,
the clitoris, the vestibule of the vagina, the bulb of the vestibule, and the greater
vestibular glands.
 The female external genitalia.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The mons pubis is the rounded eminence, made by fatty tissue beneath the skin, lying
in front of the pubic symphysis. A few fine hairs may be present in childhood; later,
at puberty, they become coarser and more numerous. The upper limit of the hairy
region is horizontal across the lower abdomen.
The labia majora are two marked folds of skin that extend from the mons pubis
downward and backward to merge with the skin of the perineum. They form the
lateral boundaries of the vulval or pudendal cleft, which receives the openings of the
vagina and the urethra. The outer surface of each labium is pigmented and hairy; the
inner surface is smooth but possesses sebaceous glands. The labia majora contain fat
and loose connective tissue and sweat glands. They correspond to the scrotum in the
male and contain tissue resembling the dartos muscle. The round ligament (see
below The uterus) ends in the tissue of the labium. The labia minora are two small
folds of skin, lacking fatty tissue, that extend backward on each side of the opening
into the vagina. They lie inside the labia majora and are some 4 cm (about 1.5 inches)
in length. In front, an upper portion of each labium minus passes over the clitoris—the
structure in the female corresponding to the penis(excluding the urethra) in the male—
to form a fold, the prepuce of the clitoris, and a lower portion passes beneath the
clitoris to form its frenulum. The two labia minora are joined at the back across the
midline by a fold that becomes stretched at childbirth. The labia minora lack hairs but
possess sebaceous and sweat glands.
The clitoris is a small erectile structure composed of two corpora cavernosa separated
by a partition. Partially concealed beneath the forward ends of the labia minora, it
possesses a sensitive tip of spongy erectile tissue, the glans clitoridis. The external
opening of the urethra is some 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) behind the clitoris and
immediately in front of the vaginal opening.
The vestibule of the vagina is the cleft between the labia minora into which the
urethra and vagina open. The hymen vaginae lies at the opening of the vagina: it is a
thin fold of mucous membrane that varies in shape. After rupture of the hymen, the
small rounded elevations that remain are known as the carunculae hymenales. The
bulb of the vestibule, corresponding to the bulb of the penis, is two elongated masses
of erectile tissue that lie one on each side of the vaginal opening. At their posterior
ends lie the greater vestibular glands, small mucous glands that open by a duct in the
groove between the hymen and each labium minus. They correspond to the
bulbourethral glands of the male.
The blood supply and nerve supply of the female external genital organs are similar to
those supplying corresponding structures in the male.
Internal structures
The vagina
The vagina (the word means “sheath”) is the canal that extends from the cervix (outer
end) of the uterus within the lesser pelvis down to the vestibule between the labia
minora. The orifice of the vagina is guarded by the hymen. The vagina lies behind
the bladder and urethra and in front of the rectum and anal canal. Its walls are
collapsed; the anterior wall is some 7.5 cm (3 inches) in length, whereas the posterior
wall is about 1.5 cm (0.6 inch) longer. The vagina is directed obliquely upward and
backward. The axis of the vagina forms an angle of over 90° with that of the uterus.
This angle varies considerably depending on conditions in the bladder, in the rectum,
and during pregnancy. The cervix of the uterus projects for a short distance into the
vagina and is normally pressed against its posterior wall. There are, therefore, recesses
in the vagina at the back, on each side, and at the front of the cervix. These are known
as the posterior fornix (behind the cervix and the largest), the lateral fornices (at the
sides), and the anterior fornix (at the front of the cervix). The position of the uterus in
relation to the vagina is described further in the section on the uterus.
The upper part of the posterior wall of the vagina is covered by peritoneum or
membrane that is folded back onto the rectum to form the recto-uterine pouch. The
lower part of the posterior vaginal wall is separated from the anal canal by a mass of
tissue known as the perineal body.

The vagina has a mucous membrane and an outer smooth muscle coat closely attached
to it. The mucous membrane has a longitudinal ridge in the midline of both the
anterior and posterior walls. The ridges are known as the columns of the vagina; many
rugae, or folds, extend from them to each side. The furrows between the rugae are
more marked on the posterior wall and become especially pronounced before the birth
of a child. The membrane undergoes little change during the menstrual cycle (except
in its content of glycogen, a complex starchlike carbohydrate); this is in
contradistinction to the situation in many mammals in which marked exfoliation
(shedding of the surface cells) can occur. No glands are present in the vaginal lining,
and mucus present has been secreted by the glands in the cervical canal of the uterus.
The smooth muscle coat consists of an outer longitudinal layer and a less developed
inner circular layer. The lower part of the vagina is surrounded by the
bulbospongiosus muscle, a striped muscle attached to the perineal body.
The blood supply to the vagina is derived from several adjacent vessels, there being a
vaginal artery from the internal iliac artery and also vaginal branches from the uterine,
middle rectal, and internal pudendal arteries, all branches of the internal iliac artery.
The nerve supply to the lower part of the vagina is from the pudendal nerve and from
the inferior hypogastric and uterovaginal plexuses.
The uterus
Uterine structure
The uterus, or womb, is shaped like an inverted pear. It is a hollow, muscular organ
with thick walls, and it has a glandular lining called the endometrium. In an adult the
uterus is 7.5 cm (3 inches) long, 5 cm (2 inches) in width, and 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick,
but it enlarges to four to five times this size in pregnancy. The narrower, lower end is
called the cervix; this projects into the vagina. The cervix is made of fibrous
connective tissue and is of a firmer consistency than the body of the uterus. The
two fallopian tubes enter the uterus at opposite sides, near its top. The part of the
uterus above the entrances of the tubes is called the fundus; the part below is termed
the body. The body narrows toward the cervix, and a slight external constriction marks
the juncture between the body and the cervix.
The uterus does not lie in line with the vagina but is usually turned forward
(anteverted) to form approximately a right angle with it. The position of the uterus is
affected by the amount of distension in the urinary bladder and in the rectum.
Enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy causes it to rise up into the abdominal cavity,
so that there is closer alignment with the vagina. The nonpregnant uterus also curves
gently forward; it is said to be anteflexed. The uterus is supported and held in position
by the other pelvic organs, by the muscular floor or diaphragm of the pelvis, by
certain fibrous ligaments, and by folds of peritoneum. Among the supporting
ligaments are two double-layered broad ligaments, each of which contains a fallopian
tube along its upper free border and a round ligament, corresponding to the
gubernaculum testis of the male, between its layers. Two ligaments—the cardinal
(Mackenrodt) ligaments—at each side of the cervix are also important in maintaining
the position of the uterus.
The cavity of the uterus is remarkably small in comparison with the size of the organ.
Except during pregnancy, the cavity is flattened, with front and rear walls touching,
and is triangular. The triangle is inverted, with its base at the top, between the
openings of the two fallopian tubes, and with its apex at the isthmus of the uterus, the
opening into the cervix. The canal of the cervix is flattened from front to back and is
somewhat larger in its middle part. It is traversed by two longitudinal ridges and has
oblique folds stretching from each ridge in an arrangement like the branches of a tree.
The cervical canal is 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) in length; its opening into the vagina is
called the external os of the uterus. The external os is small, almost circular, and often
depressed. After childbirth, the external os becomes bounded by lips in front and in
back and is thus more slitlike. The cervical canal is lined by a mucous membrane
containing numerous glands that secrete a clear, alkaline mucus. The upper part of this
lining undergoes cyclical changes resembling, but not as marked as, those occurring in
the body of the uterus. Numerous small cysts (nabothian cysts) are found in the
cervical mucous membrane. It is from this region that cervical smears are taken in
order to detect early changes indicative of cancer.
The uterus is composed of three layers of tissue. On the outside is a serous coat
of peritoneum (a membrane exuding a fluid like blood minus its cells and the clotting
factor fibrinogen), which partially covers the organ. In front it covers only the body of
the cervix; behind it covers the body and the part of the cervix that is above the vagina
and is prolonged onto the posterior vaginal wall; from there it is folded back to the
rectum. At the side the peritoneal layers stretch from the margin of the uterus to each
side wall of the pelvis, forming the two broad ligaments of the uterus.
The middle layer of tissue (myometrium) is muscular and comprises the greater part
of the bulk of the organ. It is very firm and consists of densely packed, unstriped,
smooth muscle fibres. Blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves are also present. The
muscle is more or less arranged in three layers of fibres running in different directions.
The outermost fibres are arranged longitudinally. Those of the middle layer run in all
directions without any orderly arrangement; this layer is the thickest. The innermost
fibres are longitudinal and circular in their arrangement.
The innermost layer of tissue in the uterus is the mucous membrane, or endometrium.
It lines the uterine cavity as far as the isthmus of the uterus, where it becomes
continuous with the lining of the cervical canal. The endometrium contains numerous
uterine glands that open into the uterine cavity and are embedded in the cellular
framework or stroma of the endometrium. Numerous blood vessels and lymphatic
spaces are also present. The appearances of the endometrium vary considerably at the
different stages in reproductive life. It begins to reach full development at puberty and
thereafter exhibits dramatic changes during each menstrual cycle. It undergoes further
changes before, during, and after pregnancy, during the menopause, and in old age.
These changes are for the most part hormonally induced and controlled by the activity
of the ovaries.
The endometrium in the menstrual cycle
To understand the nature of the changes in the endometrium during each menstrual
cycle it is usual to consider the endometrium to be composed of three layers. They
blend imperceptibly but are functionally distinct: the inner two layers are shed at
menstruation, and the outer or basal layer remains in position against the innermost
layer of the myometrium. The three layers are called, respectively, the stratum
compactum, the stratum spongiosum, and the stratum basale epidermidis. The stratum
compactum is nearest to the uterine cavity and contains the lining cells and the necks
of the uterine glands; its stroma is relatively dense. Superficial blood vessels lie
beneath the lining cells. The stratum spongiosum is the large middle layer. It contains
the main portions of uterine glands and accompanying blood vessels; the stromal cells
are more loosely arranged and larger than in the stratum compactum. The stratum
basale epidermidis lies against the uterine muscle; it contains blood vessels and the
bases of the uterine glands. Its stroma remains relatively unaltered during the
menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The menstrual cycle extends over a period of about 28 days (normal range 21–34
days), from the first day of one menstrual flow to the first day of the next. It reflects
the cycle of changes occurring in the ovary, which is itself under the control of the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The menstrual cycle is divided into four phases:
menstrual, postmenstrual, proliferative, and secretory.
The secretory phase reaches its climax about a week after ovulation. Ovulation occurs
in midcycle, about 14 days before the onset of the next menstrual flow. The
endometrium has been prepared and has been stimulated to a state of active secretion
for the reception of a fertilized ovum. The stage has been set for the attachment of
the blastocyst, derived from a fertilized ovum, to the endometrium and for its
subsequent embedding. This process is called implantation; its success depends on the
satisfactory preparation of the endometrium in both the proliferative and secretory
phases. When implantation occurs, a hormone from certain cells of the blastocyst
causes prolongation of the corpus luteum and its continued activity. This causes
suppression of menstruation and results in the maintenance of the endometrium and its
further stimulation by progesterone, with consequent increased thickening. The
endometrium of early pregnancy is known as the decidua.
In a cycle in which fertilization of the ovum has not taken place, the secretory phase
terminates in menstruation.

The endometrium needs to be in a certain state of preparedness before implantation

can occur. When this stage has been passed, menstruation occurs. Repair then
reestablishes an endometrium capable of being stimulated again to the critical stage
when implantation can occur.
Blood supply and innervation
The uterus is supplied with blood by the two uterine arteries, which are branches of
the internal iliac arteries, and by ovarian arteries, which connect with the ends of the
uterine arteries and send branches to supply the uterus. The nerves to the uterus
include the sympathetic nerve fibres, which produce contraction of uterine muscle and
constriction of vessels, and parasympathetic (sacral) fibres, which inhibit muscle
activity and cause dilation of blood vessels.
The fallopian tubes
The fallopian, or uterine, tubes carry ova from the ovaries to the cavity of the uterus.
Each opens into the abdominal cavity near an ovary at one end and into the uterus at
the other. Three sections of the tubes are distinguished: the funnel-shaped outer end,
or infundibulum; the expanded and thin-walled intermediate portion, or ampulla; and
the cordlike portion, the isthmus, that opens into the uterus. The infundibulum is
fringed with irregular projections called fimbriae. One fimbria, somewhat larger than
the others, is usually attached to the ovary. The opening into the abdomen is at the
bottom of the infundibulum and is small. Fertilization of the ovum usually occurs in
the ampulla of the tube. Normally the fertilized egg is transported to the uterus, but
occasionally it may adhere to the tube and start developing as an ectopic pregnancy,
or tubal pregnancy. The tube is unable to support this pregnancy, and the conceptus
may be extruded through the abdominal opening or may cause rupture of the tube,
with ensuing hemorrhage.

Major structures and hormones involved in the initiation of pregnancy. Also seen, at right, is the development of an
egg cell (ovum) from follicle to embryo. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The fallopian tube is covered by peritoneum except on its border next to the broad
ligament. There are inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth muscle
fibres continuous with those of the uterus. The inner lining has numerous longitudinal
folds that are covered with ciliated columnar and secretory cells. Muscular
contraction, movement of the hairlike cilia, and the passage of the watery secretions
all probably assist in the transport of sperm to the ampulla and of a fertilized ovum
toward the uterus.
The ovaries
Ovarian structure
The female gonads, or primary sex organs, corresponding to the testes in a male, are
the two ovaries. Each is suspended by a mesentery, or fold of membrane, from the
back layer of the broad ligament of the uterus. In a woman who has not been pregnant,
the almond-shaped ovary lies in a vertical position against a depression, the ovarian
fossa, on the side wall of the lesser pelvis. This relationship is altered during and after
pregnancy. Each ovary is somewhat over 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length, 1.25 cm (0.5 inch)
across, and slightly less in thickness, but the size varies much with age and with state
of activity.
The mesentery of the ovary helps to keep it in position, and within this membrane lie
the ovarian artery and vein, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibres. The fallopian tube
arches over the ovary and curves downward on its inner or medial surface.

Except at its hilum, the point where blood vessels and the nerve enter the ovary and
where the mesentery is attached, the surface of the ovary is smooth and is covered by
cubical cells. Beneath the surface, the substance of the ovary is divided into an outer
portion, the cortex, and an inner portion, or medulla. The outermost part of the cortex,
immediately beneath the outer covering, forms a thin connective tissue zone, the
tunica albuginea. The rest of the cortex consists of stromal or framework cells,
contained in a fine network of fibres, and also the follicles and corpora lutea.

The ovarian follicles, sometimes called graafian follicles, are rounded enclosures for
the developing ova in the cortex near the surface of the ovary. At birth and in
childhood they are present as numerous primary or undeveloped ovarian follicles.
Each contains a primitive ovum, or oocyte, and each is covered by a single layer of
flattened cells. As many as 700,000 primary follicles are contained in the two ovaries
of a young female. Most of these degenerate before or after puberty.
Ovulation
During the onset of puberty and thereafter until menopause (except during
pregnancy), there is a cyclic development of one or more follicles each month into a
mature follicle. The covering layer of the primary follicle thickens and can be
differentiated into an inner membrana granulosa and an outer vascularized theca
interna. The cells of these layers (mostly the theca interna) produce estrogenic steroid
hormones that exert their effects on the endometrium of the uterus and on other
tissues. The maintenance and growth of the follicle to maturity is brought about by
a follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Another hormone, called luteinizing hormone (LH), from the anterior lobe, assists
FSH to cause the maturing, now fluid-filled follicle to secrete estrogens. LH also
causes a ripe follicle (1.0–1.5 cm [0.4–0.6 inch] in diameter) to rupture, causing the
liberation of the oocyte into the peritoneal cavity and thence into the fallopian tube.
This liberation of the oocyte is called ovulation; it occurs at about the midpoint of the
reproductive cycle, on the 13th or 14th day of a 28-day cycle as measured from the
first day of the menstrual flow.
 The steps of ovulation, beginning with a dormant primordial follicle that grows and matures and is eventually
released from the ovary into the fallopian tube.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

After ovulation the ruptured follicle collapses because of loss of its follicular fluid and
rapidly becomes transformed into a soft, well-vascularized glandular structure known
as the corpus luteum(“yellow body”). The corpus luteum develops rapidly, becomes
vascularized after about four days, and is fully established by nine days. The gland
produces the steroid hormone progesterone and some estrogens. Its activity is both
stimulated and maintained by luteinizing hormone. Progesterone stimulates glandular
proliferation and secretion in an endometrium primed by estrogens.
While the ovarian follicle matures, the primary oocyte divides into a secondary oocyte
and a small rudimentary ovum called the first polar body. This occurs at about the
time when the follicle develops its cavity; the oocyte also gains a translucent acellular
covering, or envelope, the zona pellucida. The secondary oocyte is liberated at
ovulation; it is 120–140 micrometres in diameter and is surrounded by the zona
pellucida and a few layers of cells known as the corona radiata. The final maturation
of the oocyte, with the formation of the rudimentary ovum called the second polar
body, occurs at the time of fertilization.

If fertilization does not occur, then the life of the corpus luteum is limited to about 14
days. Degeneration of the gland starts toward the end of this period, and menstruation
 occurs. The corpus luteum shrinks, fibrous tissue is formed, and it is converted into a
scarlike structure called a corpus albicans, which persists for a few months.
Should fertilization occur and be followed by implantation of the blastocyst,
hormones (particularly human chorionic gonadotropin) are produced by cells of the
blastocyst to prolong the life of the corpus luteum. It persists in an active state for at
least the first two months of pregnancy, until the placental tissue has taken over its
hormone-producing function. The corpus luteum of pregnancy then also retrogresses,
becoming a fibrous scar by the time of parturition.
Blood supply and innervation
The ovarian arteries arise from the front of the aorta in a manner similar to the
testicular arteries, but at the brim of the lesser pelvis they turn down into the pelvic
cavity. Passing in the suspensory ligament of the ovary, each artery reaches the broad
ligament below the fallopian tube and then passes into the mesovarium to divide into
branches distributed to the ovary. One branch continues in the broad ligament to
anastomose with the uterine artery. The ovarian veins emerge from each ovary as a
network that eventually becomes a single vein; the terminations are similar to those of
the testicular veins. The nerves are derived from the ovarian nerve network on the
ovarian artery.

Endocrine Glands and Hormones

The Endocrine System Essentials

1. The endocrine system is made up of a network of glands.
2. These glands secrete hormones to regulate many bodily functions, including growth and
metabolism.
3. Endocrine diseases are common and usually occur when glands produce an incorrect
amount of hormones.

Simply put, the endocrine system is a network of glands that secrete chemicals called
hormones to help your body function properly. Hormones are chemical signals that
coordinate a range of bodily functions.

The endocrine system works to regulate certain internal processes.

(Note: endocrine shouldn’t be confused with exocrine. Exocrine glands, such as sweat
and salivary glands, secrete externally and internally via ducts. Endocrine glands
secrete hormones internally, using the bloodstream.)

The endocrine system helps control the following processes and systems:
1. Growth and development
2. Homeostasis (the internal balance of body systems)
3. Metabolism (body energy levels)
4. Reproduction
5. Response to stimuli (stress and/or injury)

The Endocrine Network

The endocrine system completes these tasks through its network of glands, which are
small but highly important organs that produce, store, and secrete hormones.

The glands of the endocrine system are:

1. Hypothalamus
2. Pineal Gland
3. Pituitary Gland
4. Thyroid
5. Parathyroid
6. Thymus
7. Adrenal
8. Pancreas
9. Ovaries
10. Testes

These glands produce different types of hormones that evoke a specific response in
other cells, tissues, and/or organs located throughout the body. The hormones reach
these faraway targets using the blood stream. Like the nervous system, the endocrine
system is one of your body’s main communicators. But instead of using nerves to
transmit information, the endocrine system uses blood vessels to deliver hormones to
cells.

Endocrine Diseases
To ensure that everything runs smoothly (that is, your body functions as it should),
certain processes must work properly:
1. The endocrine glands must release the correct amount of hormones (if they release too
much or too little, it is known as hormone imbalance).
2. Your body also needs a strong blood supply to transport the hormones throughout the
body.
3. There must be enough receptors (which are where the hormones attach and do their
work) at the target tissue.
4. Those targets must be able to respond appropriately to the hormonal signal. The model
here would be like primary hypothyroidism, where the pituitary produces TSH, the TSH
is carried via the bloodstream to the thyroid, the thyroid has the appropriate receptors,
but for whatever reason it isn’t able to effectively make or secrete thyroid hormone.

Endocrine diseases are common and happen even when one step in the process
doesn’t work as it should. If you have an endocrine disease or disorder, you may consult
 a specialist known as an endocrinologist who will effectively diagnose and help treat
your condition.
The Hypothalamus Essentials
1. The portion of the brain that maintains the body’s internal balance (homeostasis).
2. The hypothalamus is the link between the endocrine and nervous systems.
3. The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones, which stop and start the
production of other hormones throughout the body.

The hypothalamus plays a significant role

in the endocrine system. It is responsible for maintaining your body’s internal balance,
which is known as homeostasis. To do this, the hypothalamus helps stimulate or inhibit
many of your body’s key processes, including:
1. Heart rate and blood pressure
2. Body temperature
3. Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst
4. Appetite and body weight
5. Glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines
6. Production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release hormones
7. Sleep cycles
The hypothalamus is involved in many functions of the autonomic nervous system, as it
receives information from nearly all parts of the nervous system. As such, it is
considered the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. You can
learn more by reading a SpineUniverse article about the nervous system.

Anatomy of the Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus (a part of the brain that relays sensory
information) and above the pituitary gland and brain stem. It is about the size of an
almond.
 Hormones of the Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is highly involved in pituitary gland function. When it receives a
signal from the nervous system, the hypothalamus secretes substances known as
neurohormones that start and stop the secretion of pituitary hormones.

Primary hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include:

1. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): This hormone increases water absorption into the blood
by the kidneys.
2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): CRH sends a message to the anterior
pituitary gland to stimulate the adrenal glands to release corticosteroids, which help
regulate metabolism and immune response.
3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to
release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which work
together to ensure normal functioning of the ovaries and testes.
4. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or growth hormone-inhibiting
hormone (GHIH) (also known as somatostain): GHRH prompts the anterior pituitary to
release growth hormone (GH); GHIH has the opposite effect. In children, GH is
essential to maintaining a healthy body composition. In adults, it aids healthy bone and
muscle mass and affects fat distribution.
5. Oxytocin: Oxytocin is involved in a variety of processes, such as orgasm, the ability to
trust, body temperature, sleep cycles, and the release of breast milk.
6. Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) (also
known as dopamine): PRH prompts the anterior pituitary to stimulate breast milk
production through the production of prolactin. Conversely, PIH inhibits prolactin, and
thereby, milk production. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): TRH triggers the
release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates release of thyroid
hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy, and growth and development.
Hypothalamic Disease
A disease or disorder of the hypothalamus is known as a hypothalamic disease. A
physical injury to the head that impacts the hypothalamus is one of the most common
causes of hypothalamic disease.
Hypothalamic diseases can include appetite and sleep disorders, but because the
hypothalamus affects so many different parts of the endocrine system, it can be hard to
pinpoint whether the root cause of the disorder is actually related to another gland.
In particular, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland are so tightly connected that it’s often
difficult for doctors to determine whether the condition is associated with the
hypothalamus or pituitary gland. These are known as hypothalamic-pituitary disorders.
However, there are hormone tests that help shed light on which part of the body is the
root cause.

The hypothalamus is arguably the most essential of the endocrine system. By alerting
the pituitary gland to release certain hormones to the rest of the endocrine system, the
hypothalamus ensures that the internal processes of your body are balanced and
working as they should.
Anatomy of the Endocrine System
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to
the brain stem and inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different
functions in the nervous system, and is also responsible for the direct
control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus contains special cells called neurosecretory cells—neurons
that secrete hormones:

1. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

2. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

3. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

4. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

5. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

6. Oxytocin

7. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the anterior
pituitary gland. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid-
stimulating hormone. GHRH and GHIH work to regulate the release of growth
hormone—GHRH stimulates growth hormone release, GHIH inhibits its
release. GnRH stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone while CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic
hormone. The last two hormones—oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone—are
produced by the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary,
where they are stored and later released.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized
lump of tissue connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the
brain. Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry the
hormones it releases throughout the body. Situated in a small depression in
the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually
made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior
pituitary glands.
Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but
nervous tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small extension of the
hypothalamus through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells
of the hypothalamus extend. These neurosecretory cells create 2 hormones
in the hypothalamus that are stored and released by the posterior pituitary:

1. Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during childbirth and the release of

milk during breastfeeding.

2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss in the body by increasing the
re-uptake of water in the kidneys and reducing blood flow to sweat glands.

Anterior Pituitary

The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary gland.
The function of the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and
inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary produces 6
important hormones:

1. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name suggests, is a tropic hormone

responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid gland.

2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex, the outer

part of the adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.

3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the follicle cells of the gonads
to produce gametes—ova in females and sperm in males.

4. Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads to produce the sex hormones
—estrogens in females and testosterone in males.

5. Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many target cells throughout the body
by stimulating their growth, repair, and reproduction.

6. Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body, chief of which is that it
stimulates the mammary glands of the breast to produce milk.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found
just posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the
hormone melatonin that helps to regulate the human sleep-wake cycle
known as the circadian rhythm. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited
by stimulation from the photoreceptors of the retina. This light sensitivity
causes melatonin to be produced only in low light or darkness. Increased
melatonin production causes humans to feel drowsy at nighttime when the
pineal gland is active.

CC is involved in calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the

parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the blood drop below a set
point. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the calcium containing
bone matrix to release free calcium ions into the bloodstream. PTH also
triggers the kidneys to return calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to
the bloodstream so that it is conserved.

Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular glands found
immediately superior to the kidneys. The adrenal glands are each made of 2
distinct layers, each with their own unique functions: the outer adrenal
cortex and inner adrenal medulla.

Adrenal cortex

The adrenal cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes:

glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens.

1. Glucocorticoids have many diverse functions, including the breakdown of

proteins and lipids to produce glucose. Glucocorticoids also function to reduce
inflammation and immune response.

2. Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a group of hormones that

help to regulate the concentration of mineral ions in the body.

3. Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in the adrenal

cortex to regulate the growth and activity of cells that are receptive to male
hormones. In adult males, the amount of androgens produced by the testes is
many times greater than the amount produced by the adrenal cortex, leading
to the appearance of male secondary sex characteristics.

Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla produces the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine

under stimulation by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system. Both of these hormones help to increase the flow of blood to the
brain and muscles to improve the “fight-or-flight” response to stress. These
hormones also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood
pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to and function of organs that are
not involved in responding to emergencies.

Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located in the abdominal cavity just inferior
and posterior to the stomach. The pancreas is considered to be a
heterocrine gland as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The
endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just about 1% of the total mass of
the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout the pancreas called
islets of Langerhans. Within these islets are 2 types of cells—alpha and beta
cells. The alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is responsible for
raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers muscle and liver cells to
break down the polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the
bloodstream. The beta cells produce the hormone insulin, which is
responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after a meal. Insulin triggers the
absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen
molecules for storage.

Gonads
The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in males—are responsible for
producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the
secondary sex characteristics of adult females and adult males.

1. Testes: The testes are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of
males that produce the androgen testosterone in males after the start of
puberty. Testosterone has effects on many parts of the body, including the
muscles, bones, sex organs, and hair follicles. This hormone causes growth
and increases in strength of the bones and muscles, including the accelerated
growth of long bones during adolescence. During puberty, testosterone
controls the growth and development of the sex organs and body hair of
males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In men who have inherited
genes for baldness testosterone triggers the onset of androgenic alopecia,
commonly known as male pattern baldness.

2. Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in the

pelvic body cavity lateral and superior to the uterus in females. The ovaries
produce the female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens. Progesterone
is most active in females during ovulation and pregnancy where it maintains
appropriate conditions in the human body to support a developing fetus.
Estrogens are a group of related hormones that function as the primary
female sex hormones. The release of estrogen during puberty triggers the
development of female secondary sex characteristics such as uterine
development, breast development, and the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen
also triggers the increased growth of bones during adolescence that lead to
adult height and proportions.

Thymus
The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found in the chest posterior to
the sternum. The thymus produces hormones called thymosins that help to
train and develop T-lymphocytes during fetal development and childhood.
The T-lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on to protect the body from
pathogens throughout a person’s entire life. The thymus becomes inactive
during puberty and is slowly replaced by adipose tissue throughout a
person’s life.

Other Hormone Producing Organs

In addition to the glands of the endocrine system, many other non-glandular
organs and tissues in the body produce hormones as well.

1. Heart: The cardiac muscle tissue of the heart is capable of producing the
hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to high blood
pressure levels. ANP works to reduce blood pressure by triggering
vasodilation to provide more space for the blood to travel through. ANP also
reduces blood volume and pressure by causing water and salt to be excreted
out of the blood by the kidneys.

2. Kidneys: The kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) in response

to low levels of oxygen in the blood. EPO released by the kidneys travels to
the red bone marrow where it stimulates an increased production of red blood
cells. The number of red blood cells increases the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood, eventually ending the production of EPO.

3. Digestive System: The hormones cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, and gastrin

are all produced by the organs of the gastrointestinal tract. CCK, secretin, and
gastrin all help to regulate the secretion of pancreatic juice, bile, and gastric
juice in response to the presence of food in the stomach. CCK is also
instrumental in the sensation of satiety or “fullness” after eating a meal.

4. Adipose: Adipose tissue produces the hormone leptin that is involved in the
management of appetite and energy usage by the body. Leptin is produced at
levels relative to the amount of adipose tissue in the body, allowing the brain
to monitor the body’s energy storage condition. When the body contains a
sufficient level of adipose for energy storage, the level of leptin in the blood
tells the brain that the body is not starving and may work normally. If the
level of adipose or leptin decreases below a certain threshold, the body
enters starvation mode and attempts to conserve energy through increased
hunger and food intake and decreased energy usage. Adipose tissue also
produces very low levels of estrogens in both men and women. In obese
people the large volume of adipose tissue may lead to abnormal estrogen
levels.

5. Placenta: In pregnant women, the placenta produces several hormones that

help to maintain pregnancy. Progesterone is produced to relax the uterus,
protect the fetus from the mother’s immune system, and prevent
premature delivery of the fetus. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) assists
 progesterone by signaling the ovaries to maintain the production of estrogen
and progesterone throughout pregnancy.

6. Local Hormones: Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced by

every tissue in the body (except for blood tissue) in response to
damaging stimuli. These two hormones mainly affect the cells that are
local to the source of damage, leaving the rest of the body free to
function normally.

1. Prostaglandins cause swelling, inflammation, increased pain sensitivity,

and increased local body temperature to help block damaged regions
of the body from infection or further damage. They act as the body’s
natural bandages to keep pathogens out and swell around damaged
joints like a natural cast to limit movement.

2. Leukotrienes help the body heal after prostaglandins have taken effect
by reducing inflammation while helping white blood cells to move into
the region to clean up pathogens and damaged tissues.

Physiology of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System Function
The endocrine system works alongside of the nervous system to form the
control systems of the body. The nervous system provides a very fast and
narrowly targeted system to turn on specific glands and muscles throughout
the body. The endocrine system, on the other hand, is much slower acting,
but has very widespread, long lasting, and powerful effects. Hormones are
distributed by glands through the bloodstream to the entire body, affecting
any cell with a receptor for a particular hormone. Most hormones affect cells
in several organs or throughout the entire body, leading to many diverse and
powerful responses.

Hormone Properties
Once hormones have been produced by glands, they are distributed through
the body via the bloodstream. As hormones travel through the body, they
pass through cells or along the plasma membranes of cells until they
encounter a receptor for that particular hormone. Hormones can only affect
target cells that have the appropriate receptors. This property of hormones is
known as specificity. Hormone specificity explains how each hormone can
have specific effects in widespread parts of the body.

Many hormones produced by the endocrine system are classified as tropic

hormones. A tropic hormone is a hormone that is able to trigger the release
of another hormone in another gland. Tropic hormones provide a pathway of
control for hormone production as well as a way for glands to be controlled in
distant regions of the body. Many of the hormones produced by the pituitary
gland, such as TSH, ACTH, and FSH are tropic hormones.

Hormonal Regulation
The levels of hormones in the body can be regulated by several factors. The
nervous system can control hormone levels through the action of the
hypothalamus and its releasing and inhibiting hormones. For example, TRH
produced by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce
TSH. Tropic hormones provide another level of control for the release of
hormones. For example, TSH is a tropic hormone that stimulates the thyroid
gland to produce T3 and T4. Nutrition can also control the levels of hormones
in the body. For example, the thyroid hormones T3 and T4 require 3 or 4
iodine atoms, respectively, to be produced. In people lacking iodine in their
diet, they will fail to produce sufficient levels of thyroid hormones to maintain
a healthy metabolic rate. Finally, the number of receptors present in cells can
be varied by cells in response to hormones. Cells that are exposed to high
levels of hormones for extended periods of time can begin to reduce the
number of receptors that they produce, leading to reduced hormonal control
of the cell.

Classes of Hormones
Hormones are classified into 2 categories depending on their chemical make-
up and solubility: water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones. Each of these
classes of hormones has specific mechanisms for their function that dictate
how they affect their target cells.

1. Water-soluble hormones: Water-soluble hormones include the peptide and

amino-acid hormones such as insulin, epinephrine, HGH, and oxytocin. As
their name indicates, these hormones are soluble in water. Water-soluble
hormones are unable to pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane and are therefore dependent upon receptor molecules on the
surface of cells. When a water-soluble hormone binds to a receptor molecule
on the surface of a cell, it triggers a reaction inside of the cell. This reaction
may change a factor inside of the cell such as the permeability of the
membrane or the activation of another molecule. A common reaction is to
cause molecules of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) to be
synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) present in the cell. cAMP acts
as a second messenger within the cell where it binds to a second receptor to
change the function of the cell’s physiology.

2. Lipid-soluble hormones: Lipid-soluble hormones include the steroid hormones

such as testosterone, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids.
Because they are soluble in lipids, these hormones are able to pass directly
through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and bind directly
to receptors inside the cell nucleus. Lipid-soluble hormones are able to
directly control the function of a cell from these receptors, often triggering
the transcription of particular genes in the DNA to produce “messenger RNAs
(mRNAs)” that are used to make proteins that affect the cell’s growth and
function.
3.

4. Photo: Pond5
5. Normally, the evil villain thwarting your physique goals comes in the form
of chocolate chip cookies or an extra slice of cake. Spotting the culprit?
Well, it’s as easy as pie. But what if the obstacle that stands in your way is
much smaller, even microscopic? You might not be able to see your
hormones, but they play a constant role in how our bodies function;
they’re the chemical messengers that travel, via our bloodstream, to
every organ and tissue in the body. They influence fat storage, sex drive,
energy levels, brain health and a host of other vital functions.

6. We often spend quite a bit of time focusing on external factors of health

like exercise and nutrition. But the internal factors, hormones included,
have a huge say in whether you get that six-pack by summer. To help
you get a better grip on your health and fitness, we’ve highlighted five
hormones that have a powerful influence over your health and what you
can do to control them.
7.

8. Photo: Pond5

9. Testosterone

10. Perhaps one of the most well-known and desired hormones in the weight
room, testosterone isn’t just important for males. Females have it too,
albeit at much lower levels. The hormone is secreted by the testes in
males and in much smaller doses in the ovaries in females. In the right
amounts, testosterone can help to increase muscle massand strength and
might increase brain function. According to Dr. Spencer Nadolsky,
Medical Director at Examine.com, low levels can be detrimental. “What we
find is that unhealthier individuals have lower testosterone … [which can]
have ill effects as they age,” says Dr. Nadolsky. These unfavorable
changes can be a decreased sex drive, a higher level of fat storage, and
an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
11. Optimize your levels: If testosterone is so important to your health, how
exactly can you control it? As with most hormones, everyday lifestyle
factors like getting proper sleep and maintaining a healthy weight
through a balanced diet and regular exercise can go a long way. Need an
extra boost in the right direction? Dietary fat intake and intense exercise
might do the trick. One study showed that saturated and
monounsaturated fat were powerful predictors of testosterone levels.
Intense exercise, particularly interval training, has also been shown to be
a reliable T-booster.

12. RELATED: The Truth About Low Testosterone

13. Growth Hormone

14. If you’ve ever looked into gaining muscle or strength, chances are you’ve
heard about growth hormone. This hormone, made by the pituitary
gland, goes hand-in-hand with testosterone. In the right amounts,
growth hormone helps to increase muscle mass and decrease body fat.
Since aging males often suffer from exactly the opposite effect, growth
hormone is thought of as the anti-aging hormone.

15. Optimize your levels: To stave off signs of aging and increase muscle
growth, the quickest method for increasing growth hormone is injection.
But, that’s not exactly the safest route to go. The good news is that most
individuals will likely have normal levels of growth hormone, Dr. Nadolsky
says, particularly if they have proper nutrition and sleep patterns. Outside
of just maintaining healthy habits, intense exercise seems to be the hero
once again. High-intensity interval training (or HIIT) is one the more
reliable forms of exercise to increase levels of growth hormone and
potentially reduce the effects of aging.

16. Have 10 minutes? Try one of these HIIT routines.

17.

18. Photo: Pond5

19. Estrogen

20. Eating properly and engaging in regular exercise are likely your best bets
against estrogen imbalances.
21. Normally thought of as a female-only hormone, estrogen is actually
present in males as well (albeit at much lower levels). At regular levels,
estrogen helps to regulate female reproductive cycles. In males, Dr.
Nadolsky identifies that estrogen is important for sex drive. As it relates
to exercise, some studies state that estrogen may affect muscle
recovery and brain health. While those benefits aren’t confirmed, one
thing we do know is that estrogen levels can impact how fat is stored in
the body. And excess fat tissue can have a harmful side effect in both
males and females.
22. According to Dr. Nadolsky, excess fat in males helps to turn testosterone
into estradial, a form of estrogen. In females, the same thing occurs.
Excess fat levels convert androgens (a broad term for testosterone-like
hormones) to estrogen. That’s not exactly the shift you want occurring
when you’re trying to build muscle and maintain a lean physique. The
resulting imbalance can lead to more fat storage in both males and
females, creating a circular effect.

23. Optimize your levels: Eating properly and engaging in regular exercise
are likely your best bets against estrogen imbalances (notice a trend
here?). Women will experience a natural shift in estrogen post-
menapause. But, that isn’t to say they lack control over their estrogen
levels in the meantime. Moderating the consumption of
phytoestrogens like soy may help to keep estrogen levels balanced as
they tend to “bind selectively to various estrogen receptors in the
body,” disrupting hormone balance, says Dr. Nadolsky. Since fat tissue is
a powerful influencer, keeping body composition levels in healthy
ranges can also help maintain optimum estrogen levels.

24. Insulin

25. Well-known for it’s role in diabetes, insulin often gets a bad rap. But it
plays a huge role in metabolism. Insulin is an anabolic hormone, meaning
it helps the body to build complex molecules. How it works: When you
eat during the day, the carbohydrates in the food enter your blood
stream. The body then releases insulin, which opens up your cells to
uptake blood sugar (referred to as glucose). The cells, in turn, can build
up their energy stores while keeping blood sugar in check. The danger
comes with over-releasing insulin, which can happen with poor dietary
habits. In that case, our bodies release can develop an insulin resistance,
meaning cells aren’t as sensitive to insulin. To clear blood glucose after a
meal, our bodies need to release even more insulin. This vicious cycle can
lead to type II diabetes.
26. Optimize your levels: Besides mindful eating practices, Dr. Nadolsky
identifies exercise as “one of the most powerful medicines for a diabetic.”
In the short-term, a single workout session can mimic the effects of
insulin on the body, helping to open up cells and shuttle in glucose. The
real benefit occurs with consistent exercise. “In the long run, you can
increase your insulin sensitivity,” says Dr. Nadolsky. This means that you
can help mitigate the symptoms of insulin resistance with your work in
the kitchen and in the gym.

27.

28. Photo: Pond5

29. Cortisol

30. The issue is when cortisol levels are always high. This can be a symptom
of overtraining or just a stressful week of work.
31. Cortisol controls energy levels in times of stress. A long time ago, those
periods of “stress” may have involved outrunning a lion or fighting off a
pack of wolves. Now, stress is usually a result of sitting in traffic or
having a hard deadline to meet at work. Still, our bodies respond to
cortisol in the same way. Periods of stress cause the body to break down
proteins and release glucose into the blood stream. The increased
amounts of energy are meant to help us escape danger or recover from
extreme effort. Cortisol spikes can also be experienced during intense
exercise, and continues to rise as the workout session goes on.

32. Short spikes of the hormone are necessary and not a cause of worry. The
issue is when cortisol levels are always high. This can be a symptom of
overtraining or just a stressful week of work. According to Dr. Nadolsky,
“Chronically-elevated levels of cortisol have been shown to cause
cardiovascular issues and also possible changes in your eating habits,
too.”

33. Optimize your levels: The good news is that you aren’t powerless
against stress. Running, strength training and other forms of exercise can
help decrease stress levels. The key factor is moderation, both for
frequency and intensity. Too many hard sessions in a row could lead to
overtraining and chronically high levels of cortisol. Outside of the
gym, meditation is another powerful antidote for combatting stress.

34. Though small, hormones can have a powerful effect on your body. The
great news is you aren’t powerless against them. Understanding how and
why they affect your health can be a key factor in getting and maintaining
the physique you want. Healthy behaviors like regular exercise (intervals
in particular), proper nutrition and adequate sleep can go a long way in
keeping hormone levels in check.

35. The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both
males and females — that work together for the purpose of procreating,
according to the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the
species, many scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most
important systems in the entire body.
36. The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where
sperm are produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis
and urethra belong to both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The
testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they
normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm
production.

37. The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris,
labia minora, labia majora and Bartholin’s glands, according to the Cleveland
Clinic. The major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the
vagina and uterus — which act as the receptacle for semen — and the ovaries,
which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the
cervix, while the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to
hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg — or more in the case of multiple births —
is released and sent down the fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this
egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation.
38.
39. The female reproductive system.
40. Credit: National Institute of Health

41. Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg,
according to WebMD. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can
also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of
the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo
forms) and morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the
fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates and
contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.
42. Diseases of the female reproductive system
43. Many parts of the male and female reproductive systems can be affected by
cancer. In females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix,
among other organs, according to the American Cancer Society.
44. Many experts have seen what they refer to as the “Angelina Jolie” effect, where
women are taking proactive measures by having breasts and internal
reproductive organs removed if they have a family history of cancer before there
are signs of the disease. “With better genetic testing and screening, we have
seen a number of women who are being more proactive about their reproductive
health,” said Dr. Shana Wingo, who specializes on gynecologic oncology
at Arizona Oncology.

45. Ovarian cancer tends to have a poorer outcome than other gynecological
cancers, Ross noted, because it is not typically diagnosed until it has progressed
significantly. “There is no standard screening available for ovarian cancer, so it is
very difficult to identify it early.”
46. Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and
primary peritoneal cancer are currently being studied, according to the National
Cancer Institute.

47. There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for
cellular changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human
papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the presence of infection with high risk HPV,
the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an
OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.

48. A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only

screening misses more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing,
based on approximately 8.6 million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately
a three-fold improvement in the cancer detection rate of co-testing compared to
HPV only.

49. Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone
when they turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30.
A Pap-plus-HPV test, or co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65,
and if both are negative repeated every five years, regardless of whether they
have received HPV vaccination. “However, there is compelling scientific evidence
that co-testing every three years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer
than every five year co-testing,” Dubin noted.

50. While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common
sexually transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United
States — male and female — will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most
will not experience any symptoms. In a small portion of women it can result in
cervical cancer and genital warts and in men it can cause penile and anal cancer
and genital warts, according to the NIH.

51. Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital
herpes, gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health
(NIH). HIV/AIDS, a disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted
through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is
spread.

52. For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common
disease of the reproductive system occurs with a woman’s monthly menstrual
period, according to Dr. Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Women’s Health Specialist
at Providence Saint John’s Health Center. Ross was also a medical
consultant on the books “Expecting Fitness” and “Two at a Time.”

53. “Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven
days and disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially,”
Ross noted. Diagnosis is made by the patient’s medical history and a pelvic
exam. The best treatment includes medications that block the effects of
 prostaglandins and include ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also
works well in treating dysmenorrhea by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.

54. Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast
infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be
successfully treated with over-the-counter medications, according to WebMD.

55. Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus
— the endometrium — ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries,
bowel or the tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped,
causing pain, according to the Mayo Clinic.

56. Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female
reproductive organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted
diseases, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic
inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. “Any of these STIs can cause
serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include chronic
pelvic pain and infertility,” Ross said.

57. Diseases of the male reproductive system

58. Of male-specific diseases of the reproductive system, prostate cancer is the most
common, but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer, according to
the American Cancer Society.
59.
60. The male reproductive system
61. Credit: National Institute of Health

62. Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and
other health conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer
are surgery, radiation therapy, watchful waiting, and hormonal treatment,
according to the Cleveland Clinic.

63. Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on
a long-term basis, the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular
disease, neurological disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and
psychological episodes.

64. Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland,

according to the Mayo Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and
ejaculation. Nearly half of all men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some
point during their lives.

65. Defining and treating infertility

66. Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of
unprotected intercourse. It can be caused by a condition in one partner or a
combination of circumstances, according to the Mayo Clinic.

67. In males, infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells

(azoospermia) or too few sperm cells (oligospermia), or their sperm cells are
abnormal or die before they can reach the egg. Causes range from chromosomal
defects to hormonal imbalance to tumors. Lifestyle factors, such as drug and
alcohol use, can also play role. In rare cases, infertility in men is caused by an
inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis, according to the Mayo Clinic.

68. In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that

hinders the body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.

69. Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many

issues are treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle
many disorders of their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts
that treat couples who are unable to conceive and endocrinologists who treat
hormonal disorders.

The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the
interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with
hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. In both sexes, the
hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from the
pituitary gland. When the reproductive hormone is required, the
hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to
the anterior pituitary. This causes the release of follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior
pituitary into the blood. Note that the body must reach puberty in order for
the adrenals to release the hormones that must be present for GnRH to be
produced. Although FSH and LH are named after their functions in female
reproduction, they are produced in both sexes and play important roles in
controlling reproduction. Other hormones have specific functions in the
male and female reproductive systems.
Male Hormones
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH and
LH into the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and
stimulates the Sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermatogenesis using
negative feedback, as illustrated in
Figure 24.14. LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial
cells of Leydig to make and release testosterone into the testes and the
blood.
Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual
characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates
spermatogenesis. These secondary sex characteristics include a deepening
of the voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the
beginnings of the sex drive.

Figure 24.14. Hormones control sperm production in a negative feedback system.

A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of

testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit
the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH. The Sertoli cells produce the
hormone inhibin, which is released into the blood when the sperm count
is too high. This inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH, which will cause
spermatogenesis to slow down. If the sperm count reaches 20 million/ml,
the Sertoli cells cease the release of inhibin, and the sperm count increases.
Female Hormones
The control of reproduction in females is more complex. As with the male,
the anterior pituitary hormones cause the release of the hormones FSH and
LH. In addition, estrogens and progesterone are released from the
developing follicles. Estrogen is the reproductive hormone in females that
assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption; it is
also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of females. These
include breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period
necessary for bone maturation. Progesterone assists in endometrial re-
growth and inhibition of FSH and LH release.
In females, FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which
develop in structures called follicles. Follicle cells produce the hormone
inhibin, which inhibits FSH production. LH also plays a role in the
development of ova, induction of ovulation, and stimulation of estradiol
and progesterone production by the ovaries. Estradiol and progesterone are
steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol produces
secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and
progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle.
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and
release of eggs, while the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and
maintenance of the uterine lining. These cycles occur concurrently and are
coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle, with an average length of 28 days.
The first half of the ovarian cycle is the follicular phase shown in Figure
24.15. Slowly rising levels of FSH and LH cause the growth of follicles on
the surface of the ovary. This process prepares the egg for ovulation. As the
follicles grow, they begin releasing estrogens and a low level of
progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium to help ensure
pregnancy. The trip through the fallopian tube takes about seven days. At
this stage of development, called the morula, there are 30-60 cells. If
pregnancy implantation does not occur, the lining is sloughed off. After
about five days, estrogen levels rise and the menstrual cycle enters the
proliferative phase. The endometrium begins to regrow, replacing the blood
vessels and glands that deteriorated during the end of the last cycle.
 Figure 24.15. The ovarian and menstrual cycles of female reproduction are regulated by
hormones produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries.

Which of the following statements about hormone regulation of the female

reproductive cycle is false?
1. LH and FSH are produced in the pituitary, and estradiol and progesterone
are produced in the ovaries.
2. Estradiol and progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum cause the
endometrium to thicken.
3. Both progesterone and estradiol are produced by the follicles.
4. Secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited by low levels of
estradiol but stimulated by high levels of estradiol.
Just prior to the middle of the cycle (approximately day 14), the high level
of estrogen causes FSH and especially LH to rise rapidly, then fall. The
spike in LH causes ovulation: the most mature follicle, like that shown
in Figure 24.16, ruptures and releases its egg. The follicles that did not
rupture degenerate and their eggs are lost. The level of estrogen decreases
when the extra follicles degenerate.

Figure 24.16. This mature egg follicle may rupture and release an egg. (credit: scale-bar data
from Matt Russell)

Following ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters its luteal phase, illustrated
in Figure 24.15 and the menstrual cycle enters its secretory phase, both of
which run from about day 15 to 28. The luteal and secretory phases refer to
changes in the ruptured follicle. The cells in the follicle undergo physical
changes and produce a structure called a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum
produces estrogen and progesterone. The progesterone facilitates the
regrowth of the uterine lining and inhibits the release of further FSH and
LH. The uterus is being prepared to accept a fertilized egg, should it occur
during this cycle. The inhibition of FSH and LH prevents any further eggs
and follicles from developing, while the progesterone is elevated. The level
of estrogen produced by the corpus luteum increases to a steady level for
the next few days.
If no fertilized egg is implanted into the uterus, the corpus luteum
degenerates and the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease. The
endometrium begins to degenerate as the progesterone levels drop,
initiating the next menstrual cycle. The decrease in progesterone also
allows the hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary, releasing
FSH and LH and starting the cycles again. Figure 24.17 visually compares
the ovarian and uterine cycles as well as the commensurate hormone levels.

Figure 24.17. Rising and falling hormone levels result in progression of the ovarian and
menstrual cycles. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)

Which of the following statements about the menstrual cycle is false?

1. Progesterone levels rise during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and the
secretory phase of the uterine cycle.
2. Menstruation occurs just after LH and FSH levels peak.
3. Menstruation occurs after progesterone levels drop.
4. Estrogen levels rise before ovulation, while progesterone levels rise after.
Menopause
As women approach their mid-40s to mid-50s, their ovaries begin to lose
their sensitivity to FSH and LH. Menstrual periods become less frequent
and finally cease; this is menopause. There are still eggs and potential
follicles on the ovaries, but without the stimulation of FSH and LH, they
will not produce a viable egg to be released. The outcome of this is the
inability to have children.
The side effects of menopause include hot flashes, heavy sweating
(especially at night), headaches, some hair loss, muscle pain, vaginal
dryness, insomnia, depression, weight gain, and mood swings. Estrogen is
involved in calcium metabolism and, without it, blood levels of calcium
decrease. To replenish the blood, calcium is lost from bone which may
decrease the bone density and lead to osteoporosis. Supplementation of
estrogen in the form of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can prevent
bone loss, but the therapy can have negative side effects. While HRT is
thought to give some protection from colon cancer, osteoporosis, heart
disease, macular degeneration, and possibly depression, its negative side
effects include increased risk of: stroke or heart attack, blood clots, breast
cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, gall bladder disease, and
possibly dementia.

Reproductive Endocrinologist
A reproductive endocrinologist is a physician who treats a variety of
hormonal disorders related to reproduction and infertility in both men and
women. The disorders include menstrual problems, infertility, pregnancy
loss, sexual dysfunction, and menopause. Doctors may use fertility drugs,
surgery, or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) in their therapy. ART
involves the use of procedures to manipulate the egg or sperm to facilitate
reproduction, such as in vitro fertilization.
Reproductive endocrinologists undergo extensive medical training, first in
a four-year residency in obstetrics and gynecology, then in a three-year
fellowship in reproductive endocrinology. To be board certified in this area,
the physician must pass written and oral exams in both areas.

You are here: Home / Fitness Articles / Endocrine System / Hormones and the Endocrine System

Hormones and the Endocrine System

To ensure your clients adapt to exercise in the way they desire you
must understand how hormones govern those adaptations. Here it
is then; the endocrine system explained.

What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is a control system of the human body much like the nervous system. The
endocrine system produces chemical messages in the form of hormones, whereas the

nervous system produces electrical messages.

The endocrine system is made up of lots ofspecialised endocrine glands that secrete hormones into
the bloodstream.
Some of the major endocrine glands are shown on this diagram.

What does the endocrine system do?

The hormones that are secreted by the endocrine glands are chemical messengers which are
carried by the bloodstream to other tissues or organs in the body. The messages they deliver tell
these tissues or organs to either increase or decrease their activity.
Hormones act only on target tissues or organs that have the appropriate receptor sites for that
given hormone. In this way hormonal messages are delivered to, and act on, only the areas of the

body they are intended for.

The endocrine system is linked to the nervous system by effects of the hypothalamus on the
pituitary gland, as seen in the adjacent image.
The pituitary gland is known as the ‘master gland’ because its secretions control the activity of
other endocrine glands. The activity of the pituitary gland is however controlled by the
hypothalamus which as well as being an endocrine gland, is also part of the nervous system.
Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system coordinates the body’s functions to maintain
homeostasis during rest and exercise. The nervous and endocrine systems also work together to
initiate and control movement, and all the physiological processes movement involves.
Where the nervous system acts quickly (virtually instantly) delivering messages by nerve impulses,
the endocrine system has a slower but longer lasting response which compliments the nervous
system. The endocrine system regulates growth, development and reproduction and augments
the body’s capacity for handling physical and psychological stress.

Why is the endocrine system important?

 The endocrine system and the
hormones it releases influence almost every cell, organ and function of our body. In general these
hormones are in charge of body processes that occur slowly such as mood regulation, growth and
development, tissue function, metabolism, sexual function and reproductive processes. Other
body processes that require a faster response such as breathing and body movements are
controlled by the nervous system.

When training clients you are essentially trying to elicit

the best possible hormone response in order to help them achieve their goals. For example if a
client wants to increase muscle mass it is important that they undertake the correct type of
training to release more growth hormone. This will help them repair and grow more muscle after
the training session.
It’s therefore critically important to have a good understanding of the endocrine system and some
of the key hormones, as this will help to ensure your training doesn't over stress your clients
endocrine system and instead provides the ideal training stimulus to achieve the desired hormonal
response.
 The endocrine system and fitness

The endocrine system and fitness go hand in hand. Whether you are eating your last big meal
before running a marathon, playing a game of football or recovering after a training session in the
gym the endocrine system is constantly working.
An accompanying page in this folder summarises the major endocrine glands, the hormones they
release, the tissues and organs they target and the effects they have with exercise. We will briefly
cover some of these hormones now as they relate to exercise.

Key hormones and the regulation of hormone activity

During exercise several hormones (adrenaline, nor adrenaline, growth hormone and cortisol)
function together to mobilise fuel for the production of ATP (energy) for the exercise
These hormones affect the cells on three primary target tissues during exercise, these are:
1. Fat
2. Liver
3. Skeletal muscle
When they bind to receptors on fat cells, fat storage is inhibited and fat mobilisation is enhanced
for energy. When they bind to receptors on the liver, glycogen is broken down into glucose for
readily available energy. When they bind to receptors on skeletal muscle, stored glycogen is
broken down into glucose and the uptake and utilisation of fatty acids for energy is increased.
Hormones – glucagon and insulin
Glucagon and insulin are both secreted by the pancreas and act antagonistically to each other in
order to maintain blood glucose levels, as shown in the adjacent diagram.
With exercise there is a greater demand from muscle tissue for blood glucose for fuel, causing
blood glucose levels to drop. Glucagon levels consequently increase with exercise and insulin levels
are simultaneously suppressed.
This is vital as it ensures that blood glucose levels do not drop too low as the brain (neural tissue)
can only use glucose to produce energy. If there wasn’t any glucose in the blood the brain would be
starved of fuel…which in case you’re wondering is definitely NOT a good thing – in fact it can be
downright fatal!

Hormones – adrenaline and nor adrenaline

Adrenaline and nor adrenaline also help to enhance cardiac (heart) function by increasing heart
rate, constricting blood vessels and increasing blood pressure. This in turn helps to distribute blood
flow to active tissues, providing these tissues with the energy and oxygen they need.
How is activity at the ‘target tissues’ regulated?
As we previously mentioned hormones are designed to affect specific target tissues that have the
correct receptors. Think of the receptors as a lock and the hormone as a key, if the key fits the lock
then the hormone can affect the target tissue.

However there are three things that influence the activity of hormones on the target tissue, these
are:

1. Number of receptors: The number

of receptors for a specific hormone can be altered to meet the demands placed upon the body over
time. Up regulation means more receptors have developed. Down regulation means there are less
receptors. Up and down regulation changes the cells sensitivity to hormones.
This is one reason exercise is beneficial for people with type II diabetes or at risk of developing type
II diabetes.
This is because it can help to increase the sensitivity of the tissues receptor cells to the hormone
insulin, this in turn helps to control blood glucose (sugar) levels and even increase the total number
of receptor cells on the target tissue.
Up regulation of receptor cells can also be seen when we look at growth hormone and the effect of
exercise. Completing a well structured resistance training programme aimed at muscle growth
stimulates an increase in the number of receptor cells within muscle tissue.
2. Chemical bond: The chemical bonding between a hormone
and its receptor can be weak or strong. A strong bond will result in a greater reaction in the target
tissues than a weak bond.
For example, with exercise greater demand is placed on the body for fuel for the working muscles.
Glucagon is one hormone that ensures that there is a regular supply of glucose in the blood for use
by working muscles. With exercise over time the bonds between glucagon and its receptors
strengthen to meet the increased demands for glucose from the working muscle.
Completing a well structured resistance training programme aimed at muscle growth will also
increase the sensitivity of the receptor cells to growth hormone and result in a stronger bond.

3. Blood hormone levels: Lastly the level of the hormone in the

blood at any one moment will affect the response of the tissues.
The greater the stress that is put on the body the greater the hormonal response will be in order to
meet the demands of the body and to maintain homeostasis.
We see this with growth hormone in the adjacent diagram, which is released by the pituitary gland
under the control of the hypothalamus.
Growth hormone acts on most tissues in the body, with two of its key roles being to stimulate cell
growth and mobilise fat for energy.
Intense resistance training (heavy weights) stimulates the release of greater quantities of growth
hormone than less intense forms of exercise. Consequently intense resistance training has a
greater response (growth in skeletal muscle) than other less intense forms of exercise. This is due
to the larger quantities of growth hormone that are released into the bloodstream.

How is the level of hormones in the blood regulated?

Hormones are released into the blood in brief spurts. Having the correct amount of hormones in
the blood when needed is vital in order for them to effectively carryout their functions. Too much
or not enough of certain hormones can put stress on systems and have negative effects like weight
gain or depression.
For this reason it is important that the amount of hormones circulating in the blood at any given
time is regulated and controlled, this is achieved through the following three methods:

1. Neural stimulation: Neural stimulation of hormones occurs

when a stress is present. The hypothalamus and sympathetic nervous system activate the
adrenalin gland to release adrenalin and noradrenalin.
This in turn increases heart rate and metabolic rate to allow enough blood sugars to be circulating
to provide adequate fuelling of muscle and nerve tissue. An example of this response, which is
rapid and can be significant, is the ‘fight or flight’ reaction.
2. Hormonal secretions (hormones that affect other hormones): Hormones also influence the
release of other hormones. The hypothalamus makes and secretes hormones that act on the
pituitary gland to promote or inhibit its secretion of other hormones.
Regulation of hormone release in this form is usually achieved through a ‘negative feedback loop’.
An example would be that high levels of hormone ‘A’ causes hormone ‘B’ to be secreted. Hormone
‘B’ acts on the gland that secretes hormone ‘A’, inhibiting further secretion of ‘A’. Once hormone ‘B’
levels begin to drop the gland begins to secrete ‘A’ again.

3. Blood conditions (what is in the blood at

any time): Blood conditions refers to the levels of ions, nutrients, bile and other body compounds
circulating in the blood.
For example, high blood glucose levels signal the pancreas to release the hormone insulin. The
higher the levels of blood sugar the greater the amount of insulin released by the pancreas. Insulin
helps glucose to enter muscle and liver cells, thereby lowering blood glucose levels and removing
the stimulus for further insulin release from the pancreas.

How negative feedback loops work – a closer look at the hormone cortisol
Out of the three hormonal control systems previously mentioned, the most predominant is the
negative feedback loop (hormones that affect hormones). It works in a similar way to how a
thermostat in a heat pump works.
The thermostat detects the temperature is too low and turns the hot air on. As the hot air raises
the temperature to the set optimal level the thermostat turns the heat pump off.
In the endocrine system, receptors in the body register that the amount of hormone or compounds
in the blood are not optimal and cause a release or inhibition of hormones to manage the situation.
 A good example of this concerns the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is
known as the ‘stress’ hormone as it is secreted in higher levels when higher levels of stress (physical
and psychological) are present.
Cortisol works on target tissues to increase blood glucose levels. It does this by aiding the
metabolism of carbohydrate reserves from the liver as well as breaking down fat and protein to
help provide quick bursts of energy.
As protein is primarily used in the body to build and repair tissue, cortisol is known as a ‘catabolic’
or breakdown hormone, as it interferes with the ‘anabolic’ or building functions of protein.
Cortisol is very much a ‘fight or flight’ hormone, akin to the sympathetic division of the nervous
system. Small increases have positive effects such as providing a quick burst of energy and
lowering sensitivity to pain via an anti-inflammatory action. It is important that the levels of
cortisol are regulated as prolonged elevated levels have negative effects.
We see how cortisol is regulated via a negative feedback loop in the adjacent

diagram.
A physical or psychological stressor causes the hypothalamus to secrete corticotrophin releasing
hormone (CRH) which causes the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
which in turn tells the adrenal glands to release cortisol.
As well as acting on its target tissues (liver, fat, muscle etc) cortisol also sends ‘negative feedback’
to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary telling them to stop secreting CRH and ACTH, and by
virtue of this limiting the further release of cortisol.
Unfortunately this regulatory response is not as effective if the stressors that caused cortisol to be
released in the first place remain.
Intense exercise, financial stress, business stress, relationship stress, work stress etc are
increasingly prevalent in today’s society. If the stressors remain then so do the stimulants for
elevated cortisol levels, irrespective of the negative feedback loop.
If cortisol remains elevated for a prolonged period of time the positive effects it can have become
negative. As the body stays in a catabolic ‘breakdown’ state there is a loss in muscle tissue,
immunity is lowered, people become more vulnerable to illness, there is an increase in the storage
of abdominal fat and imbalances in blood sugar levels develop.
It is important to understand that cortisol is not responsible for this; rather the stressors that have
caused cortisol to remain elevated are responsible. As a trainer you need to be able to recognise
when clients are highly stressed and make sure you don’t add to their stress levels by destroying
them in the gym with long hard workouts. The stressors must be removed or minimised through
various means of relaxation if positive results are to occur.

Feedback Mechanism-Negative feedback and

Positive feedback
Feedback Mechanism: It is the general mechanism of nervous or hormonal
control and regulation in Human.
Feedback system consists of a cycle of events in which information about a
change is fed back into the system so that the regulator (brain) can control the
process.
Negative feed-back mechanism
The receptors (sensory cells) present on the body of vertebrates constantly
monitors the reference point of internal environment. Any changes in the internal
environment can activates the receptor cells, which relay messages to the
control center (Brain or spinal cord). The control center determines the deviation
and activates the effectors. Effectors are generally muscles or glands. The
effectors respond to the stimulus and corrects the reference point either by
increasing or decreasing the activities. As soon as the system is corrected, the
control center and effectors are turned off by the mechanism called Negative
feed-back.

In negative feed-back mechanism, changes occurring in the system

automatically activates the corrective mechanism, which reverse the changes
and bring back the system to the normal. The principle of thermostat is analog to
the Negative feed-back mechanism. In thermostat, when the temperature
exceeds the normal ranges, the receptor detects the changes and signals the
control center of thermostat to turn off the heating plate, allowing the
thermostat to cool down. When the thermostat cool down below the set point, it
turn ON the heating plates, so the temperature starts rise again.

The mechanism of Negative feed-back in biological system can be illustrated

with the example given below.

Negative feed-back mechanism of thyroid gland

Lower concentration of thyroxine hormone in blood alters the cellular activities

ie. Decrease in basic metabolic rates or temperature. Decreases in BMR
stimulates neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus to secrete thyrotropin releasing
hormone (TRH). The releasing of TRH causes anterior pituitary gland to secrete
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to
release thyroxine. Thyroxin causes an increase in the metabolic activity,
generating ATP energy and heat and eventually restore homeostasis. Both the
raised body temperature and higher thyroxine levels in the body feed-back to
inhibit the releasing of TRH and TSH.

Figure: Regulation of Thyroxine hormone; an example of Negative feedback

mechanism

Most human system achieve homeostasis by Negative feed-back mechanism.

Body temperature, blood glucose level, Blood PH, Blood pressure, Hormone level,
Oxygen and Carbon-dioxide level, water and electrolyte balance etc are all
controlled by negative feed-back.

Positive feed-back mechanism

Positive feedback mechanism causes destabilizing effects in the body, so does
not results in homeostasis. It is mainly responsible for amplification of the
changes caused by the stimulus.
Positive feedback is relatively less common than negative feedback, since it
leads to unstable condition and extreme state. Most positive feedback
mechanisms are harmful and in some cases resulting in death. For example, if a
person breathes air that has very high carbon dioxide content. The amount of
oxygen in blood decreases while the concentration of carbon-dioxide in blood
increases. This is sensed by carbon dioxide receptors, which cause the breathing
rate to increase. So the person breathes faster, taking in more carbon dioxide,
which stimulates the receptors even more, so they breathe faster and faster
which ultimately results in death.

In some cases, the positive feed-back is very useful. Such as during blood
clotting, fever, child birth, breast feeding etc. Positive feedback also plays a role
in the contractions of the uterus during child birth. The contraction of uterine
wall is caused by oxytocin hormone. In this case, stretching of the uterus by the
fetus stimulates oxytocin release which results in contraction of uterus, and
contraction causes further stretching and release of oxytocin; the cycle
continues until the fetus is expelled from the uterus.
What is a menstrual cycle?

The menstrual cycle is a

cycle of body changes controlled by female hormones that cause a
regular bleed. This bleed, which usually occurs monthly, comes from
the uterus (womb) and flows out from the vagina. 'Period',
'menstruation' or 'menses' are all words used to describe the blood
loss women experience at this time.

The menstrual cycle begins at menarche (the first period) and ends
with menopause (the final period). Every woman's cycle is unique and
individual. The average age of menarche in Western countries is 12-13
years, but it can start as early as nine and as late as 16. If your periods
have not started by 16-17, you should see your doctor to investigate
why they haven't started. Most women reach menopause between 45-
55 years and the average age of menopause for women from a western
country is 51-52 years.

Why do you have a menstrual cycle?

The role of the menstrual cycle is to prepare the body for pregnancy.
When a pregnancy does not occur, a period results. On average, a
woman in Australia will have 450-500 periods in her lifetime.
How does the menstrual cycle occur?
The menstrual cycle occurs because of a complex relationship
between hormones from the brain and ovaries, which leads to the
development and release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation) and
growth of the internal lining (endometrium) of the uterus, to prepare it
for pregnancy. When the hormones signal the uterus that there is no
pregnancy, the lining starts to break down and separate from the wall
of the uterus and the period begins. Once the lining has separated
from the wall of the uterus, the cycle starts again.

How long is a normal menstrual cycle?

Menstrual cycles vary between women and are measured from the first
day of the period to the first day of the next period. In adolescents a
cycle may be as long as 45 days, however by the 20s-30s a cycle is
usually between 21-38 days.

For a 28 day cycle:

Day 1 Day Day Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

2 3

Day 8 Day Day Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14

9 10

Day 15 Day Day Day 18 Day 19 Day Day

16 17 20 21

Day Day Day Day Day Day Day

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Periods change over a woman's lifetime. Sometimes they change after

pregnancy and in some women they get heavier in perimenopause
(perimenopause is the transition time from regular periods to the final
period and menopause) and lighter and shorter closer to the final
period or menopause.
What to expect during your period?
The bleeding can vary in quality and quantity, from a small amount to a
heavy loss, and can vary in colour from black/brown to bright red. The
period may last from four to eight days, and most women lose less
than 80ml of blood (about 1/3 of a cup) in total.

The flow changes over the course of your period and can be heavier for
the first three days and then lighter in the next few days. The blood
colour will reflect this change in flow rate and may change from dark
or bright red initially, to dark brown later in the cycle. The period
contains blood, mucous and some cells from the lining of the uterus.
Some small clots may be normal, but if the clots become frequent or
larger, see your doctor.

In some women, at the time of ovulation (release of an egg from the

ovary), which usually occurs about two weeks before the next period,
there may be some slight spotting and/or pain. This is because of a
normal change in some of the hormones following ovulation. If pain or
bleeding at the time of ovulation frequently last longer than three days,
you may need to see your doctor, especially if you know you are at
higher risk of endometrial (uterine) cancer.

Odour (smell)
Most women have some odour related to bleeding, but little is known
about why it is sometimes stronger. If the odour is so strong it worries
you, then discuss your concerns with your doctor.

Bowel habits
The body makes substances called prostaglandins (natural body
chemical), especially just before, and in the first few days of, the
period. These prostaglandins cause muscle contractions in internal
organs and in combination with the hormonal pattern in the
premenstrual week can cause changes in bowel habits. Some women
notice difficulty in opening their bowels just prior to their period as if
they are constipated, and then when the period starts the bowel
motions becomes loose.
Signs or symptoms before your period
Premenstrual symptoms may occur in the one to two weeks before
your period. Symptoms may include irritability, bloating, pimples and
tiredness. Normally these symptoms might be irritating but would not
interfere with your day to day activities. More commonly, around two–
thirds of women experience some breast pain during their cycle.
Symptoms appear to peak in adolescence and again in perimenopause,
possibly because of fluctuating hormone levels.

If you are having regular periods but have spotting of blood for a week
or so before each period there can be several reasons for this so see
your doctor.

Period symptoms usually settle when the period starts or in the first
two to three days of the period. Period pain that interferes with your
everyday life is not normal. 15-20% of women have symptoms so
severe their lifestyle is affected and they cannot function properly. If
this occurs, you should seek help from your doctor.

Sanitary products

Pads
Pads, sanitary pads or napkins are made of absorbent material and
come in a range of thicknesses and shapes. Pads may need to be
changed three to four hourly on the heaviest day. If you find that using
pads causes irritation, you may need to use pads that are made from
100 per cent cotton and are scent free. Reusable, environmentally
friendly pads are available.

Tampons
Tampons are absorbent 'plugs' made of cotton, or a combination of
cotton and a synthetic material. Tampons are inserted into the vagina
and are available in various sizes. They can be used by all ages and
should be changed every three to four hours.
 Very rarely, toxic shock syndrome can occur when using tampons. This
is due to a rapid growth of normal bacteria releasing a toxin, which
leads to symptoms of 'shock' such as feeling unwell, fever, rash,
diarrhoea and headache. Never keep a tampon inserted in your vagina
for more than eight hours and always wash your hands before
inserting.

Menstrual cup
The menstrual cup has been available for many years and is long-
lasting (up to 5-10 years) but is used by a very small number of women.
The menstrual cup (made out of either rubber (latex), silicone or
thermoplastic rubbers) sits in the vagina over the cervix and collects
the menstrual flow. It should be washed at least every 12 hours using
fresh or soapy water only. Menstrual cups are considered
environmentally friendly as they are reusable. They are a number of
menstrual cups available including Lunette and Femmecup.

When to see your doctor

There are many reasons you may need to see your doctor about your
periods including:

1. changes in the pattern of your period

2. increasingly heavy periods
3. long periods of more than 8 days
4. periods that come less than 3 weeks apart
5. periods coming more than 2-3 months apart
6. painful periods causing you to stay home
7. bleeding between periods
8. bleeding after intercourse
Your menstrual cycle is a normal process for your body. Each woman
experiences her menstrual cycle differently, most without any
difficulties. If there is any change in the cycle that worries you, see
your doctor.
What is DNA?
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans
and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body
has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is
called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in
the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical

bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human
DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of
those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of
these bases determines the information available for building and
maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the
alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units
called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and
a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are
called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that
form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is
somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs
and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical
sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies

of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern
for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide
because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA
present in the old cell.

DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-

phosphate backbone.
What is a gene?
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes,
which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules
called proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA
bases to more than 2 million bases. The Human Genome Project has
estimated that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.

Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each
parent. Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of
genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between
people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in
their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to
each person’s unique physical features.

Genes are made up of DNA. Each chromosome contains many genes.

What is mitochondrial DNA?
Although most DNA is packaged in chromosomes within the nucleus,
mitochondria also have a small amount of their own DNA. This genetic
material is known as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA.

Mitochondria are structures within cells that convert the energy from
food into a form that cells can use. Each cell contains hundreds to
thousands of mitochondria, which are located in the fluid that
surrounds the nucleus (the cytoplasm).

Mitochondria produce energy through a process called oxidative

phosphorylation. This process uses oxygen and simple sugars to
create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy source. A
set of enzyme complexes, designated as complexes I-V, carry out
oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria.

In addition to energy production, mitochondria play a role in several

other cellular activities. For example, mitochondria help regulate the
self-destruction of cells (apoptosis). They are also necessary for the
production of substances such as cholesterol and heme (a component
of hemoglobin, the molecule that carries oxygen in the blood).

Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for

normal mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these genes provide
instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
The remaining genes provide instructions for making molecules called
transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), which are
chemical cousins of DNA. These types of RNA help assemble protein
building blocks (amino acids) into functioning proteins.

What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid, or RNA is one of the three major biological macromolecules that are essential for all
known forms of life (along with DNA and proteins). A central tenet of molecular biology states that the flow
of genetic information in a cell is from DNA through RNA to proteins: “DNA makes RNA makes
protein”. Proteins are the workhorses of the cell; they play leading roles in the cell as enzymes, as
structural components, and in cell signaling, to name just a few. DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) is considered
the “blueprint” of the cell; it carries all of the genetic information required for the cell to grow, to take in
nutrients, and to propagate. RNA–in this role–is the “DNA photocopy” of the cell. When the cell needs to
produce a certain protein, it activates the protein’s gene–the portion of DNA that codes for that protein–
and produces multiple copies of that piece of DNA in the form of messenger RNA, or mRNA. The multiple
copies of mRNA are then used to translate the genetic code into protein through the action of the cell’s
protein manufacturing machinery, the ribosomes. Thus, RNA expands the quantity of a given protein that
can be made at one time from one given gene, and it provides an important control point for regulating
when and how much protein gets made.
For many years RNA was believed to have only three major roles in the cell–as a DNA photocopy
(mRNA), as a coupler between the genetic code and the protein building blocks (tRNA), and as a
structural component of ribosomes (rRNA). In recent years, however, we have begun to realize that the
roles adopted by RNA are much broader and much more interesting. We now know that RNA can also act
as enzymes (called ribozymes) to speed chemical reactions. In a number of clinically important viruses
RNA, rather than DNA, carries the viral genetic information. RNA also plays an important role in regulating
cellular processes–from cell division, differentiation and growth to cell aging and death. Defects in certain
RNAs or the regulation of RNAs have been implicated in a number of important human diseases,
including heart disease, some cancers, stroke and many others.

The Central Dogma

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the two-step process, transcription and
translation, by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA → RNA → protein.
Transcription is the synthesis of an RNA copy of a segment of DNA. RNA is synthesized by the
enzyme RNA polymerase.

The genes in DNA encode protein molecules, which are the "workhorses" of the cell, carrying out all the functions necessary
for life. For example, enzymes, including those that metabolize nutrients and synthesize new cellular constituents, as well as
DNA polymerases and other enzymes that make copies of DNA during cell division, are all proteins.
In the simplest sense, expressing a gene means manufacturing its corresponding protein, and this multilayered process has
two major steps. In the first step, the information in DNA is transferred to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule by way of a
process called transcription. During transcription, the DNA of a gene serves as a template for complementary base-pairing,
and an enzyme called RNA polymerase II catalyzes the formation of a pre-mRNA molecule, which is then processed to form
mature mRNA (Figure 1). The resulting mRNA is a single-stranded copy of the gene, which next must be translated into a
protein molecule.
Figure 1: A gene is expressed through the processes of transcription and translation.

During transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase (green) uses DNA as a template to produce a pre-mRNA transcript (pink).
The pre-mRNA is processed to form a mature mRNA molecule that can be translated to build the protein molecule
(polypeptide) encoded by the original gene.

© 2013 Nature Education All rights reserved.

Figure Detail

During translation, which is the second major step in gene expression, the mRNA is "read" according to the genetic code,
which relates the DNA sequence to the amino acid sequence in proteins (Figure 2). Each group of three bases in mRNA
constitutes a codon, and each codon specifies a particular amino acid (hence, it is a triplet code). The mRNA sequence is
thus used as a template to assemble—in order—the chain of amino acids that form a protein.
Figure 2: The amino acids specified by each mRNA codon. Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid.

The codons are written 5' to 3', as they appear in the mRNA. AUG is an initiation codon; UAA, UAG, and UGA are
termination (stop) codons.

© 2014 Nature Education All rights reserved.

Figure Detail

But where does translation take place within a cell? What individual substeps are a part of this process? And does
translation differ between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? The answers to questions such as these reveal a great deal about
the essential similarities between all species.

Where Translation Occurs

Within all cells, the translation machinery resides within a specialized organelle called the ribosome. In eukaryotes, mature
mRNA molecules must leave the nucleus and travel to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes are located. On the other hand,
in prokaryotic organisms, ribosomes can attach to mRNA while it is still being transcribed. In this situation, translation begins
at the 5' end of the mRNA while the 3' end is still attached to DNA.
In all types of cells, the ribosome is composed of two subunits: the large (50S) subunit and the small (30S) subunit (S, for
svedberg unit, is a measure of sedimentation velocity and, therefore, mass). Each subunit exists separately in the
cytoplasm, but the two join together on the mRNA molecule. The ribosomal subunits contain proteins and specialized RNA
molecules—specifically, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). The tRNA molecules are adaptor molecules—they
have one end that can read the triplet code in the mRNA through complementary base-pairing, and another end that
attaches to a specific amino acid (Chapeville et al., 1962; Grunberger et al., 1969). The idea that tRNA was an adaptor
molecule was first proposed by Francis Crick, co-discoverer of DNA structure, who did much of the key work in deciphering
the genetic code (Crick, 1958).
Within the ribosome, the mRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA complexes are held together closely, which facilitates base-pairing.
The rRNA catalyzes the attachment of each new amino acid to the growing chain.

The Beginning of mRNA Is Not Translated

Interestingly, not all regions of an mRNA molecule correspond to particular amino acids. In particular, there is an area near
the 5' end of the molecule that is known as the untranslated region (UTR) or leader sequence. This portion of mRNA is
located between the first nucleotide that is transcribed and the start codon (AUG) of the coding region, and it does not affect
the sequence of amino acids in a protein (Figure 3).
So, what is the purpose of the UTR? It turns out that the leader sequence is important because it contains a ribosome-
binding site. In bacteria, this site is known as the Shine-Dalgarno box (AGGAGG), after scientists John Shine and Lynn
Dalgarno, who first characterized it. A similar site in vertebrates was characterized by Marilyn Kozak and is thus known as
the Kozak box. In bacterial mRNA, the 5' UTR is normally short; in human mRNA, the median length of the 5' UTR is about
170 nucleotides. If the leader is long, it may contain regulatory sequences, including binding sites for proteins, that can affect
the stability of the mRNA or the efficiency of its translation.

Figure 3: A DNA transcription unit.

A DNA transcription unit is composed, from its 3' to 5' end, of an RNA-coding region (pink rectangle) flanked by a promoter
region (green rectangle) and a terminator region (black rectangle). Regions to the left, or moving towards the 3' end, of the
transcription start site are considered \"upstream;\" regions to the right, or moving towards the 5' end, of the transcription
start site are considered \"downstream.\"

© 2014 Nature Education Adapted from Pierce, Benjamin. Genetics: A Conceptual Approach, 2nd ed. All rights
reserved.

Translation Begins After the Assembly of a Complex Structure

The translation of mRNA begins with the formation of a complex on the mRNA (Figure 4). First, three initiation factor proteins
(known as IF1, IF2, and IF3) bind to the small subunit of the ribosome. This preinitiation complex and a methionine-carrying
tRNA then bind to the mRNA, near the AUG start codon, forming the initiation complex.
Figure 4: The translation initiation complex.

When translation begins, the small subunit of the ribosome and an initiator tRNA molecule assemble on the mRNA
transcript. The small subunit of the ribosome has three binding sites: an amino acid site (A), a polypeptide site (P), and an
exit site (E). The initiator tRNA molecule carrying the amino acid methionine binds to the AUG start codon of the mRNA
transcript at the ribosome’s P site where it will become the first amino acid incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain.
Here, the initiator tRNA molecule is shown binding after the small ribosomal subunit has assembled on the mRNA; the order
in which this occurs is unique to prokaryotic cells. In eukaryotes, the free initiator tRNA first binds the small ribosomal
subunit to form a complex. The complex then binds the mRNA transcript, so that the tRNA and the small ribosomal subunit
bind the mRNA simultaneously.

© 2013 Nature Education All rights reserved.

Figure Detail

Although methionine (Met) is the first amino acid incorporated into any new protein, it is not always the first amino acid in
mature proteins—in many proteins, methionine is removed after translation. In fact, if a large number of proteins are
sequenced and compared with their known gene sequences, methionine (or formylmethionine) occurs at the N-terminus of
all of them. However, not all amino acids are equally likely to occur second in the chain, and the second amino acid
influences whether the initial methionine is enzymatically removed. For example, many proteins begin with methionine
followed by alanine. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, these proteins have the methionine removed, so that alanine
becomes the N-terminal amino acid (Table 1). However, if the second amino acid is lysine, which is also frequently the case,
methionine is not removed (at least in the sample proteins that have been studied thus far). These proteins therefore begin
with methionine followed by lysine (Flinta et al., 1986).

Table 1 shows the N-terminal sequences of proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, based on a sample of 170 prokaryotic
and 120 eukaryotic proteins (Flinta et al., 1986). In the table, M represents methionine, A represents alanine, K represents
lysine, S represents serine, and T represents threonine.
Table 1: N-Terminal Sequences of Proteins
N-Terminal Percent of Prokaryotic Percent of Eukaryotic
Sequence Proteins with This Sequence Proteins with This
Sequence

MA* 28.24% 19.17%

MK** 10.59% 2.50%

MS* 9.41% 11.67%

MT* 7.65% 6.67%

* Methionine was removed in all of these proteins

** Methionine was not removed from any of these proteins

Once the initiation complex is formed on the mRNA, the large ribosomal subunit binds to this complex, which causes the
release of IFs (initiation factors). The large subunit of the ribosome has three sites at which tRNA molecules can bind. The A
(amino acid) site is the location at which the aminoacyl-tRNA anticodon base pairs up with the mRNA codon, ensuring that
correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain. The P (polypeptide) site is the location at which the amino acid
is transferred from its tRNA to the growing polypeptide chain. Finally, the E (exit) site is the location at which the "empty"
tRNA sits before being released back into the cytoplasm to bind another amino acid and repeat the process. The initiator
methionine tRNA is the only aminoacyl-tRNA that can bind in the P site of the ribosome, and the A site is aligned with the
second mRNA codon. The ribosome is thus ready to bind the second aminoacyl-tRNA at the A site, which will be joined to
the initiator methionine by the first peptide bond (Figure 5).
Figure 5: The large ribosomal subunit binds to the small ribosomal subunit to complete the initiation complex.

The initiator tRNA molecule, carrying the methionine amino acid that will serve as the first amino acid of the polypeptide
chain, is bound to the P site on the ribosome. The A site is aligned with the next codon, which will be bound by the anticodon
of the next incoming tRNA.

© 2013 Nature Education All rights reserved.

The Elongation Phase

Figure 6

Figure Detail

The next phase in translation is known as the elongation phase (Figure 6). First, the ribosome moves along the mRNA in the
5'-to-3'direction, which requires the elongation factor G, in a process called translocation. The tRNA that corresponds to the
second codon can then bind to the A site, a step that requires elongation factors (in E. coli, these are called EF-Tu and EF-
Ts), as well as guanosine triphosphate (GTP) as an energy source for the process. Upon binding of the tRNA-amino acid
complex in the A site, GTP is cleaved to form guanosine diphosphate (GDP), then released along with EF-Tu to be recycled
by EF-Ts for the next round.
Next, peptide bonds between the now-adjacent first and second amino acids are formed through a peptidyl
transferaseactivity. For many years, it was thought that an enzyme catalyzed this step, but recent evidence indicates that the
transferase activity is a catalytic function of rRNA (Pierce, 2000). After the peptide bond is formed, the ribosome shifts, or
translocates, again, thus causing the tRNA to occupy the E site. The tRNA is then released to the cytoplasm to pick up
another amino acid. In addition, the A site is now empty and ready to receive the tRNA for the next codon.
This process is repeated until all the codons in the mRNA have been read by tRNA molecules, and the amino acids attached
to the tRNAs have been linked together in the growing polypeptide chain in the appropriate order. At this point, translation
must be terminated, and the nascent protein must be released from the mRNA and ribosome.

Termination of Translation
There are three termination codons that are employed at the end of a protein-coding sequence in mRNA: UAA, UAG, and
UGA. No tRNAs recognize these codons. Thus, in the place of these tRNAs, one of several proteins, called release factors,
binds and facilitates release of the mRNA from the ribosome and subsequent dissociation of the ribosome.

Comparing Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Translation

The translation process is very similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Although different elongation, initiation, and
termination factors are used, the genetic code is generally identical. As previously noted, in bacteria, transcription and
translation take place simultaneously, and mRNAs are relatively short-lived. In eukaryotes, however, mRNAs have
highly variable half-lives, are subject to modifications, and must exit the nucleus to be translated; these multiple steps offer
additional opportunities to regulate levels of protein production, and thereby fine-tune gene expression.

In a prokaryotic cell, transcription and translation are coupled; that is, translation begins
while the mRNA is still being synthesized. In a eukaryotic cell, transcription occurs in the
nucleus, and translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic Cell

Because there is no nucleus to separate the processes of transcription and translation, when
bacterial genes are transcribed, their transcripts can immediately be translated.
Eukaryotic Cell

Transcription and translation are spatially and temporally separated in eukaryotic cells; that is,
transcription occurs in the nucleus to produce a pre-mRNA molecule.

The pre-mRNA is typically processed to produce the mature mRNA, which exits the nucleus and is
translated in the cytoplasm.

← Previous Concept Next Concept →

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. o

There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene.

The genomic DNA contains all the information for the structure and function of an organism.

In any cell, only some of the genes are expressed, that is, transcribed into RNA.
 There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene:

1. mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

2. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation.

3. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that
translate the mRNA.

4. snRNA - Small nuclear RNA: With proteins, forms complexes that are used in RNA processing in
eukaryotes. (Not found in prokaryotes.)

5. A protein-coding gene consists of a promoter followed by the coding sequence for the
protein and then a terminator.

6.

7. The promoter is a base-pair sequence that specifies where transcription begins.

8. The coding sequence is a base-pair sequence that includes coding information for the
polypeptide chain specified by the gene.

9. The terminator is a sequence that specifies the end of the mRNA transcript.

10. ← Previous Concept Next Concept →

RNA is structurally similar to DNA.

RNA synthesis involves separation of the DNA strands and synthesis of an RNA molecule in
the 5' to 3' direction by RNA polymerase, using one of the DNA strands as a template.

In complementary base pairing, A, T, G, and C on the template DNA strand specify U, A, C, and G,
respectively, on the RNA strand being synthesized.

← Previous Concept Next Concept →

Practice
Transcription begins at the promoter, proceeds through the coding region, and ends at the
terminator.

← Previous Concept Next Concept →

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. o

The sequence of a prokaryotic protein-coding gene is colinear with the translated mRNA; that
is, the transcript of the gene is the molecule that is translated into the polypeptide.

The sequence of a eukaryotic protein-coding gene is typically not colinear with the translated
mRNA; that is, the transcript of the gene is a molecule that must be processed to remove
extra sequences (introns) before it is translated into the polypeptide.
Most eukaryotic protein-coding genes contain segments called introns, which break up the amino
acid coding sequence into segments called exons.

The transcript of these genes is the pre-mRNA (precursor-mRNA).

The pre-mRNA is processed in the nucleus to remove the introns and splice the exons together into
a translatable mRNA. That mRNA exits the nucleus and is translated in the cytoplasm.

← Previous Concept Next Concept →

Review

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. or i

Eukaryotic pre-mRNAs typically include introns. Introns are removed by RNA processing in
which the intron is looped out and cut away from the exons by snRNPs, and the exons are
spliced together to produce the translatable mRNA.
 The steps of pre-mRNA splicing (intron removal) are as follows:

1. The intron loops out as snRNPs (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles, complexes of snRNAs
and proteins) bind to form the spliceosome.

2. The intron is excised, and the exons are then spliced together.

3. The resulting mature mRNA may then exit the nucleus and be translated in the cytoplasm.

← Previous Concept Self-Quiz →

Review

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. or

replication

DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to

produce two identical DNA molecules. Replication is an essential process because,
whenever a cell divides, the two new daughter cells must contain the same genetic
information, or DNA, as the parent cell.

The replication process relies on the fact that each strand of DNA can serve as a
template for duplication. DNA replication initiates at specific points, called origins, where
the DNA double helix is unwound. A short segment of RNA, called a primer, is then
synthesized and acts as a starting point for new DNA synthesis. An enzyme called DNA
polymerase next begins replicating the DNA by matching bases to the original strand.
Once synthesis is complete, the RNA primers are replaced with DNA, and any gaps
between newly synthesized DNA segments are sealed together with enzymes.

DNA replication is a crucial process; therefore, to ensure that mistakes, or mutations, are not
introduced, the cell proofreads the newly synthesized DNA. Once the DNA in a cell is replicated,
the cell can divide into two cells, each of which has an identical copy of the original DNA.

The genetic code

The genetic code links groups of nucleotides in an mRNA to amino acids in a
protein. Start codons, stop codons, reading frame.

Introduction
Have you ever written a secret message to one of your
friends? If so, you may have used a code to keep the
message hidden. For instance, you may have replaced the
letters of the word with numbers or symbols, following a
particular set of rules. In order for your friend to understand
the message, they would need to know the code and apply
the same set of rules, in reverse, to decode it.

Decoding messages is also a key step in gene expression, in

which information from a gene is read out to build a protein.
In this article, we'll take a closer look at the genetic code,
which allows DNA and RNA sequences to be "decoded" into
the amino acids of a protein.
 Background: Making a protein
Genes that provide instructions for proteins are expressed in
a two-step process.

1. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is "rewritten"

in RNA. In eukaryotes, the RNA must go through additional
processing steps to become a messenger RNA, or mRNA.

2. In translation, the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA is

"translated" into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
(protein chain).

If this is a new concept for you, you may want to learn more
by watching Sal's video on transcription and translation.

Codons
Cells decode mRNAs by reading their nucleotides in groups of
three, called codons. Here are some features of codons:

1. Most codons specify an amino acid

2. Three "stop" codons mark the end of a protein
3. One "start" codon, AUG, marks the beginning of a protein and
also encodes the amino acid methionine
Codons in an mRNA are read during translation, beginning
with a start codon and continuing until a stop codon is
reached. mRNA codons are read from 5' to 3' , and they
specify the order of amino acids in a protein from N-terminus
(methionine) to C-terminus.
 The mRNA sequence is:

5'-AUGAUCUCGUAA-5'

Translation involves reading the mRNA nucleotides in groups

of three, each of which specifies and amino acid (or provides
a stop signal indicating that translation is finished).

3'-AUG AUC UCG UAA-5'

AUG \rightarrow→right arrowMethionine (Start)

AUC \rightarrow→right arrowIsoleucine UCG \rightarrow→right
arrowSerine UAA \rightarrow→right arrow"Stop"
 Polypeptide sequence: (N-terminus) Methionine-Isoleucine-
Serine (C-terminus)
[What do 5' and 3' mean?]

1.
2.
[What are the N- and C-terminus?]

1.
2.

The genetic code table

The full set of relationships between codons and amino acids
(or stop signals) is called the genetic code. The genetic
code is often summarized in a table.
[How do you read the codon table?]

1.
2.

Genetic code table. Each three-letter sequence of mRNA

nucleotides corresponds to a specific amino acid, or to a stop
codon. UGA, UAA, and UAG are stop codons. AUG is the codon
for methionine, and is also the start codon.
_Image credit: "The genetic code," by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0)._

Notice that many amino acids are represented in the table by

more than one codon. For instance, there are six different
ways to "write" leucine in the language of mRNA (see if you
can find all six).

An important point about the genetic code is that it's

universal. That is, with minor exceptions, virtually all species
(from bacteria to you!) use the genetic code shown above for
protein synthesis.

Reading frame
To reliably get from an mRNA to a protein, we need one more
concept: that of reading frame. Reading frame determines
how the mRNA sequence is divided up into codons during
translation.

That's a pretty abstract concept, so let's look at an example

to understand it better. The mRNA below can encode three
totally different proteins, depending on the frame in which it's
read:
 mRNA sequence: 5'-UCAUGAUCUCGUAAGA-3'

Read in Frame 1:

5'-UCA UGA UCU CGU AAG A-3'

Ser-STOP-Ser-Arg-Lys

Read in Frame 2:

5'-U CAU GAU CUC GUA AGA-3'

His-Asp-Leu-Val-Arg

Read in Frame 3:

5'-UC AUG AUC UCG UAA GA-3'

Met(Start)-Ile-Ser-STOP

The start codon's position ensures that Frame 3 is chosen for

translation of the mRNA.

So, how does a cell know which of these protein to make? The
start codon is the key signal. Because translation begins at
the start codon and continues in successive groups of three,
the position of the start codon ensures that the mRNA is read
in the correct frame (in the example above, in Frame 3).

Mutations (changes in DNA) that insert or delete one or two

nucleotides can change the reading frame, causing an
incorrect protein to be produced "downstream" of the
mutation site:
Illustration shows a frameshift mutation in which the reading
frame is altered by the deletion of two amino acids.
_Image credit; "The genetic code: Figure 3," by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0._

How was the genetic code

discovered?
The story of how the genetic code was discovered is a pretty
cool and epic one. We've stashed our version in the pop-up
below, so as not to distract you if you're in a hurry. However,
if you have some time, it's definitely interesting reading.
[Discovery of the genetic code]

202044

^1start superscript, 1, end superscript33

2216164^24, start superscript, 2, end

superscript202064644^34, start superscript, 3, end
superscript2020

^1start superscript, 1, end superscript

16166464

4422

1616

44\cdotdot44=equals
 4 \cdot4 = 164, dot, 4, equals, 16

3344

44\cdotdot44\cdotdot44=equals

4 \cdot 4 \cdot 4 =644, dot, 4, dot, 4, equals, 64

1.
2.

^2start superscript, 2, end superscript^2start superscript, 2,

end superscript

mRNA sequence: 5'-...UUUUUUUUUUUU...-3' (poly-U mRNA)

UUU \rightarrow→right arrowphenylalanine (Phe)

Polypeptide sequence: (N terminus)...Phe-Phe-Phe-Phe...(C

terminus)

^{3,4}start superscript, 3, comma, 4, end superscript

 mRNA sequence: 5'-...UCUCUCUCUCUC...-3' (poly-UC mRNA)

UCU \rightarrow→right arrowserine (Ser)

CUC \rightarrow→right arrowleucine (Leu)

Polypeptide sequence: (N terminus)...Ser-Leu-Ser-Leu...(C

terminus)

6464

Photographs of Nirenberg and Khorana.

I always like to imagine how cool it would have been to be

one of the people who discovered the basic molecular code of
life. Although we now know the code, there are many other
biological mysteries still waiting to be solved (perhaps by
you!).

Mutations are errors in codons caused by changes in nucleotide bases. Some

mutations may not have much effect. For example, if the codon GAA becomes
the codon GAG, because the genetic code is degenerate, the codon will still
code for the amino acid glutamate. Such ineffectual mutations are called silent
mutations. Some mutations, however, can have a huge affect on coding for
amino acids, which can in turn affect what proteins are produced, which can
have a profound effect on cellular and organismal function.

The most common mutations occur in two ways: 1) a base substitution, in

which one base is substituted for another; 2) an insertion or deletion, in which
a base is either incorrectly inserted or deleted from a codon.

Base Substitutions Mutations

Base substitutions can have a variety of effects. The silent mutation cited
above is an example of a base substitution, where the change in nucleotide
base has no outward effect. A missense mutation refers to a base substitution
when the change in nucleotide changes the amino acid coded for by the
affected codon. A nonsense mutation refers to a base substitution in which the
changed nucleotide transforms the codon into a stop codon. Such a change
leads to a premature termination of translation, which can badly affect the
formation of proteins.

Insertion/Deletion Mutations

When a nucleotide is wrongly inserted or deleted from a codon, the affects

can be drastic. Called a frameshift mutation, an insertion or deletion can
affect every codon in a particular genetic sequence by throwing the entire
three by three codon structure out of whack. For example, given the code:

GAU GAC UCC GCU AGG, which codes for the amino acids aspartate,
aspartate, serine, alanine, arginine.

If the A in the GAU were to be deleted, the code would become: GUG ACU
CCG UAG G
In other words, every single codon would code for a new amino acid, resulting
in completely different proteins coded for duringtranslation. The physical
results of such mutations are, understandably, usually catastrophic.
Suppressor Mutations

There is a one other class of mutations, called suppressor mutations. These

mutations are "mutations of mutations", which lead to a new type of change in
the genetic code. There are two main classes of these mutations. A true
reversion mutation occurs when there is a second mutation that restores the
natural sequence of the genetic code. For example, a frameshift insertion
could be suppressed by a frameshift deletion at a second position in the code.
This type of supression is called intragenic suppression because it comes
from within the genetic code.

The other class of supressor mutation is called extragenic supression

because the second mutation does not occur in the gene. As we shall see
in Translation, transfer RNA (tRNA), plays an important mediating role in the
translation of mRNA information into actual proteins. For example, if codon
UAC, which normally codes for the amino acid tyrosine, mutates into UAG, a
stop codon, the result is a nonsense mutation. But if the tRNA that is
specifically designed to "fetch" tyrosine also mutates, so that it now binds with
the former stop codon mRNA sequence, then the effect of the two mutations
negate each other. This last type of mutation will make a lot more sense after
we have more thoroughly discussed tRNA and its function in translation.
What is genetic engineering?

Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to

alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular
way.

What is genetic engineering?

1. Genetic engineering, sometimes called genetic modification, is the
process of altering the DNA? in an organism’s genome?.

2. This may mean changing one base pair? (A-T or C-G), deleting a
whole region of DNA, or introducing an additional copy of a gene?.

3. It may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome

and combining it with the DNA of that individual.

4. Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance or modify the

characteristics of an individual organism.

5. Genetic engineering can be applied to any organism, from

a virus? to a sheep.

6. For example, genetic engineering can be used to produce plants

that have a higher nutritional value or can tolerate exposure to
herbicides.

How does genetic engineering work?

To help explain the process of genetic engineering we have taken the

example of insulin, a protein? that helps regulate the sugar levels in our
blood.

1. Normally insulin? is produced in the pancreas?, but in people with

type 1 diabetes? there is a problem with insulin production.

2. People with diabetes therefore have to inject insulin to control their

blood sugar levels.

3. Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type of insulin,

very similar to our own, from yeast and bacteria? like E. coli?.

4. This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ was licensed for

human use in 1982.
The genetic engineering process

1. A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid? is extracted from

the bacteria or yeast cell.

2. A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction

enzymes, ‘molecular scissors’.

3. The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid.
This plasmid is now genetically modified.

4. The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria

or yeast cell.

5. This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.

6. To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified

bacteria or yeast are grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all
the nutrients they need. The more the cells divide, the more insulin is
produced.

7. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release

the insulin.

8. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin
pens for distribution to patients with diabetes.
 An illustration showing how genetic modification is used to produce insulin in bacteria.
Image credit: Genome Research Limited

What else is genetic engineering used for?

1. The first genetically modified organism to be created was a
bacterium, in 1973.

2. In 1974, the same techniques were applied to mice.

3. In 1994 the first genetically modified foods were made available.

4. Genetic engineering has a number of useful applications, including

scientific research, agriculture and technology.

5. In plants, genetic engineering has been applied to improve the

resilience, nutritional value and growth rate of crops such as potatoes,
tomatoes and rice.

6. In animals it has been used to develop sheep that produce a

therapeutic protein in their milk that can be used to treat cystic fibrosis,
or worms that glow in the dark to allow scientists to learn more about
diseases such as Alzheimer’s?.

Alzheimer’s disease and the worm

1. The nematode worm, C. elegans, only has around 300 cells in its
entire nervous system, making it a very simple model for studying
Alzheimer’s disease.

2. Also, due to the fact the worm is nearly transparent, when their
nerve cells are labelled with green fluorescent protein (GFP), it is
possible to watch the location and activity of various structures and
proteins under the microscope.
 3. The genetic material of C. elegans can easily be genetically
modified to make the worm produce specific proteins the researchers
want to study.

4. In humans, the APP gene codes for a protein associated with the
amyloid plaques that are characteristic of people with Alzheimer’s
disease.

5. So, to study Alzheimer’s, the researchers genetically engineered the

nerve cells of the worm to contain the APP gene, effectively giving it
Alzheimer’s.

6. By tagging the APP protein produced in the worm with green

fluorescent protein it was possible to see that all the cells that made
contact with APP died as the worm got older.

7. The researchers were then able to monitor the progression of

Alzheimer’s disease in the worm and go on to apply their findings to
understanding the role of APP in humans with Alzheimer’s disease.

6 sources of evidence for evolution

Moderators: Leonid, amiradm, BioTeam

Post Reply
SearchAdvanced search
3 posts • Page 1 of 1

rajvandam
Garter

Posts: 8
Joined: Sun Sep 14, 2008 10:55 pm

6 sources of evidence for

evolution
1. Quote
Post by rajvandam » Mon Sep 15, 2008 3:53 am
Of course we need evidence that evolution is actually
happening, and there is... 6 sources of evidence that evolution
is in fact true:

1. Biogeography: the study of the geographical distribution of

species and their evolutionary relationships. Species appear to
have colonized island habitats from mainland areas and then
been modified by natural selection.

2. Fossil Record: the fossilized remains of organisms provide a

historical record of life on earth. Reveals the vast time scale
over which the process of evolution has occured.

3. Homology: structures in closely-related species have been a

similar underlying structure that appears to have been
modified by natural selection in different environments

4. Analogy: Structures in distanly-related species have no

similarity in underlying structure but have a similar function.
These structures appear to have evolved under natural
selection in similar environments.

5. Embryology: similarities and differences in embryological

stages indicate evolutionary relationships among organisms.

6. Molecular biology: similarities and differences in the

structures of DNA and protein indicate evolutionary
relationships among organisms.

The study of comparative anatomy predates the modern study of evolution.

Early evolutionary scientists like Buffon and Lamarck used comparative
anatomy to determine relationships between species. Organisms with similar
structures, they argued, must have acquired these traits from a common
ancestor. Today, comparative anatomy can serve as the first line of reasoning
in determining the relatedness of species. However, there are many hidden
dangers that make it necessary to support evidence from comparative
anatomy with evidence from other fields of study.
Homologous and Analogous Traits

A major problem in determining evolutionary relationships based on

comparative anatomy can be seen when we look at a commonly found
structure: the wing. Wings are present in a number of very different groups of
organisms. Birds, bats and insects all have wings, but what does this say
about how closely related the three groups are? It is tempting to say that the
three groups must have had a common winged ancestor. However, were you
actually to take the bait and say it, you would be wrong. Dead wrong. The
wings of bats and birds are both derived from the forelimb of a common,
probably wingless, ancestor. Both have wings with bone structures similar to
the forelimbs of ancestral and current tetrapod, or four-legged, animals. Such
traits that are derived from a trait found in a common ancestor are called
homologous traits. Structurally speaking, though, the wings of bats and birds
have little in common with those of insects. Bird wings and insect wings are an
analogous trait, or a trait that has developed independently in two groups of
organisms from unrelated ancestral traits.

Embryology

Another difficulty in comparing traits between species rests on the fact that
homologous structures not present in the adult organism often do appear in
some stage of embryonic development. In this way, the embryo serves as a
microcosm for evolution, passing through many of the stages of evolution to
produce the current state of the organism. Species that bear little
resemblance in their adult form may have strikingly similar embryonic stages.
For example, in humans, the embryo passes through a stage in which it has
gill structures like those of the fish from which all terrestrial animals evolved.
For a large portion of its development the human embryo also possesses a
tail, much like those of our close primate relatives. This tail is usually
reabsorbed before birth, but occasionally children are born with the ancestral
structure intact. Tails and even gills could be considered homologous traits
between humans and primates or humans and fish, even though they are not
present in the adult organism.

An embryo is an early stage of development in organisms.

The embryo of fishes, salamanders, lizards, birds, cats, and humans are
similar during the first stage of their embryonic development; and have several
homologous structures that are not present when the organisms are adults
Embryonic
development include stages such as blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis.
Studies show that species that are closely related exhibit similar
embryonic development. Even when in the adult stage, the organisms are quite
different.
EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT VERTEBRATES
fossil records, anatomical
structures and embryonic development can be used to study the relationship
of organisms.

Geologic Time Scale

A Time Line for the Geological Sciences

Geologic time scale with a linear time axis. This time scale is available as a printable .pdf document. You
can download this printable time scale and make copies for personal use.

Dividing Earth History into Time Intervals

Geologists have divided Earth's history into a series of time intervals. These time intervals are
not equal in length like the hours in a day. Instead the time intervals are variable in length. This is
because geologic time is divided using significant events in the history of the Earth.

Examples of Boundary "Events"

For example, the boundary between the Permian and Triassic is marked by a global extinction in
which a large percentage of Earth's plant and animal species were eliminated. Another example
is the boundary between the Precambrian and the Paleozoic, which is marked by the first
appearance of animals with hard parts.
Eons
Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years in duration.
In the time scale above you can see the Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent eon and began more
than 500 million years ago.

Detailed geologic time scale: The United States Geological Survey has published "Divisions of Geologic
Time: Major Chronostratigraphic and Geochronologic Units." It is a much more detailed time scale than the
simplified scale shown above. View a copy here.

Eras
 Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. In the time scale above you can see
that the Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Very
significant events in Earth's history are used to determine the boundaries of the eras.

Periods
Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that bound the periods are widespread in their
extent but are not as significant as those which bound the eras. In the time scale above you can
see that the Paleozoic is subdivided into the Permian, Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian,
Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian periods.

Epochs
Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods of the Cenozoic are frequently
subdivided into epochs. Subdivision of periods into epochs can be done only for the most recent
portion of the geologic time scale. This is because older rocks have been buried deeply, intensely
deformed and severely modified by long-term earth processes. As a result, the history contained
within these rocks cannot be as clearly interpreted.

Our geologic time scale was constructed to visually show the duration of each time unit. This
was done by making a linear time line on the left side of the time columns. Thicker units such as
the Proterozoic were longer in duration than thinner units such as the Cenozoic. We also have a
printable version of the Geologic Time Scale as a .pdf document. You can print this timescale for
personal use.

Evolutionary theories began emerging in the 1800’s as new geological and biological
discoveries reformed existing knowledge
1. Previously, the dominant paradigm had described the ‘fixity’ of species – immutable and
unchanging (man was always man)

Lamarck
1. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a French scientist, proposed that species changed as a result
of the habitual use or disuse of a feature
2. Excessive use would cause a feature to develop, while continued disuse would cause it
to atrophy (similar to muscle growth)
3. Lamarck proposed that these modified features could be passed on to successive
generations, changing the species over time
4. Lamarck’s theory however was essentially flawed – cutting the tail off a rat does not
produce tail-less offspring

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution (Use and Disuse)

 Darwin
1. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution was based on a combination of Lamarckian ideas
and recent fossil discoveries
2. He theorised that species living today had been changed over time and stemmed from a
single (or few) ancestral organisms
3. He noted that although populations have the capacity to grow uncontrollably, limiting
natural factors will restrict this growth
4. Organisms which possess traits better suited to conditions would have an adaptive
advantage and be more likely to reproduce
5. These traits would hence become more common within the population and the species
would gradually change over time
6. Similar ideas were proposed at the same time by Alfred Wallace (he corresponded with
Darwin but published separately)

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (Natural Selection)

 Neo Darwinism
1. Darwin knew very little about the mechanisms of variation (i.e. mutations) or the
biological basis for inheritance (i.e. meiosis)
2. Neo-Darwinism is the synthesis of Darwinian theory and modern genetics – it combines:
1. The works of Gregor Mendel in describing how traits are inherited (Mendelian
inheritance)
2. The works of James Watson and Francis Crick in elucidating the genetic basis of
inheritance (DNA structure)

Density Dependent Limiting Factors

The density dependent factors
are factors whose effects on the
size or growth of
the population vary with the
population density. There are
many types of
density dependent limiting
factors such as; availability of
food, predation, disease, and
migration. However the main
factor is the availability of food.
For example when the food
supply of jack rabbits get
depleted, they start to die or
 migrate to another places
causing the foxes or the
secondary consumers to have a
shortage of food; also causing
them to die or migrate.

Density Independent Limiting Factors

Like density
dependent
limiting factors,
the independent
factor of
death valley
affects the
population of
the living things
as well. However
this time the
factors are
more Abiotic rat
her than biotic
thing. For
example in
death valley one
of the
independent
factors is natural
disasters like
flash flooding.
However flash
flooding in death
valley increases
the population
size of death
valley. After flash
floods or
 thunderstorms
more water
causes
more vegetation
giving more food
for primary
consumers. So
as more and
more primary
consumers like
rabbits come
more food is
available for
secondary
consumers like
fox's; causing the
population
density of death
valley to
increase.

Environmental Problems
Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However,
as our environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware
of the problems that surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters,
warming and cooling periods, different types of weather patterns and much
more, people need to be aware of what types of environmental problems
our planet is facing.
Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current
livelihoods; our planet is warming up and we are definitely part of the
problem. However, this isn’t the only environmental problem that we should
be concerned about. All across the world, people are facing a wealth of new
and challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are small
and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically changing the
landscape of what we already know.

Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current

environmental problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now
and in the future. We are in a state of planetary emergency, with
environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we address the
various issues prudently and seriously we are surely doomed for disaster.
Current environmental problems require urgent attention.
15 Major Current Environmental
Problems
1. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to
recoup. Industry and motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutants.
Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While
water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is
caused by various gases and toxins released by industries and factories and
combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste
that deprives soil from essential nutrients.

2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of

human practices like emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to
rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing melting of
polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation
such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.

3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable

levels as it faces shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population
explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already
scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages
the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and
insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental
problem.

4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another

crucial current environmental problems. Fossil fuel consumption results in
emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and
climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable
sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and geothermal energy. The cost of
installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has plummeted in
the recent years.

5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of

plastics are creating a global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are
notorious for producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and
dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries. Nuclear
waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast
food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well being of
humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current environmental problem.

6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem

that has surfaced in last couple of decades. It occurs due to rise in global
warming which occurs due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by
burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries. Climate
change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice,
change in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of
floods and change in overall weather scenario.

7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species

and habitats and and loss of bio-diversity. Eco systems, which took millions
of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is decimating.
Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the
eco-system and human activity threatens the same. Another example is the
destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which support the rich
marine life.
8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and
produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall.
At present forests cover 30% of the land but every year tree cover is lost
amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population demand for
more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation simply means clearing of green
cover and make that land available for residential, industrial or commercial
purpose.

9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2.

25% of CO2 produced by humans. The ocean acidity has increased by the last
250 years but by 2100, it may shoot up by 150%. The main impact is on
shellfish and plankton in the same way as human osteoporosis.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of

protection around the planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful rays.
Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is attributed to
pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro carbons
(CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a
hole in the ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The CFC’s
are banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is
valuable because it prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth.
This is one of the most important current environmental problem.
11. Acid Rain: Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in
the atmosphere. Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or
erupting volcanoes or rotting vegetation which release sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain is a known environmental
problem that can have serious effect on human health, wildlife and aquatic
species.

12. Water Pollution: Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity.

Water is becoming an economic and political issue as the human population
fights for this resource. One of the options suggested is using the process of
desalinization. Industrial development is filling our rivers seas and oceans
with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human health.

13. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high
density urban areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of
city over more and more rural land. Urban sprawl results in land
degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and health issues. The
ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of
flora and fauna instead of being replaced.

14: Public Health Issues: The current environmental problems pose a lot of
risk to health of humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of
the world and poses threat to the quality of life and public health. Run-off to
rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease carrying organisms.
Pollutants cause respiratory disease like Asthma and cardiac-vascular
problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of infectious diseases
like Dengue.

15. Genetic Engineering: Genetic modification of food using biotechnology

is called genetic engineering. Genetic modification of food results in
increased toxins and diseases as genes from an allergic plant can transfer to
target plant. Genetically modified crops can cause serious environmental
problems as an engineered gene may prove toxic to wildlife. Another
drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect resistant plant can
cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics.

The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government
is growing. Because so many different factors come into play; voting,
governmental issues, the desire to stick to routine, many people don’t
consider that what they do will affect future generations. If humans continue
moving forward in such a harmful way towards the future, then there will be
no future to consider. Although it’s true that we cannot physically stop our
ozone layer from thinning (and scientists are still having trouble figuring out
what is causing it exactly,) there are still so many things we can do to try and
put a dent in what we already know. By raising awareness in your local
community and within your families about these issues, you can help
contribute to a more environmentally conscious and friendly place for you to
live.

Image credit:

Evidence for Evolution

During and since Darwin's time, people have been looking for and studying evidence
in nature that teaches them more about evolution. Some types of evidence, such as
fossils and similarities between related living organisms, were used by Darwin to
develop his theory of natural selection, and are still used today. Others, such as DNA
testing, were not available in Darwin's time, but are used by scientists today to learn
more about evolution.

Five types of evidence for evolution are discussed in this section: ancient organism
remains, fossil layers, similarities among organisms alive today, similarities in DNA,
and similarities of embryos. Another important type of evidence that Darwin studied
and that is still studied and used today is artificial selection, or breeding.

Ancient Organism Remains

Fossil Layers

Similarities Among Living Organisms

Similarities of Embryos