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A' STUDY OF TUNNEL STABILITY AND BARRIER PILLAR DESIGN

IN MINES OF THE CAPE BRETON COALFIELD

BY:

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ABBAS MAJDI; B.Sc., M.Sc.A., M.Eng.

~THESIS SUBMITTlb TO THE FACULTY OF'GRADUATE STUDIES

AND RESEARCH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUlREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHlLOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING •

,
McGILL UNIVERSITY

MONTREAL, CANADA

AUGUST, 1988

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Aspects of stability of access tunnels with particular
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reference to the factors controllinq face access tunnel

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closure upon the efficiency of coa1 production and safety of

lonqwall mining operations are investiqated. These are used ta

justify the present studies of tunnel stability and barrier

pillar de~ign in mines of the Cape Breton Coalfield.

An analysis of in situ deformation data of 26 face

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access tunnels by tunnel convergence measurement and a naw
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photographie technique for approximately 40 km,of tunnels are

presented. èomparative studies of these~techniques are made

o
and deformation characteristics with respect to depth of
cover, panel width, extracted seam height, barrier pillar
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width, type of steel arch supports and the effect of adjacent

workings are investigated.

Due to the narrow range of field data, the effect of '

1 such parameters as extracted searn height, panel width, tunnel

shape and tunnel size could not be examined, nor could the
influence which the material properties may have on tunnel

closure be identified. Hence, comprehensive 'parametric

studies by two
.
dimensional finite element simulation of the

face access tunnels by use of MSAP2D are undertaken. stress

and displacement distributions and the extent of any f.ailed

zone around the tunnel, wi th respect to the4 aforementioned

parameters together with barrier' pillar width, and the

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stiffness of the surroundinq materials are considered.

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l " ~he existing theories for tunnel convergence prediction
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are described. From this investigation it is found that some

of these theories\ are inapplicable to soft rocks at depth.

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Those which are applicable, due to their limitations, are

not suited for prediction .of the vertical convergence profile

from tunnè~ fàceline in longwall coal m!ning. Hence l a new

theoretica'
, exponential formula for tunnel convergence
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" 'prediction based on a modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

is developed and checked against in si tu convergence

measur~ments.

, The current barrier pillar design criteria are also

,
investigated. It is tound that th~e criteria yield too

éonservative a design and are not suited for depths greater

than 600 m below ground surface. Hence, two theoretical

methods of designing barrier pillar width for longwal~ coal

mining are developed and comparea-with field data and current

barrier pilla~ design criteria.

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 . ' ... -.. t"~- .. -- ---- -,- ....:"":';.,....\-----~,-r-~,:O-,.-----....~~;
-=---~~~~\-r-~--:~:----:----.--.-,-"....,...,,--
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• ) Les 'aspects de la stabilité,des tunnels d'accès sont

RESUME

étudiés' ,avec référence particulière aux facteurs contrôlant la

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fermeture des tunnels d'accès des faces en fonction du rendement

.-r
de la production du charbon et de la sécurité des opérations
dans les mines à murs longs. Ceux-ci sont utilisés pour justi-
fier f~s Atudes actuelles de stabilité de tunnels et de\concep-
.l
tion de pilliers de barr~ère dans les min~s du champ houillé du
Cap Breton.
Une analyse in-situ des données de déformation de 26 tun-
nEÜs':, d'accès par des m~sures de la convergence def~tunnèls est,
présentée, ainsi qu'une nouvelle technique photographique appli-
quée sur environ 40 km de tunnel. Des études comparatives de
ces techniques sont réalisées et les caractéristiques de dé for-
" mation sont étudiées en fonction de la profondeur du' tunnel, de
la_ ],argeur du panneau, de l'épaisseur de charbon extrait, de
Î

l'épaisseur des pilliers de barrière, du type des_arcs d'acier

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de support et final~ment de l'effet des travaux avoisinants.
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A cause d\l faible champ de var1citi oh de certains paramè-

'tres comme l'épaisseur du charbon extrait 1 la largeur du pan-
neau, la forme et la taille 1 du tunnel, leur effet n'~ pu être
évalué. De même, l'infl~ence des propriétés du matériau sur la
fenneture du tunnel n'a pu ètre iqIentifiée.' Des études paramé-
triques grâce à des simulations 'par élément finis à deux dimen-
sions ont été effectués en utilisant 'le programme MSAP2D pour

o les tunnels d'accès des faces; La distribution des contraintes

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et des déplacements, ains~ que l'envergure des zones fracturées ~

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autour ~s tunnel 'lorsque présent sont considérées en fonction

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des paramètres !récités ainsi que ceux de la largeur des pil-
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liers de,barriè e et de la solidité des matétiaux avoisinants.
Les théories existantes pour la convergence des tunnels
sont décrites. Il en a été conclu que certaines de ces théories
ne peuvent être" utilisées pour les roches tendres en profondeur.
'Celles qui sont applicables', à cause de' leur limitations, ne
- .....§ sont pas convenable pour la prédiction des profils' de conver-
gence verticaux à partir de la fin du tunnel dans les ~ines de
charbon à murs longs. D'où, une nouvelle formule exponentielle
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théorique pour la prédiction de la convergence' des tunnels, '
basée (. sur un critèr~ de rupture de Mohr-Coulomb modifié et qui a
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ét~~~~aré aux m7sures de convergence in situ.

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Le~ critères actuels de conception, de pilliers de barrière

sont également examinés. Il a été trouvé que ces critères con-

duisent à des conceptions beaucoup trop conservatrices et ne
sont pas convenable pour' des profondeurs de plus de 600 m.
D'où, deux méthodes théoriques de conception de l'épaisseur des
pilliers de barrière pour des mines de charbon à mur long sont
proposées. Elles sont' comparées avec les données de terrain
receuillies ainsi qu'avec les cri '\.tères de conception a.tuels
des pilliers de b~rrières.

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• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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The author wishes ~o' express con~iderable g~atitude to his

th'esis supervisor" professor F.P. Hassani professor, of Mining
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,

Engineering and Director of Graduate Student Admissions of

Oepartment of Mining' and Metallurgical E~gineering, for his
invaluable guidange, constructive criticism, moral support
throughout the course of this research.
Grateful thanks is recorded to the following:
,Professor M. Scoble, professor and director of Mining
Engineering, Dr. H.S . . Mitri, Professor R.R. Maclachlan,
Professor J.B. Edwards professors of Mining Engineering, for
their interesting and helpful suggestions and èonstructive -
criticism on the sUbject of this thesis.
1

The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Cape

Breton Corporation Development (CBDC) for their continuous
support an~ assistance throughout thij research.
Considerable gratitude is due to the Cape Breton Coal
Research Laboratory of the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy--
Technology (CANMET) for their cooperation and financial,support.
Grateful thanks ls expressed to Dr. P. Cain and T. Aston
for their continuous support and helpful discussions.
The author wishes to express his appreciation to the
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Quebec 's Ministry of higher education for their financial
support.
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Considerable appreciation.and gratitude is ~ue to the

o author's parents,
moral supports and
rs ahd sister for their financial and
encouragement.

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 Final.ly, the author wishes to express "his sp~cial thanks

and sincere appre~iation to his wife and His

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daughters for their

continuous e~couragement, patience ana sacrifice.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Abstract~~~----~--~-~--~------------------~----------~--- ~ i
Resume--------'-... -----~;..:... ... ----------.. ------L--.,;.-------.,--- iii
Acknowl~ftqments---~~---~----·---~-----------~~-------~--­ 'v
Table of Contents-------------~--------------------------
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vii
List -of Tables--------------------~----------~-------~--­ xi
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List of Figures .. --,-':..-------------------~-~--- .. ---------- xiii

~haPtèr fOI a

. Introd tion, " .. 1

1; 1.
1.2 J'Definition of the problém -----------------
Factors Affeèting Access tunnels Stability
1
8
1.2.1 Controllable Parameters --------------~---- 9
1.2. 2 Uncon~rolla.bleParamet,ers ______________,_Y- 9
1.3' Research Justification ------~------~-~---- 12
1.3.1· Economie Justification --------------------
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1.3'.2 Scientific and Technical Justifica:tion · ---- 15
1.4 Research Obj ec17ives " .... -----------~~..:.-------- 16
Chapte~ 2.
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A'pects of Stability Analysis of Access Tunnels ..

2.1 Introduction -------------------------~---- 19
2.2 Ground Movement Theories --------~--------­ 21 .}

2.2" 1 Pressure Dome Theory (The Rigid'Dome) ----- 21

2.2.2 . The Fra~ture Dome in Elastic Rock --------- 28
2.2.3 Further Modifica~ions to the Fracture ~
Dome Theory ------------------------------- ·31
2.2.4 Bearn or Plate Theories ---------------~---­ 32
2.2.5 Pressure Arch Theory ---------------------- 36
2:2.6 Trough Theories --------------------------- 38
2.-2.7 continuum Theories ------------------------ 40
2.2.8 Composite Theory -------------------------- 44
2.3 .Rock Pressure Due to Tunnelling ----~------ 45'
2.3.1 Loose~inq Pressure ------------------------ 45
2.3.2 ' Genuine Mountain Prèssure ----------------- 45
2.3.3 . Swellinq PresSure' -~---------~------------ 48
, .. 2.4 Tirne Effects ------------------------------ 49
2.5 Effect ...of the Barrier Pillar
in Lonqwall Mining Method -------~--~-----­ ...... ~l .....
50
2.6 10. Effect of Lonqwall Mining Extracti~n ------ 58
2.7 Summary and Conclusion --------.----------- 67
Chapter 3.
o Analysis pf the Deformation Survey in No. 26 Colliery
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3.1 Introduction' ---~-------------------------- 69

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~. 26 COlliery -----~~~~---------------~-­ 70
Location and geology of the Area ---------- 70
Operational Developments, Mining
Methods and productivity ------------------ 74
3.2.3 80 ,
~~~t~urartl SsYupspteomrtS, ---------------------------
3.2;3.1 N~r ------~---~---.------------ 80
3.2.3.2 Steel Arch Supports ------.-~--\----------- ,80 , :..:~:
3.2-.3.3 Pack Supports ----------------------------- ) 8.1· ,
3.3 Tunnel Deformation Survey --7-------------- , 82: 1:,' •
3.4 Tunnel Convergence Analysis -------------~­ 86- . ,
3.5 Method . of Analysis of the'
Deformation Measurements ------------------ 82 ~,

3.6 Variation of vertical convérqence .

With Distance From Facel1ne --~------------ 103
3.7 Evaluation of Design Parameters 'and' _ . ~,"
Their Influence on the Tunnel Closure ----- 106 " ~

Depth of Cover, Panel Width and '"

Extraction Seam Height -------------------~ 106
Tunnel Face-End Design and Time-Elapse , '

Befo::e Support Installatipn ----,------:---:---' 111

3.7.3 Combl.ned Effect Of" supportySystems and AdJ acent "
Workings and long-Terrn Time Effect -------- 112
G.8 Access Tunnel Convergence and .
Barrier Pilla~width ,~--------------------- 118
Conclusion -------------------------------- 1'21
Chapter 4
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In situ Defo+mation Analysis In Lingan Mine
4.1 Introduction -----------------~------------ 126
4.2 Lingan Min. ------------------------------- 126
, . 4.3 In Situ Deformation Measùrements ---------- 1~7
4.4 Tunnel Convergence ~nd Depth of
Cover Profiles --------~--------.----------- 1:31 p'

4.5 Àccess Tunnel Convergence and

Barrier Pillar width ---------------------- 13~
'4.6 Tunnel Co~vergence an~ Distance from Face 139
4~ 7 Comparison of Access Tunnel B~haviour in
Material and Coal Roads . -.----------------- 152
4.8 Combined Effect of controlling,Factors ,
on Acc~ss Ta~el Closure ------------------ 167
• 4.9 Lateral Convergence and oistance·from Face 169
4.10 Comparison of 'Lateral Convergence
in Access Tunnels ------------------------- 173
4.11 Summary of the Results and Discussion ~---- 176
4.12 Summary and Conclusion -------------------- 18b
~:. .!Chapt!lr 5 ",p
c A Photographie Deformation Measurirtq Technique
5.1 Introduction ----------'------------------~- 183
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5.2 Tunnel Deformation: Survey ---------~--~----I 183
5.3 Data Preparation, Processing and Analysis' - 184
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5.4 comparison of the Roadways '
. -Deformation survey Techniques ------~~----­ .... 91 \lo

5.5 eomment- ·on the Improvement of the (

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photoqrapiii<c<: Technique .
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201, _
5.6 Co~clus10n ----------~-----~---~----------, 203
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Chapter 6 (

Finite Element Analysis - q'

6.1 Introduction -------------------------~---- 204

6.2 Finite Element Simulation ------~-----~---- .20~
6.3 parametric studies ------------------------ 206
6.3.1 sensitlvity Analysis ------------~--------- 206
6.3.2 'E~fect of Tunnel Shape -------------------- 209
6.3.3 . Effect of Tunne~ Shape on Failure
,t pattern andOStress Distribution ----------- 215
&.3,4 , Effect of ':Çunnel Size ------~----.:.- ... ----"---":" 217
~. 3.5 Effect of Panel width"i ---,--'------,,-------- 219
-.g)6.3vtr Effect of Barrier Pill~r wiath ---.-------- 221
6.°3.7 Effect of Extracted Seam heig~t ----------- 223
6.3.8 Effect of Rock Mass Stiffness ------------- 225.
6.4 Conclusion ~ ------~'j.,---------------.:.._------ 230
'Chapter 7
Theoretical Development of A Tunnel Convergence Equation
7.1 Introduction --------------':;----~---------- 232
7.2 \ .A Theoretical Approach for the
Determination of .A Yield Zone -~----------- 236
7.3 Theoretical Deformation Analysis ---------- 250
7.3.1 praètical.Application ---------~------~---~ 257
7.3~ Verification 'of the Convergence Equation---~ 261
7:4 Conclusion -------------------------------- 266
Chapter 8
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Theoretical Development of Barrier Pillar Design'criteria
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8.1 Introduction ------------------------------ 267

8.2 EXlsting Barrier Pillar Design criteria -.- 268
'8.2.1 Rulé of Thumb Metfiod ----~----------------- 269
{The Mine Inspectors' Method ---------~----­
8.2.2 ~9
( 8.2.3 wilson's Method -----------------------~~-­ 270 - -
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8.2.4 The North Ameri~an Method ----~------------ 271

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8.2.5
8.3
Dunn's ~e ---~---------------------------
Limitations of~the Existing Barrier
Pillar design criteria -----------------~-­
272

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8.4 New Ba~~ier pillar Design criteria -------- .2')4
8.4.1· Approach 1 (Stress Method) ~---------7----- 277
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~ 8~4.2 Practical Application
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of Approach 1 ------- 279 \
8.4.3 Approach 2 (Force Method) ----------------- 280
8.4.4
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Practical Application of Approach 2 ------- 282
8.4.5 verification, of the Developed Methods
by In situ Convergence Measurements -------
8.5 . .'. "
Compar~son of The Current Barr~er

Pillar ~esign Criteria --.----------------- 288

8.6 Conclusion -------------------------------- 292
Chapter 9

Summary and Conclusions of the Present Studies

with Recommendations for Further Research

9.1 Summary and Conclusions --------------------- 295

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~.2 contributions ------------------------------- 298
9.3 Recommendation for Further Research --------- 299

References -------------~--------------~-------------- 301

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 LIST OF TABLES
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Table 3.1 Results of Non-Linear Least Square .Teohpique

Based on Equation %v.C.=a(l-exp(-x/b) )+c for
Data Obtained from In situ Measurements at
Every 10 Arch Intervals at No. 26 Colliery. (%
~ Original Tunnel Height):r------------------- 100

Table 3.2 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Techniqu~

Based on Equation %V.C.=a(l-exp(-x/b) )+c for
Data Obtained from in situ Measurements at
~very 10 Arch Intervals at No. 26 Colliery. (%
of Exuracted Seam Height).-----------~--------- 101
Table 3.3 Re~ults of Non-Linear Least Square Teehhique
Based on Polynomial Functions for Data Obtained
from In situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals at No. 26 Colliery.----------------- 102
Table 3.4 Data Obtained from Plan ~ayout of No. 26
COlliery and Also from C~ Branch at Sydney. 115
Table t.1 Data Obtained from Plan Layout of Lingan Mine
and Also from CANMET Branch at Sydney.--------- 130
Table 4.2 Re~ults of Non-Linear Least Square Tec~que -
Based on Equation %v.C.=a(l-exp(-x/b»+c for
Data Obtained from In situ Measurements at
Every 10 Arch Intervals at Lingan Mine. (% of
original Tunnel Height).--~-------------------- 149
Table 4.3 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Technique
Based on Equation %V.C.=a(l-exp(-x/b»+c for
Data Obtained from In si tu Measurements at
Every 10 Arch Intervals at Lingan Mine. (% of
Extracted Seam Height) .---------~~------------- 150
Table 4.4 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Techniqùe
~ Based on Polynomial Functions for Data Obtained
from In situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals at Lingan Mine.--4--------~--------- 151
Table 5.1 Resulte of Non-Linear Least Square Technique
Based on Equation %V .C.=a (l-exp(-x/b) )+c for
Data Obtained _from In si tu Measurements and
Photographic Technique at Every 50 Arch
Intervals at No. 26 Colliery.----------------- 192
Table 5.2 ~esults of Non-Linear Least Square Technique
Based on Equation %v.c.=a(exp(b-x/c»+d for
Data Obtained from In Situ' Measurements and
from Photographic Technique at Every 10 A~ch
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 \ Table 5.3 Regression Analysis of the relationship between
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Intervals at No. 26 Colliery. -----------------' 193 ,.

Vertical Convergence profile with, Barrier

Pillar Width.---------------------------------- 194

Table 5.4 Regression Analysis of the rëlationship between

Vertical Convergence Profile with Distance from
Face for Lingan Mine.--------------~----------- 194

Table 6.1 Design Matrix for parametric Studies.---------- 207

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Fig. 1,1
LIST OF FIGURES
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simplified 3-D Representation of Access TUnne~
in Lonqwall Mining Technique~ ---7------------- 2
Fig. 1.2 - Schematic Cross-Seci:'"ion of AccesljJ Tunnels in
y

Pig. 1.3
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Longwall Mining Technique. ----~--------------- 3
Longwall Extraction TechniqUe With: (a) 'Fullfaç_e
. Advance Heading System and (b) Half Heading
system. --------------------------------------- 4
Fig. 1. 4 Schematic Diagral1\ of Form~tion of, Plastic Zone
Around an Axisymmetric Single Circular Tunnel
in Hydrostatic stress Field. ----------------.- 7
Fig. 2.1 Forces·at Dome Boundary (After Denkhaus, 1964). 23
Fig. 2. 2 Pressure Dome and stress Traj ectories Around a
Drift (After Dinsdale, 1936). ----------------- 26
Fig. 2.3 Forces Acting o~ Pressure Dome (After Dins~ale,
1936). ---------------------------------------- 26
Fig. 2.4 Hypothetical Shape of Dome wi th Intradosal
Voussoir Systems (After Denkhaus, 1964). ------ 33
Fig. 2.5 Fracture Dome in Bearn Theory with Weber Cavities
(After Denkhaus, 1964). ------------------------ 35
Fig. 2.6 Pressure Arch for a Narrow opening (After AIder
et al.,- 1949). --------------------------'.:..----- 37
Fig. 2.7 Approxirnate Distribution of Presspre Around a )
Longwalr Working (After Peng, 1976). ---------- 37
Fig •. 2.8 Width of Maximum Pressure Arch --for various
Depths. (After-Peng, 1976). ------~~--~-------- 39
Fig. 2.9 Estimated Pressure in Abutment Zone of the
Maximum Pressure Arch in Coal Beds (peng, 1976). 3~

Fig. 2.10 The Three stages of Subsidence (~fter Denkhaus,

1964). ---------------------------------------- 41
Fig.-~.ll Dorne and Movement Trough (After Wiggill, 1963). 46
,
Fig. 2.12 Upbreakinq process of Wedge above Tunnel Roof
(After Szechy, 1971). ~---------~~------------- 47
Fig. 2.13 E~Uension of ultim~te Overbreak if No Support
is Installed with (a) Horizontal Stratification
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(b) Vertical stratification (After-~erzaghi,

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1946). ----------------------~--------~-------- 47
Fig. 2.14 Gate Roadway Stability Data: (a) Influe~oe of
Rib Pillar Width for Depth Ranges on - Gate
Closure, (b) Influenoe of Gate ForméJ,tion
Method, (c)~Influence of Gat~ original Height
on Subsequent Closure (Whittaker and Singh,
1979). ----------------------------------------
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F~ 2.15 Rib Pillar stress Condit~on: (a) Average ètress
on Rib Pillar, (b) Peak'Stress Experienced by
Rib Pillar, (c) Influence of Face Leng,th on
"
Average Pillar stress (Whi ttaker and Singh,
1 1979). --------------------~-----------------~- 55
Fig. 2.16 (a) Correlation Between Extracted Seam Height
and Gate Vertical Closure, (b) Gate Vertical
Closure Plotted Agœinst Depth Below Surface,
(c) Instability in Long Life Gate in Difficult
Strata Conditions (Tailgate) and (d) As for (c)
Except Maingate (Whittaker and singh, 1979). 56
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Fig. 2.17 (a) Comparison Between Half-head
apd Convèn-
'tional-Rip Formation Methods~ (b) Illustrating
,
Effect of Change of Formation Method from Cbn- •
ventional Rip to Advanced Heading, (c) Gate
~Roadway Closure for In-Line System in Deep Con-
ditions and (d) Development of~Gate Roadway
Clos ure in Finger Panel Extraction by Advance
Working (Whittaker and Singh, 1979). ---:.----:...-- 57
Fig. 2.18 . Main Closure Features of Gat.eroads (After
f
'- Whittaker and Hodgkinson, 1971). -------------- 59
Fig. 2.19 Ribside Pack Effect on Gateroad Deformation
\ -(Hobbs, 1968): ~;i------------------------.------ 6.3
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Fig. 3.1 Location of ~o. 26 COlliery (A~on, 1985). ----- 72
Fig. 3.2 structural Development of Western Part of .
Sydney Basin Shown with Harbour Seam Contours
(Hacquebard, 1983). -------------:,--------------" 72
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Fig. 3.3 Plan of No. 26 CO~1ery, Harbour Seam.,-------- 76
Fig. 3.4 Pack Support and Face-End Design for Material
Road in No. 26 Colliery. ---------------------- 77
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Fig. 3.5 Pac~Support and Face-End Design for Coal Road
C, Y in No. 26 Colliery. --------------------------- 78
Fig. 3.6 Schematic Cross-seotion of Access Tunnel End

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Showing Averag~Overbreak and Pack Support Loca-

tion (Not to Scale). -------------------------- 83
Fig. 3.7 Schematic LOnéj section. çf Access T~nnel End
Showing Hydraulic Powered Support Followed by ,_
Hardwood Pack supports (Not to Scale).
y
-------- 83
Fig. 3.8Comparison of vertical Convergence from
Faceline Obtained Based on the Extracted Seam ."...
and Initial Tunnel Heights at B14N Coal- Road in
No., 26 Colliery. ------------------------------ 89
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Fig. 3.9 Mode of Qeformation of T13S Material Road with
3-piece Yielding Steel Aren Support System in
Lt>NO. 26 colliery. --.:..--------------------..------- 91
Fig. 3.10' Mode of Deformation of T13S.Material ~oad with
2-Piece Rigid Steel Arch Support System in N~
26oColliery. ---------------------~------------ 91
Fig. 3.~1 Mode of Deformation and the Effect of Floor
Heave on Closure of B12S Coal Road with 2-Piece r
Rigid Steel Arch Support system in' No. 26
Colliery. ---------------------------------~--- 92
Fig. 3.12 Mode of Defo,}llation and the Effect of Floor
~eave on closufe of B12S Coal Road with 2-Pieçe
Riqid Steel Arch Support System in No. 26
Colliery. ------------------------------------- 92
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Fig. 3.13< Representative Vertical Convergence Profile
from Access Tunnel Faceline for B13S Coal Road
in No. 26 Colliery. ~------------~------------- 93

.. Fiq. 3.14 Representation of Vertical Convergence ,Profile

for First Stage smoothing· of B13S Data in No •
26 Colliery. '---------------------------------- 93
Fig. 3--.15 Representative Vertical Convergence Profile
from Accesq Tunnel Face~~ne for B12S.Coal Road
in No: 26 Colliery. ------~~------------------- 94
.-

Fig. 3.16 Representation of Vertical Conver~ence Profile

for, First Stage Smoot:hing of B12S Data in No •
•
26 Colliery. ---------------------------------- 94
Fig. 3.17 Representation of the First sot'of the Vertical
Convergence Profile for the First Stage
Sm60thing of B13S Data in'No. '26 colliery. -:--- 98
Fig. 3.18 Representation of Vertical Convergence Profile
o for the Second stage Smoothing of B13S Data in
No. 26 Colliery. ------------.:..---------'--------. '98
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Fig. 3.19 Variation of Vertical Convergence Profile with
Distance from Access Tunnels Facelines in No.
26 colliery. -----•• -------~~------------------ 104
Fig. -3.20 Rèlationship Between Depth of Caver and
Vertical Convergence for Data.Obtained from
In situ. Measurements at Every 10 Arch Interv.~ls­
for T13S Material Raad in No. 26 Colliery. -~-- 107
Fig. 3.21. Relationship Between Depth of Caver and
Vertical Convergence for Data Obtained from
In situ Measurements at Every 50 Arch Intervals
for AlI Material Roads in No. 26 Colliery. ---- 109
Fig. 3.22 Relationship between D..epth of Caver and
, vertical Convergence for DAta Obtained from In
situ Measurements at Every 50 Arch Intervals
for AlI Coal Roads in No. 26 Colliery. -------- 1.09
Fig. 3.23 Relationship between Extraoted Seam Height and
vertical Convergence for Data Obtained from
Plan Layout at-. ,Every 1.0 Arch Intervals for
B12N Coal Road in No. 26 Col'liery. ------------ 1.10
Fig. 3.24 Relationship between Extracted Seam Height
and Vertical Convergence for Data Obtained
from Plan Layout at Every 10 Arch Intervals
for T12N Material Raad in No. 26 Colliery. ---- 110
Fig. 3.25 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles for
Data Obtained from In situ Measurements at
Every 10 Arch Intervals for Material Roads in
No. 26 Colliery. ------------------------------ 1.13
~ Fig. 3.26 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles for
Data Obtained from In situ Measurements at
Every 10 Arch Intervals for Coal Roads in No._
26 Colliery. ---------------------------------- 113
Fig. 3.27 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles for
Data Obtained from In Si tu Measurements for .-'
Both Material' Roads anq C"oal Roads in No. 26
colliery. ------------------------------------- 117
Fig •. 3.28 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profïles
wi th Respect ta the Corresponding support
Systems for Data Obta ined from In situ
Measurements in Both Material Roads and Coal
Roads in No. 26 Colliery. --------------------- 11.7
Fig. 3.29 Relationship between Vertical ConYergence and
Barrier Pillar width for T13N Material Roads i~
-xvi-
 No. 26 COlliery. ------------------------------ 120
Fig. 3.30 Com~rison of vertical Convergence Profiles for
Data Obtained from In Situ Measurements at
Every 50 Arch Interv'als Roads in No. 26
Colliery. -------------,-----------;..------------ 120
Fig. 3.31 Relationship between Vertical Convergence and'
Barrier Pillar 'lUdth for the Data Obtaine,d -from
In situ Measurements fo B12N Material Roads
in No. 26 c~y. 122
Fig. ,,;3.32Variation Of' Actcial illar width Used
", At Different Depth of Cover ~ B12N Coal _Roads
in NO. 26 Colliery. ------------ ---------~----
. '--~.r'\
122,
Fig. 3.33 Relationship between Vertical Convergence and
Barrier,Pillar Width for the Data obtained from
In situ Measurements for T13S Material Roads
in No. 26 Colliery. --------------------------- 123
Fïg. 3.34 Variation of Actual Barrier pillar width Used
At Different Depth of Cover in T13S Coal Roads
in NO. 26 Colliery. --------------------------- 123
Fig. 4.1 Pack Design for (a) Coal Roads, Cb) Material
Roads at Lingan Mine. ------------------------- 128
Fig. 4.2 S impl i f ied Pl an 0 f the 'Lingan Coal Mine,
Harbour Searn. --------------------------------- 129
Fig. 4.3 Variation of Vertical Convergence Versus the
Corresponding_Depth o~ Cover for Material Roads
in Lingan MIne. ------------------------------- 132
Fig. 4.4 vertical Convergence Profile ,Versus the Corres-
ponding Depth of Cover foi Coal Roads in Lingan
Mihe. -~---------~-----------~~---------------- 132
Fig. 4.5 Variation of Depth of Cover wi th the correspond-._
ing Barrier Pillar Width for Material Roads in
' ,
.L 1ngan M1ne. ~--------------------------------- 134
Fig. 4.6 Variation of Depth of Cover wi th the correspond-
ing Barrier Pillar Width for Coal Roads in
Lingan Mine. --------------------------------- 134
. Fig. 4.7 The Cornparison of Vertical Convergence Versus
Depth of Cover for the corresponding Barrier
pillar width for Material Roads in Lingan Mine. 136
Fig'. 4.8 The Comparison of vertical ,Convergence Versus "
Depth of covér for the Corresponding Barrier

-xvii-

'1'
 c Fig. 4.9
Pillar Width for Coal Roads in Lingan Mine. --- 136
The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Barrier
'.

Pillar Width for AlI the Material Roads at

Lingan Mine. --------~------------------------- 138
Fig. 4.10 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Barrier
.
Pillar Width for AlI the Coal Roads\
at Lingan
M1ne. ------------------------------~---------- 138
Fig. 4.11 Compari$on of Vertical Convergence profiles
Versus Barrier Pilla~ width Based on In situ
Measurements at Every 50 and 10 Arch Intervals
for Material and Coal Roads in Lingan Mine. --- 140
Fig. 4.12 vertical Convergence Profile of T4W Material
Road in Lingan Mine (a) Wat~ Exponential Fit,
(b) with Polynomial Fit. ---------------------- 141
o
Fig. 4. 12c Comparison of the Trends Obtained by the
-Exponential and Polynomial Functions for T4W
Material Road in Lingan Mine. ----------------- 142
Fig. 4.13 Vertical Convergence Profile of TBE Material
Road in Lingan Mine (a) With E~ponential-Fit,
(b) with Polynomial Fit. ---------------------- 143
...
Fig., 4. 13c comparison of the Trends obtaineê( by the
Exponential and Polynomial Functions for T8E
Material Road in Lingan Mine. ----------------- 144 .
Fig. 4.14' Vertical Convergence Profile of· B4W Coal Road
in Lil1ian "Mine (a) With Exponent;i.al Fit, Cb)
With Polynomial Fit. ----------------~--------- 145
Fig. 4. 14c ~mparison of the Trends Obt;d.ned by the
Exponential and Polynomial_ -.Functions for B4W
~Coal Road in Lingan Mine. -----------------.--- 146
. . )

Fig. 4. 15 Tl1e Vertical Convergence Prof ile Versus

Distance fro~ the Access Tunnel Faceline for
the Coal Roads with a Secondary Longwall
Panel in Parallel, Based on Data obtained from
Eve~ 50 Arch Intervals, at Lingan Mine. ------ 1~4
/ ;!. ~

Fig ~ 4. 16 The vertical Convergence Prof ile Versus

Distance from the Access Tunnel Faceline for
the Goal Roads with a Secondary Longwall
r Panel in Parallel, Based on Data Obtained from
Every 10 Arch Intervals, at Lingan Mine. ------ 155
Fig. 4.17 The Vertical Convergence Prof ile Versus
~Distance from the Access Tunnel Faceline for

-xviii-
o the coJJ. Roads without a Secondary Longwall
Panel, in Parallel, Based on Qata Obtained from _
Every 50 Arch Interva~s, at Lingan Mine. ------ 156
Fig. 4. 18 The Vertical Convergence Prof ile Versus
Distance from the Access Tunnel Facel ine for
the Coal' Roads without a Secondary Longwall
Panel in Parallel, aased on Data Obtained from
Every 10 Arch Intervals, at Lingan Mine. ------ 157
Fig. 4.19 The Vertical convergencé profile Versus
Distance from the Access Tunnel Faceline for
'AlI the Coal -Roads in in Lingan Mine. -------- ,158
Fig. 4. 2@, The verticai Convergence Profile Versus
Distance from the Access Tunnel Faceline for
AlI the Material Roads Based on Data Obtained
from Every 5~ Arch Intervals, in Lingan Mine.
• 0
159
Fig. 4.21 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus
"Distance from the Access Tunnel Faceline for \'
, ~ "AlI the Material Roads Based on Data Obtained
from Every 10 Arch Intervals, in Lingan Mine. 160
,
Fig. 4.22 Comparison of the vertical convergence-Profiles
Versus Distance from the Access Tunnels
Facelines for Material Roads and Coal Roads
Based on Data Obtained from Every 50 Arch
~ Intervals, in Lingan Mine. -------------------- 161
Fig.' 4.23 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Distance from the Access Tunnels
Facelines for Material Road~ and Coal Roads
Based on Data -Obtained from Every 10 Arch
,J
Intervals, in Lingan Mine. -------------------- 162
Fig.,4.24 'Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Distance from the Access Tunnels
Facelines for Material Roads, Coal Roads and
Combination of the two Based on Data
Obtained from ~Every 10 Arch Intervals, in
Lingan Mine. ---------------------------------- 163
Fig. 4.25 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence
Profiles Versus Barrier Pillar width for Data
Obtained from In Situ Tapè measurements for
Materi~l Roads, Coal \Roads at every 50' Arch
Intervals, in Lingan M1ne.~----t--------------- 165
-."
\,
Fig. 4.26 .., Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Distance from the Access Tunnels
Facelines for Material Roads, in Lingan ,Mine. - 168
,-xix-
 , , .

..
Fig. 4.27 Comparison of the vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Distance from the. Access Tunnels
Facelines for'Coal Roads, in Lirigan Mine. --- 168
Fig. 4.28 Variatiop of Lateral Convergence'from the Access
Tunnel Faceline in B4W'First Phase Coal Road at
Lingan Mine~,-~--~----------------------------- 170
Fi~. 4.29 'Variation of ~ateral Convergence frolll the
Access 'Tunnel Faceline 'in' BȌ S'econd Phase
Coal Roa~ at L~ngan Mine. --------------------- 170
Fig. 4.30 Variation of Lateral èonvergence, efr'om the
Access Tunnel Faceline in B3W Second
" . Phase Coal
Road at Lingan Mine. -------------------------- 171
Fig. 4.31 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the
/' ~ Access Tunnel Faceline in B8E First Phase Coal
Road at Lingan Mine. -----------------------~-- 171
Fig. 4. ~2 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the
Acçess Tunnel Faceline in T3W Material Road at
Lingan Mine. ----------------------------------
, 172
, Fig. 4.33 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the
Access·Tunnel Faceline in T8E Material Road At
' . ?l'lne. ----------------------------------
L 1ngan , , ,
172
Fig. 4.34 Comparison of Lateral Convergence Profile of
- \i" B3W Second Pha~e Coal Road wi th T3W Material
Road At Lingan Mine. -----------------------'---- 174
1
.Fig. 4.35
0 Compar,is6 of Lateral Convergence Profil,e of
a8E First P ase Coal Road with T8E Material
Mine. -------------~------------
Jtc- •
174
1

Fig. 4.36
, Comparison of ateral Con.vergence Profile of
B7E Second Phase Coal Road with B2W Second
Phase Coal Road At Lingan Mine. --------------- 175
"",- Fig. 4.37 Comparison. of Lateral Convergence Profile of

Fig.' 4.38
B4l'{ 'F irst Phase Coal Road· with B3W Second
Phase Coal Road At Lingan Mine. ------ ... -------- 175
Effect of Depth of Cover on·the Access Tunnels
\
Vertical Convergence (a) from the 'Faceline, (b)
400 m Away from the Faceline. ----------------- 177
Effect of· Type of Steel Arch supports on the
Access Tunnel Vertical 'Convergence in No. 26
Col1iery. ------------------..,.-.... -.:-'------------- 179
E ffect of Adj acent ~orking on the A,ecess

-xx-
 . - - - - - ~_ _ _ ~ _ _ r -~-- -------;-:-~~ - ; ; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . , - - - =--,------ \" -.:r:------- ------ --- - -~---,-------- ------I-~

\
1

r"1- .
Tunnels vertical co+ergenc~ in No. 26
Colliery. ~-----~------------------------~---~- 179
Fig. 5.1 The Vertical ccinverg~nce Profile Versus the
Barraer Pillar width for AIl the Material Roads
at Lingan Mine. ------------------------------- 186
Fig. 5.• 2 The Vertical Convergence. Prof ile Versus
Distance from the Face for AlI the Material
Roads
, at Lingan~Mine. -~----------------------- 187
Fig. 5.3 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus the
Barrier Pillar
Lingan Mine. Width'for
---- AlI'_____________
___________ the Coal Roads at 188 4_____
Fig. 5.4 The vertical Convergence Profile Versus
Distance from the Face for the Coal Roads
Without a secondary Longwall Panel in Parallel,
· .
a t L1ngan_M1ne. .
----~--------------------------
189
Fig. 5.5 The Vertical Convergence Profile .Versus
Distance from the Face for the Coal Roads,with ~
a Secondary Longwall Panel . in Parallel, at
Lingan Mine. ---------------------------------- 190
Fig. 5.6 Comparison of vertical Convergence Profiles
versus Barrier Pillar- width for Data
, "
Obtained
from In Situ Measurements and the Photographie
Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals in aIl
Coal Roads at:No __ 26 Colliery. ----------------'195
Fig ~ 5.7 Comparison of vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Barrier pillar width for Data Obtained
from In situ Measurements and the Photographie
Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals in aIl
Material Roads at No. 26 Co11iery. ------------ 195 ~
Fig. 5.8 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles
Versus Barrier Pillar width for Qata Obtained
from In situ Measurements and the Photograph~c
Technique-at Every 50 Arch. Intervals in Coal
Roads and Mate~ial Roads at Lingan Mine. ------ 196
Fig. 5.9 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles
Versq.s Distance from Facelines for the
Individual Material Roads with Those Obtained
by the Photographie Technique for, Combinat~on ~.
of All Material'Roads at No. 26 Colliery. -~--- 197
ù

Fig. 5.10 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles

Versus Distance"\ from Facel ines for Data
Obtai~ed from the Phdtographic Technique ~t
Every 50 Arch Intervals for Material Roàds and

-xxi-
 ,

c Fig. 5.11
Co~l Roads at Lingan Mine.
Area Closure pro)il~ Versus
198

Access Tunnel Faceline for T8E aterial Roads

.. at Lingan Mine. ,-----------4----- ----- ------- 200
(
Fig. 6.1 ,
Schematic Cross-section of Access Tunnels in
Longwall-Mining Technique (Base Model)~----- 208
Fig. 6.2 Effect of Mesh Densi ty on Vertical Closure o~ ,
the Access Tunnel. .. ----------------;---------- 210
Fig. 6.3, Finite Element Mesh For Access Tunnels with (a)
Circular-Shape (b) Aren-Shape (c) Rectangular~
Shape. ---------------------------------------- 211
Fig. 6.4 Assumed Type of Materials Around the Access
Tunnels. -----------------~-------------------- 213
Fig. 6.5 Effect of Shape on the Distribu,tion of
Displacements Around the Access Tunnels. ------ 214
Fig. 6.6 Effect· of Shape on the Distribution of
Principal s~resses Around the Access Tunnels. - 216
1
Fig. 6.7 Effect of Shape on the Mode of Failure and
Extent of Failed Zone Around the Access
Tunnels. ---------------------------ï----------
218
Fig. 6.8 Effect of Tunnel size on the Distribution of
stress. Concentration on the Barrier Pillar in
Lonqwall Mining. -7----------------------------220
Fig. 6.9 Relationship between Vertical stress Concentra-
tion anQ Access Tunnel width. ----------------- 220
Fig. 6.10 Effect of Extracted Panel Width on vertical
stress Conoentration of the Barrier Pillar. ---- 222
•
Fig. 6.11 Effect of Barrier Pillar Width on Vertical
stress Concentration Around Access Tunnels. --- 222
F.;ig. 6.12 'Eff,ect of Extracted Seam Height on Vertical
stress concent~ation Around Acress Tunnels-:- ---- 224
~

Fig. 6.13 Relationship between Maxi~um Vertical stress

Concentration ~round the Access Tunnel and
Extracted Seam Height in Longwall Mining. ----- 224
. Fi'g. 6.14 Relationship between Maximum Vertical Stress
c Concentration Around the Âccess Tunnel and
Modulus of Elasticity of the Barrier Pillar. -- 226 •
-xxii-

\
 " 'r ..... ~ f ", - ;,

"
/f _
.
~:- ;,"-~, <~~; .. '::~~-:.'" \

.J-.)

"

...
Fig. 6. 15 Relationship, Be.tween Maximum vertical stress
Concentration Around the Access Tunnel and
Modulus of Elasticity of (1) Roof (2.) Floor
strata in Lonqwall Mining. -------------------- 226 '
"
Fig. 5.16 Comparison of Dispîac~ment Distri1>ution in
Access Tunnels of (a) surrounding Materials are .
Isotropie (b) Broken Rocks in Panel Behave
Different, (c) Roof and Flocr Are the Same. -- 228
\

Fig. 6.~, 7 Mode of Failure and extent of Failed Zone

Around Access Tunnels ,in Lonqwall Mining. ----- 229
a

Fig. 7. la Ra4ial and Tangential stress Distributiqns

Around an Axisymmetric Single circul~r Tunnel
in An Elastic Medium (Obert and Duval, 1967). 233\1
,
Fig. 7.1b Idealized Formation of Plastic Zone Arou,rid'--ap
Axisymmetrlc Single Circular Tu~nel in Hydro~'
static Stress Field. ------~---------~--------- 233
Fig. 7.2 Shear Failure on Plane ab. ------------------.~ 237
Fig. 7.3 Idealized Elastic-Brlttle-plastic Stress-Stain
., Model (Aft~r Brown et al., "1983). --------,---.:..-~242
,
Fig. 7.4 Assumed Failure criterion in Triaxial Compres-
sion. ----------~----------------------~------ 24.2
l,i "

Fig. 7.5 Variation of Radius of the Yield Zone Around an

Axisymmetric Single Circular Tunnel.
, ---------- 246
Fig. 7.6 Radial and Tangential" Stress Distribution
..
Around an Axisymmetric Circular Tunnel. ------- 249
Fig. 7.7: Variation of Diametral Displacement for
.. Different Support Resistance with Depth. ------ 254
."
Fig. 7~ 8 Compar.,ison of Theoretical Prediction of
Vertical Convergence with In situ M~asurements,
for B2W
,
Coal Road in Lingan Mine {Example
,
.
Problem 1). ----------------------------------- 260
Fig. 7.9 COItlparison 'of Theoretical predictio'n of
n

Vertical Convergence with In situ Measurements

for Main Access Tunnel fn Donkin';;;'Morien (Example
~
Problem 2). ----------------------------------- 260
~

Fig. 7.10 Comparison of Theoretica~predicbion of Vertical .

Cdnvergence with In sit Measurements for B4W'
o Coal Raad in Lingan Mine. --------1--------------262
Fig. 7. Il Comparisop of TheoX'etical Prediction of
• • .~ r
-xx~~~-
 vertical Convergence with In Situ Measurements
for B~E- Coal Road in ~ingan Mine. ------------- 262
Fig. 7. 12 comparison of Theoret ical Prediction of
vertical Convergence with\ In Situ Measurements
for B12S Coal Road in No. 26 Coll iery • -------:..: '263
Fig. 7.13 Comparison of Theoretical Predict.ion of
vertical Convergence wi th In Si tu MeasuremEmts
for T13S Material Road in No. 26 colliery. "---- 263
Fig. 7. 14 comparison of Theoretical Prediction of
\ - vertical Convergence with In Situ Measurements
for B13S Coal Road in No. 26 Colliery. -------- 264
Fig. 7.15 Theoretical Prediction of vertical Convergence
of Access Tunnels from' the Facel ines at
Different Depth of Cover for Extracted Pan~l of
(a) 100 m, (b) 200 m and (c) 300 m. ----------- 264

Fig. 8.1 Assumed Major principal stress Distribution on

the Barrier Pillar of Longwall Mining. ------- 275
Fig. 8.2 Variation of Vertical Convergence of Access
Tunnel Versus Barrier pillar Width wi th
corresponding Depth of Cover in (a) T8E
Material Road,' (b) B3W Coal Road in Lingan
( Mine. ----------------------------------------- 2S4
Fig. 8.3 Variation of vertical Convergence. of Access
Tunnel Versus Barrier Pillar Width with
Corresponding Depth of Caver in (a) T3W
Material Road, Cb) B6E Coal Road in Lingan
Mine. ----------------------------------------- 2S5
Fig. 8.4 Comparison of Tl'\eoretically Calculated
Barrier Pillar Width with In situ Data in
Lingan Mine. ---------------------------------- 2S7
Th~oretical Prediction of width of Yield Zone
f
Fig. 8.5
Versus Depth of Cover in Longwall Mining for
Average uniaxial compressive strength of
surrounding Materials, (a) 40 MPa, (b) 20 MPa. 289
Fig. 8.6 Theoretical Prediction of Barrier Pillar Wid~
Versus Depth of Cover in Longwall Mining for
Average uniaxial compressive strength of
Surrounding Materials, (a) 40 MPa, Cb) 20 MPa •., 290'
Fig. S.7 comparison of Seven Barrier Pillar D~si9n
c Crite~ia with In situ Measurements for' (a)
Material Roads, Cb) Coâl Roads in Lingan Mine. 291

-xxiv-

m
 Fig. 8.8 Comparison of the Existint] Barrier Pillar
~ Design criteria for Different Depth of Cover. 293- -
Fig. 8.9 Comparison of the Present Developed Barrier - ~

Pillar Design Criteria with' the Existing

Criteria for Different Depth of Cover. .... -_ ...... - 293

"

'0
<

-xxv-
 CHAPTER 1 \

INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

( The ~ende~cy of the strata control probl~ms to worsen

t
due to increase in depth of mining operatio~s has gener~lly
been accepted. This is as true now as it ever was and it is
self evident that instability problems will inevitably
i~~rease-.-for a number of re~s as weIl as the incr_easing , ,

" _depth. The i~provement in identifying and solving thèse

problems contributes to greater confidence by industry in

. .
their future plans and investments.
strata control relating to 'longwall mining has been
considerably imprGved at the coalface by the development of
powered supports, al though apparently only negl igible

, access tunnel conditions has

improvement in the cerresponding

occurred over the sarne peFi9d. Thé access tunnels are the
>;

underground roadways which provide access to and from the

coal face for men, -ve'ntilation, po~er, ma terials and
transportation,of mined coal (Fig. 1.1).
A continuous barrier pillar is left between adjacent
, 1

longwalls to protect the existing tunnels.,rom the excess~ve

qisplacements that can be associated with the mïning of the

-coal seams (Fig. 1.2). Pack supports are aIse 4sed, particu-
Il

larly in the goaf si.de (Fig. 1. 3) to protect the access'

tunnel~ from the Qxcessive displacernent that can be

1
 ,.
--- <0

) -- St
~

~ e
" \~,

\
i
- ..

\
;'

.\

t, ,'

-,

•
~DISTRICT ACCESS TUNNELS
'1 (SECON~Y ROADS)
",

,
';-.,:'

Fig. 1.1 Simplified 3-0 Representation of Access Tunnels in Longwall ,'

,
, Mining Technique.

<S'

;"

~ ......~,
'" '-
':4
iL c.
~r
.~ ~ ~

"
GROUND SURFACE .
/" ----1", ~
~
g-2
o
u •

r:.. 'i

o
iS
P-t '-~-,
c..J
t:x::1 , t:,

~
r6

PANEL H-Y CR'

:\'
"1
" . .

\, ~

Schematic Cro~s Section of Access Tunnels in Lpngwall Mining 1 Technîqu~

Fig. 1.2

\_- "
 +

• T-Junction

0> a)

Plan View

b)
o Fig. 1.3 longwall Extraction Technique With: (a) Fullface Advance
heading System, (b) Half Heading System.

4
 1
..'
èorresponde~-", ,to the til ting of the surroùnding rock strat~ \-

(Smart et al., 1981). J

The existen~e of an access tunnel serving an advancing
longwall is a consequence of a two-fold operation in which,
,
first1y, a coal seam is removed, and secondly, an undergrou~d

roadway is formed (King and Whittaker,1970). Therefore, strata

behaviour within the vicinity of the access tunnel, as weIl as
.'
th-e ensuing load and the corresponding deformatiol\ are
dependent upon this two-fold operation.
As the face is advanced( the state of equilibrium
/'
changes and inward movement of the tunnel walls, roof and
.. f100r occurs behind the face. This inward movement which
resul~s in the closing up of the tunnel is referred to as
tunnel closure. Hence the ability of an access tunnel to

, ~

resist closure is related to a number of factqrs that are

.
additional to those factors consider~d in th~ ca~e of solid 1
1

drivage (see yig 1.3).

The tunnel olosure oeeurs from the instant of creating
excavation in the-qround. the increase of defqrmations and
• 1
10a~ing due to rheological phenomena extends over a .,.long
perioê of time after excavation and support installations
(Panet, 1~; Ladanyi, 1980; Lombardi, 1973, 1974, 1980:
Kaiser 1980; Kaiser and Morgenstern, 1981, 1982; Gill and

Ladanyi, 1987). supports are usual1y required to maintain the

roadway within the acceptable closure in the sedimentary rocks

c Of asso.ciated with ooa1 mining ope:ç-ations.

5
 -----~---------~----~-~------,--~---

\,

• ~ The weight of the rock - strata above an underground

\ excavation at any considerable depth fs ~reater1 than the

carrying capacity of ~ll practical forms of artificial support
fAlder et al., 1949)', Therefore, the purpose. of the artificial
/
supports is merely to reinfo~ce the strength - and c.smtrol the
movement of the immediate roof beds and also to carry the
. ,weight of the stress-free.bod~ develo~d as a consequence of
relaxation following excavati,n (Szechy, 1973). H~nc~, minipg
. at depth is only possible because the grea~er porti,on of the ~

load due to the weight of strata above every excavation is

transferred, to the sides of the excavation as abutment loads
(Spruth, 1960; Peng, 1978; Whittaker and Singh, 1979). If the
induced stresses are weIl below the strength of the rock then
the ,tunnel closure can mainly be eiastic and, consequently,
quite small. However, if the stresses are .
suffici~nt to cause
fracturing of the rock, then these fractured materials will
!r.

• dilate, thereby increasing closure (Ladanyi, 1974; Hook and

Brown, 1980; Wilson, 1980). These conditions fOI11l the basfs of
the. concept of a
• 1
zone of fractured groùnd immedlately
surrounding a tunnel, often referred to, as the "yield or
pfastic zone" (Fig. 1.4). Beyond this zone, the rock'is
largely unaffected by the stress redistribution ~rocess and
is~ therefore, still qndisturbed and behaving elastically.·
The attainment of maximum load-bearinq capa city of the
rock an~ the tunnel support system can be based upon the
analysis of the rock suppo~~ interaction (panet, 1979), the
concept was first described by Lauffer and, Sabeer (1961),
L ,"

6
~: ~ " -...,.......~.I:"~~.~t?{:..... :: ~'~~.~I~~.\"{T,,~·:;.'f,"'-...,.·lf[ .. /I,,-,~'-,.':_:.; '.,"~:.., ';~~~ ';' "";."-r;",~

;;w'-~
~:;~

-A
t
'~
" ,-;~

\~

\ ,
v
't'~

/'
l /"
\~ /
;oJ.-
, ,
/
,.
1 . ~/
/-
/ / "'-.
Wp ( ~ \
-.J
"/Ii..
or PLAmC ZO
\ ) • 1
..ELASTIC ZONE \ "-... _ / 1 DEFOR~ED STATE
\ \
\ ~~

PLASTIC ZONE
'-'t

"
\
--
.l:J

ELASTIC- PLASTIC BOUNDARY

~
Fig. 1.4 Schematic Diagram of Formation of Plastic Zone Around
• an Axisymmetric Single Circular Tunnel in Hydrostatic
~ Stess Field. 1
...

'\
.
"(\
~~
 .\

• Pacher

Rabcewicz
(1964) and has

(1964),
since been used
- ,
and 4iscussed in

connection with rock tunnels by many researchers xncluding

Daemen and Fairhurst ~(1972), and Ladanyi

/

(1974).
In multiple openings such as that in longwall mining

environmen~, the magnitude of the ultimate state of stress and

\ t
tunnel closure depend upon a number of factors which are of
"
, . vital signifieance in the stability analysis of the accessf
....
c """
tunnels. These factors are described herein •

1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING ACCESS TUNNELS STABILITV

.
The mecha~ism of defo~ccess tunnels servi~g

l~ngwall coalfaces due to complex effect of the various

contributory factors is not well understood. Deformation

occurs) due to the redistribution of stresses ar~und the

Op~g aft~r ext~action of the coal seam. The overlying

strata cave into the extracted area, and the stress relieved

over the caved zone is ta ken , up by the tunnel suppo,r~s, pack

\

support system and the adjacent coal rib. The coal rib takes

the majority of the redistributed- stresses. Deformation is

caused by roof lowering and extrusion of broken material into

\

the opening . The most important factors infl uencinq the

.
deformation process may be classlfied in two major categories,
.
each of which embraces a variety of parameters: ,

• 8
, ,
 , '

"
1 \

! \,
,
,

1.2 • 1 CONTROLLABLE. PARAMETERS .

~ ..
Parameters which are introdueed in design stage that
disturb the original environment are represented as follows:' l'

1. Tunnel geometry; li,

2.' B~rrier pillar dimensions;
3. Extracted panel dimensions (panel width and ~xtracted seam
,l,

4. Method of exc~vation. (including face-end design, choice

-of cutting method, machine, blasting and Location of'the
roadway formation;
5. Methodl of support (packing method, choice ~f materials~,
1 r
and spacing of osteel arches, struts and arch lagging);
6. Efficiencr of support installation (over-cutting, quality
of workmanship,\delay time between excavation ,and support
installation);
7. Rate of advance;
8. Location and number of tunnel junctions';
1 ~ ,
9. Longwall extraction technique (advancing or retreating
method) ;
10. Orientation of Mining and service openings with respect t9
-,
the orientation of the ground structures; •

11~ Mining sequence and relative location of active facts.

1. 2 • 2 UNCONTROLLABLE PARAMETERS
/

Parameters that reflect the énvironmental conditions

which are beyond-human control:

\ 9
 .
1. gepth of.cover; \
? structural defects, including the orientation of discon-
tinuities (joints, faults, beddinq planes);
3. Dip and. orientation of coal measure rocks;
4. strength properties of the pillar and of the overlying and
underlyinq strata, including tensi1e strength, compressive
and shear stre~th under different conditions of
confinement;
5. ,Volumetric strain characteristics of the coal and of the
overlying and underlying st rata under compression;
6. Time-dependent properties of the coal seams and of the
coal measure rocks;
7. Relative stiffness of pillars and/ or overlying' and
underlying strata;
8. Degree o.f isotro~ and homogenei ty of the strata
9. orthotropic properties of the coal seam;
10. Compressibility of the pillars and of the pack support
system;
, ,
\ 11. Unpredictable effect
, of adj acent workings where site
conditions vary from norm of experience.
_. ~
Assessment of aIl of these parameters is of great
;importance in the- evaluation of the stability of access
~/'tunnels but in reality it is impractical. fhe inclusion ~f a
large number of .parameters in design cJiteria introduces
d!fficul ties in the evaluations of rational design methodS}
eVen for fairly simple mining qeometries (H~uze and Good~aQ,
o 1977). The desirability of ~antifying_the MOSt important of r

,. 10
 "

~ ..

C the aforementioned factors, at least in part, and producinq

'0 quidel ines for access tunnel support system was recoqnized in
West Germany, where extensive field measurements were carried
out in the late 1960'sl: The data was analyzed and resulted in
the publication of a design method for g~te roads based on

statistical analysis (Anon, 1982).

The author has attempted to verify the applicability

of this technique (Maj~i et al, 1986) in the sydney Coalffeld

by employing the average values of the data available from the

preliminary investigation.

The interaction of adjacent working and redistribution

of stresses on the barrier pillars between the longwalls are

complex and have producep conditions that no support can r~ ~.

control. Al ternatively, intelligent planning can reduce

support cost considerably by util izing region, of destressed

groun'd. At the time conditions stabilize, the size of the
access tunnel is of the utmost importance to the mining

engineer. The final size must be appropriate to the functlons

for which it is designed. Any .excess cost will be directly
,
relt~ed to the excess closure. It is tunnel closur~,

therefore, that is of direct interest to the management 0\

mining operations.

It ls certain that a natural tendency exists among some

authors to generallze the resul ts of their underground and

other measurements with the subsequent 10ss of the original

measurements to future researchers. It is obvious that a great

11
 , ' '

"

o deal of work has been done,

~ ..,
however, which

~ ..
is of vital

significance to the problem'of access tunnel stabi~ity and yet

J

.
Many fundamental questions rémained unanswered or obscured by
~

various theories.
In the theoretical and empirical considerations of the

problem,
,
the latterr is' concerned solely with effects and need

never consider the fundam~ntal mechanisms, while, the former

approach must propose~he mode of opera~on of the disturbing

•
influence. A difficulty that both of these techniques have in

common is the assessment of the ~arameters that a.ffeC~ the

reaction to the fundamental mechanisms. It would be beneficial
\
___ to combine both theoretical and empirical approaches on the

problem. This thèsis demonstra'tes the advantages to be

obtained from the complementary methods.

1.3 RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION

'~he deve~opment ~ethods

. of new for predicting access

tqnnel closures and designing intervening barrier pillars in

longwall mining techniqUes can be achieved either by means of

theoretical studias rela ted to field measurements or by

..
reference to previous experience ât comparable sites. The
.
choice of either approach is a function of two governin~

factors: economy and safety. The demands

/
for increased

productivity. are related to an increasing dependence upon

these factors and for this reason an improvement in the

1
quality and performance of access tunnels and barrier pillars
o is necessary.

12
 "

- This researeh ls based on studies eondueted by the

author in the Departmént of Mining and Metallurgiea1

Engineering at MeGi1l University in conjunction with the Cape ·

Breton Coal Researeh and Energy Technology "(CANMET) as weIl as

the c~pe Breton Oevelopment Corporation (C.B.O.C.).

1. 3 • 1 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION

The mines of the Cape Breton Coalfield (No. 26' and

Lingan Mines, Prince and new Lin9,an Phalen Mines) have been

operated by the Cape Breton Oevelopment Corporation

./(c.B.o.c.). For example, No. 26 Mine was opened in 1943. From

1943 to 1955 the method of mining employed in this mine was

based on the traditional room and pillar method'. Annual

production initially was 1,668 tonnes reaching 473,435 tonnes

in 1955. In mid 1955 the longwall mining tecpnique was
.
initiated, operating alongside the tradit~onal room and pillar

methods until the end of 1964 when the annual production was
9'40,51"9 tonnes. After 1970 the Îongwal1 advancing mining
• 'ft.
teehn1que was the only method employed 1n No. 26 M1ne .
, ...
Since pr~ductivity is diôtated by the efficieney' of

1 the mini~g method, then thè performance of the aceess tunnels

<,

in tQe 1~ngwa11 mining tech~ique is/?rucial. 'Phese should be

'considered a~ the arteries and veins of the mine,s ~ody, sinee

aIl of the operations of a coal mine are dependent on them.

A modern coa1 mine will be operat,ing three tQ six ~aces

- most of Which wilrPb'e co~tributing significantly to the daiiy

13

,
 ~ , - -~J- ';,;;;-

~j
r

,
."

output. Therefore, aIl of the services which keep these faces

in operation will need to be of a much higher standar~ than
.;

previously in 'order to maintain maximum output. In particular,'

the access tunnels, both the main- and-the face-access tunnels
associated with individual faces, must prov!de at aIl times
for the safe and efficient egress of men, materials, coal and
ventilation. Access tunnels which fail to fulfil these
requirements will soon adversely affect'~he production levels.
n

A badly deformed access tunnel will hinder ~he performance of

a longwall face in many respects, for example;
Maintenance work in the access tunnels for dinting
operations carried throughout the length of a tunnel is 5%
to 15% of the total tunnel costs, while, backripping to
the original size of the access tunnel over the full
length may comprise as much 'as 15% to 30% of the total
costs (Sir william Halcrow and Partners, 1975).
The design of the. barrier pillars between the
longwalls is also a major consideration in the economics' of
the mining operations. If the pillar is to~ lf.!,ide, then
dev~lopm~nt costs and sterilization of reserves increase. If
the pillar is too narrow, then the resul ting deformation
generates costly and timé-consuming repair work to maintain
access tunnels and proper ventilation. Hence, a careful study
of the barrier pillar design at the planning stage is also
required. Therefor., access tunnels and the intervening
barrier pillar -'represent an area where there. is great scope
for improvemènts in construction and design in order to

14
c ..
-~
achieve greater efficiency and economy of mining operations.
'-

1.3 • 2 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL JUSTIFfC1ITION

For effective design of the tunnel and lining, it is

essen~ial to determine the extent of the yield zone and the

distribution of stresses inside and outside this zone (see

~

Fig. 1.4). various methods exist for the determination of the

induced stresses under such conditions. The concept of the

yield zone was or,iginally examined by Fenner (1936). the

"
extent of the plastic zone was studied by Kastner (1949). The

work of Fenner and Kastner has been extended by many

investigators and a number of theoretical and empirical,

,,, ',
solutions for the determination of the state of stress and
strain around circular openings in rock masses have been
proposed. For example, Bray (1967); Ladanyi (1974); Wilson

(1977, 1980, 1983); Hoek and Brown (1980) and Brown et al.
~ (1983) have developed theoretical design criteria to calculate
the radius of a fracture zone and the state of stresses, and
to ,predict tunnel 'closure. The aforementioned formulae,
however, have thè limitations of giving closure at only one
point along the tunnel length. More importantly, the effect of
plongwâll extraction and non-circular tunnel shape have not

been taken into account. The aboveLmentidn,ed solutions llave

been shown to highly underestimate coal measure tunnel

~onvergence as compared with in situ measurements (Whittaker'

c et al., 1983~n empirical 'solution proposed by HobbS (1968,

15
 ~
1969) also includes these same li~itations.

The empirical approach proposed by Panet (1979), a~

extended by Guel!.0t et al. (1985), Sulem et al. (1987) and

, Barlow andQRaiser (1987) gives the convergence_ as a function
of both distance from face and time. ~owever, this approach
o
has the limitations of being applicable only to a single
1 ;'7 .
tunnel driven -in solid drivages. Hence, the ef~ects of
longwall extraction and ln situ structural defects have not
been taken into account. In -review of the aforementioned
formulae and their 1 imi tations, the devélopment of a new
theoretical criterion to reduce or to eliminate the above-"
mentioned drawbacks for the prediction of radius-of the yiel~
'- .
- t
zone and tunnel convergen'6e is felt essential for thé coal
mining environment. .
The des ign of the barrier pillar invol ves the
determination of the proper geometrical dimensions for â given
~ mining condition. Hence, the r"ge of validity of existing
barrier p~llar design criteria has al~o 1)een investigated (see
Chapter 8). Based on this' investigatibn, it has been found-
that there is a need
. to develop a, new method of designing the
barrier pillar width in longwall mining. Therefore, tunnel
\

stability and barrier pillar design in longwall m~ning, in

particular for the Cape Breton Coalfield, represent lan area
wh~re there is a genuine need for scientific research.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

o This research is concerned with a comprehensive

.t.
16
J
 f

--
'literature review ori the subj ect of "cause and effect of
qround- movements" with particular reference to the "stability
'analysis of access tunnel in the deep sO.ft rocks of coal
rmininq.
In view of aIl the papers and publication~~on the
subject, it seems particularly impo-rtant to summarize thë
principal objectives of thii research as follows:
- ,,)0
1 .• To analyze in s~tu deformation data, obtained from
'26 access tunnels in the Sydney Coalfield,_ in order to
evaluate the influence of the design parameters and their

interactions on t~ access tunnels performance. These

include; depth of cover, (panel width, extracted seam
heiqht, tunnel size, tunnel s~ape, type of supports in the
1
tunne'l 'and the effects of adjacent workings.
- 2. To propose a photoqraphic deformatioq survey method, 4

toqèther with analyzing and comparinq the deformation

data. obtained from photogr~ph~c deform~tion survey ~! 26

access tunnels in (the Sydney Coalfield, with the in situ

deformation measurements. The results are further used to
investiqate the applicability and reliability of the
photoqraphic technique as a quantitative means for tunnel
closure analysis. ~~e photographs have tradjtionally been

~ used as a qualitative means in coal mining industrYi

3. To undertake comprehensive parametric s~udies by finite

element simulation 'of the access tunnel in longwall mining

\C us in~ --, MSAP2 0 to the effect- of various

•
17 ,
,.
ft (!
 \ '
; -.---

cont:ributory factors on the stress and displacement

distributions and the extent of failed zone (based on

,
.
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion) around the tunnel. These
factors include; size and shape of tunnel, barrier pillar

- -_width, panel width, extracted seam height, deformation

properties of surrounding ~aterials;

J

4. To develop a,method of predicting vertical convergence

from
. thé tunnel face:J.ine by taking_ into account the
effects of lonqwall mining and in situ strubtural defects
, in additio~ to the str~ngth characteristics of the strata

,
-and tunnel size.
5. To develop a new theoretical criterion for barrier pillar
design in further contribution to the longwall mining
..
industry.

, . " 1

"
'\
"

, r
( )

.e
18
.
,/

"
.' C
 \.

c CHAPTER 2

1
., ASPECTS OF STABILITV ANALYSIS OF ACCESS TUNNELS IN COAL MINES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The\pri~ary aim of an underground roadway in a coal

m.ine is to provide access' to and from ,the coalface for men,

mat~ials and mine services, --as' sa'fely' and as economically as

.. possible. This cah be achieved providing that the inherrnt

, 1

strength of' the rock strata is sufficient to support the

excavation.

The excavation- of any underground open~n~ causes a

redistribution of the pre-existing stresses (i. e. primary or

virgin stresses) resulting in a new state off equilibriurn

"'"'
with~n the rock masse This process is accompanied by straining

of the rock mass with differing degrees, of fracture and

• • "'l ~

deformation, depending upon the type and ntiÏgni tude of the

original stress field, the size of the opening, and the rock

strength. This produçes closure of the mining excavation .

.....,;r
Initially, the close proxirnity of the tunnel face will
\,
prevent the displacernent f»om de~lopi~g fully. However, as

the face is advanced, and its supporting effect is reduced,

the walls, roof and floor will deforrn further into the

excavation. As thi~ deforrnation proceeds, a greater proportion

of the inherent rock strength is mObilizQ and more stress is

redistributed around the opening. If tirne-dependenci effect~

19
 - ----- -------------~-----------------

are ne~ected, the Rr9cess of stress redistribution is deemed

~"'-
t7
to becompleted when the closure of the tunne~ is halted and
-"" '

equil~brium is restored.
In the case of strong and competent rock masses, the
stress redistribution may be accomplished with sufficient
self-supporting strength being generated by the rock itself,
in which case no additional support is required and the tunnel
\

~ experiences little deformation. Therefore, In order to design

a tunnel, the nature of stress conditions existing in the rock

mass prior to excavation (primary or virgin stress) and the
.
induced state qf stress due to excavation must he carefully

investigated and rationally analyzed.

The term tlrock"'pressure" can

<
he defined as aIl of the

aspects of the induced state of stress occurring in the rock

./

mass surrounding an underground excavation due to engineering

activities. - The determination of the magnitude of rock

pressure is ~e of the most complex problems, in geotechnical

and mining engineering. This cornpl~ty is due not only to the

inherent difficul ty of predicting the prirnary stress

.,
conditions prevailing in a non-uniform rock mass, but also to

the façt that, in addition to the strength properties of the

rock mass, the magnitude of the induced stress developed

around the excavation is governed by other factors. In other

ultimate loading of the supports is related to the

tions which occur after their placement. This depends

u~n of stress '(primary stress), ground

hehaviour, relative stiffness of the rock and support systems,

20
c .
the method of excavation and support timing • In mUltiple

openings such as 'that in longwall mining environment, the

magnitude of the uitimate state of stress, additionai to the

aforementioned factors, may aiso be influenced by barrier

-
pillars, longwall mining extraction, adjacent workings, pack

supports and face end design.

In order to fully, appreciate the signif!cance of

1

stability of access tunnels in longwa11 mining environment it

is important,to understand the process that takes plàce within

the surrounding rock mass due to tunnelling operations and the

.
ot
interactions of the aforementioned parameters.
-'
the ground movement theories --
together wi th
The review

underground

measurements in longwa11 mining summarizes the first attempts

mad~ at understanding these processes.

~2 • 2 GROUND MOVEMENT THEORIES

• Various theories have b,een proposed that account for

,
the observed movement. The following outline of the dévelop-

ment of these theories draws upon the accounts of various

~.(

literatures, in particu1ar, those by Schoemaker (1949),

Hackett (1962), Denkhaus (1964), Adler and Sun (1976) and

Livingstone (1977).

2 • 2 • 1 PRESSURE DOME THEORV (THE RIGID DOME)

'~owards the end of the 19th century, two theories were

c established by ~a as a result of fie~d observations, and by

. 21
 -------------~~~~~~~~~-~--------------~-----,......, 1

Fayol from laboratory experiments (Hac~tt, 1964). These new

theories state that the overlying rocks are acted on by two
forces only: cohesion and gravity. If gravit y overcomes
... ", .
cohesion, collapse will occur; if not, then the roof will
remain intact.
The general shape of the collapsing rock ls a dome,
J ...

whose base measurements are the width of the excavation. In

this concept, a limit of depth to excavation-width ratio is
\
~
generalized, That is, the greater the depth is in proportion
to the width of excavation, the less likely is th~ surface to

be affected.
The observation that cavity and tunnels in- -'soil
,,
or

rock often remain stable without artificial support if they

have assumed shapes of domes or arches, has l~ to

- 1
theories. The simple~t concept is based upon

of forces at the dome boundary.. It does not account for

deformation but for fail ure, W'hich occurs when the load

attains a critical value, the failure load. In the general

"
case, the dome above an excavation is three-dimensional and"

deriving formula for its shape is difficult. In tunnels-' or

"
longwalls the problem is, therefore, simplified to thê-two-
,, '
dimensional one for determining the shape of the dome cross-

section normal to the longitudinal axis of the excavation as

shown in 'Fig. 2.1.

'G
' ..
In treating the problem (Denkhaus, 1964) a distinction

o should be made between

insufficiently cohesive rock.

sufficiently cohesive rock and,

22
 , .

,
..
c

..
,,
t
,.
~
,..

.,
.
H

, d

h .

.
'. .,. IJ
~.-.----;--
-
Fig. 2.1 Forces at Dame Boundary (After Oenkhaus 1 .~-964).
<t

r
-, .
. "

,.,.='

..
23

"
 - -- --.------ -~~-~-----~-~--~_,,'~_~-~,~,."'CC,.~, '"'>'-:-"---O-----',,r-,"',
~~~

.... >~ JI:;

If the rock within the dome is sufficiently cohesive!

then the intradosal ground·of the dome will not separate from
the dome boundary, which thus must carry the weight of the
.., •
cone. If the span of the dome becomes too large, the weight of
-"

the cone exceeds the cohesive -resist~e and a sudden c;,llapse

of the cone or major portions of it may occur. support undef
the cone\then has to-'tàke these loads,_which may be of vital
importance. For a dome with sufficient cohesion,
, , the formula
is:

L= ~8 (2.l.)

. . ~u = O.5d (2.2)

~u = ~2 ~ d

where:
L = span of the dome
h = height of the dome
d = depth of cover above excavation
.-
w = unit weight of th~
Oc = unia.xial compressive strength of the rock

If the rock is sufficiently cohesive, portions of the

'cone will separate from the dome boundary gradually or at
short intervals wh~le the span of the dome is being increased.
With increasing span, the cone may support itself by forming
smaller domes within the main do~e. '"
The relationship between
the span ahd the height of the dome is given by the following

\ 24
 ,"

c equations: \..

_ ~8 0e d (
L - w 1 ~)lo9( 1 - ~) (2.4)

hmax= 0.63 d (2.5)

= ~2 .96w 0e
d
Lmax (2.6)
l ,
"'--

\-
,:
The pressure on the supports is of immediate
importance to the miner and it is therefore important to know
-.
the relation between this pressure, that is, the height of
dome or the weight of rock te be supperted, and the thickness
of the overlying strata. The increase of pressure C?n the
supports is proportional to the increase in depth (Szechy,
-
1973, D~ffaut, 1977). This was first developed by Bierbaumer

during construction of the first deep railway tunnel driven

", -
through the Alps, the Frejus or Mount Cenis tunnel between
France and Italy, driven from 1857 to 1866. Bierbaumer's
work has been extended by mâny investigators including
- .
Dinsdale (1936). Dinsdale proves this ~tatement with a simple
static analysis (Figs.--2'.2, 2.3) which results in the
following equation:

(2.7)

where;

ct = pressure exerted by the overlying rocks

-
b = width of opening
a = width of abutments
h = height. of the dome

25
J
 .. ' : 'l, i5f1~z~~~~r~ li\~lf":~; 'i~~l<: . "1 ,;,::.!r.t, J'.- ~f,'~';~ ...;- ~'i n;~}~:!:"~-t~"J::-(:~I;"~,:~:~~~~~~\7~'}~~~7

~ ~ .

0 . ,i '\ .' -\
....
, . ç~
L·.:-:'_::::'=-·~
.• - ..:::.:,:=::" "\
\
\

," i
1 ~ -;; - :=,..;..-.::::,;:,,\. \
-:::::::::7=...-::::_~.:-_--:.\ \ , &

'-- - - =--
~ 1 , '::::..:::.-: ---: :. --:. '.• l..\ \ \
1 , :. .- .. :..\ \ \
1 ' ~_.::.::.=:.:
- - -~:.'
~
--::
~. ==.\ ,
-
~--
,, 1
.'
1 ... ,...:.Z: ::..... ...
':-.::.... ;.:;.::t r
1
1 I;--~ :r:i::l • r
1 1 I:-~- DRIFT ~::t ! 1
c\ 1;:-:. ~--'J t. . .'
- , l, -- t:...;::i 1
1
j
,"( 1 \ \":!;:-f:_.-::..::::: .:.:~ - ~ 7·/ VI
\ \ ':::r: . • --- --- --:..:.t~1 1 1 • 1
,,~t=;':-: -- - :==-~, 1 ,.,
1
1
\ 1
-\ \. .- .. ~ ..-.-:' ::=,. 1 r "
, " _. ~ ...... ' ~ 1 1
t!
J -, ./ 1 1
"
1
1

,,
1

•1,
1
Ps
......
Fig. 2.2 Pressure Dome and stréss Trejectories'
Around a Drift. (After Dinsdale,'1936)

- '.

H
i--*"----- b ----.>lof
,-

R R

Fig: 2.3 Forces Acting on Pressure Dome.

,,,-, (After Dinsdale(1936).
~
26
 l'

c H
/
= hot'J.zontal component of pressu:re

Oinsdale proved that .. ~ height of the dome ls

directly proportional to the d~~th of cover ând to the

exçavation wiëLth and lnversely proportional to the horizontal
/ ...
reaction. H~weverr most of the investigators in this group

used more complex mathematibal approaches which are referenced

-
to the original papers.

There are some theories, however, which contradict the

above explanation. A common feature of these theories is the

assumption that the temporary supports, or permanent lining of

the cavity will he acted upon only by the we~ht of the stress

free body developed as a consequenc~t relaxation fOllowing

excavation. The oldest and most widely known of these theories

is that developed by Kommerell (Szechy, 1973), who

~" .
determ~ned

the height oOf the loadinq pody from the deformation of the

structure supporting the produced cavity. This was later

followed hy Fenner (1936), and Szechy (1966). As an example,

Fenner's analysis proves that the heiqht of the pressure dome

must be independent of the depth below the surface, sinee the

axis ratio of the ellipse in which the tensile stress becomes

zero depends only upon Poisson's ratio. Accordinq to Fenner's

theory the axis ratio of the "pressure ellipse" around

l ,

underground openings can be determined if Poisson's ratio for

the rock in and around the ellipse is known. The form of the

ellipse will, howeyer, deviate from the theoretical forro if

c i
internal stresses are present, or if part of the rock behaves

·f
27

".
 l ,~i' ----

o as a plastic mass, as often occurs in sedimentary rocks. ~The

pressure dome theory, h~w~ve" does not yield information with

regard to stress or movement ahead of the faces, around or
within the dome, nor does it permit any statements with regard
"to the conditions in the f60twall. It rather furnishes limits

of a zone of movement: displacement does not occur outside the

dome but is possible insid~ the dome. This is due to the fa ct
that the concept does not account for deformation of the rock,
f
i.e. it considers the rock as a rigid medium.
,
2 • 2 • 2 THE FRACTURE DOME IN ELASTIC ROCK

If the deformability of the rock is to be accounted

for in the domé' theory, the deformable medium that lends

itself most easily to theoretical treatment is the'homogeneous

isotropie elastic body. If _a failure criterion for rock, that

is the condition under which rock fails for a given state-of

,
stress, is qpplied to the' stress distribution around an

exca.vation, it is possible to predict the shape and size of

the fracture zone that may surround the excavation. A concept

propounded by Fenner ,_ Van Iterson and McKinsty employs

photoelastic met~ods based on theory of elasticity and theory

, of plasticity to describe the stress 'Clistribution around

underground openings (Schoemaker, 1949). ~enner's idea was

,, ~
~ .
originated from the conclusion that a1-l attempts to express

the r~ck pressu~ phenomenon mathematically hitherto failed

. •
o becaus~_ they were aIl based upon the general validity of

Hooke's 1aw and also because equations a~d formulas were uséd

(
28
 c that postulated approximate equal strength in compression and
in ten~ion of the material under consideration, whereas the
tensile strengt~ of roçk is generally much smaller than the
compressive strength. 'Fenner's analysis shows that in rocks
under pressure there is a certain limit beyond·which Hooke's
law loses its validity, and the theory of elasticity must be
replaced by a theory of plasticity so that the theoretical
conclusions will not contradict the field observations. The
cause of stress in any point in an Ideal homogeneous medium
lies in the weight of the overlying mass, and the relation
between the three principal stresses at a point in the
undisturbed rock. The cause of stress is determined dete~ined
-
by the fact t~at horizonta1 expansion, induced by the
vertical load, is prevented by the surrounding rock. Hence,

P
,Oz = Gy = m -1 (~.. 8)

- in whichi'

", = ~ertical stress

- -~ ~ ~ = horizontal stresses

m = Poisson number
In order to arrive, at the basic factors that govern
the plastic behaviour of rocks, Fenner first analyzed the
stresses in an ideally ,homogen eous plastic mediutit. The

. r-elation between the horizontal stress (OH) the

and
, .'
(

vertical stress (Ov) depends upon the coefficient of'

c "friction (Il) of the medium'''''and can be expressed by the

29 <
)
follpwinq formula:

(2.9)

The subsidence the ory given by Rice (1923) was the

origin'of Van Iterson's mathematical explanation which in turn
is based upon the pseu~o-plastic behaviour of rocks observed
r
in lonqwall mirting operations (Schoemaker, 1949). Van Iterson
in his aforementi,oned explanation states that the rock behaves
lt
as a granular mass rather than as elastic material. Van'
Iterson shows that the angle which the plane of sliding makes
with the ,horizont~l is equal to 45° plus hatf the angle of
natural repose. A comparison between the horizontal angle of
subs~dence and the angle obtained from field ~easùrement~ "

shows that Van Iterson's assumptions were correct (Schoemaker,

1

1949). A modified conc~t of the fracture~aome in elastic rock

was proposed (Denkhaus, 1964), assuminq that the-"ground inside
the, dome is fractured and that the dome has an elliptical . ~ ~~-

shape, with a height two times its ,span. The he,ight- ôf------
the
- ~
dome, th en , can be obtain~d by t~ing formulas:

(1 + 0t/ w • d ) ] S
'r
P = [ 2 k - 0.5 "2 ,( 2.10)

or

(2.11)

where)
k = the ratio of the lateral to verticàl rodk pressure.'

0t = tlië uniaxial tensile strength of the rock

30
 • ,D~rivation of the above equat'ions is based on the

~ssumPtio~s that, at the boundary of the fraotured zone, the

.-
tenslle stress does not exceed the uniaxial t~sile strength
'nor does the compressive stress exceed the uniaxial
çompressive strength.

2.2.3 FURTHER MODIFICATIONS TG THE FRACTURE DOME THEORV,

The theories described so far neglect

.,
two maJor
.
influences. Firstly, failure of the
,
ro~ mass leads to stress
redistributibn around the excavation and, "\ therefore, any
failure criterion should be re-applied in order to establish
any further ground fallure. The process needs to be repeated

..
until application of the failure criterion ceases to produce
;py expansion of the failed zone. Rence, the final extent of
the zone of broken ground could be very different from that
given by the first appro~imation.

Secondly, the effect of'forces exerted by the broken'

,
. rock mass upon the dame boundary should·be consldered. The
, ,
fractured mass sags under ~ts own weight until the fragments
wedge against each other and the solid boundary of the dom~.

Therefore, 'the vertical body -weight forces may be resolved

into components of thrust between block§' and against the

boundary, and components may tend to shear ~~oc~ out of the

arch system formed by the thrust. These shearing forces a're

resisted by friction between the blocks which in turn is

increased by the thrust so that the system remains stable.
c Such systems are called "voussoir arches"", after the French
, ,

31
 - -- ---~~ --------.--- -

word pertaining to the ~apered stone units-of a stone arch

structure (Fig. 2.4).

2 • 2 .4 DEAN OR PLATE THEORIES

In the rigid and elastic concepts, the virgin ground

was considered as a homogeneous and isotropie medium. It is
obvious that such a rock mass is rare1y encountered in
practice. The rock strata, however, are formed throughout
ge010gic time. The stratification of the ground lends itself
'to theoretical treatment which can be examined by means of
el as tic analysis of beams.)' Halbaum ,
(190~) assumed the
immediate roof to act as a cantilever beam) and treat~d the
superincumbent rocks as a single mono1ithic beam. Echardt
assumed the roof to act as many thin beams, each one supported
.
byJ the one below (Adler and su~, 1976). Briggs (1930)-assumed
that the minels immediate roof acts as a uniformly loaded beam
which is fixed at both'ends, and the fi11ing up cf the cavity
due tc_mine excavati~n is caused primari1y by pure bending and
11-
the_ ,subsequent yielding of the cver1ying strata; the prccess
gradual1y spreads upwards through each beam layer. Briggs
mcdelled the process with series of rubber mats demonstrating
subsidence due tc mining.
Que the bending of the immediate roof beam the span of
">
the over1ying beam .will be smaller than that cf the immediate
J

roof. The deflection of each beam depends upon its thickness

o -
antl its elastic deformation modulus. Hence it is possible that

32
 (

c
, , "

GROU NO

..fig. 2.4'" Hypothetical shape of Dome with Intradosal

- Voussoir Systems .. (Af;ter Denkhaus 1 +964-)

c ........ --
"'"

33

/
 a lower beam deflects more than the overlying one so that a

gap (te~med the "Weber cavity") occurs between the two beams.
1
If theabutments of aIl the beams are joined, a dome shaped

curve is obtained (Fig. 2.5). This dome is one within which

the layers deflect and possibly fail and the "Weber cavities"

may occur. while no deflection or failure occurs in the ground

outside of the dome .

..
This dome can break through to surface depending upon
(-
depth of cover, span of the excavation and rock properties. If
failur,e occurs, this may lead to visible arching over

portions of the span or over tunnels (Fig. 2. 5c) • Such

occurrences obviously cause the remaintler of the broken beam

~/
fO act as a cantilever beam. The above concept is based on the
'~ssumPtion that no bond exists between successive layers so
that they can deflect freely. If such a bond exists, the two

layers behave like one thick beam. If, however, the shear

forces caused by the deflection loosen the bond, the

f~ection of both beams suddenly increases. This may manifest

in a burst-like fall hanging over a large area. Beam

was used by many investigators including Adler (1961)

in order to calculate the optimum~room-and-pillar system.

-
The theory of elastic beam is part of the theory of

elasticity, but it is only an approximation, since it neglects

the influence of shear stresses in the beam. It is therefore,

valièt for long, thin beams only. Moreover, it is a two

~ dimensional 1
o theory . .

34
 \

• (
« .wJ;nullunnUUlUUUlIlllUIJJ
"""'1 '
tmw
i' mi"
("

,
'--

a)

• c

b) Beam Fracture Arch. ",

- <--
1 \
.'
./
--, '\

----;,""-------
o {--
\ Weber
1 cavitv
: l~' .J"'
1
1 ~
, ~-------------~-----
---
,---
1 ----

---t-r---"
, f

" -ç;"

-----,~~. ,,'"
~....
",'-
"
~.--------
'---_fil"'"
o ~

,
cf ~,

Fig. 2.5 Fracture Dome in Beam Theory with Weber

Cavit1es. (After Denkhaus, 1964).

35
 -~ J \

2 • 2 • 5 PRESSURE ARCH THEORY

As early as 1935, British mining researchers (Anon,

1936) had found that the distribution of the forces in the

vicinity of a narrow roadway can be presented as in Fig. 2.6.

The immediate roof bends downward and is freed from the weight

of the beds above. The downward bending of the immediate roof

•
beds results in the development of,a pressure arch across the

roadway with abutments resting on the solid ~oal at each side.

Increase in the width of the excavation results in an increase

in the dimensions of the pressure-arch until a width is

reached over which the main roof load can no longer be

transferred to abutments around the solid coal perimeter. This

width is known as the width of the maximum pressure arch, and .

. ,
the solid coal perimeter of an excavation of greater width is
,"
spanned by a maximum pres~ure-arch with one set of abutments
\

resting on the solid coal and another on the goaf at some

•
distance back from the solid core, as shown in Fig. 2.7. The

pressure-arch moves forward as the perime~er of the excavat~

area is advanced by the further extraction of coal and thus,

"

the position behind the face where the goaf is consolidated,

and on which the back abutment rests, is maintained at a

nearly constant distance from the coal. The (Width of the

maximum pressure-arch has been found to be gene~ related,
to depth (Anan, 1949), and it may be used as a datum for the

detel~ination of the magnitude of the transferred loads and

for the consolidation of the, effects of interaction of

36
 1 1 / / \ \
\ \ ,
, 1.:
LI 1,1'
1.//l/I ' ·
1 1 1 11/, c
3 .. ~~-1 L
.. Ù \ \ \

1 / l, 'J z
, ~ '\\' ~\c", (

1 L - 'i .' '1' 1 , , ,"

~ t :V
//;;, / / '/

B= Bending Forc~s L= Lateral Compresive Forces

g= Shearing Forces C= Vertical Compressive Forces

-- -- - ...............

, .

• , 1

Fig. 2.6 Presure Arch for a Narrow Opening.

(After Alder et al.-, 1949).
~

{:
e~axed Core in the J1~
Floor •
~
\/= 0.15 D + 6o( in t't".

c Fig. 2.7 Approximate Distribution of pressu}re A)round

a Longwall Working. (After Peng, g76 .

37
 --~,----~~--~--- ;'
<, , !-
"
1
lItJ

( .
'workings at different depths (Figs. 2.8, 2.9).
.;
The maximum
1
w~dth of the pressure arch can be calculated (Anon, 1954) from
the following empirical formula:

w = 0.15D + 60 (2.12 )

where;
w = width of maximum pressure arch in ft.
~ = depth of cover in ft.
_ The shape of the ~stressed zone around an'~xcavation
of léSs width than the width of the maximum pressure arch is
ellipsoidal and the height of the maximum pressure arch above
the excavation may be assumed to be twice its width, under
normal conditions (AIder et a~~ 1942).
/
/

2.2.6 TROUGH THEORIES

At the same time that the beam theory was

developed,
•
concepts based on soil mechanics were being
proposed. As early as 1907, Hausse introduced the notion for
;.
determining the angle of draw from a study of subsidence
.
(Adler and Sun, 1976)., Many others have contributed work in an
effort :to match in situ measurements wi th th~oret.ica\l

formulations. Recently, a knowlédge of the "internaI friction"

.
of the rock has been employed ta calculate the angle of
sliding planés around an excavation and the
1
pressures
occurring at various points in the rook mass This concept
èonsider.s the ground as loose granular materials. If an
exoavation l's made at depth,' movement of the strata extends

1
 .tt _-.._( ~->'_..f -1""":.:r ::--~14'~t'-':':1::':"<~ !".... ;.--

~ 'f'
o
1:

ru "
~
1 ~,

\1 'OU} ~~
\

I,~
laO>! lBOI •

~I ILOI··

1
140(0.
~ 1400.
~ ti
tA)
\D
.s ,IlIIO . . Ir
... Hu

~
.s:
ë- JCIIHI ...
III
-~-. Q
A
1 ~

aDD 1
~

600 60l
.,;'7
(;,",:"~'

400
., 40
~\
llNJ /\j 201\
'f

, , o 1000 2000 lOOO 4000 )UOO 6000 1000

Pressure Arch ln Yards or Feet
~~------------------------------------~I~>~
PRESSURE,
. PSI ...
Fig. 2.8 Width of Maximum Pr~ssure Arch for Fig. 2.9 Estimated Pressure in Abutment Zone of
Various Depths. (After Peng, 1976) .. the Maximum Pressure Arch in Coal Beds.
(peng, 1976). ~

.'
,. "
"r..:il/
o to the surfac~ an-d appears as subsidence
displacement) as weIl as horiz2ntal displacèment within a zone
(,vertical

of influence. The span-depth ratios in this concept appear in- ~

'"
~three stages and ~re illustrated in 'Fig. 2.10.
~-

2 • 2 • 7 CONTINUUM THEORIES

,
AlI of the" theories considered so far deal with the
limits of zones of differept movement and fraçture patterns
rath~r .than with the magnitude of ~he movement~ To predict. the
açtual displacement for a given stress field, it i~-necessary

to treat the ground as a continuous medium bounded by the

surface above and the excavation within. utilizing ~he theory
of elasticity (if the elastic moduli, ~he initial state of
~ . "
ground stress and the boundary conditions in t~rms / of
displacement or stress on surface, on the r~of
.
are given) it is possible to predict stress and displacement
or on J~e floor
,.
at any point of the,medium. in 1930, Briggs said:
.. The, movement of the imriiediate mine r60f is
the starting point of subsidence and is the
common sense start~'9 point of any 'scientific'
inquiry into the p nomena. subsidence begins
at ·the bottom and ~ rks.upwards; investigation
should follow sui The older (?) procedure
of examining the surface effects first and
theorizing on Wha~-preceded them is logically
unsound: "
Phillips (1946) described some min!ng problems anp , .
developed the idea of elasticity theories as a method of
l!i
approach. -. Walker (1955) considered that a 'general pattern was

o emerqinq from the mass of conflicting theories. It was also

.
notable that the beam theory was compared with soil-mechanics

40
 , . ,
• ..!.o

8 C 0 JO C B

f
d
, (a)
S/d ; SUBCRITICAl

( b)
• 5
---1 S/d
-
= CRITICAl
""
a c 0 E
,
E o C B
1
, '1\ \

1f,~ ~\ 1
~~- ~\
~, G
1
/
-s,; ,~\1 /
''1(
A A

S
(c)
,.,'" 'Id = SUPERCRITlCAl
'Fig. 2.10 The Three stages Qf Subsidence.
(After Denkhaus,~964)

,-

41
 ---------; .... r ' ••

analyses 9f the problem, and pillar loadings,were calc~lated

J
in a similar mannèr to ~hat::, 0t. .wilson
. (1972) •.
Hackett (1962) gave a classical elastic solution to
the problems of the mechanics of ground-movements around mine

excavations, with particular reference to the lon~all system

J
. ~

(1959). Hackett believed, at that time, that the complete

closure solution with a low moduli (E = 2.76 GPa, v = 0.0, G

= 1.38 GPa would lead to the isotropie elastic solution
matching kno)n subsidence profiles. The concept of co~plete

closure solution, however, was developed (Berry, 1960). Berry

showed that the surface displacements were independent of the

~lastic parameters in isotropie ground. This unusual solution

meant that there was no way of "adjusting" the elastic

constants to produce the desired model. It was concluded, that

the concept of isotropie ground was incorrect and the

possibili ty of an idealization error was mentioned but

dismissed (Berry, 1960). This conclusion was based upon the

fact that the model gave values of subsidence that were less
. 1
than that met with in practice and could not be altered; thus
the condition of complete convergence was shown' to give

smaller displacements and the model was in error.

Berry and Sales (1961) and (1962), went on to develop

transverse isotropie solutions for the same model as used

earlier. It was shown that the surface displacements were

dep~ndent on two constan)s which were functions of the five

o independent elastic constants for the problem.

, . The Berry

42

l' -
 ,. ,~.

, '
~'

c constants, or moduli, are now widely known as-he defined them.

AlI the field-work do ne in the British coalfie~ds

indicates that the surrounding rocks do not posse~s - marked

anisotropy~ and, furthermore, that their properties do not

J' vary significantly from location to location (King a~d

Whetton, 1958~Orchard, 1964), while the deduced values of the

Berry constants indicate very strong anisotropy,
. which does

not meet thfs condition. Several papers appeared during 1964,

which conso\idated the work of Hackett, and Sales and Berry,

such as Berry (1964) and Hackett (1964). A strata movement

theory was also developed by Salamon (1963-4) which was later

applied to practical measurements in a Witwaterstrand gold

f
mine and reported good agreement (Ryder and Officer, 1964).

Salamon's theory mainly deals witb elastic displacements of

..
the ground rat~er than predicting ~he shape and size of the

fracture zone. On the other hand, the problem of anisotropy

ct
remained unsolved. It was also Salamon (1968) that enabled the

objection of marked anisotropy ta be overcome, using a value

of reduced shear modul us. Bieniawski (1968) determined a drop

-
in modulus from labo/tory values by large saale p'llar tests.
- -,
In genera'i'"'; it must be expected that th displacement
cons ists of four components, namely, the time independent
, ,
elastlc, the time-dependent elastic, the t me- independent

plastic and the time-dependent plastic co ponents. The above

theary only cate,rs ta the t: whether the other

----three
'" -
on the type of ground.

"In add the deformation the relationship'

43 "
'. •
between displacement. ,and stress may be non-homQ<Jeneous and or
anisotropie to various degrees and these properties may vary"

continuously or discontinuously (stepwise)

l
ov~vén roc1k
-
li

mass, the latter beinq due to the fissurization and otlfer

. ~ disturbances of the ground.
~ T~e ideal strata)movement theory should take aIl these

factors into account in addition to the failure criteria

specifying the, conditions under which the medium, or, certain
zones thereof, The fact that strata
l 4,around
movement -'. ,en after mining has
ti,ues
ceased is a manifestatio -~~~eological behaviour and the
development of su ch a strata theory is,·therefore, of
practical significance. ,

2 • 2 • B COMPOSITE THE ORY

Rather than 'represent ideas', the, theories cons idered

actually represent modifi~ations of a universal theory which
is not yet established. The differenqe between the theories
al?pears to b~ only a difference in emphasis placed on various
chara<?teristic properties of the strata. The "dome theory
r 1

favours strong competent rocks while the trouqh theory stems

from experiences with wèak rocks.
1
t
It is interest~ng to note, and conclude with, the: fact

• . - .
that Wiggill (1963) depicts the concept of a composite dome
and trough theory, where the 'movement trough does not start
from the faee but ,trom higher up at the dome boundaxy, as
" 1

44 -

. J'
 shown in Fig. 2.11.
"'- .,-
2 • 3 ROCK PRESSURE DUE TO TUNNELLING

According to Terzaghi (1964), Rabcewics (1964), Szechy

'(
- ",
-(1973) and Krauland (1971) there are three basic rock pressure

types:
1. loosening pressure;
2. genuine mountain pressure;
3. swelling pressure.

2 • 3 • 1 LOOSENING PRESSURE

The development of tensile stress at the crown of an

underground excavation may lead to progressive failure and
fracturing of the overlying rock masses. If the tunn~~ is
left, unsuPPQrted, a wedge-sllaped mass (Fig. 2.12) ,will
, ..... •
gradually drop. out from the overlying rock mass into the
excavation until equilibrium corresponding to the changes in
stress conditions is re-e~tablished. Loosening pressure can, .
thus, be due primarily to the strength and deformation
properties of rock mass and to the size and the shape of the
, ,
cavity. Excessive blasting and careless overbreak may also
lincrease looseni,ng pressure considerably (~ig. 2.13) •.

--2.3.2 GENUINE MOUNTAIN PRESSURE \

According to Kas~ner [1949, genui~ mountain pressure

is to b~ understood as plastic deformations, which will reveal .
themselves as pressures only when any attefnpt is made. to

45
 ..
- ",m
_r
-~ '";~
~';'\
; ..
1 ~:
A .<
~r'~~~
"
'f

1
.
. ..

..'

, '

Cc
,-_....

..

Fig. 2.11 Dome and Movement Trouqh.

(After Wiqqill, 1963 1:

...,. '

..

, :

, .
.".

46

---~~---~---~.-
 , , -

,~. fig. 2.12 Upbreaking Pro,e~s of -Wedge above

Tunnel ~oof./fAfter'fJzechy, 1971).
/
/

/
/
/

a) /
/
b)

'0056
l'relU/III IftUIIfIU/f1
/N1l1I""''' If_p.
/JIIr/11c,

Fig. 2.13 Extension of Ultimate Overbreak if No Support is

/ Instal1ed with (a) Horizontal Stratification, (b)
Vertical Stratifi~ation. (After Terzaghi, 1946).
C
47
o 4
prevent the flow of the deformations.
J
Therefore, movements

brought about by breaking out'the tunnel walls and extending

within the surrounding rock mass result in the formation of a

protective zone or stress-free zone (yield zone) and through

the graduaI
-
decrease
,
in i ts intensi ty around the tunnel.

Genuine mountain pressure is, therefore, essentiaIIy some

revelation of.geostatic (overburden) pressure, the magnitu~:

of which depends Iargely upon its geological structure and

upon its tectonic disturbance. Hence, genuine pressure is a

sort of prirnary pressure.

2.3.3 SWELLING PRESSURE

This pre~sure is most frequently encountered in clays,

in weathered clayey rocks or in rocks intermingled with clay -

,

strata. According ~o Terzaghi (1943) under non-uniform stress

rel ief, these

..
~
rocks start to swell-in a manner similar to
-
clay.' Water is drawn away from adj acent parts which have a
1
,
higher load intensity (pore water migration), whereby swelling

is intensified, strength is reduced and compressibili ty ,is

increased. As a result of excavation, swelling pressure may be

experienced primarily in all inner' surfaces, especially in the

r ....
working face which is left unsupported and is, to a certain

extent, relieved of the load as weIl as the floor and, to a

~ .
l~sser extent, t~e side walls. Aft"r excavation, pore~water

will migrate from the more Ioaded lnner parts towards the

reieased zones around the excavation. Swelling pressures are

48
c of an unpredictable magnitu~ and May be extremely large.
Their period of development may vary from a few weeks to
severai months. This pressuré, immediately after excavation,
"
is insignificant; it then increases at a h~gher rate, and in

the final stages, the increase is again{lowed down. The

external manifestation of swellirig pressure differ so little

.. '"from those of genuine mountain pr.essure that i t is very

difficul t to sepal'ate them according to the inconvenience,

deformation and damage caused. This is rendered aIl the more
, (

difficult because swelling rocks'usually have a low modulus of

elasticity and are thus capable of exerting genu~e mountain

pressure even at moderate depth of cover (Szechy, 1973). The

danger of swelling exists, in general, in aIl types of clays,

c~ rocks, cl~yèy'shales, slate and marIs.

'il- 2 • 4 TIME EFFECTS

11 --
Determination of long-term support reC{uirement
necessitates considerption of the time-~ependent properties of

the rock mass. OnCé equilibrium has been reached between a

support systelD> and the' rock, al t.erations in the load

distribution between the two are only to be expeeted if the

stiffness of either one ehange~. The rock'stiffness can change

as a result of visco-elastic flow. However, when the average

rock strength and stiffness do not decrease signif~cantly,

then ~o time-dependent changes in support load oceur. Daeman

and Fairhurst (1972) modified the roek-support'intera~ion

c concept to account for the influence of time.

49
 .' .

,-

It ? i b l e by means of rheologica~odels to
deSl'cribe the time-dependence of rock mass strength and
deformation properties, and the resul ting stresses and
displacements occurring in the vicinity of the tunnel can be
establ ished theoretically. However, it·· is important for the
,enqineer to be' aware of time-dependent effects and, to
, .
appreciate their significance.

2.5 EFFECT OF BARRIER PILLARS IN LONGWALL MINING DESIGN

(,
The large proportion of coal" ~eft standing in pillars
by bord-and-pillar working soon led to efforts to extract the
pillars and as far back as 1740 (Anon, 1954) there are records
o~t~l extraction by the removal of the pillars. The general
practice was to leave the p"illars until the boundary was
reached·and then to a~tempt to work thém out back towards the
shaft. it was soon found that for successful extraction a
1
gr~at deal depended upon the depth and,. the size of the pillars
originally formed, and it was often only possible to rob the
pillars, i.e. to drive places along the edges of the pillars,
becaus~ of th~ danger of "creep" or of IIt~~USt... In order to
li~it thîs hazard the panel_system of working was introduced
in 183.0.
A rule for the size of the coal pillars suitable for
various depths was ~given by Mathias Dunn (Anon, 1954).
t. ,f

About 1850 a new conception of bord-and-pillar wOfklng

4t ~led to the adoption of pillars much larger than was necessary

50
 for the support of the overlying strata, with the object of
allowing them to be remaved later without any risk of inducing
creep.
The evolution of methods of working suitable for the ~.
J
various conditions met with in coal mining was effected by
trial and error and the spread of knowledge "{as a
\. • slow
process.

An empirical barrier- pillar design criterion was

developed by The Mine Inspectors' Commission establis~ed by

~
the Pennsylvania state Government (Ashley, 1930). However, , i

longwall mining was'used only on a limit~d scale in the united

~ ,

S~ates until 1960 (stefahko, 1981) when modern longwall mining

began with the first ihstallation of self-advancing props in

Southern West Virginia.

Details of an extensive and comprehensive survey of

'1 -
in:teractions ~ere gi:ven by Thorpe (1948) ." Several case studies<~

were described which were seeking evidence to~back-up the

~
previous work. Very simple measurements of width,. height and
•
profile changes were taken in a variety of situations. Seven ','

studies of solid drivages showed good performance of this

type of roadway excepe when affected by other workings. AlI

cases were shown to be influenced by remnant pillars and, 'in

one' case, six vertically superimposed piIlars, of ide~tical

dimens~.Ohs, closed a drivage completely in nine months. Five

....
studies of roadways showed similar findings although the

magnitude of de~ormation was invariably ~ess. It was apparent

c that no new theorizing was attempted and the difficult

51
 -- - , ;-- --...--.-, - ---",::-; .,.--- - , -
- " "
- - --,

• conditions were attributed to regions of high stress caused by

pillars, however remote.
AIder et al (1949) introduces the yieldinq pillar
concept in order to'reduce the roof loads in narrow working.
However, this work was based upon a laboratory.photoelastic
modelling technique.
The Durham and/~thern strata Control Research
.~

COIlÎDlittee (1954) dealt with the not,ion of "pressure transfer"

in some detail and consequently dev,eloped the idea of ~arked
"
plans tô aid planners designing new mine workings to take
.
advantage of destressed zones. It was, rea~ized thJ the
proximity of rib-edges was the vital feature of the problem.
Saul and Gill (1954) concerned their resea~ith the
economic' implications of interaction and the undel;"ground
investigation showed
\
great tenacity .on the authors' behalf.
Hofer and Menzel (1964) in a comparative study of pillar
loads in potash mines, both by mathematical calculation and
in situ measurements, evaluated the effect of panel size and
the rigidity of the roof strata on the roof deflectio~\ and
roof loads. They highlighted that at a constant wilth of
extraction the. roof deflection and the pillar load is
/ inversely proportional to the rigidity of the roof strata.
1
1
Whittaker (1965) investigated some problems'associated
with the longwall mining of thin "seam~ ~nd ---steeply-inc1ined
seams in Wes~ Germany. Wilson and Ashwin (1972) attempted to

o study barrier pillar

-'

~imensioninq, which, was followed by

52

.:::...-_--~--~ -- ~ ~,
 j
• another paper in the same year (Wilson, 1972) in which Wilson
proposed an hypothetical approach concerninq pillar stability
that has made considerable contribution to the coal mining
industry.
l!hittaker and pye (1977) extended the in \s,~~tu

, investigation to establish an appropriate design guide for

lonqwail mininq operat~n. As a result a.method of estimating
pillar stress was proposed by Whittaker and Singh (1979).
The aforementioned works by Whittaker and Singh form a very

pillars in longwali mining. They

.
comprehensive study of the circumstances of use of b'arrier
con~ ider
'-- ,
the u1 t imate
strength approach to pillar design for use in longwa11 .
layouts. . Attentiol1 was also focused on the infI uence of t~e

pillars on the roadway stabi1ity. The latter authors presented

•
several field observations with valuable discussions on,. the
\
pillar stability and the closure profiles of the roadways as
reproduced and presented in Figs. 2.14-2.17. The complexity of
the closure ana1ysis (of the roadways together with the barrier
JI' pillar design in l'6ngwal t' mininq highlighted tha.t these
problems are still the subject of research.
The calculation of the optimum size of barrier pillars
L.-
is of vital importance, principally from an economic point of
view.
stress distribution through most pillars will be in
r' the form of the flank abutments near the edges, with a Iower
stress level across the cen~.r'al area of the pillar, as
( depfcted by Coa·tes (1970) for narrowttillars. Th..erefore, the

f
53
 -,; ,

;
~.

• D.1IIft range
o 0 10 300m
• • • • XX) to 600m
• • • o • &al to 900m

•
~ - . ,.,...a .
• •
.'- a _,

S Œ]If.' 0 \
G.
'II
• • • •
r.: \ •
.\ "• ....... . . . . . .•
u

-=;, r:-l' ..,. p.. 9

DlOIh
!COta 600rn &s:JO to!KXlm

~ -0 \0 • ,
.l,Q
~ 0 0
'_a
• ~ ...
a
_~_ .... _
•
• _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a.!}Jg~œ.

20 • • o .

o~~--~~~--~--~--~--~~---*--~--~--J
o 50 100 150 2DO 2:iO 300m
Rib pdlu !Mdlh (pl
(a'

1 2 lm
m - ~ sam hIÏgt't m- EJuaacd sam /wight
Cb i) , (b üJ

" \

e
?
/
, /
r 10eon...rntional rtpprg ,
. a '"" (i'Ic l'nIth09
a AcMI QcI hucIWIg
• MctwrUtd ripptng
li Had-hUcIInq,
.. R... usccs gale
_ Solid dnYagc

4-Om

Fig. 2.14 Gate Roadway, Stabi 1i ty ijata: _(a) - Inf1 uence of Ri b Pi11 ar

o W1dth for Depth Ranges on Gate ClDsur~, (b) lnfl uence of

Gate Formation .Method, I(C) Influence of Gate Original
Height on Subsequent C10sure (Whittaker and Singh, 1979):

54
 --
ob - wa200m':~===~~ p-----wa20Om -

1 1 • .. /
h
1C50m

1 -
1)

i ~t~;;;;~~~~~~~~~~~~/~
°0 50 \ 100 1~
:4!::O
:.:.:m
-~
. 2!Dm
Rib pillar width [p)
(a)
,,'
1
1
J
,
\
\
\ \
-
ob ,\, \

" ...
,,,''"",,',,,-
\
,,
VI

!
il
" "','" '---
____________ h
i. "
...
'" ...~
............... 900
:œOm
, , ______________________________ 750
600
i ..........................
"50
~ ~- ~
-- 1~
o ::0 100 150 200m
4fRib pülu width (p)
(b!

- lb

.-
;;
ut
:! SOm
o

... . NO XOm
w w
1 (cl
1

Fig. 2.15 Rib Pillar Stress Condition: (a) Average Stress on Rib
'C'. ~
Pil1ar, (b) Pe~k Stress Experienced by Rib Pil1ar, (c)' .
Influence of F~ce Length on Average Pillar Stress .
• (Whittaker and Singh, 1979).
D '

, .~

55
 ~
• MKh. np 13
,: CorMrIIIOnII np 62
• AàY, hcAàJng 1
x HAll huchng 2$
D In-line system 3
y Ile-uSed gale ~
112

• ~

x • Il

•
• .", x
II

A
~
.. 1

• •• ..h o .....
t.
•
,., ,,- ..
A
aZ
Y •
A
•
.....
AA

II
D
,
• , 1t" ... ... A D

. ..
Il

A A
Y A

•
A a
' À'
li •
S • Il
x.,. X •
A
A
•
• 1
, \
100 200 JQQ l.IXl
OIptn
500 60Q 700 800
belOW surtace
.,000m \
"
(bl
\

{=::.::r~ Iobdy/Brinsley • dcp\rIa 585 m

Sum

~L [ JoWNG:.1'E ,HIll had..g: lPiKe a.a- l-~. 3.g;:'

I~
o· • ..-._
• r. • • •••••
"a ...... ...
] Z - - - - -_ ••• - - - - - .. - -
~
; •
.'
1;
o
°0 200 l.QO 600 800 1COO l200 v.oo Z200 2l.OO 2600 m
Oislancc ~\ taèe line

(.) Correlaciôh bêtwœn exl L (dl

ed 5C:lm heiShl :and gale vertic:aJ closure, (b) 'è:;aca'~icll dosurc plolted apiOl' dcplh
tefow surface Cc) Inslabilicy-iD lonllire pIe iD difficujt SU:Il~ c:oDdi,;ons (Talll.:ne, (cl) As roI' (C) CXCCJ'1 Mainpie
1

Fig. 2.16 (After Whittaker and Singh, 1979)

"
56
 J
Law Main nam .. -.. _
Cfho,. -~
c D«pth • 762' m
Ex.s~am hl.Ch) • 1"41m

o ~oate~-
"a.i\oa\~~-- conwnlioMI

°Half-'"Ieadinç
'2
.
rIO"

1 iOO

~ Q _"';l-.. + +.-----.. - - - - . - 50
"~......,;.-:
-0-- + .
1 1 --t 0
40 60 BO 100 120 11.0 160 180 200 m
Distinez from faclZ line
Ca)

e
i 2 ~"'1' Outbyc formlZd Coi cc/'!Vmtional rip.
i
Hign HuC!! sam
o 1
1
\ DlZcth : 1.,5 m
;:; Ex..sum ht:;: 1-0m
.1
.!:!
l' l' 1 ~

o 50 ' 100 150 200 250 :;50 I.CO 450 9:X) m

Distai:~1Z frcm line
(b )

152x127mîit srzdicn
o 3iJSxl.·Z7m sizc
~-Pifle~arr::\llS
o o o
o
o ; X 't:r-:f/.'"Z1m
:
O~=900m
300 __LOO 5CXl 600 700 aoo m
li Cis:anc:1: f~m facz UnI:
(c)

'''9'' pancl1~=--=~=-~-o;;U.-:-6s7"1.
E;c.sam hL:: l"aa m
C&Xlraction.. ' " Faee !.n;:h:: 2..CSS m
_~.ft."'''~'' ... ~::r .......-::rw-..r:.

~
• S"1d«rdosurc
_

',.".;- 0 '! ,p a :
/0:J Va1IC:al dcsurv:"

, ...,.~ ",

Ca) Comparison bctwœn halr-hc:ad and conve11tional-rip formaI ion melhods (b) lIIus1ralinli c:trcct of change of fa",,""
acion mahod from convenlionaJ rip 10 advanœd he:sdinll (c) (jolie roadway closura fat in-line system in deep c:ondilioas
(d, Development of pIe roadway dosure in finI=" pand exrrac;tlon by adYllIIQI warkin,
Fig. 2.17 (After Whittaker and Singh, 1979)

,
-

t57
,. l,. ~

:f''''~{,,,,;''.r'''/'' 1
 f~ank abutments interact and give rise to a highly stressed
1;
region/in the center of the pillar.
Despite the improved roadway. conditions 'resultinq from

the use of barrier pillars, they can have a disturbing

influ~nce upon any workings above or below them, sincè they

are areas of high pressure intensity. These interaction

effects need to be carefully considered w~n planning multi-

seam operations.

The benefits pf using ;ib;~de packs to remo~eak

stress rrom the vicinity of the gateroad have been established
li _, 1
by the work of Hobbs (1970). Rib,packs remove the potential

shear planes from above th~ :ateroad and, in-cc~junction wifh

"dummy gates", they reduce floor heave (Fig. 2.18). Also, -'ey
.1. {,Ir
result in a more even lowering of· the strata bed apove the
"
roadway.

Wilson (1980) ~erived new empirical barrier pillar

d~sign criteria with reference to different roof and floor

t ,~ .~

conditions of the roadways. Although, wilson's design criteria

give the most economical values (lowest b~!rier pillar width)

at depth greater than 800 meters, they are questionable.

'rherefore, further development or new design method is

required -in order to estimate the optimum barrier pîllar width

for deep l~ngwall mining operations.

2.6 EFFECT OF LONGWALL MINING EXTRACTION (

Aspects of the stability of tunnels driven in the

58
-c

."

.'

/.-:.#.':.~~ "ç:' ......

/" .. - ... '", .

- , ,
Fig. 2.18 Ribside Pack Effect on GateroallDeformation.
.
(Hobbs, 1968). '
"

1
(
j-

c 59
(

--- ..
l ,
 1.

-, .

• solid rock mass, mentioned previously,

of successfully designing support
- excavations. However, it is qenerally ~ccepted
hiqhliqhted the
for
that tunnellinq
such

under such circumstances in coal mines presents fewer problems

. , when dealinq with roadways withln the close proximity of

than
longwall workings, particularly the access tunnels designed to
service the longwall faces.
Longwall extraction causes a redistribution of the
"
~ 1

vertical stresses which leads to the existence of "stress 1

abutments" around the edge of the excavation, these being -due-

,to the transfer of stresses from the extracted reqion.
The magnitude of the peak abutment over t~e cover load
, --
varies with local conditions; peng (1978) givês a, ran~e of 1.5
to 5 times the ,cover load, while Whittaker and Singh (1979).
\
give 4 to 5 times the-cove~ load for U.K. corldi tions 'and
Spruth (1960) indicates an abut~ent o~ 4 times the cover load.
In the face area,~the vertical pressure reduces to a
, f
level far below the cover load and the immediate roof is
destressed condition. Tpe phenomenon allows the~working area
ra
\

to be supported by systems only capable of generëtting

,..' strengths which are insignificant in ,comp~rison "t..to the

magnitude of the overburden pressure.
Behind the line of face supports the lower roof beds·
sag and ultimately collapse into the,waste behind-the face'
line, but the upper beds retain their continuity and settle
intact on top of the broken material in the waste.
o Settlement of the upper.roof beds gradually causes the

60
 ~-

stress in the waste area to rise and, given that the panel is
sUfficiently long and wide; Whittaker (1974) considers that it
l
.mc;ty eventually regain the level of the cover load at a
~

distance of 3/10 to 4/10 of the mining depth behind the fac~. .

.
No evidence of a rear,abutment is given.

Sprut~ (1960), who favours the pressure arch theOry~~

ground movement, doéS pQstulate the existence of a rear

abutment. ' ~s abutment permits arching over the face line

area and exists where the waste is sufficiently compacted;

.
however, the magnitude of this peak is considered to be well-

below the level of the front abutment.

peng
(1978). alsci- descr ibes a rear abutment that
,
follows the face and acts at a given distance in its rear.
" . ,
Abutments aiso exist aiong the sides of tbe' longwaii
- ~

panel •• These are normally first fel t at the ribs of ,the

gateroad at about the same time as the front abutment~ peng

)/
(1978) records that as the face advances away,. the influenced

zones of the side abutments extend further away from the ribs

ta a maximum distance of 1/4 or 1/3 of the, depth or 60 m. The

magnitude of the side abutment peak is ~reatest at the ribside

/
and decreases-exponentially with
.
distance from the ribs .
.
Whittaker (1974).suggested that the flank abutments

have a time-dependent effect upon the influenced strata which

can Ie~d to progressive failure of the ribsides and extrusion

,
of soft floor material from beneath solid ribsides. Thus, the

c peak is removed further into the solid and th~'

1
1
stress leveis

61
 at the rib edge are r~du~d.
\
Gateroads are often sited in close proximity to the
ribside for the same reason that face support-is effected,
both the ribside and face line represent areas of relative
stress-relief and, therefore, areas of mo)derate strata
loading.
When considering the magnitude of the front abutment,
i ~
Peng (1978) described it as being non-uniform because of the
intersection of flank ,and front abutments at the junctions of
face and gate. This intersection increases the front abutment

at both ends of the face; this pe~k decreases rapidly towards

the center for a distance ranging from 9 to 20 m before a
"

uniform abutment occu~s.

j

This description is based upon the work of Whittaker

(1974). However, subsequent work by Whittaker and Singh

(1979) negates this earlier postulation in favour of a

Cl
reduction in each of the abutments ~t the corner zone. This
~

, has also been confirmed by Harris (1974).

~ The interaction of the main forces around a roadway is

described by Whittaker and Hodgkinson (1971), and illustrated

in> Fig. 2.19~1 Three features are indicated:
\, ""
1. the existence of a potential shear plane above the

ribside;

2. a tendency for the extrusion of seat earth from beneath

.the r ib edge; and
l
/

3. j subsidence of the roof strata on the goaf side of the

roadway during compact ion of the pack.

62
 •

1
Hiqh preSS:.l:!'9 Low i'ressure
zone zone

l
)
te cive oac.1t
cot:Pac:: ~ ë:'l
\1·'" ... '
, " ' ... , , '
. .. ,'" , " ... ; . '-, , ~ ..
>- >.. .... -À@ À À )..

Poten~al ex~-usion
zona ~

• Gataroad condition ~adiately a!ter formation

~.

) r'

comp4c':ed

Gataroad condi':icn ou~ye ~=om :ace

Fig. 2.19 Main Closure Features of Gateroads. "

(After Whittaker and Hodgkinson, 1971).

CJ
63
u' , ." .
,. \
 ", . 1:: '

• Coal measure rocks are noted for their weakness; in

,sustaining fractures and in exhibiting deformation:
The roof strata over the pack and.roadway subside, by
\ .,.
. an amount related to the height of extraq;ion and this causes
{-
the roadway to experience a considerable reduction in h~ight.

Hind (1960(-pointed out that the amount of pack compression is

a funetion of extraeted seam height, type of pack support and

.
the standard of workmanship in pack construction.
(1982) gives details of pack closure in relation to distance
from the faqe line and in terms of overall roadway closure.
Q

~
Farmer

The extent of pack compression ranges fro~ minimal values up

to 50 per cent of the original pack height.
1
However, an
estimate of the expected magnitude of pack compression is
beneficial 1for support design
• ,JI.
sinee an equ;Y"~lent ---amount of
13

vertical yield should be available in the suppor~ system.

Tomkins (1957) proposed the formation of a frac1:ure
envélope of elliptieal shape, the boundary of whieh is
-~-
governed by slip-planes:terminating at the base of the roadway
sides. The height of the ellipse was considered ta be
independent of both depth of caver and tunnel height but
,
1
1
related to the width. The height of the ellipse was measured
~ from ~2 to 21 m, for the roadway width in the range 4.6 ta 7 m.
~ Whittaker and Hodgkinson (1971) used a similar model of strata
laading i~ their roadway support design nomogram, althou~~
~,
they only considered the height of the ellipse to be equal to; ~~

• 1.
~
half the tunnel width; or

64
,1
 •

• 2. the full tunnel width

depending upon the particular cireumstances.
'J Blades (1974) suggested that the total volume of
ground affected around the lOnfWall gateroad is perhaps 10 to
15 times the total volume of the~xtracted roadway. This,
obviouslY, includes the zone beneath and to the sides of ,the
roadway.
This desaription of the effect of longwall extraction.
can now be used to p~opose a process of strata deformation and
its influence. on the access tunnels performance, and to
ascertain the s~pport requirements with dué regard being given
to: ,the stress abutments, caving and compaction of the goaf
\
area, and the settling of the upper roof beds.

"The fracture zone.. has been studied by many

investigators including Horva'th (1964) 1 Hobbs (1970), Bray
(1968), Ladanyi (1974), wilson (1983) and Hoek and Brown

(1984)· However, discussions concerninq the relationship

--
between the extent of the fractured zone and a number of
-parameters resulting from the longwall_mining operation,
interaction of adjacent workings and barrier pillar remained

inconclusive.
~

-" An investigation \ into the influence of the

aforementioned parameters on the determinat.ion of the .:!xtent

of the fracture zone around the access tunnel

, an~ the induced
tunnel closure are discussed in the following chapters.
.. In recent years, particular attention has been giyen

to the application of numerical mOdelling for longwall mining

65 ,~

",
 design. For example, peng and Hsiung (1~ perf~rmed a three
dimensional finite element analysis to assess the effects of
physical and mechanic 1 properties of the immediate roof
before and . after long afl mining begins. The effects of

periodic weighting and i 'ediate roof on pressure i~the side

, .
and front abutments were Iso investigated. 'It was concluded
that thl:! effect of periodic weighting is restricted to the

longwall face.being negliqible on the-~ide abutment. strong

immediate roof takès more pressure and hence, it inducee
considerably less ~re in the pillars. The latter authors

(Hsiung an,d Peng, 1985j1 continued the "Work rto establish a

1

design criterion applicabTe only to the chain pillars used in

U.S.A. longwall panels. Hence, no impr~vement was made to
(
access tunnel stability. Many ~ther researchers, for example,
1

Heasley and Saperstien (1985), Payne and Isaac (1985),

Pettibone et al (1985) Siriwardane (1985) and Vervoort et al.
(1987) were concerned with numerical techniques to investigate
. différent aspects of longwall mining such as pressure
distribution in the front abutment and the pack support
behaviour. However, the quantit~tive
... effects of longwall

pining extraction, continuous barrier pillar 'and adj acent

workings on the c'losure of the access tunnels remained
/
<,

unsolved. The aim of this thesis, however, is to investigate

these effec't'S and to propose a method of prediction of a,ccess

tunnel closure together with establishing a new barrier pillar

~esiqn criterion in longwall mining. T~ese are discussed in

66

\
 -,'

c the fOllowing chapters.

2 • 7 SUMMARV AND CONCL USION

q

The review of the ground movement theories arising

from tunnelling operations summarizes the first attempt made
at understanding these processes. The cause and effect of
.
induced stresses and' the corresponding displacements based on ".
the related .information in literature have been investigated.
"
The effect of barrier pillar together wi th the effect of
.1o~gwall mining extraction and their complex interactions on
the access tunnel behaviour have been considered. Ii;, is

recognized from the literature, review t.hat due to the

.
(

complexity of th~ mining environment, research for the

improvement of the access·jtunnels has made slow progress as
compared with the considerably improved coalface control
brought about by the development of powered supports.
The mining environment is extremely hostile' and
o ~

considerable expertise is required to wo~k ~eams. There is

. .
also a reactionary nature in the industry and a certain
/
unwillingness to accept even proven facts. A classic example
9f tn-t-s - is that the fa"ce convergence was considered

ln~ependent of depth; this was reported by Jenkins and storey

-
(1960), and wap obtained from research in the British
Coalfields. Walker (1955) also mentioned American results in
. ,
the same light. It is very difficult to prove that any one
,
fact a~plies to aIl mining conditions because of the

-'
c in the local behaviour of rocks.

67
 J
t,

In recent years, particu~ar attention h~s.bee~ focussed .,

on the application of numerical modelling for the
,
longwall
' c

mining design. Due to the comp1exlty

, o~ the mechanism'of~the,
{
access tunnel deformation,process~ particularly face-access
u

tunnels. this ha's 'highlighted problems that are sti1~ the

1 subject of research
..... .
.. In qua'ntifying the most important parameter~ on the

access tunnel~ behaviour, pred~ction of vertical convergené~

.'
profile with distance from the faeeline and estimation of the
\
barrier pil1ar width for ~e deep coa1 mining design are the.~
)

most important matter~ of research. sOlving these problems

wili result in considerable contribU'tion tp t'he mini~-4

industry.
\
, f)
" .

, .

0>"

i --------' >r

el r 1 \
1
,

(
, 'J
.i..,.

. .
, 68"
"
.
-,~

,
1; ----:.('- ..
 "

CHAPTER 3

ANALVSIS OF THE DEFORMATION SURVEV IN NO. 26 COLLIERY

t
3.1 INTRODUCTION
\ r
Theoretical studies' in relation to the stability of

underground structures are well-known. The complexities around

multiple openings make the theoretical treatinents difficult

and questionable. This has caused I\lany investigators to

attempt to verify their models by ma king direct measurements

of in situ stresses and displacements.

The tradi t ional method 0 f working coal seams in the

Sydney Coalfield Ras been by advancing longwall coal faces,

although the Prince mine and the new Lingan Phalen mine are

laid out to employ retreat longwalls. Traditionally the access

tunnels are located along the long continuous ribsides of

the advancing face. Longwall extraction, which relies on

transfer of overburden pressures to the pillars, unlike room

and pillar worki~g, allows goaf areas to undergo compaction

and ultimately bear the weight of the overlying strata. The

use of advance longwalls necessitates careful consideration

of the location of adjacent panels. Two alternatives are

available: to extract the panels with no pillars between them,

or to leave a pillar to protec.t the access tunnels from

excessive deformation and the surface from excessive

subsidence. In the Sydney Coalfield, the location of the

workings under the Atlant'ic Ocean, with consequent fears of

1,

69
 c .4
inrushes due to subsidence~
,
lead to the adoption of latter

method of working.

The final state of an access tunnel is dependent, to 'a

large extent~-on the barrier pillar dimension and on the

quality, .
dimensions and construction of the ft>ack supports

adjacent to the road side. Employing an appropriately

designed support systems in conjunction with carefully

evalua ted design parameters ar~ of maj or importance to

subsequent closure and ultimate access tunnel stability.

This Chapter together with Chapter 4 examine the data

obtained from extensive un~~rground deformation surveys of 26

accessible underground roadways (36 km of total length) at the

No. 26 COlliery (18 km) and Lingan Mine (18 km), using in situ

tape measurements. A photographie techniqu~ de scribes in

Chapter 5 was used to gather deformation data both from the

saroe survey s~tes and at t~e same time.

This study aims ta investig~te overall behaviaur of

the face-access tunnels in attempting to develop a method of

predicting vertical closure profiles froID the faceline and to

establish an optimum design criterion for barrier pillars in

the Sydney Coalfield of Cape Breton Island.

3.2 NO. 26 COLLIERY

3.2.1 LOCATION AND GEOLOGy OF THE AREA

No. 26 colliery is iocated in the sydney Coalfielà of

c Cape Breton Island in north east of Nova scotia (Fig. 3.1).

l
70
 (
\ ,

The Sydney coalfield is the most important coal basin in this

province as weIl as Canada. It consists of tw~arts: a small

land area of about 520 sq.km and a region where mining is

carried out under the ocean. Both form a part of a large

carboniferous basin that extends almost as far'as Newfoundland

occupying some 36,300 sq. km. (Hacquebard, 1983). The extent

of the coalfield was determined by King and Maclean (1976)

1
using shipboard geophysical and acoustic methods.

Cape Breton Island as a whole has a moderately rugged

topography consisting of hardrock uplands and soft rock

lowlands and has been subjected to glaciation and the

coalfield has a cover of locally'derived glacial deposits

(Bell, 1938)~ The hard rocks that retain the older peneplain

upland surfaces are mainly composed of granrtes, volcanics and

Precambrian meta-sediments and the soft rocks that gave ri se

to the lowlands are dominantly Carboniferous strata which are

also the host rock strata of the Syqney coalfield.

The coal bearing st rata are of the Pennsylvanian

formation, belonging to the Morien series. They are the most

l
important coal bearing beds in the Maritime Provinces. The

serie~ consists of fluvial and fluviolacustrine detritus

sediments composing sand~tones, siltstones and mudstones of

fresh water origine Th~

"
maximum thickness of this series is

approximately 2,000 m which includes numerous coal seams. Tens .

of these are economically mineable and contribute to the

reserve estimates, but large amounts are concentrated in the

71

)
 \

....
c
rua
S!DlIEY

COAL
PlER

.. VICTORI. JUNCTION
COAL PREP PLANT
GLACE BAY

SYDNEY SçABOARO POWER PLANT

HARBOUR
........ ---............ ,
PROPOSEO LINE~,,~OONKIN
../

TO OONKIN ~ MINE

Fig. 3.1 Location of No. 26 Colliery. (Anon, 1985) .

60"~
.
19.-"

'.1
;\ ~ . ..-- -...

-
.Q,~
.
~

-::.--~
\1 ./

l /'
.--
1 \. 1 ,.,
1 : 1j
"" ........
1
;
1
%
". \,
.~

"'-

"
_ .......
•.••• -·--·PRE -
-' CARBONIFEROUS

wELL LOCATIONS SEAU OUTCROP _ •• - EXTENT OF'WORXIHGS

RESERVE ARtAS - -v- FAUlT -NORMAL. TRUST /-1000- CONToURS IH FEET

Fig. 3.2 Structural Development of Western Part of Sydney

Basin Shown wi~h Harbour Seam Contours.
(Hacquebard, 1983).

, 72
 ;q
r
f

,u
,
Phalen, Harbour, Hub and Lloyd Cove seams. Out of these four
~ .:.
sfêamS', the Harbour seam is the most important and possesses
"
the largest reserves, amounting to 483 million metric tonnes,
approximately 30 percent ,of the available reserve in the
Sydney coalfield. This large reserve became known only after
the' 1977-78 offshore coal drilling prograrn (Hacquebard, 1983)
,
and is located within the Donkin-Morien Developrnent project

area.

Structurally, the Morien series are flexed into a

series of open folds which plunge gently seaward (northeast to

east). The coal sJarns are isolated mainly in syn~lines on

1

land, where ~ach has beenvcalled with a variety of narnes,bpt)

are continuous in the subrnarine area (Bell, 1938). The most

recent study of the Sydney coalfield suggeS~ed )h~t the_

sfructural style of the Sydney basin is essent~ally ,saucer-
1
shaped with beds dipping towards the deeper seaward and with

the central part of the basin composed two subbasins

(Hacquebard, 1983). Faulting is rare in the coalfield,

however, a marginal fold belt is present along the southern

boundarj (Fig. 3.2) and Haites (1951) noted that at least six

small low angle (circa 20 degrees dip with northwest-southeast

J
strike) thrust faults intersect the coal seams. Normal faults

occur only in a few places with variable strike and dip about

40 to 60 degrees. These faults are polished slip planes,_

striated parallel to the~ir dips. They possess aIl, the

characteristics of fault planes of maximum shear ca~sed by a

Lé'
force acting normal to th~ bedding ~lanes (Haites, 1951~.

73
\
C Clay gashes in the Sydney coalfield pinch out in two
directions and extend for a maximum 3 m. Most of these
gashes are filled with hardened clay or shale (mudstone) and
occur only in thin seams. They ar.e believed to be the youngest
~tructural features of the Sydney Coalfield (Haites, 1951).
The prominent cleat directions in the Sydney Coalfield
are N65E and N65W. ~hey are developed in the brightest part of
bituminous coals and are more prevalent than joints in the )

accompanying rock strata. Cleat surfaces are always p~rfectly

smooth and s'ubvertical (80-90 degrees) and are consi'dered to

have been developed along planes of "maximum shear (Hai tes,

1951) • The conjugate set of joints in the rock strike .. north-

" .;.

south and east-west.

li

3.2.2 OPERATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS. MININC METRODS

AND PRODUCTIVITY

,No. 26 Colliery was operated by the Cape' Breton

Development Corporation (C.B.D.C.). The colliery opened in

1943 with the following shaft dimensions:

/ Coal Shaft - 9.5 m x 4 m x 204 m deep

1

Air Shaft - ,3.7 m in diameter and 205 m deep

ventilation Shaft (Harbour to Phalen) - 3 m x 3 m x 119 m

deep.

From 1943 to 1955 the method of mining employed in ,this

mine was based on the traditional room and pillar method. The

size of the rooms and pillars were' in the range of Wp =10 m

c to 23 m, ~=13 m to 26 m and Wo=6 m to 7.5

\
m, ilwhere W
" ,
p

74
 11> and Wo 'are pillar width, pillar length and room width

respectively.

Annual production initially was 1,668 tonnes reaching

473,435 tonnes in 1955. /.

In mid 1955 the Longwall mining

technique was ini tia:ted operating' alongside the tradi tional·

room and pillar methods until the end of 1964 when annual

production was 940,589 tonnes.

\
Since 1970 the longwall advancing mining technique had

been the only method employed in

~
No. 26 colliery.

The mine operated advancing longwalls (Fig. 3.3) with

an average panel width of 200 m. The average true-dip of the

coal -seams is approximately 1 in 7.4 or 8 degrees, to the

/ northeast. Facelines have a strike NS ODE and a dip SONE.

The coal seam thickness varies between 1.6 to 2.4 m with an'
\

average of 2 m.

The face-end desi~ns and the drivage methods of the

access tunnels 'serving-Iongwall coalfaces vary.

The top levels (material LC~~S) are fulf~ce driven in

line with the longwall face (Figs. 3.4a, 3.4~, and 3.4c). The

bottom level~ (coal roads) are mainly half heading~ with the

roadways being 6 to 12 m behind the face-line (Figs. j.Sa,

3.5b and 3.)5C).

In November, 1983, a fire occurred in the main deeps

(Gallant et al, 1984). This ca~sed the mine to be shut down.

75
 fi

*B'

C ,-..
,/
Y
l 1
~' 1
1
1
~
1 C)
V'l
1 s;.-
='
1 .&l
0
s;.-
",

1 :x:
' ~
>-.
1 s;.-
C)
.r-
I r--
r--
0
~ cJ
~ \0
N

0
•
,
,- J
:z:
4-
" 0
1 c::
.Id
r--
1 0-

1 C"')
.
C"')
.
J Cl
,,..
u..
1
1 J

1 1
1
1 ~-

il
J

/
! "

(
76
 - ------------------~-------~-----~--------

Tunnel Facellne -,
(Haterial Road) +

?=====-=====~I~~~I--r-
Too Drive
......
... 0
u c.
a c.
..:; ::l
EI~CO 627
"'<Il u
- . . " ...
toader & Dut:1oer = tI '"
.., ... Q
..... C.
":1 ~ 0.

=> ':..0 0rn

"..
g

<1;
.....
,~ a
t.l
1.52
'"
--
\

.
u
~
1·"
--;f-
'"
Hardvood Pack
Bot 'Wood

•
"1

4.5711 lt J.J5m
Three piece yielding ,,0.7611
Splayed les sceel arche.
lagled tram tcp of support
chock.

a) Pack Support and End-Face OuLgn for 14H Macuiai Road. at

No 26 Colliery

Face line Foce 1 fne

Powered support

..:! ....'"
L-lL-JL-J
.....
. lIdJ III alD lhIl a .......
o
a
.j D <!J
..
."

.'"
o

1 1
4.58m O.76m
?
/
t-'6.1m t----6.1m
b) cl
Fig. 3.4 Pack Support and End-Face Design for Mater; al Road
in No. 26 Colliery.

77
 c

c """
0

...'"
Il
0
U

...'"....
.e
.
_,..1/
.,"
.! ;;;>
l~
1
n-n-n-rrTr
• 1
.. l' ••••
.L_~r·I_~L-' J...J~''''!
f 1
1 ,, ,,: ,1 11
1
1 1
,,
1
,;
, ,! ! 3 '0, ,P .
, t°ft
Q •
•u
h ...,
~

i~T ..:i.:.'!!ll=
."

" F F .., ....

0
ôii~;,c TI
........
Il ~
CI ."
Hli ~.::
u
l;~d~~S ~ c
• OTO'l'PC;! .. t-
e
......
la.
"''''
:-N
.:;.
•t, ... %
é
u
.3" 1/ <.
< ...
"
L. "~Ç'l
"'('0

t.n
M

C"I

J
apIS l'nOS
u...

.dOld poo/\
( pOl:lnb~.I
.JO :>llnuphll
se E
..,
-
~.....
.. c
%
~
e
,.

aD .~.Jd de~ POO/\ 110 1 ...or -= c.

1~-4t:-"; ~ !:

•
c:
~
~

.....,",
...
..,"
.""
•c
C-
:-
v;
~

."u

-
f'(j

c
j 78
 l' . :' r

o .. ,
,
... '

N
11'\

III

"...
:n

"........
O·
:n

Iwo piece rigid steel arches

lagged from top of support
chocks
/

c) Pack Support and End·Face Designs for 14N Coal Road at ,

No. 26 Colliery

Fig. 3.5
o
79
J
 ..

• 3 • 2 • 3 SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Stability of any underground structures, such as a

tunnel, requires an adequate support system which depends upon

.'--'

the purpose for which it ft' used. Support systems employed in

1

access tunnels at No. 26 ~Olliery were of three types:

3.2.3.1 NATURAL SUPPORT

Natural supporb, that is, barrier pi1lar which is 1eft

,
.
.
at one side along the access tunnels to protect them. This

type of support is also ca11ed protective support. The\,widths

of the pil1ars used in material roads are 82 m :1: 22 m and

those used in coa1 roads are 106 m :1: 45 m. A detai1ed . . \.

analysis of barrier p~llar support. will be given in a later

section.

3 • 2 • 3 • 2 STEEL ARCH SUPPORTS

'l

Two types of st\el supports were '~lnp1pyed in access

tunnels:

1 1. Those which were used in coa1 roads were 2 -piece, H-

section (127 mm x 114 mm), sp1ayed legs rigid steel

arches, 29.76 kg/m with a standard fish plate. They\were

~.35 m high and 4.58 m wide , p1aced at 0.9 m interva1s and

'~agged around the crown with timber.
2. Arch support systems employed in material roads were 3-

piece TH-section yielding splayed legs steel arches 29 kg/m.

Wedqe type clamp allowed the arch_members to move gradu~lly,

80
 ':"~" ~. 1
"relative to each other. This type of steel arch is particularly

suitable for withstanding the increased strata pressure and

eccentric loading resulting from excavation a~ greater depths

in coal mines. They are also suitable for soft floor and side
\
7qûeeze at pack leveI.' These steel arches have the same

d~ens{on, height, width as those mentïoned in "1". They were

~lso installed at 0.9 m intervals and lagged around the crown.

,3 • 2.3 • 3 PACK SUPPORTS

The final state of access tunnels serving longwall

coalfaces are dependent, to a large extent, oh the quality,

dimensions and construction of the pack supports adjacent to

the road s id~, . It must be ensured that packs are of adequate

.
~imensions and 'good contact with the ,roof is obtained. Voids

between the chocks, if wood chocks are used, must be filled to 1

spread the load over a sufficiently large area, so that the

stresses created in the softer layers do not exceed théir

ultimate strength. Thus, the greater the depth of cover the

more necessary it becomes to have wider packs for a given

strength of strata. The compressibility of the pack is another

important basic parameter which must be defined before the

selection of a suitablé material. The higher the compressibi-

,
lit Y of the pack, the more the vertical convergence of the

roadways. An ear~y-bearing pack is of decisive importance for

".....,.maintaining good roadways and to keep their c,pnvergence to a'

"
minimum.

Pack supports used in No. 26 colliery are continuous.

81
 • Although continuous hardwood packs filled with debris are used

in both material roads and coal

chocks to debris are not the same.

~roads, the proportions of wood

There were three different pack types in the material

roads. One typ was continuous with 80% hardwood chocks in two

rows tightly co nected to each other and forming one combined

row. The other two rows and three rows of wood

". chocks filled debr is. The ratios of wood chocks to

debris are approxima ely 20% and 30% in two row and three row

packs respectively. The detailed dimensions and their

posl tions wi th respect to goaf area, roadway and face have

been illustrated in Figs. 3.4a-3.4c.

In the coal roads the packs were different from those

,
in the material roads. There are three different proportion-

ings of the pack constituents employedi chocks composed 40%,

t 50% and 80% of the pack (detailed dimensions and locations in

relation to the goaf area, face and roadway itself are shown

in Figs. 3.5a, 3.5e respectively). AlI were built in two rows

with a 1.52 m travel road in between. The schematic long

-,. cross-sections of the packs in relation to the tunnel face,

longwall face are also shown in Figs. 3.6 and 3.7.

,
3. 3 TUNNEL DEFORMATION SURVEY f'

Despite the complexity of the access tunnel

,
:( environment, effective and simple measurements of their

L.
82
,1
 \

• 28 cm

) ,

Fig. 3.6 Schematic Cross-Section of Access Tunnel End

Showing Average Overbreak and Pack Support
Location (Not to Scale).

Average Inclination SO

---
--- --
------

'P
Fig. 3.7 Schematic Long Section of Access Tunnel End
Showing Hydraulic Powered Support Followed by
t·
Hardwood Pack~Supports (Not ta Scale).

,-l,.
83
• deformation can give an understanding of basic deformation
processes. A survey of mine opérating plans indicated that
some 36 km of access tunnels in the sydney Coalfield remained
accessible and it was judged important to survey aIl of these
accessible roadways (Cain and Aston, 1983) to obtain the
widest range of data. For speed and efficiepcy, vertical
heights of the tunnels were measured from the center of the
steel arch to the floor every ten arches from the faceline,
using tape measure. At these points, the corresponding width
1 m above the floor was also determined.
Deformation :data for the No. 26 collier~ was
collected from 12 acJbss tunnels accessible at the time of the
survey. In the No. 26 colliery data was obtained from 6
material roads and 6 coal roads with total length of 7.4 km
and 10.0 km respectively. Approximately 2600 data points for
each parameter were evaluated in the analysis.
In No. 26 Colliery aIl of the data was obtained from
the photographie deformation survey at every 50 arch
intervals, together with the in situ tape measurements, which
were taken at 10 arch intervals and at 50 arch intervals along
the access tunnels. These have been compiled as follows:
1. Individual material roads with 3-piece yielding steel arch
supports;
2. Individual coal roads with 2-piece rigid steel arch
supports;

3. AlI coal roads with a secondary working or developed

longwall !ace in parallel, with 2-piece rigid steel arch

84
• 4.
supports and with similar controllable and uncontroll-able

parametersi
AlI coal roads without secondary working or developed

longwall face in parallel, with 2-piece rigid steel arch

supports and with similar controllable and uncontrollable

parameters.
These deformation survey data were arranged in the

above format with the following primary objectives in mind:

1. To evaluate any general trend or relationship between the

major known parame~Jrs which could influence the access

tunnel closure and affect the optimum pillar size design;

2. To examine and compare the results of the analysis

conducted on the basis of the different number of data

points used for each parameter, i.e. comparing the results

obtained from readings of every 50 arch intervals with

those obtained from every 10 arch intervals along the

roadway~

3. To study the influence of the secondary working of

developed longwall panel paraI leI to the coal roads on the

closure of the coal roads. This is based on the comparison

of the convergence data from the coal roads with and

without a secondary parallel working longwall panel;

4. ,To investigate the influence of the type of supports on

the closure of the access tunnels

5. To assess the relationship between barrier p,illar width

and roadway convergence, and thus the applicability of

85
• varlous current barrier pillar design criteria to the

Sydney Coal field env ironment , (see chapter 8) .,

A non-linear least square curve fitting technique was
t ......~,
chosen and programmed to determine the best fit curve through J ~~

the data points. This provided a general relationship between

parameters involved.

3~_!. 1UNNEL CONVERGENCE ANALYSIS

The wall, roof and floor displacements and the loading

\ ~
of tunnel supports increase wi~h lapse in time. The increase
"
of displacements and pressures with time are brought about by;
- the advance of the tunnel and longwall face excavation, as
well as the effects of longwall strata abutment pressures,
caving behind the face and interaction from adj acent
workings.
- the time-dependen~ mechanical properties, of rock mass
(rheological behaviour).
The ultimate loading of the supports is related to the f>

o
deformations which occur after their placement. This depends
upon the initial state of stress, ground behaviour, rela~ive
.,A

stiffness of the rock and support systems, the method - of

excavation and support timing. The inerease of de format ions
and loadings extend over a long period of time after
excavations and support installations. These faets are

established by the in situ tunnel disp,lacement measurements

and photographie surveys carried out on 26 mining tunnels in
the Sydney Coalfield (of which 12 tunnels are located in

86
• No. 26 colliery).
Durinq excavation, deformations have a purely static
cause (Lombardi, 1974; Panet, 1979). As the face is advanced,
the state of eq~il ibrium changes, consequently, inward
movement5 of the tunnel walls, roof and floor occur behind the
face.
In most of the mining literature vertical convergence
is commonly- defined as the percentage of the vertical
J
displace-ments at the center line of the tunnel, to the
ex-tracted seam height (hs). However, in this Thesis, for

reasons which will be mentioned later on, the vertical

convergence i6 defined as the percentage of height loss at the
center line of the tunnel to the initial tunnel height, i.e.
HL
v.c. = il x 100.
1

in which:

~ = Height 105s (vertical displacement);

HI = Initial height (undeformed state);

~ = final height (deformed state);

Vertical displacement (or height loss) has two compo-

nents, that is, HL = he + sr
where;
~ = vertical component of displacement due to floor
heave (or floor lift);
sr = vertical component • displacement due to roof

l -r
lowering (or roof subsidence).

87
 D

c The vertical displacements measured and used for this,analysis

are based on total displacement, HL.

In the work described here both approaches to conver-

gence calculations were conducted and the results compared.
The outcome of this analysis clearly indicates that the two
approache s gi ve the same interpretation w i th di fferent
apparent numerical values (Fig. 3.8). The difference is due to
the HI/hs ratio, in which hs is the extracted seam
height. For example, if HI=3. 0 m and hs=2. 0 m, then

H1/hs =1.5 or h s /Hj=O.67 must be used as conversion

\

factors, to convert the percentage of the vertical convergence

based on the HI into the percentage of the vertical

convergence based on the hs and vice-versa. If graph 2

(Fig. 3.8) in which v.c. = 25% = HL/HI is used, it gives

the exact value of displacement for any given distance. For

this reason, most of the vertical convergences which are used
here will he based on the initial tunnel height, unless
,otherwise specified.

3.5 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE DEFORMATION MEASUREMENTS

Theoreticnl studies in relation to the stability of

underground structures are well-known. The complexi ties
around multiple openings make the theoretical treatments
difficult and questionable, and this has caused many

investigators to seek the aid of models and to attempt to make

direct measurements of in situ, stress and displacements. When
c considering aIl th9 _factors that: may give rise to

88
 .-
' ,

-1
ta
0

j
)
1

\
ru 100 - ------~~--

~
~
1 - % v.c. with respect to Extracted Seam Height
Q)
t::n
10-4
(l)
:>
90

80
1 2 - % V.C. with respect ta Initial Tunnel,Height
~
a
CJ
70
r-f
m
()
'r-! ,
6,0
~
).f
50
,
0) <l)
\0 :>
~
0 40 -1 1 1 \l. \ /\ ? ~ - Li"\. _l
<l)
t::n 30
(1j
+J
~
J. .... r, N \/V ~ .2
ru 20
t>
10-4
<l) 10 IlL --
~

0
0 100 2QO 300 400
!;j
Distance fram Tunnel Faceline (m)

Fig. 3.8 Comparisan of Vertical Convergence from Faceline

obtained based on the Extracted' Seam and Initial
Tunnel Heights at l4N Coal Raad in No. 26 Colliery.'
 l
deterioration in gateroads, a major problem is to decide on
the best method of approach. Results of laboratory model tests
may have little value when applied to tpe longwall extraction
due to the size effect and their isotropie and homogenic
character. Observational method and in situ deformation
measurements are invaluable, if adequate measurements are
made, properly analyzed and the conclusion justifietl. The
elastic stress distribution may no ,longer be a reasonable
hasis for excavation design when stresses are high enough to
induce a significant amount of failure in the rock surrounding
the excavation (Hoek and Brown, 1980). Factors other than
induced stress levels and rock mass strengths may also
influence the behaviour of an access tunnel .
Figs. 3.9, 3.10 illustrate the mode of deformation
in T13S material road (yielding and rigid steel arch supports,
photographs taken 180 m apart from each other) while
Flgs. 3.11 and 3.12 represent the ,process of flocr heave and
its role on access tunnel closure\i in B12S coal road with rigid
steel arches sites 180 m apart from each other.

The vertical and horizontal closure measurements made

in face-access tunnel roof and side walls have been analyzed
11' '

focussing on the different interaction parameters. Vertical

g~€road c10sures have been plotted versus distance from the

facelines (figs. 3.13-3.16). The wide scatter of the data

hinders the process of fi tting a curve to represent the
closure pattern behind the face, 50 a process for smoothing
(-
the data was developed. The initial trend was defined by

90
 i~7-
-- - ---- - - ------~--_._._----------_._--------------_ .. ~---_._--------------- ~~~---~

j
!
Mode of Deformation of T13S Material Raad with 3-Piece ,
1 Yielding Steel Arch Support Systom in No. ?6 Coll iery. ..
!
!
j'-i
1

i
i
i

~':Î... ,
h

.~.-l;
~ Fig. 3.10 Mode of Deformation of T13S Material Road with 2-Piece
Rigid Steel Arch Support System in No. 26 Colliery.

91
----------------------_._--------~--_. ._- ----.------_.- ----- -- --_._---

Mode of Deformation and the Effect of Floor Heave on ,

t
}
Closure of 812S Coal Raad with 2-Piece Rigid Steel /
Arch Support System in No. 26 Col1iery.

Mode of Deformation and the Effect of Floor Heave on

Closure of 812S Coal Road with 2-Piece Rigid Steel
Arch Support System in No. 26 Col1iery.

92
 100~--------------------------------------~----------~
~- Data obtained fram in situ measurements at every
SJO 10 arches
1- Exponential curve obtained by'the least square
80 technique
2- Cubic polynomial curve optained by the least
70 square technique
~-

GO
t
50
A
40

JO
,
20
)
10
,O 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4
Distance from tunnel ~aceline (x lOOOm)
Fig. 3.13 Representative Vertical Convergence Profile from
Acc~s Tunnel Faceline for B135 Coal Raad in No. 26
Colliery.
Q)
o 'OO~---------------------- ____________________________ ~

s:::
<Il
til . 90
~
<Il
>
Lgs:::

.-1
rtI
o
..,
.~

~
QI
>
\1.1
o
QI
t:r
rtI
IJ
c:
QI
U
~
QI
Il.

Di stance From fîl~nnel Face (x 1000 m) l

Fig. 3.14 Representation of Vertical Convergenc~ Profile for
First Stage Smoothing of B135 Data in No. 26 Colliery.

(
93
 ,oo~------------~----------------------------------,
c IV 90
o
s::
1:.- Data obtai
J.O arches
from in situ measurements at every
Exponentia œurve obtained by the least square
~ 80 techniq.ue
J.I 2- Fourth ord r curve obtained by the
~s:: 70 least square
o
'0
SO A

o o.... 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2 ....

Distance from tunnel faceline. (x lOOOm)
Fig.3.lS Representative vertical convergence profile from tunnel
faceline in B12S coal road ,..at No. 26 Colliery.

100
~
0
s:: 90
IV
O'l
J.I
IV 80
>
s::
'0
0 70
.-1
lt1 60
0
..-4
+J
s... 50
..
<!J
>
\4.1 40
0
IV JO
tr
rtI-
+J
r: 20
IV
0
s... 10
(IJ
~

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2 ....

Distance from acceS$ tunnel faceline (x lOOOm)

L Fig. 3.16 Representati6;}îof vertical convergence profile for the

first staqe sm60thing in B12S coal road at No. 26 Colliery.

94
J
engineering judgement, then appropriate Fortran programs were

written, employing the non-linear least square technique to

determine the representative vertical convergence profile with
respect to the distance from the facelines. The superimposed
resul ts of the least square technique and original qata
suggest that polynomials could be the best representative path
for the data. For example, a polynomial of order 3 (Fig. 3.13)

was fitted
,W>,
in most access tunnels, while a polynomial of order

4 wa~" obtained for coal ;road ~12S (Fig. 3.15). The question
may arise if polynomial functions are the most logical

representati ve for the distance - vert ical convergence

profiles, ~hich closures should be used for' barrier pillar

design? Why'does the access tunnel behdviour show a r~

increase to a peak value (Fig. 3.15) then remains almost

constant until 900 m, and decreases afterwards? On the first

"
question it should be said that if the polynomial is judged to
--
be appropriate, then the peak value from the firs~1curve half

must be used for barrier pillar design purpose. On the second

question it should be said that the initial cause of declining

of vertical convergence after 900 m is due to end effects or

abutment pillar widths, that is, two ends of a tunnel, if

supported equally, then they must behave alike. Any abrupt

change in vertical closure could be due to ei ther local

~

geology, improper support installation, tunnel functions,

~ifferent barrier pillar widths or combination of two or more

of these. Based on the concept of end effects which were true ~

in most access tunnels, i t was judged tha~ the first 50% of

95
 c the distance - vertical convergence profile can be reliably
#

used for stabili ty analysis provided the total length of a

tunnel is equal to or greater than 2.5 times panel width

r The lengths of access tunnels in No. 26
•
,~

COlliery are such that, the majority meet the above

1
p
f requirement, therefore, data for the first 50% of distance

.
0
from tunnel facelines for aIl access tunnels were reanalyzed
!
/1
based on both the exponential and polynomial functions which
r
~ are given below:
1
'.
, .
'!J

\
v. C. = a [1 - exp ( -x/b») + c (3. 1)

r in which:
(3.2)

V.c. = Percentage of vertical convergence based on initial

tunnel height;

.. x = Distance from tunnel face outbye;

a, b, c,

o The constant "a" represents' vertical convergence at an

.t infinite distance from the tunnel face line, whereas, tl1e

constant "b" is an exponential decay factor indicating the l

curvature of the convergence profile. Th,e physical concept of
.
,
'. the < Ile" and "a o " parameters are the mean vertical

convergence occurring between the last arch installed and the

tunnel (, face line, if appropriate- time is allowed fD-r

, equilibrium-to take place.

Apart from polynomial functions mentioned earl ier, i t

96
",
 ------~-----------------------

was experienced (Majdi et al, 1986) that the above exponential

equation gives a better illustration of access tunnel

behaviour. Graph 1 on Fig. 3.13 and Fig. 3.15 represents the

ab ove exponential function. As it, can be seen, the exponential

approximation based on the "concept of end effects" is in good

agreement with the polynomial peak value. To reduce the

degree, of scatter in the data, they have been further analyzed

by adding a subroutine to the former programs. The function of

the subroutine is to determine the average of two successive

data points with 50% overlap without the end conditions being

violated. This step has been taken to reduce any possible

accompanying noise that results in a scatter an~ end up with a

better set of data points without any data reduction taking

place. Hence we are not forming a curve, rather we are

correcting the data points themselves. The process of this

analysis is slightly different from the traditional smoothing.\,~

The results of this analysis for the original data as shown in

,
Fig. 3.13 and Fig. 3.15 are illustrated in Fig. 3.14 and

Fig. 3.16 respecti~ely_) They indicate the logical behavioural

assessment and rel iabil i ty of the approach used in this

analysis. Based,on the "concept of end effects" data from the

first 50% of distance - vertical convergence curve (Fig. 3.13)

were used for smoothing purpose. The result is reflected in

~", Fig. 3.17 as compared with the original data (Fig. 3.13).

Both Fig. 3.16 and Fig. 3.17 indicate a jump of vertical

convergence at distance 200 m and 100 m respectively. This

97
 100
QI
t) 80
t:
QI
tr- 80
J.I
QI
:>
t: 70
0
t)

~ ISO
III
t)
of'4 50
+1
J.I
QI
:> 40
....
0 30
QI
0'
lU 20
+1
t:
QI
t) 10
J.I
QI
Il- 0
0 0.2 0.04- 0.6 0.8 1 1.2.

Distance from access tunnel 'faceline (x 1000m)

'(

Fig. 3.17 Representation of the firsf 50% of vertical convergence

profile for the first stage smoothing in B13S at No. 26
Colliery.
100 ,-----------------------------------------------____~
QI
{) po
t:
QI
tr- 80
J.I
QI
:>
t: 70
0
{)

~ 60
lU
{)
of'4 50
+1
J.I
QI
:> 40
11-1
0 30
QI
tr-
lU 20
+1
t:
QI
{) 10
I-f
(Il 1>
Po. 0
0 -200 400 600
Distance from access tunnel faceline (m)

c Fig. j.I8 Representation of vertical convergence profile for

the second stage smoothinq in B13S at No. 26 Colliery

98
 may confirrn the influence of adjacent working which also could
be inferred from superimposing of material road and coal road
(Majdi et al., 1986). This jump by no means could be detected
if the original graph had been used. This data was once more

smoothed but this time with 50% data reduction (Fig. 3.18). If
this process continues we obtain a set of new data points
wi thout any noise in which we may get a correlatlon

coefficient about unit y which indicates thé)t the ultimKte

results of smoothing coincide with that obtained by employing

least square technique. It can be seen that the original

scatteréd data gives the same trend as the smoothed data but

with lower coefficient of correlation (Table 3.1-3.3). Hence,

it may be appropriate to conc~de that the trends obtained

based on similar functional analysis for both original

scattered data and its smoothed data are independent of

coefficient of correlation. This is true, since, according to

the ")efinition, the coefficient of correlation is only a

measure of dispersion to the mean value of the data in

question. Therefore, The concept of coeffic1~nt of côrrelation

in this par(ticular ana,lysis has no contribution in the

determinafion of trends of the data. However, the results are

tabulated in the aforementioned tables for the sake of

comparison only. The tables also represent the results of the

convergence analysis on the basis of the two definitions given

in a previous section. Tens of graphs for different access

tunnels at different stage of the analyses, based on initial

t. tunnel height and also based on extracted seam height have

99
C Table 3.1 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based
on Equation tv.C. = a(l-exp(-xjb»+c for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals at N'o. 26 Colliery.

"
Tunnel
Code N·~ Nr a b c NLCC SEE

T125DVYN 135 19.13 76.57 19.68 0.5697 4.987,

135 17.67 82.28 21.15 0.5886 4. 286 ',~
32 20.34 59.44 18.20 0.7593 4.467
B12SDVRW 111 30.89 209.50 \ 16.39 0.7295 7.035
54 32.47 195.00 14.61 0.7872 6.212
36.36 69.60 7.58 0.7872 7.070
T13SDVYW 137 34.75 172.70 3.84 0.7892 5.854'
137 34.98 170.60 3.55 0.8493 4.798
137 34.98 170.60 3.55 0.8493 4.798
B13SDVRN 112 24.46 104.10 8.33 0.6633 5.829
112 26.24 87.77 6.34 0.7456 4.873
54 27.27 40.31 4.60 0,.8472 4.054
T13NDVYW 137 15.45 15.52 6.97 0.1629 10.830
B13NDVRN 157 15.97 35.15 15.99 0.3417 5.397
157 18.69 28.58 13.24 0.3611 4.728
77 16.58 20.54 13.09 0.3886 4.566
B14NDVRN 31 29.54 58.79 2.92 0.8361 5.184
31 29.33 54.26 2.48 0.8692 4.670
14 20.23 27.63 3.10 - 0.9437 2.190

%v.C.= Vertical convergence as a percentage of initial tunnel

heiqht.
Ni = tnitial number of data points
N = Reduced data points
NLCE = Non-linear coefficient of correlation
SEE= standard Error of estimate

L
100
Table 3.2 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based
on Equation %V.C. = a(l-exp(-xjb»+c for Data
Obtained from In situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals at No. 26 Colliery.

'"
Tunnel N·1. a b c NLCC SEE
Code

T12SDEVYN 135 41.80 91.83 28.67 0.6522 9.35

135 40.47 94.84 30.00 0.6788 8.17
32 39.00 70.00 27.54 0.8055 7.51

B12SDEVRW 111 55.96 175.60 20.85 0.7518 11.44

54 52.34 199.00 25.04 0.8178 8.50
26 62.68 66.91 3.93 0.1226 11.00

Tl.3SDEVYW 134 57.80 257.30 8.93 0.8278 9.52

134 57.20 163.90 9.73 0.8685 7.84
32 36.05 143.20 10.55 0.7549 10.54

B13SDEVRN 112 41. 36 94.78 10.89. 0.6654 9.50

112 36.41 140.40 17.10 0.7236 7.81
26 - 41.80 34.60 1.13 0.8709 5.35

T13NDEVYW 137 31. 39 15.52 6.97 0.1629 10.83

137 37.26 14.42 10.81" 0.1581 9.15
32 23.47 31.12 17.00 0.4799
À 6.56

B13NDEVRN 157 24.39 35.57 27.72 '0."3347 8.47

, 157 28.43 29.30 23.62 0.3600 7.31
77 26.26 21.17 22.78 0.3909 7.30

B14NDEVRN 31 46.34 46.36 4.16 0.8314 7.93

31 45.77 46.73 4.486 0.8443 6.90
14 33.98 57.71 12.03 0.9094 3.82

%V.C.= vertical convergence as a percentage of extracted

height
. seam

Ni = Initial number of data points

N = Reduced data points
NLC~ = Non-linear coefficient of correlation
SEE = Standard error of estimate

101
 '" (»
~

Table 3.3 R~sults of Non-Linear Least Square TechnÏjque Based on P01ynàmial Functions for Data obtalned from ln Sit\L
Measuremenls at Every 10 Arch Intervals al No. 26 Colliery.

-- Tunnels

Coding
Ni Nr aO al
(xl0- 2 )
a2
(xIO- B )
a3
(XIO- 12 )
a4 COD NLCC SEE

B12SDVRW 200 12.840 16.930 -28.670 18.910 -44.380 0.5249 0.7245 6.482
,)-80 10.310 18.540 -31.730 21.140 -49.910 0.7108 0.8431 4.714
B13SDVRN 226 14.670 7.433 - 8.311 2.509 0.4001 0.6326 5.635
113 13.950 7.663 - 8.508 2.557
....0 0.5785 0.7606 4.131
T13SDVYW 22B 10.000 9.28') - 8.814 2•• 251 0.5130 0.7163
1\) 6.902
114 9.560 9.3QO - 8.867 2.254 0.670B 0.8190 5.140
B12SDEVRW 200 21.880 25.B70 -42.920 28.590 -68.440 0.4709 0.6862 11. 220
100 23.430 24.760 -40.6')0 26.830 -63.950 0.6053 0.7780 8.058
B13SDEVRN 226 21.930 12.205 -13.309 3.971 0.3942 0.6278 9.202
113 23.280 11.640 -12.680 3.778 0.5313 0.7289 6.578
T13SDEVYW 228 11.260 16.580 -15.410 3.913 0.6490 ,0.8057 5.109
114 12.000 16.230 -15.000 3.774 0.5362 0.7323 11.430
\

..
Ni Initial number of data points
N = Reduced data points
CoD Coefficient of determination
NLCé Non-linear coefficient of corr3lation
1 SEE Standard error of estimate
 ..

been produceq among which only representative graphs have been

given in this Chapter to reflect the steps of analysis in the "

first place, and to present the justification made during the

interpretation of the results in the second place.

3.6 VARIATION OF VERTICAL CONVERGENCE

WITH DISTANCE FROM FACELINE
.
It has been mentioned that as the face is advanced,

the state of equilibrium changes and inward movements of the

tunnel walls, roof and 1loor occurs behind the face. the
increase of deformatio~nd loading extend over a long period

of time after excavation. This is clearly illustrated in

Fig. 3.19 on which the vertical convergence of six tunnels
have been plotted against distance behind the face (face

advance is fairly constant, therefore, this is analogous to a

convergencejtime plot). B14N shows the variation of vertical

convergence in coal road 3 weeks after face installation in

which displacement sharply increases until about 300 m behind

the face line after a period of one year~ afterwards it became

in equilibrium. Tl3N represents the variation of vertical

disPlacementsf in material road about 3 months after face

support installations in which the vertical deformation

sharply increases until about 50 m behind the face line after a

period of about 5 years, then stabilized. However, B13N

exhibits changes in vertical displacements untril 100 m behind

1

the facp.l ine. T13S and B13S illustrate the changes of

103
 ,.. fI\

>•
." These variations

installation at face.
brought about
However,
4 months after
B13S has almost
support
reached

equilibrium at a distance about 400 m from the face line after

a period of one year, whereas T13S after the same period of

time at the sarne face distance still shows a tendency of an

increase in v~tical displacement but at a lower rate. T12S

also illustrates the changes of vertical convergence in

another material road where supports installation at face

were completed 3.5 years before the deformation survey was

made. The vertical displacements indicate a sharp increase

until 400 m behind the facéÎines up to a period of 5 years

after the excavation. The variations of vertical convergence

with distance illustrated on Fig. 3.19 have been obtained for

both material roads and coal roads. As it can be seen there

are three distinct groups of curves: Group l shows that

equilibrium is reached 70 m from the faceline, whereas, group

II became stabilized about 300 ID behind thé face-line and

group III indicated tendency of' stabilization around 400 m

behind the faceline. There are several points which could be

drawn from aIl of these case studies, fi

conclusion will be left for a later section in which a more

detailed discussion is given. The rate of incr ase in vertical

convergence at about 400 m behind the facelines, at least for

No. 26 colliery, is negligible, therefore, in' an underground

mining design operation, the vertical displacements at this

c distance should be used to evaluate the effective barrier

L 105
l''''""'''------~~~~~------~-----------~--~--~~~--------

pillar width which will be discussed in detail in a later

section. In German èalculation. methods of obta~ing

convergence values for this type of access tunnel (Anon, 1982)

the final vertical convergence is considered to be attained

300 m behind the face line.

3.7 EVALUATION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE

N TUNNEL CLOSURE

In this research program several pararneters have been

examined. These are outlined hereunder.

3 .7. 1 DEPTH OF COVER, PANEL WIDTH AND

EXTRACTION SEAM. HEIGHT

The effect of depth of cover on-d~ep tunnel closure ls

However, the greater the depth of cover the

the resulting pressure on the tunnel roof and hence

the potential closure. But arching of the natural vertical

stress field around the excavation which causes the strata

forrning the irnmediate roof to be placed in a relaxed zone

often results in subsequent deformation. There may also be

. sorne other parameters existing which are possibly m~re

significant than that of depth of cover. These aIl together

may make the effect of depth of cover obscure. It i5 weIl

understood that depth of cover plays an important role as far \ .

as roof to floor convergence on the coal-face is concerned

(King and Whittaker, 1970). Fig. 3.20 illustrates the changes

1

of vertical convergence versus depth of cover in T13N material

c road. Although the graph resembles an exponential function in

106

1
 o o
~

100--------------------------------------__________-,
90 - , .~!
r-
cu
u
c: 80 -
cu
en
s..
cu 70 -
>
c::
o
u 60 -
r-
IO

.....
U
or- #
~
o
-...J
s..
cu .~ \
>
Cf-
o
1

~
.. ~ ~ ,·1
~
J
' : '~~t <> ~ ~ ~ <t\ t ~
cu 30 -
en o 0
....,l'CS
-cu
c:: 20 - <O~ ,~-o~fi <>6A~~1 '~f~\!Ot~8
• ~o 0 \ 0
" u tf
s..
cu
0..
0-
1
fo
o 0
0 0
<>
0

<>
<>
0<>
•
<> <>
0

O~I----~~----r-----r-----~----~----~----~----~----~
580 600 620 640 660
Depth of cover (m)

. Fig. 3.20 ''Relationship between depth of cover and vertical, convergence

for data obtained from in-situ measurements at every 10
--
J ! arch intervals in Tl3N material road at No. 26 Colliery.
\

_________________~
. . . . ._. . _. ._=_. . . ~.,.,.,I~_~"""~....,..,..""~~ ......... """"'_>...,,_ ,,~ _____•___ h ___ .D..._ _ _ _ ._~~ __ -
 which the' change in vertical convergence are not that
pronounced until the depth of 650 m, then rapidly increases,
no conclusive remarks can he made since this is the only case,
out of over 20 cases, produced in this research project. For
further investigations of depth of cover, aIl material roads

and aIl coal roads were grouped and plotted against vertical

convergence as a percentage of extracted seam height, as shown

in Fig. 3.21 and Fig. 3.22. As it can be seen, there is no

correlation between them.

However, it would be unwise to exclude depth as a

factor in access tunnel closure not only because i t / is

seemingly a self-evident factor but because of its influlence

/
upon pack compression and interactions when other seam~ are

being worked (King and Whittaker, 1970). An attempt has been

made to relate- the depth of cover with sorne other parameters

and then to examine their influence on the tunnel convergence.

The convergence has been examined in terms of both extracted

ratio and initial tunnel height, for aIl individual material

roads and individual coal roads. ""

with regard to the extracted
"
seam height, no correlation was found (Fig. 3.23, Fig.3.24)

with the vertical convergence. This could be due to the

narrow range of extracted seam height. Vertical convergence

in relation to panel width has not show clear relationship

either, but the ratio of depth of cover to the panel width

highlights the possible relation between these two parameters

c and of their combined effect upon access tunnel behaviour .

...
108
 -...
.c
!f!' 160
~ 1SO -

e E
10
CIl

.... 120
'"
140 -
1::50 -
~

u -
...
10
s.. l' 0 - ~
: ·100 -

-
~

N
0 90 -
so -
112'5
1
.
,r---'
iJ.:
~<l
1135
;'1
~
,+
~:~
CIl 70 - 1 1
u
c:
CIl
c-
60 - "..
1+.........
'+i'
",~I
'~I'
,,:'~ 1

s.. t ...... 1 -++1;#" + +1

CIl 50 - 1 1 i!'It+~
+..._ ..... ~ 1 1
>
c: 40 -
1
1 * + "~
,++ 1
~+
11 1
:.q.:
0
U
1
, +
+ +~.
+
+ +l'", + 1
-
1
JO - ++
l,+ _______________ 1 I~I
10
'Tl3N +...
+ 1 ~
rf.l
1 1
....
u
....s..
20 -
~J
10 -
CIl
> 0
560 SBO 600
•
620
•
640 660 680 700
.
720 740 760
Depth of caver (m)
Fig. 3.21 Relationship between depth of cover and vertical convergence
for data obtained from in sjtu measurements at every 50 arch
intervals for all material roads at No. 26 COlliery.

--=....
C7l
.,..
QI
-=e 160

I!:I
, 50 -
QI

.....
1/)
140 -
130-
U
III
120 -
....s..
)(
QI 110 -
II- 100 -
0
,..------------------., B12$

-
M

CIl
u
c:
90 -
80 -
70 -
!
,1
1
,

+ ..... +..... "",,+ ~

+
++
: ... ~:
t
+
+
l
1
1
1
1
i~
1
1
1
:
:jj.1
+,
-il
1

r--- j
8135
r+i
:+ ,
~- '60 - .... ++ + .. # .... .,.- 1..,1 1 ~ 1 Ij,;:
s.. + + + ...1' + + + ~ 1 +~ 1 1 l~,
"" ~ '" ~:+++ ~;._~+-;.;:-.J+1!t:~
CIl
> so - + + """" Il
c: + 1'''' + T... + 't'~ 11= + 1 1 1
0
u 40 - +1-:1"* ~~ l, Il
,... , 30--- +-
.,. + + "" + 11 l+~
'
10 1+ 1

....
u + 812N + .J: B13N _.J1
:........
...
t-
20 -
10 -
1.. ______________________________

QI
>
0 • •
560 5BO 600 620 640 660 6BO 700 720 740 760

Depth of cover (m)

'0
'. , Fig. 3.22 Relationship between depth of cover and vertical convergence -
for data obtained from in situ measurements at every 50 arch
intervals for all coal roftds at No. 26 Colliery.
 100,-----------------'-------__________________________ ~

80 -

QI 80-
u
c
~ 70-
s..
QI
>
S 80-
u .'
'; SO-
u (
~

t .c.o-
QI
o
>
~ 30-'
QI
~ 20-
-+.J
C
~ 10-
s..
QI
Q,.

O~--~------,~---------~I--------~I~--------~--------~
1.7 1.9 2.1
Extracted Seam
, Heiqht (m)
1 Fig. 3.23 Relatianship between Extracted Seam Height and Vertical
Convergence for Data Obtained fram Plan layout at Every
10 Arch Intervals far 812N Coal Raad in No. 26 Col1iery.

100

90 -
QI
g 150-
QI
01
~ 70-
>
c:
0
u
/
60 -
....
11:1
....
~
U
50 -
s..
QI
> ...0 -
~
0
... 0
0
'0
0 0 0
0
QI 30 -
00 °
o 0
0
0
cr. ·0 <> 0
11:1
~
0° 00
c: 20 - 0 00°0
0
QI 0 0 0 0
U 0 <>
s.. ,/
QI
C.
1q - j 0
0

~
0. 1 1 1
1.7 h9 2.1
Extracted Seam Height (m)

Fig. 3.24 Relationship between Extracted Seam Height and Vertical

Convergence for Data Obtained from Plan layout at Every
10 Arch Intervals for T12N Material Road in No. 26 Colliery .
•
110
 ----- ------- ---~---------------------------

~his relation, to some extent, was contradictory and for this

reason no graphical illustration is presented.

3.7:2 TUNNEL FACE-END DESIGN AND TIME-ELAPSE

BEFORE SUPPORT INSTALLATION

~-
The tun~el closure at face is dictated, to a large
.../
extent, by the method of excavation and the time lapse before

support- systems are installed. The face-end designs of the

access tunnels at No. 26 Colliery are as such that they are

fullface driven i"l1 line with the longwall face in material

roads (Figs. 3.4a-3.4c) and that the coal roads are mainly

half heading with the roadways being 6 m to 12 m behind'the

faceline (Figs. 3. 5a-3. Sc) . The time lapse before the

completion of the supports installations was about one 'to

three hours in both cases.

In a study of the tunnel roof response after fo~atio~

<dt
of a face heading 1 i t was shown by Whi ttaker and Pye (1977)
)-
that the rate at which the roof beds lowered was at a maximum

immediately after forming the head~ng. The latter authors

after 35 days ,6f ~n situ roof deform~tion measurements and

the extension of tension zone investigations experienced that

~

50% of the roof lowering occurs within the first four .-days.

This obviously emphasizes the importance of minimizing the

delay between the excavation form'ation and support

erection/installation operations. Advancing the access tunnel

:.-. in line with the longwall face reduces the convergence by 25%
~!l
-
(Anon, 1982) compared with advancing the access tùnnel ahead
~

111 "
.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

c of the longwall face, and by 50% compared with advancing the

1
a~cess tunnel behind the line of the coal face. This striotry
implies the importance of the method of heading advance and
the consequences on the access tunnel stability. Howeve~, a
detailed comparison of the vertical convergence profiles with
distance for both material roads and coal roadË-jF igs. 3.25,
3.26) respectively at No. 26 Colliery did not reveal a
significant difference in vertical closure at access tunnel
facelines resul ting for the two different headings. The
effect of support installation delay could be detected if in
si tu measurements had been made by extensometers during
excavation and by the time installation' operations were

completed. Therefore, with regard to the time effect on the

tunnel face closure based on the present data no conqlusion
can be made.

3 • 7 • 3 COMBINÉD EFFECT OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND ADJACENT

WORKINGS AND LONG TERM TIME EFFECT

In section 3.2.3.2 it was mentioned that two types of

steel arch supports had been used at No. 26 colliery, namely,
rigid arches for coal roads and yiel?ing arches for materia~
roads with equal tunnel size. In conj unction wi th these
,~

supports two main groups of pack supports were also employed.

The natural supports (Protective Pillars) associated with the

,
access tunnels were also different. Based on the type rif
support systems and face end designs, the access t~nnels have

c been put into four groups. The first group (Fig. 3.25)

112

(
 SO
.' Q.I

a u
c
CIl
Cl
s..
Q.I
>
so
~
,
p
c
0
u
,... 40 0 T125
co
....
~
u
T13 s
s..
Q.I
> .30
....0
Q.I
Cl
T13 N
co
~ 20
C
Q.I
U
s..
Q.I
Q..
10

04-----~--__----~----~--~----~----~--~----~--~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.S ~- -,
Dis,an~e from access tunnels facelines (x 1000 m)
Fig. 3.25 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals for Material Roads in No. 26 Colliery.

so--------------------------------------------------~

Q.I
U 50
C
CIJ
Cl
s..
CIJ
>
C
o 40
u
....co
u
:; .30
s..
CIJ
>
....o
CIJ
20
< Cl
co
~
c
CIJ
u 10
s..
CIl
Q..
, '

04-----~--__----~--~----~--~----~--~~--~--~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.S ,
Di stance from access tunnel face 1i nes (x 1000)
t ~ig. 3.26 Comparison of vertical convergence profiles for data obtained
from in situ measurements at every 10 arch intervals in coal
roads at No. 26 Colliery.

113
 represents the variations of tunnel closures in material
roads. Interpretation of the graphs in comparison with each
other and with respect to aIl possible source of influences
are complex and due to the Iack of some required information
the complexity is intensified. Therefore, any physical
evidence in the data for better interpretation has also been
examined, see Fig. 3.25. Extracted seam heights in aIl are
almost the same. T13N and T13S have extracted panel width
close to each other,_that is, 215 m and 212 m respectively.
But T12S has the least panel width (183 m). There is also

another piece of information which indicates that there are

infinite pillar widths for the first 500 m, 1800 m and 170 m
distance from the facel ines in T13N, T12S and T13S
respectively. Depth of cover in T13S ïs the highest (678-683
m) whereas T12S and T13N have almost the same average depth of

cover (Tabl~ 3.4). Based on this information T12S must have

1

the least vertical convergence whereas the revèrse of this has

been indicated on Fig. 3.25. This demonstrates that relying

only on the numerical values obtained from calculations may

not be an appropriate approach for the interpretation of the

results unless they are otherwise weIl documented.

There is one more piece of information available on

Table 3.4 which reflects the time when the excavations began
and the time of their complet ion . If this is also

incorporated with the former information, th en we possibly

could say that the reason why T12S shows the highest vertical
( T12S was
convergence in that group is the effect of time.

114
 ...
_.~, "~'~---~--'""'''''' ,---, --"-'~""'-~="""'--'''''~ ___''_~'-''''''.A~.''~'$W'",,"";''''~~T-''+''"~~;:iI.~_ su •• UC J&L2

--
-\

J Table 3.4 Data Obtained from Plan Layout of No. 26 Colliery and also from CANMET Branch at Sydney

Tun •. el Tunnel Depth of Barrier Panel Total Seam D Extracted 'i. Excavation Excavation
Code Length Cover Pi llar Wid th Width Height Seam height Started Cornpleted
(m) (m) (m) (m) ( m) (m)

B7N 2115.0 429-441 6-55 111-123 2.1-2.3 1.7-2.2 5/02/62 13/09/fl8

T12N 320· 582-605 52-55 178-187 1.7-2.3 1.7-2.1 19/01/76 7/01/80

B12N 2680 586-646 91-151 178-187 1.7-2.3 1.7-2.1 19/01/76 7/01/8b

T13N 2702 595-659 lst 495 Infi 215-215 1.8-2.3 1. 7-2.2 20/11/78 17/06/83
then 90-137
B13N 2694 628-689 lst 2510 lnfi 215-215 2.0-2.2 2.0-2.2 20/11/78 17/06/83
then 99
........
T14N - - 309 701-702 99-102 220-220 2.0-2°.3 2.0-2.3 21/06/82 21/12/83
01
B14N 354 727-728 Inti 220-220 1.9-2.2 1.9-2.2 21/06/82 21/12/83

TlOS 212 169-201 2.0-2.1 1.8-1.9 27/10/69 15/12/70

1'125 1835 625-634 lst lA24 Infi 183-183 1.6-2.2 1.6-2.2 2/08/76 18/02/80
then 83-87

B12S 1838 661-668 63-104 183-183 1.9-2.3 1.9-2.3 2/08/76 18/02/80

Tl3S 2069 678-683 lst 172 Infi. 212-212 2.0-2.4 2.0-2.4 7/10/80 21/12/83
then 54-109

Bl3S 2058 710-715 lnf! 212-212 2.0-2.2 2.0-2.2 7/10/80 21/12/83

* Tunnel length at the time of Burveying

B Coal Road
~ = Material Road
 completed on 18/02/80, whereas, T13N and T13S completed on

17/06/83 and 21/12/83 respectively. This difference in time

after completion may illustrate the effect of time on the long

term stability of aceess tunnels, sinee, the proeess of

equalization in an underground opening is a function of time.

The second group of access tunnels is shown in

Fig. 3.26 on which the changes in vertical convergence with

distance for four coal roads are demonstrated. B13N, B13S,

and B14N have infinite pillars, in other words, these are the
coal roads without a secondary working (Majdi et al, 1986) or

developed longwall face in parallel, whereas B128 is a coal

road with a secondary working or developed longwall face in

parallel. The time Qf excavation as has been mentioned for

the mate rial roads is also applicable 'for their corresponding
coal roads. Fig. ~.26 demonstrates the differences between

coal road with secondary working and those without secondary

working. The effect or secondary working also causes an
\-

increase of distance in face-distance where the curve becomes

asymptotic to the horizontal. Based on these observations the

coal roads with secondary working in paraI l el exhibit more

vertical convergence both at faceline and distance outbye.

The third group represents the material roads plus

B12S coal roads (F ig. 3.27) wi th a secondary working in

par'allel in which the change in vertical convergence for both

material roads and coal roads are compared.

c Group four represents the closure resul ts of three

116
 60 ,-----------------------------______________________~
? 1- matertal road
e Q)
u
c:
Q)
C'I
50
B- coal road
8125

(
s...
Q)
> ~
c:
0
u
T125
....
l'ti
T13s
U
.....
..... 30
s...
Q)
>
.....
0
Q)
20 T13N
C'I
.....l'tic:
Q)
u 10
s...
Q)
Q.

o ~----r----r----~~_r----~--~----~--~----~--~
o 0.2 0.6 , 0.8}
Distance from access tunnels facelines (x 1000 m)
Fig. 3.27 Compari son of vert; cal convergence profil es for data obtai ned
from in situ measurements in both material roads and coal
roads at No. 26 Co" iery.

60 ~------------------------r_--------------------------~
T - material road
B- coal road
Q) 50
u
c: 8125
.~
s...
~ 40 T12S
c:
o
u
T13 S
l'ti
.,..
U 30
.....
s...
s...
Q) T13N
>
..... 20
o
Q)
C"
l'ti
~ 10
Q)
u
s...
Q)
Q.

O~----~--~----~----r_--~----~--
o 0.2 0.4 0.6
...
~--~----~--~
0.8 ,
Distance from access tunnels facelines (x 1000 m)
Fig. 3.28 Comparison of vertical convergence profiles with respect to
the corresponding support syste~s for data obtained from
in situ measurements in both coal roads and material roads
at No. 26 Col1iery. 1
A

/
117
c material roads and four coal roads (Fig. 3.28) to compare the

behaviour of the access tunnels with equal size but different

function, and more importantly, difrerent typës of support

systems employed in No. 26 Colliery. As was mentioned earlier

-",,- --~J- ~ ')
in this chapter, in material roads rigid steel arch supports
\
were used along with the three different typ'e___ of pack supports

whereas in coal roads yielding steel arch supports and also

different packs were employed. With regard to the support

systems and the effect of various contributory factors, as

mentioned earlier, T13N is the only mate rial road which shows

the least vertical convergence while B128 (coal road with a

secondary working in parallel), on the other hand, exhibits

the upper extreme of vertical convergence among the access

tunnels. AlI coal roads, without a secondary working in

.
paraI leI , indicate less vertical convergence than the coal

roads with secondary working in parallel and than thé material

roads as weIl. This latest statement clearly implies that the

access tunnels with yielding steel arches and with infinite

'barrier pi~lar width experience less vertical movement than

those material roads with rigid steel arches and with definite

barrier pillar width. The vertical convergence at face and at

any distance from the faceline outbye can be calculated by

means of the equation 3.1 which was first introduced by the

author (Majdi et al, 1986) for the Lingan mine.

\

3.8 ACCESS TUNNEL CONVERGENCE AND BARRIER PILLAR WIDTH

{ The use of longwalls necessitates careful considera-,

118
 C) •

tion of the design of the intervening barrier pillar to

protect the stability of the adjacent access tunnels. Hence,
an understanding of the influence of the barrier pillar on the
tunnel closure is of great importance.
The relationship between vertical convergence and the
barrier pillar width has been illustrated in Fig. 3.29. this
is based on the data obtained from the in situ deformation
measurements at every la arch intervals in T13N, material
road. The data indicate an exponential relationship in which
vertical convergence decreases with'an increase in barrier
pillar width. However, the increase of barrier pillar width
has a limit beyond which there is no change in vertical
~

convergence occurp~

A non-linear'least fI ting technique was

l "'*"__ ~

chosen and programmed to detp.rmlne t e hest fit curve through

the data points. The hest fit line has been obtained based on

the following empirical equation which was suggested by Cain

and Aston (1983):

b-J),
%v. c. = aexp[-c-] + d (3.3)

Where "a", "b", "c" and "d" are constants and l), is the

width of barrier pi11ar. Based on Eq.(3.3) the best fit curves

were obtained for aIl the data collected from every 50 arch

interva1 for both material and coal roads in No. 26 COlliery.

These have been ref1ected on Fig. 3.30. The analysis indicate

.....
,

-
J, the coa1 roads experience 10%-16% more vertical convergence

119
 100 ~-----------------------------------------------------,
Best -fi t l:ine obtained from the rJon-linear least square
90 technique
A- Data obtained from in situ measurements at every 10 arch
BO
interval s
OJ
u
C
~ 70
Si- -
OJ
> 60
C
o
u
-m 50
u
..- A
~ 40
OJ
>
.... 30
o
~ 20
m
~
c
OJ 10
u
s... A
CI)
c..
OJ-----~----~----~r-----~----~----~----_,~--~
BO 100 120 140 1 SO

Barrier pillar width (m)

Fig. 3.29 Relationship between vertical convergence and pillar width
for T13N material roads at No. 26 Colliery.

-.,...
~
.r:.
0)

~ 120~---------------------- ______________________.__________ ~

~ 110 826 - Combination of al1 coa1 roads

cu
1/)
T26 - Combination of al1 material roads
. 100
.....
u
E 90
....
~ 250
.....
o 70

so
cu
u
c: so - - - - - - - - - - - B26
cu
tr
~ 40
cu
>
c: - - - - - - - - - T26
o 30
u
";;; 20
u
::; 10
~
cu
> O~--~----~--~---r--~----~--~--~--~~--~---r--~
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

c Barrier pil1ar width (m)

Fig. 3.3Ô Comparison of vertical convergence profile for the data
obtained from in situ measurements at every 50 arch intervals
at No. 26 Colliery.
120
• than the material
-
roads,
.,f'
at least for

However, there are cases that show different relationship

between vertical convergence and barrier pillar width than
No. 26 Colliery.

that mentioned above (Figs. 3.31, 3.33). If based on the

latter figures, we interpret that the vertical convetgence
increases for certain barrier pillar width, afterwards
exponentially decreases then, the question may arise, what is
the physical concept of such a relationship? IShould we

possibly relate this to the corresponding depth of cover as

shown in Fig. 3.32 and Fig. 3.34. It seems that the answer /
could be positive in Fig. 3.31 and Fig. 3.32, but in the case
of Fig.3.33 there must be other contributory factor(s). This
relationship has been further investigated based on the data
obtained in Lingan Mine which is presented in the following
"/
chapter.

3 • 9 CONCL USION

An analysis of deformation survey data from in situ

i ,
measurements for approximately 18 km of access tunnels"has
provided a wealth of data for comparative studies of access
tunnels behaviour. The analysis of this data characterized
the basic mechanisms of deformation. Measuring deformation at
50 arch intervals give's an overall impression of the
deformation process, but for detailed analysis of the

...
interaction between factors controlling deformation,
measurements taken at 10 arch intervals has proved superior •
'
~
The effect of secondary working or developed longwall

121
 'OO~--------------------------~--------------~--ï
c Q.I
u
90·

C
Q.I
150 -
en
"-
IV
>
C
o
u
....
lU
60 -

....
U
of.)
50·
"-
Q.I
>
.....
o
Q.I 30·
en
lU
~
C
Q.I
20 -
u
"-
Q.I
~ 10 -

O~----~I------~-----~I----~--~--TI------~-----~I-----1
80 100 120 1~0 160
Barrier pillar width (m)
Fig. 3.31 Relationship between vertical convergence and pil1ar width for
the data obtained from in situ measurements at every 10 arch
intervals at B12N coal road, at No. 26 Colliery. ""'I:~

8ao

870

880

eso
~O

-- E

"QI-
>
a30

0 820
u -.
'+-
0 810
...c-
.r::;

QI
eoo
c
~90

saD
80 100 - 120 140 , sC)

c Ffg. 3.32
Barrier pi 11 ar wi dth (m)
Variation of actual pillar width used at different depths,of
cover in B12N coal roads at fJo. 26 Colliery.

122
 100

- cv
u
c
cv
cr.
s..
cv
>
90 -

80 -

70 ..
c
COI
u
-........'"
v
60 ..

:so ..
s..
cv
> ~-
'-
0
cv 30 ..
cr.
....c'" 20 -
cv
u
s..
cv 10 -
c.. A
Â
0 1 1
!'\ 50 70 90 110
Barrier pill ar width (m) "
Fig. 3.33 Relationship between vertical converqence and pillar width
for the data obtained from in situ measurements at every
10 arch intervals at T13S material road at No. 26 Colliery.
-(

700

eQO

III
sao
--
e
s..
~
o
670
u
C+-
o
.c
oj,)
Q. 8eo
QI
CI

650~--"""--~------~--------~------~------~-------;
50 70 110

o Barrier pil1ar width (m)

Fig. 3.34 Variation of actual pillar width used at different depths
of cover in T13S material roads at No. 26 Col1iery.

123
~ .• panelS/w para:lel upon co! road vertical ,:onverqence has
,,
been evaluated.
,
Analysis of the roadway deformatlçn survey

data us ~~ relative closure change based on extracted seam

height and referencing the facelinè position as the origin for
,
platt4ng data allows,meaningful comparisons to be made between

several access tunnels, however, the results based on roadway

original dimensions were preferable. This leads to the

establishment of an empirical relation between ithe vertical

convergence and the distance from the faceline which allows

the anticipation of the vertical closure. This relationship

indicates that the increase in vertical convergence is at a

maximum at a dis~nce of about 400~ meters from the faceline,

stabil i z ing ax'fterwards. It also reflects _'1

the effect of
different type of steel arch supports. Yielding steel arches

showed better performance due to the graduaI movements of the

members of the arches and extending stress relaxation zone

around the acces's tunnels. No significant difference has been

faund due to different heading design in vertical convergence.

r The results show that the first 50% of the distance-vertical

convergence profile could be reliably used for stability

analysis provided the total length of a tUTel i5 not le5s

than 2.5 times panel width. Empirical relationsh~ps be,ween

the vertical convergence, the barrier pillar width and the

- '
distance from the faceline have been suggested and presented

for various tunnel classes. The analysis indicates that the

coal :r:oads experience 10%-16% (in terms of extracted seam

124

r
 ~~-----~~------~--~- --~,~,

height) or-6% to 10% (in terms of tunnel initial height) more

vertical convergence than the material roads.

~
The data obtained from the Lingan Mine is used to
> \

. ,
further investigate the influence of controlling_ factors on

access tunnel closure. Results of analyses of the two mines

are compared and discussed. This is presented in the following

chapter.
, '

-
..

,.
125
...
c CHAP'J'IER"

IN SITU DEFORMATION ANALVSIS IN LINGAN MINE

4.'1 INTRODUCTION

The influence of some major controlling factors on the

access tunnel closure in No 26 COlliery has been presented in

chapter 3. In order to verify the results of the previous

chapter, further analysis are made of in situ deformation

À
measurements of the access tunnels in the Lingan Mine. The

results are used to further investigate the effect of the

most important parameters and their interactions on the access

tunnel closure in the Sydney Coalfield. ""

4.2 LINGAN MINE

The Lingan Coal Mine which is part of the Sydney

Coalfield (see Fig. 3.1) is operated by the Cape Breton

Development Corporation (C. B. D. C. ) . The coal seams are

located be~eath the Atlantic ocean at an average depth of ~40

m below the surface. Present mining operation extend~ up to 7

km from the coast line. The Lingan Mine operates on average

218 m advancing longwalls. The full-dip of the coal seams is

approximately l,in 7.8 in a S 30° W direction. The dip of

the facelines are 1 in 12,. Thé coal seam thickness varies_

between 1.6 to 2.4 m withr>.. an average of 2 meters.

The support system employed, in the material ro~ds are

c 19.35 kg/m, 2 piece, H-section (89 mm x 89 mm), splayed leg

126
 "

steel arches with dimensions of 3.05 m high by 4.0 m wide.

These are placed at 0.9 m intervals. continuous roadside

packs of 4.5 to 6.1 m width are used along the gob line.

These pack areas are filled with debris from excavated tunnels
\
augmented by two or three 0.75 m x 0.75 ID hardwood skeleton

cribs, placed as shown in Fig. 4.1.

The coa1 road support system comprises 2 piece, H-

section (127 mm x 114 mm), splayed 1eg steel arches. These

29.76 kg/m arches are 3.3 m high and 4.6 m wide, placed at 0.9

m interva1s. The continuous road side packs are 1.7 m wide

and are made up of 50% hardwood and 50% debris. The face

supports are comprised of hydraulic power supports and 0.76 m

x 0.76 m wood' chocks, stone filled. The latter are erected

1. 5 to 5.3 m apart (Fig. 4. 1) . The face-end designs are

~ainly half head, with roadway behind the face-line. The

support system at the face-ends are mainly 3 m steel bars

placed on hydraulic chocks 0.9 to 1.0 m apart.

4.3 IN SITU DEFORMATION MEASUREMENIS

The method of deformation survey used in No. 26

COlliery (see Chapter 3) was also employed in the Lingan Mine.

Deformation data were collected from 7 material roads and 7

•
coal roads.with total length of 8.5 and 11 Km respecèively

(Fig. 4.2 and Table 4.1). AlI the deformation data were

compiled as follows:

1. Individual material roads.

127
 ..• .• ...••
••. ! • .
• • •. •
ci

-••
0
•
••
C' ..
! •
~ ,."'\ ...

-....
!• •:IIJ:=? 6
0

.. "•. J. f •
0
...• •
••
fi - CI
.!:
e
c:
g •c:
~

J, ft al

:;
-••
peol ,_'".,_"
"•,.
0

-••..
----
-.
- p.O.l J~I.'."

-
e•
0 - "1

cr

-.. ]
C
C'I
CI .,....
0 cm
U
..
• ••
L.L-

• a-a-
ag •.. "
] ....
D .ac
~
~ ::J

• v•.•
CI

0
0 .Q
•
G-
...• • Il ....
•
D
o CI

-
~
ca
,Q

Il ..

:."...~

..•
... "
1 a-
v
-• i•
.- -
c:
0
0 ••. 0
.;-"
• 0 • • .•
CI
c:
...1 0
-c:.5
0
cp: ...".. • •
0
0
al

~: • 0

• -•
% CI..A
ii
c:::P ~ A
~ CP:
• " I! ..... ".ac "•
• • .•
~ CI

0 •
•...
C:::P: t IL
0

@J
« @]
-••
U
i

128
 •
./

• 1
1
1
1
1

...J

0
0

, 1 1
,. l~ 1
01 LU
c: 0
.-
:.... 1
0 0
0
1 1 ,..'e 1
.
0,
3: 1
!' ,:; 1

, ,"
1
!!
...•••• 1 :;/ 1 1
~_
,,-c: ....
•E
1
1
"
,1 1
1
l1 1 .,-

,
1 1
0
1 1
,,
'+-
.
0
0
\ J 11
0
0
~ 0
0

.
,0

, 1 :, 1
1
el 1 1: 1
0
\ 4')
1 l 1 ~f 1 1
1 1 1
~: 1
\ 4')
1
0

.. .
1
• 00
\ J 1 1
0

&' 1
1 1 ~ 1 1
, 0
0
,
:.\ 1
1 J 1 1 .
-
0
. ~l
,
1 , ,
1
1
1
\
1
el
:\
:
1
1 1
0'1
.,..
u...
.. \ ,, t 1 11 1
f
,, 1
1
1 1 1

,
\
\ 1
Et
f 1
1
1
1
1
•=,
'lJ
-
\.-_--
OJlO' ":"-,.,0:1
..., '0 ":"ep"" ••
1-.-_ _ _ _ _

n
1.29
 ,.
1 -
.....
Table 1.1 Oata obtained ~ro" Plân Layou~ o~ Lingan Mine and Also ~r~ CANHET Branch at Sydney •

TV1r'\QI TunnQI Oopt.h o~ Barri or Panol

Codo Longth Totel Soa" Ex'U-.ctod El<Cavation Excavation
Co,,"or P11lar ~idth ~idt.h Hoight.
Cr.) Cr.) Soa" height StartGod CoptplGotod
("' (") (r.) (")
T2~ 960.0 ::193-105 33.5-415.7 21'3-221 1.'3-2.3 1.8-2.0 11.... 01/80 20.... 10.... 81
B2~ '91-1.1 112--121 51.8-61.0
1 21'3-221 1.9-2.3 1.7-1.8 11....01/80 20/10.... 91
T3~ 1159.7 123-1::)6 51.9-6 .... 0 223-226.5 1.9-2.1 1.7-2.1 06/07/81 10/02/9'"
93~ ll69.7 '"115--158 61.0-85.3 223-226.5 1.8-2.1 1.7-2.0 06 ....07/'81 10/02/8'"1
T'"I~ 720.~ "'161-165 60.0-85.3 227-231.5 1.6-2.0 1.7-2.0 02/11/82 19/01.... 9 ...
9'"1~ 7'30.'3 191-19'9 Inf'init.o 227-231.5 1.7'-2.0 1.6-1..'3 02.... 11/82 1'9/01.... 8 ...
..... T5E
w 2568.0 386-397 33.2-6 .... 0 213-219 2.0-2.5 06.... 03/7'61 15.... 10.... 80
0
95E 2568.0 11'9-132
.. 62.8-85.3 213-218 2.1-2.3 1.'3-2.2 06.... 03/7'8 15/10.... 80
T6E 2161.0 '"121-1'"10 58.5-82.3 215-21'3.5 1.9-2.3 2.0-2-.26 10....0g/7''9 02/03.... 83
96E 2191.5 "''18-163 70.7-9 .... 5 215-21g.5 1.8-2.3 1.9-2.3 10/0g/79 02/03.... 93
T7E 2210.0 "'60-"Un 71.3-9'1.5 213-217 2.0-2 .... 1.9-2.1 20/10/90 25/09.... 83
B7E 2210.0 ... aO-5ll Infînito 213-217 2.0-2 .... 1.9-2.3 20/10/80 25/09 .... 83
T8E 1139.0 511-531 "'13.0-62.0 20'3-215.2 2.0-2.1 1.'3-2.2 29.... 06/83
BeE 1076.5 Inf"ini t.Q 209-215.2 1.9-2.1 2.0-2.0 29/06/83

•B =
= Coal
Tunnol longth
Road
at thQ ti"o of' survoying
T = Hat.rial Road

..
 --~--- -----------------------------------------------------~

2. Individual coal roads.

3. Combination of aIl material roads.

4. Combination of coal roads without a secondary working or
developed longwall panel in parallel (or with an infinite

barrier pillar width).

.
5. Combination of coal roads wi th a secondary working or

developed longwall panel in parallel (or with a definite

barrier pillar width).

6. COmbination of aIl coal roads with and without a secondary

working panel in parallel.

Each of the above tunnel classes is also analyzed

based on the number of data points, namely, the data obtained

at every 50 arch intervals and at every 10 arch intervals.

These data were arranged in the above format with the same

objectives as mentioned in Chapter 3. The non-linear least

square programs written for the purpose of the previous

chapter are also used for these analyses.

4. 4 TUNNEL CONVERGENCE AND DEPTH OF COVER PROFILES

Following the two defini tions of the vertical

conv€'rgence given in Chapter 3, the convergence of gate roads

with respect to the corresponding depth of coyer has been

investigated. This is plotted against depth of cover for both

material roads and coal roads at the Lingan mine in Figs. 4.3,

4.4. Fig. 4.3 indicates that the vertical convergence of the

material roads is between 5% to 60% at four different depths

of cover which range between 390 to 531 meters. Fig. 4.4

131
 150
\

C
l

-...
oC
tID
"0
1040
Data {rom the ln SItu Tape Mea.suremenu
u
=E,. 1:S0
120
u 110
-.
:Il

100

--
Je
t&l
90
0
;#e
80 ... ...
u 70
u
c 60 A.
... +
u
tID
J,.,
U
:-
SO
040
+
... +
. . .-.
...
... ...
... 411-'"
+a
...
~A~:
..
+.

c
0 +~
~~ ~ .,...
--,.
'U .30
-i+
~
:t.~
...
+

-u 20 + +....
10 ... ++ +
>
t
0
... A' \
360 380 400 420 4-4-0 460 4~0 500 520 540 560

Depth of Caver, (m)

Fig. 4.3 Variation of Vertical Convergence Versus the Corresponding

Depth of Cover for Material Roads in Lingan Mine.

'60
150

-...
oC
011
, .... 0
1.30
âi
::: 120
ê 1 10
1\1
Il
'"... 100
90
...
)(
bl
80
... +
--
~
QI
U
70
c 60
Il
00
I.e SO
Il
>
c 40
0

--...,
U
u
.30
20
10
+

CI'"
> 0 •
360 380 400 0420 4-40 460 480 500 520' 5.040 560

Depth of Cover (ml

c Fig. 4.4 Vertical Convergence Profile Versus the Corresponding

Depth of Cover for Coal Roads in ~ingan Mine.
132
 shows that the vertic;;ü convergence in the coal road is
between 10% to 70% at three different depths of cover in the

range of 412 to 511 meters. Both graphs pr ior . to any

statistical treatment indicate the general scatter of the
resul ts (l ine AA 1 and BB 1), which is an illdication of the

complexity of defining the relationships between the

convergence and the other parameters involved. It is however
apparent that the overall vertical convergence due to
different influencing factors with respect to the depth of
cover is approximately 10% higher in the coal roads than that

in the material roads.

\
The barrier pilla~\width employed in the Lingan mine
\
is understood to have been d';,'l>i)ned on the basis of the No~th
American design rUle, however as it will be discussed later,
1
the/data obtained suggests that not aIl the barrier pillar
l -"

'-
geometries are based on this specific design rule due to
various operating reasons. Figs. 4.5, 4.6 represent the

barrier pillar width versus the depth of cover associated with

the material roads and coal roads respectively. The overall

trend of the barrier pillar width is an increase with respect

to depth of cover. This may be highlighted by line xx 1

obtained from linear regression analysis of the data in

Fig. 4.5.

In arder to quantitatively relate and compare vertical

convergence, depth of cover and barrier pillar width, the data

in both Vigs. 4.3, 4.5 for the material roads as w~l as the

133

/
 '40
:130
C 520
'10
:S00
) ~

--e
,;
490
480
470
X'

GJ
::- 460
0
,,~O
U
....0 440

-
.:::

0
Co
GJ
4JO
420
410
400
390 x
380
370
~60
3S0
340
0 20 60 80 100 120 1~0 160

,
, Banier Pillar Width, Cm)

Fig. 4.5 Variation of Depth of Cover with the Corresponding

Barrier Pil1ar Width for Material Roads in Lingan Mine.
:140
:1030 -
520 -
:110 -
:100 -

--e 490
480
-
-
s:GJ 470 -
> 460 -
0
4~0 -
...
U
0 ~o-
.:::.
~
4030 -
g.
CI 420 -
Q 410 -
400 -
390 -
380 -
370 -
360 ..
350 -
3-40
0
. 20 60 80 100
1

120
1

140 160

Barrier Pillar Width (m)

c F.ig. 4.6 Variation of Depth of Cover with the Corresponding

Barrier Pillar Width for Coal Roads in Lingan Mine.
134
(
 ----------------~--_.~-----~--------~---~~~--~--~---~------- ~--

data in Fig. 4.4, 4.6 for the coal roads are superimpqsed and
presented in Fig's. 4.7, 4.8 respecti vely. It can be shown
from Fig. 4.7 that, at the depth of 461-465 m with barrier
pillar widths of 60 m and 90 m, a vertical convergence of 61%
and 5% respectively has,been observed in mate rial roads. In
contrast, for the same depth of cover and barrier pillar width
a vertical' convergence of 70% and 10% respectively has been

obtained in coal roads. Therefore, the'greater the pillar

width the lower the vertical convergence. vertical
convergence is hence inversely proportional to the barrier

pillar width for a narrow r~nge of depth of cover. It can

~
also be concluded that the coal road, under the same
overburden pressure condition and barrier pillar width,
exhibi ts 5% to 10% more vertica l convergence than that
obtained in the material road. /This differential vertical

convergence may be attributed to the excessive stress transfer

arising from the second longwall extraction located in its
vicinity. Fig. 4.7 also indicates that the variation of the
vertical convergence for the same depth of cover with
different barrier pillar width is less pronounced at lower
-
limit than at upper limite For example, at a depth of cover
of 440 m with pillar width of 60 to 85 meters, vertical

convergence ranges between 10% to 45%, whereas at a depth of

less than 464 m with almost the same barrier pillar width,_

verticDI convergence ranges between 5% to 60%. In other words

24 meters difference in depth of cover has increased the

vertical convergence by 15%. This emphasizes the tact that

135
 1.0
- .t:
1~0 • Sarrier Pillar Width
C -
~ 1.0 + Vertical Convergence

-oS -
"
e t\I
130
120
.. ". 110
...
-
:Il
.t:
~ l i( 100
~ :.J ~

...
rtwl
;0
--cl: '" -
~
~
t\I
0 III 80 +

tV
t,I

... c 70
III

......'"
...00
III
>
60
SO
+ +
AI +
,\.;
~
c
j),:
0

...-
U

.....
u
1'0
40
JO
20
:<...~
+

~Jft
:t~
+ .•
+

~
+
III
> 10
++ +
+
0
360 380 400 420 4040 460 .80 500 520 540 560

Depth of Cover; (Dl)

:The Comparison of Vertical Convergence Versus Deptb of Cover for

"
Fig. 4.7
\he COlTesponding Ban-ier PIllar Width for MateriaI Roads in Llngan Mine.

160~------------------------------------------------~
..
_ 150 • Barrier Pillar Width
+ Vertical Convergence

1 -)
(
+ '

-.....
III
u

: +

380 ~OO 420 4-40 460 480 500 520 S40 560

Depth of Cover. (m)

c Fig. 4.8 The Comparison of Vertical Convergence Venus Depth of Coyer for
the Con-esponding Barrier Pillar Widtb for Coal Roads in Lingan Mine.

136
{,
 the vertical convergence of -the access tunnels is highly
influenced by the depth of cover.
It should be noted h~re that the depth of cover is not
a controllable design par'ameter. The~efore appropriate steps
should be exercised to compensate its influence on vertical
convergence by using other design parameters such as the
width of barrier pillar.
The effect of panel width observed in the analysis is
not pronounced due to the limited size range of 209 - 232 •
1
r·
• used in the Lingan mine.

4 • 5 ACCESS TUNNEL CONVERGENCE AND BARRIER PILLAR WIDTH

prior researcti by King and Wbittaker (1970), Whittaker

and Hodgkinson (1970), Wilson and Ashwin (1972) , Blades and

Whittaker (1973) Szw.ilski and Whittaker (1975) Whittaker and

Singh (1979) Wilson (1972, 1983) and many other investigators,

has contributed considerably towards an understanding of •

relationships between the barrier pillar and the vertical

convergence and other parameters.

The empirical equation given in Chapter 3 (Eq. 3.3)

has been aiso used in this analysis to further examine its

\

applicability to the Lingan Mine. The analysis of the data

obtained at every 50 arch intervals for both the material

roads and coal roads respectively (Figs. 4.9, 4.10) yields the

fOllowing results:

t 43-~
tv.C. = 20.8Exp( 5.6) + 30.23 (4.1)

137
,_.
- ~
'.0
~

~ li 1sa Data obtained by tbe ID Situ Tape Meaauremenu

=e 1<40 at e'Yery 50 Arc:he. lntervala.
r • 1:S0

~
III
"c120

\ -•
.2 110
IJ

j', - a..
tIC
100
_0
l

- laJ
0
.1'
aD .
r -"
'il!.
IJ
C
70
80
:50
r- "
CID
a..
G,) 40
>
c 30
0

l. -
U
ca
:::
IJ
20
10
a..
r., >
G,) 0
30 50 70
Barrier Pillar Wld'th. (m)
~.
b. Fig. 4.9 The Vertical Convergence Profile Vesus the Barrier Pillar
Width for aIl the Material Roads at Ungan Mme.
w
--
~
J:

Ai
-"
:z:
oc
1BO
e
Ils
150 Data obtained by the ln Situ Tape Measurements
at every 50 Arches Intervah.
...."
III 140
130
"c
-
~
u
12D
110 /---..,

-III
a..
..
-".c 100

,t. ~
Slq
aD
~
70
u
c" 80
,
..."
CIQ
!So
•"c 40

-"
_. U 30

-., 20 l1
III

.." ~
I.e 10
> 0
30 50 70 80
Barrier PiIlar Width, (m)

Fig.~4.10 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus the Barrier Pillar

Width far aU the toaI Roads in Lingan Mme.

138

r
 , 51. 2-~
%V.C: = 18.2Exp( 2.32 ) + 45.37 (4.2)

These results have been expressed in terms of vertical

convergence as a percentage of extracted seam height. Similar
analysis is made' based on the in situ data obtained at every
10 arch intervals. The resu1ts on the basis of the two
intervals of data points are compared and presented in
Fig. 4.11. The analysis indicate that although monitoring
deformation at every 50 arch intervals gives an accurate
overall impression of t~e deformation pr9cess, for detailed
analysis of the interactions among factors controll ing
deformation, measurements taken at every 10 arch intervals

were superior. The analysis based. on the assumption of

neg1ecting the data points for 100 m fr~:)ln the face ends

indicates that on average the vertical closure is 17.11%

higher in the coal roads than that in the material roads.

4.6 TUNNEL CONVERGENCE AND DISTANCE FROM FACE

The deformation survey data obtained from 'the in situ

measurements for a number of tunnels have beGn usetl for this

study. Tunnels have been grouped according te dimension,

support system, barrier pillar and panel width. Deformation

behaviour has been examined particularly te distance from

face ,and barrier pillar width for different tunnel dimensions

using the same type of support. Figs. 4.12, 4.13 and Fig. 4.14

represent the vertical convergence versus distance from the

"
,/
faceline in the individual material roads -(T4W, T8E) and coal

13,9
 ,-. ,~

"\..
>\
]. - 1

--
1&0
_ 1S0- 1 - At every 50 Arch Interval." ......
~
2 - At every 10 Arch Intervals ] Material Roads
~
..... '-40-
cv
:r: 130 - 3 - At every 50 Arch Intervals 1 Coal Roads
e 4 - At every 10 Arch Intervals
l'CS
cv 120 -
V)

"0 110 -
OJ "
~
U
tU
100 -
....x
S-
90 -
I.A.J
~ 80-
,e:.. '+- 3
0

=
0

-
4~~
~ 70 -
,1 ~
cu 80 -
u
c:
cv '2 ________

~-
Cl SO -
S-
cu
> 40 -
c:
0
u 30 -
,.... "
l'CS
20 -
........u
S- 10 -
>
Q.l

0 T T r , 1
30 50 ,-.1" 70 90
.:
Barrier Pillar width (m)
\,
/
'Fig. 4.1):Comparison of Vertical Convergence profiles Versus Barrier
~ Pillar Width Based on Insitu Measurements at Every 50 and 10
Arch Intervals for Material and Coal Roads in Lingan Mine .
. ~

( ~ 1
 ------------------~----

a -....
.c:
en
a)
eo_.--~--~------------~~----~------------__,
QI
::c
,..... 50
QI
C
C
....::s
40
....s-tr'
C
1+-
0
30
~
QI
U
C
QI
~
en 20
S-
QI
>
c::
0
u
,..... 10
If1

.........
U

S-
04-~~--~----r_--~--_r--_,----r_--~--_.--~
QI
>
o 0.2 o ..... 0.8 0.8 1

Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)

b)
-....
.c
en
.,...
eo __--~------------------------------------------_,
QI
::x:
r- 50
QI
c::
§
1-
40

30

20

,..... 10
-If1
u
.,...
....
S-
o~------~----r---~--_r--_,----r_--~--_r--~
>
QI

o 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 ,

Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.12 Vertical Convergence Profile of T4W Material Road in Lingan
eMine (a) With Exponential Fit, (b) With Polyo)mial Fit.

141
;)
Il
 " o1f S- A-

JO

-....
+l
.c
tn
80,-----------------------________________________________
QJ
:J:
r-
QJ
so
C
C
~
t-
/' 40 f;:<
.....en t ,
1..
1-' o
"'"
N •
4-
0
'" ~
-Cl>
U
~
c: .IP~ .. ..,

~
,~
al
0'1
s-
cv
>
c:
o
u
,... 10
tG

~/
....
U
+l "
S-
CV
:>
o~t--_,----r_--r_--~--,_--ïï--_r--~--~--~
01. o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.12c Comparison of the Trehds Obtained by the Exponential and
Polynomial Functions for T4W Material Road in L1ngan mine.
'"
"'"

1 !

1
 a)
~ eo~------------------------------------------~-----------,
z:
01
QI
X
a; eo
c:
c:
?!.
....
~
o
....o
~ .sa
.....
QI
U
c:
~
~
20
QI
>
c:
o
U
0- 10
rel
U
....
; ~
> O~--'---'---'---~---r---r--'----r---r---r---r--~--~--~
o 0.2 O.. 0.& 0.8 1 , .2 1.4
~ance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
\

b)
~
.... eo,-------------------------~----------------------~
.c:
01
QI
X
.... 80
QI
.. c:
c:
:::::1
1-
40
...01
~
o
....
o ~

i!gQI 20
E'
QI
>
c:
o
u 10
0-
rel
U
....s..
QI
>
o 0.2 0 ..04 0.8 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Distance From Tunnel Face \~~l ,!OOO m)
Fig. 4.13 Vertical Convergence Profile of TSE Materlal Road in Lingan
Mine (a) With Exponential Fit, (b) With Polynomial Fit.

143
 ~ ~

o
?@

-..,
..c
....
t1)

~
cv
:%:
P-
cv
c:
c:
::J
~

Ct
.r-
~
t-' 0
,r:..,
,r:.. l+-
0

-
~

CV
U
c:
CV
t1)
...
~
CV
>
c:
0
U
I-
ft}
10
.....
U
.., If
~

""
Il)
:>
o ~--~--~~--~--'----r--~----~--~--~--~--~~--~--
o 0.2 0.4 0.8
1
0.8 1 1.2
__ --~
1.4
Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.13c Comparison of the Trends Obtained by the Exponential and
Polynomial Functions for T8E Material Raad in Lingan mine
 -..... eo,-__ --------~------------------------------~/~
~
a)__
~
Dl
'P"
CU
:J:
poo
&0 ...
CU
C
C
....
::J

.....Dl
~
0
4-
0
30
~
CU
U
C
QI
Dl 20
~
QI
>
C
0
U
poo
10
l'CI
U
.....
~

o~--~----~--~----r_--_r--~----~--~.~--~--~
QI
:>
o 0.2 o.... 0.8 0.8 1
Di stance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)

b) ~
-.......... 1Or----~,...---I-..--.,
~
Dl
QI
:J:
poo &0 ~
QI
C
'" C
....
::J

.....Dl
~
0
....
0
3e.
-
~

QI
u
C
QI
Dl 20
~
QI
>
C
0
U
...- 10
l'CI
U
+'
~
QI
:> o~--~----r_--_r--~----r_--~--~----~~~--~
o 0.2 o.... 0.8 0.8 1
Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
~ - ' 1

Fig. 4.14 Vt!ttical Convergence Profile of B4W Coal Road lin Lingan
Mine (a) With Exponential Fit, (b) With Polynomial Flt.

Il
145 Il
Il
1 ~ ----------
--
\, ,,'

......

+'
eo,---~-------------- __________ _________________
~

.s:::.
C'I
.....
Q.I
::I:
,..... eo
CIJ
c
C
::::1
1-

C'I 40
......
....
~
0
~

'0\ 4-
0
30
\ .
~
-
~

Q.I
U
C
Q.I
C'I
~
20
Q.I
>
c:
0
U
r-
tU
U
.~

......
~
Q.I
>
.. O;T----~--_r--~r_--,_--_.----r_--ïr--~----~--~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.14c Comparison of the Trends Obtained by the Exponential and
- Polynomial Functions for.-JB~~ Coal Raad in Lingan mine.
-'- J---"<
 r'

road '(B4W) at the Lingan mine, respectively. The closure

includes effects of related ~tors mentioned earlier, as wel~

'as the effects of longwall strata abutment pressures, caving

behind the) face, interaction from adjacent workings and time

1

dependent closure as longwalls advance.

Figs. 4.12 , 4.13 show a non-linear increase in

vertical convergenqe from the immediate tunnel face to a

distance about 200 ID outbye. (This distance is slightly less

than the panel width which is 220 m). While Fig. 4.14
indicates an increase in vertical convergence in coal road

(B4W) to a distance about 400 m from the faceline. The graphs

both in material and coal roads highl ight a decrease in

convergence afterwards. This decreas~ could be attributed to

the end effects which was concluded in Chapter 3. The least

squares curve fitting technique based on a non-linear approach

was employed and the best fit curves were obtained. These

curves are derived from the following general equation which

was suggested in Chapter 3:

% V.C. = a(l - exp(-bx » + c (4.3)

(4.4)

where, a, b, c,ao' a l -a 3 are constants.

The constant "a" represents vertical convergence at an

.
1· ,,~ inf irii te distance from the tunnel face 1 ine, whereas, the

constant lib" is an exponential decay factor indicating the

\

curvature of the convergence profile. The physical concept of

147
 ---------

the "c" and "ao" parameters are the mean vertical

convergence occurring between the last arch installed and the
tunnel face line, if appropriate tirne is allowed for
equilibrium to take place. The distance from the face line
outbye is represented by "x".
The results of Eqs. (4.3, 4.4) are compared with each
other and illustrated in Figs. 4.12c-4.14c. Care should be
taken into account that the exponential curves are obtained
based on analysis of the data pJ:Qints corresponding to the
first 50% of the distance from the tunnel face line. Whereas,

the polynomial curves represent aIl the data points along the
tunnel. The exponential curves are comparable with the maxima
of the pOlynomial curves as can be seen in the foresaid
figures. This indicates that the exponential function in the
form of Eq.(4.3) can safely be used for the prediction of the
tunnel vertical convergence profile from the face.
Results of the least squares curve fitting technique
based on Eq. (4.3) for both -'the'" material roads and the coal

roads are presented in Table 4.2, Table 4.3. and Table 4.4.
Table 4.2 gives the vertical convergence as a percentage of
extracted searn height (hs), whereas, Table 4.3 yields the
vertical convergence as a percentage of original tunnel height
} ,
(Ht) . These may be compared with similar analyses for
different groups of gate roads represented in Table 4.2 and
Table 4. 3. The analysis indicates that the me an vertical
convergence (as a percentage of extracted seam height) with
c respect to distance from the face line in aIl the coal roads

148
Table 4.2 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based
on Equation %V.C. - a(l-exp(-xjb) )+c for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurements at Every 10 Arch
Intervals at Lingan Mine.

Tunnel
Code N·~ Nr a b c NLCC SEE

B2WDEVRW 43 43 50.32 50.76 1.99 0.7997 7.355

42 55.78 44.95 3.63 0.8605 5.542
20 43.16 57.66 7.54 '0.9408 0.941

T3WDEVRW 135 135 19.55 47.47 10.84 0.3068 7.711

66 20.69 43.69 9.54 0.3792 5.043
32 9.78 69.79 17.70·- 0.4788 3.266

B3WDEVRW - 67 67 38.57 33.92 2.43 0.5520 7.456

66 46.96 29.20 -6.09 0.6074 6.136
32 32.95 t 38.06 6.09 0.6366 6.486

T4WDEVRW 47 . 47 25.16 66.95 11.75 0.5587 9.317

46 22.09 79.57 14.94 0.5883 7.441
22 2 t:J'. 81 53.31 10.00 0.6807 7.375

B4WDEVRW 47 47 38.37 66.05 4.60 0.7437:; 8.663

46 37.24 70.06 5.82 0.8315 5.973
22 37.53 33.30 4.49 0.8898 4.986

B6EDEVRW 131 131 51.11 39.29 2.88 0.5373 I l . 220

130 55.82 35.37 '-1.88 0.5537 10.030
31 50.12 37.40 1.65 0.9076 5.160

B7EDEVRN 150 150 24.77 78.40 15.05 0.3318 8.744

74, 23.68 88.40 16.16 0.4211 6.023
73 23.47 92.00 16.36 0.4173 5.980

T8EDEVRW 64 64 30.59 59.94 16.26 0.5386 9.678

63 '24.72 72.33 22.22 0.5577 7.019
14 40.83 68.10 12.70 0.8745 5.055
/

B8EDEVRN 65 65 30.90 39.32 4.37 0.6427 .632

64 37.42 31. 91 -2.26 Q.7146 5.229
31 30.36 36.53 2.68 0.7664

\
%V/. C. = Vertical convergence as a percentage of extracted seam
height.
; N·l.. = Initial number of data points
-N = Reduced Qêta points
NLC~ = Non-linear coefficient of correlation
SEE = Standard error of estimate

149
 j

c Table 4.'3 Resul ts of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based

- on Equation %V.C. :::: a (1-exp (-x/b) )+c for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurements at'Every 10 Arch
Intervals at Lingan Mine.

TUnnel
Code N·~ Nr a b c NLCC ( SEE
B2WDVRW 43 43 27.19 54.73 0.66? 0.8237 \r.3.802
42 29.48 49.71 -1.694 0.8866 2.763
20 23.36 70.95 4.583 0.9471 1.869

T3WDV.RW 135 135 11. 66 44.33 6.432 0.3038 3.865

66 12.73 38.86 5.246 0.3811 2.815
32 7.46 55.95 9.380 0.5118 2.015

B3WDVRW 67 67 19.32 57.95 3.861 0.6495 3.951

66 22.45 47.00 0.530 0.6996 3.278
32 19.63 42.24 1.642 0.7064 3.404

T4WDVRW 47 47 13.85 63.50 6.715 0.5446 5.258

46 12. 01 75.98 8.606 0.5686 4.214
22 15. 01 51.83 5.758 0.6774 4.158

B4WDVRW 47 47 19.99 65.21, 2.67~ 0.7416 4.530

46 19.33 69.66 3.398 0.8310 3.102
22 33.89 27.02 6.522 0.8903 2.650

B6EDVRW 131 131 30.61 38.36 2.359 0.5425 6.577

130 33.40 34.75 -0.450 0.5640 5.793
31 30.64 37.21 1.452 0.9029 3.241

B7EDVRN 150 150 8.92 135.60 1)5.87 0.3041 5.970

74 7.87 152.10 16.95 0.4025 3.303
73 7.76 154.50 17.05 0.3997 3 :3a4

T8~DVRW <fi 64 64 19.77 46.58 10.52 0.4878 6.501

'\
li3 17.02 53.12 13.28 0.4732 5.642
14 25.18 19.67' 1.81 0.6785 2.528,.

B8EDVRN 65 65 17.18 36.15 4.32 0.6061 3.947

64 ~.70 30.02 0.77 0.6837 3.057
31 17.05 34.97 3.47 0.7346 3.140

%V.c.= Vertical convergence as a percentage of initial tunnel

heiqht. ~
N·1 =-Initial number of data points
N = Reduced data points
NLCé = Non-1inear coefticient of correlation
c SEE = standard-, errcir of estimate ~

150
f
 ., -
1';:~

"'"
Table ....... R.sul~ o~ Hon-Linear Least Square Technique Based on PolynoMial Func~ons ~or Data Obtained ~roN
In Situ "easur~ents at Every 10 Rrch Intervals at Linqan Hine.

Tunn.ls Hi Hr 0110 al a2 0113 a'" COD tfLCC ' SEE

Code (xl0-2) (xlO-5) ()ClO-8) (xlD-12)

T1WO\l 80 80 8.390 12.370 -35.297 26.5'90 0.351 0.5921 1.'777

39 8.'989 11.6081 -33.283 2 .... '900 0.599 0.??1S 2.712
~

IHUDRH 80 80 6.700 12.0131 -26.202 15.930 0.386 0.6212 5.161

39 &.750 12.308 -27.592 17.652 0.601 0.??71 3.o€7
TOTEDV 121 121 1'9.791 '9.830 -22.7"'0 13.116 0.379 0.6159 5.715
59 21.27"1 8.860 -21.070 12.286 0.602 O. ??59 3.573
T"'~DEV 80 80 1 .... 500 22.00'9 -&1.253 '1"1.590 0.3879 0.6229 8.107
.... 39 15.1607 20.'903 -58.118 12.002 0.6372 0.7983 1.850
....
U1
BLCDEVHF 93 93 15.6"10 13.880 -27.2"10 20.000 -"'17.670 0.3626 0 .. 6022 9.326
15 13.800 160.6'10 -35 ....20 27.770 -70.670 0.6610 0.8130 5.0'91

l'Ii = Initi.I nuttber of' d~ta points

Kr = Redueed da~a points
COD
NLCC
= Co.~~ici~t
= Non-linearerror o~ detern1nation
coe~~ici.nt o~ correlation
iEE = Stand~rd o~ estiMate

"
li ~

'0

~
 "<:::> 2( -- fTEf5iZ2i

L
"

is approximately 12% higher than that in aIl the material

roads. This value is calculated at a distance of 300 m from
the face line. The distance of ~OO meters from the face was
r
chosen for these calculations in order to insure that there
was no retnaining change in '>vertical convergence.
The extension of the best fit curves for the vertical
convergence against distance from the face line, shown on
;'1/ Figs. 4.12a, 4.13a and 4.14a, intersect the x-axis at points
,'.
!>1
1" 16.9 m, 19.9 m and 11. 3 m in the negati ve sectors. These
~
confirm that strata has yielded, on average to a distance of
:'1
16.9, 19.9 and, 11.3 meters
,
in front of the last installed arch

~ in the material and the coal roads respectively. - The

~.
"
difference in the calculated yield zone width induced ahead
of the three _di'tferent gate roads could mainly be attriputed
J"

l'~ ;"
to the face end design, ground stress and time interval lapsed
,
- -...
,
~
before support installations. The ~ce~end design of the coal
1

roads are half headings, whereas, in the material roads they

·!•..
~

·:
\ "
are full-face driven in l±n~ with the coalface. _

:ç... 4 • 7 COMPARISON OF ACCESS TUNNEL BEHAVIOUR

~~ .. IN MATERIAL AND COAL ROADS
L 1->

"

f~ coal "roads
In the prey ious sectiCYns, i t was meïtioned that the
exhibit 9.0%, 12% and 17% higher vertieal
1
,

t'
< - •
convergence than material roads, with respect to the depth of
,
j

cover, distance from the~ facs line and the barrier pillar
1

~~dth, respectiv~ly. In order to give a clearer picture d'f \

the dif~erential vertical convergence with respect to distance

)
152

7" o
 '"

from face, the coal road data were grouped into:

,)

1. The coa1 roads with a second8ry working or developed

longwal1 panel ~n parallel (these are referred to as

ç
second phase coal roads), (Figs. 4.15, 4.16).

2. The coa1 roads without a secondary working or developed

longwall panel in paralle1 (these are referred to as fi~st

phase coal roads). These coal roads have infinite width

,of , barrier pillar in parallel (Figs. 4.17, 4.18).

3• ,]h~ coa1 roads wi th and wi thout a secondary working or

\)

developed longwall, panel in para1lel (Fig. 4.19).

4. "l", "2" and "3" are also ana1yzed based on dif.ferent

- c
nurnber of data points, namely, measurements at every 50

arch interva1s and measurements at every 10 arch

intervals.

The relationships Of the vertical convergence with respec~ to

distance from the face for aIl t~e coal roads (Fig. 4.19) land
<-

aIl the material roads Figs. 4.20 and 4.21) are compared with

the new re1ationships obtained between the two parameters for

• ~ p 1

the lst and 2nd phase coal roads in Figs. 4.22-4.24. The

effect of the secondary working or developed longwall panel in

parallel to the coal road on the vertical convergence is shown

and differentiated from overa11 c1bsure. T~e percentage

closure obtained for each group of gatè roads are evaluated ab

1 ~
400 meters from the face line and presented as follows:
/

'.

153 \l'
 f

~ ~
~-

4'

./
-"

~ 160 --------~--~--------------------________________:_----__,
..c:, , f>.
.9P 150
Q>
Data obtained by tpe In Situ Tape Measurement$
::Il 140 at every 50 Arches
J
Intervals. "

~ 130 "
\

\- U)
Q>
120
-~
",.
~
aI
+"
110
~ 100
s..
+"
~ 90
~
..... SO
.... 0 -'il

1
"
01
.a::. .-
~

Q)
70
60
A A
A AA A
() A
~
~
b A
cv 50 A
on
Jo.. 40 AA A A ~ "'A
~A~J!A
N>
Q)
::- AA AA .IA
~
0
30 A
A ~ A lA
U bA
20
r-I
ro 10
.,. .....
" ()
+"
s..
Q,)
Q
:> '0 .0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8'
Distance from Face, (1000 x m)
.'
.. Fig. 4.15 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from the
Face for the Coal Roads with a Secondary Longwall Panel
,, \
in Parallel, at Lingan Mine.
o •

~
 ~

'"
-
160
150 Data obtained by the In Situ Tape Measurements
..-. :
+1
..ctlIl 140- at every 10 Arches Intervalf
,1'-
....v 1::50
,1 ::c .l

ero 120 '1.

110 ~

".... en
+J
<1>

100 \-
~
.t 90

1-"
01
11I
!.
lj
1/1 ~
s::
<1>
on
$..
so
70
60
A
....
A

<1> 50
>
s:: 40
0
U 30'
.....ro
....u
+-1
20
~
10
:>
<1>

0
'----
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8
Distance from Face, (1000 x m)

Fig. 4.16 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from

Face Line for the Coa~ Roads with a Secondary Developed
L~anel in Parallel.

.. \ .. ,~ '";A' ..
,y~~.: ",~'"'f~)' ., LI :I .. "",,~~~_ .• L,..IL~~ : ..... !'...&.b~ .... ~""-:'l.I,J:. .. ,fI1!h<1..'M.~*ji' ...
_ .. .,. ~$,..,J/ _,':§,.
 "'-.....
~
;>
-.
" --
--
~

160

-.....
..c:
150
140
Data obtained by the In Situ Tape Measurements
at every.l0 Arches Intervals. ---------,
....v
.(; bD
130
:r:
e
nj
120 ,-
'f
v 110 ,/
rn
~
. 100
~
><
90
~
.
,;; '- '.
~ 80 ---------'\.
~"
,.
V
. ,u 70
n::
1-'
U1 v 60
c """

--
~
~
QJ
>
sa A ,
r:: 40
0
U
..... 30
"'
u
.....
..... 20
:...
QJ 10
:>
0
0 0.4 o.e 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 q"~.8
~
Distonce from Face, \1 000 x m)

- Fig. 4.17 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distanee from

o 'i
Face Line for the Coal Roads without a Secondary Longwall
.. Panel in Parallel •
,
~

~~
'-----
;

." ~
 •• ft

~
-
+ -'
~ 160 •
'@ 150 Data o,btained by the ln Situ Tape M~asurements
:r: at every 50 Arches Intervals.
8 140
~ 130
CI)

'0 120
Q).
u 110
+-'

~ 100
+-'
x
~ 9().
~
0 BO

f-I
U1
-
~
Il)
U
70
60 A
-..J AllA
s:: A.
Q)
AA A A A
bD 50 AAA A
~
Q)
40-'"
AA A~AA A IJ. àA
:;-
s:: ~ A Il
0 AAA A Il A
30 ,AMb. A.
& ...

.U b. AI:J. A
~
m 20
....u
+-' 10
~
Q)
:> 0
n 0.4- o.e 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8

Distance from Face, (1 pOO x m)

.ft

Fig. 4.18 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from the
Face for the Coal Roads without a Secondary Longwall Pane.l
developed in Parallel, at Lingan Mine.

Or
 ,., f, ~

~
"

160

-....
..c:t:l1)
150
140
Data obtained by the In Situ Tape Measurements at
every 10 Arches Intervals •
f'

.....
(1)
130
tt:
8 120
nj
(1) 110
.
tD~

+>
100
><
~
90
~ 80 A
(1)
70 A
u A
~
1 1-' Q) 60
01 bD A
Cl)
s..
Q) 50
>
~
0 40
U
...... 30
rd
20
---
U
.....
....
s..
Q)
.
10
:> \\
0
0 0.4 0.8 co
1:2 . 1.6 2 2.-4 2.8

Distance from Face, (lOOO·x m)

}-
Fig. 4.19 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from
'~,

Face Line for all the Coal Roads in Lingan Mine ....

~
 ~ et

-:;:; 1 60
..r::
.@ 150 j Data obtained by the In Situ Tape Measurements
at every 50 Arches Intervals. r~

:r: 140
~ 130
~ 120 i J
1

"
'g.... 110
~ 100
....$.c
~ 90
w
....0 80 J
"

-'

70
....Ut -
-
~

Q)
~_""' U
60 -J A
\0 c:
Q) 50
bD
~ 40
Q)
>

U
c:
0 30
,20
1'. A-jf ~~A-AAAtf-A
A & AllA
A Il ,A
A A..
i /lA
AA
A
-A Il A
A, A,AA
.-4 l<
'rd
U Hl

..
....
·roI

~
Q)
0
> 0 0.4 l- O.B 1.2 1.6 2 2&4 2.~

Distance from Face, (IOOO x m~

Fig.. 4.20 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from the
Face for ail the Material Roads at Lingan Mine. __ --~-===-==
======-
..

""
-~"':..._--
 •
~
~ ~

180 ~

-~... 1S0
140
Data obtained by the In Situ Tape Measurements/
at every 10 Arches Intervals-
.1

....
Q)
~
) :r: 130
en:l 120'
Q)
110
+J
.
CI)

100
/

il<
W
~
90
80
'\- ! "
Q)
u 70
~
Q)
f-> 60
0\
o ~
Q)
> 50
~
o 40
U
..... .30
C1:I
....
U
~
20
l-o
~ 10
O~~~~~~~--~-T--~~--~~~~~~-r--~~~
o 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8

Distance {rom Face, (1000 x m)

Fig. 4.21 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from

Face Line for aIl the Material Roads in Lingan Mine.
...
...
~
 t~, fit
""" (~

........ 80
+.l '"
.c
01
-.... 1 - All Material Roads
cv
::t: -70 2 - Firsl Phase Coal Roads
E
3 - Second phase Coal Roads
ftS
OJ
V)

-0
60
cv
+->
U
ftS pl
s- eo
+->
x 3
I..I.J

4-
40 ~ 2
---.., .... ~
0

....
0\ 1
OJ
u 30
c::
cv
01
s-
cv 20
>
'"'" c::
,..-~
0
U
,'J
/( "
/, r;;jÇ10
r u
-....
+.l
s..
cv 0
>-
0 200 ~o 600 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
Fig. 4.22 Comparison of the Vertical Conv~rgence Profiles Versus
Distance from the Access TunneJs5acelines for Material
Roads and Coal Roads Based on Da~a obtained from Every
50 Arch Intervals, in Lingan Mi~e.
::-~~.v--
j
~

-"
 ~

"" ... '\

\
...-.,."'
.+;> - 80
..c
.....01 1 - All Material Roads
QI
:::t: 70 2 - Flrst Phase Coal Roads
E 3 - Sacond phase Coal Roads
"'
QI
(1')
If

80
"..,
QI

..,"' eo
S-
3
X
LI..I "...

4-
0 40
.... ~
2
0\
l\J ---
QI
1
u- :30
s:
lU \.
01 A
S-
lU 20
>
s:
0
U
r--
m
10
, u
..... ....
-4->
S-
<lJ
:>
0
1
0 200 400 800 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)

~,
Fig. 4.23 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus
Distance from the Access Tunnels Facelines for Material
~ Roads and Co al Roads 8ased on Data o~tained~ram Every
10 Arch Intervals, in Lingan Mine.
 ... '-
et

~ . (
'.

"
....... eo-I~------------~--------------------------------------~
+->
..c
Cl
.,.... 1 - All Material Roads
Q.l
:x: 70 2 - First Phase Coal Roads
3 - Combination of First Phase and Second Phase Coal Roads
E
rel
Q)
4 _0 Second phase Coal Roads
tf)
80
"0
Q)
+->
U
rel
~
so
+-> 4
X
I.LJ

4-
0
40 2
.....
0'1 ~
U -... 1
Q) 30
u
s:::
Q)
Cl
~
Q.l 20
>
C
0
U
r- 10 1,/- '(
rel
U
.,....
+->
~
Q)
o f '\ t
,, ::>
o 200 ~o 800 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
Fig. 4.24 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus
Distance from the Access Tunnels Facelines for Material
Roads, Coal Roads and Combination of the two 8ased on ~
Data obtained from Every 10 Arch Intervals, in Linganl
Mine.
cfr-l"
.,.
.{Jo
-:P
..
 ....
% vertical convergence
Gate Roads at 400 m from Fape Line

1!' AlI the material roads 31.7

2. First phase coal roads 39.1

3. Combination of first and second

phase coal roads 43.7

4. Second phase coal roads 46.0

This analysis indicates that the first and second

phase coal roads have 7.4% and 14.3% higher vertical closure
than t~e material roads. The combined convergence results- of

the first and second phase coal roads with respect to that of
material roads show an increase in vertical conVergence of
12%. The most interesting comparison, between the first and
second phase coal roads indicates that the second phase coal
roads due to the adjacent longwall panel, experienced 7%
higher vertical closure than the first phase. The 7.4% higher

vertical convergence in the first phase coal roads with

respect to the vertical convergence in the material roads

could mainly be attributed to the geometry of roadway and arch
support system and especially the different pack support
system employed in the gate roads (Fig. 4 .l). An improvement
in the pack and arch support system in the coal roads could

contribute significantly to the reduction of this vertical

convergence. The comparison of the relationships of the
vertical convergence with respect to the barrier pillar width

c for the material roads and coal roads shown in Fig. 4.25

confirms 'that 17% higher vertical convergence occurs in the

164
 ---
..
",
~ --
~,

-.c..
~

~ .... ~

~
.5!P
CI
160
:x:: 1 sa 1 - Material Roada •
"
~ 140 Z - Coal Roads
Ul
Q)
130 ;J
~
J

..
c:
.2
(J
as 110
120
~
. ,,)' 1
0

1 ~
b

la
1< 100
~
....0 90

1-'
-~
CI
u
C
80
70
0\

"'-- - - -
111 G) 60 '
co "

L4
1.1 50 2
;r c>
.,. 0 40 /lf " t ~

--..
U
as
u
30
20
1

a..
CI 10
> 0
30 50 70 90
Banier Pinar Widtb, (m)
J::7

Fig __ 4.25 CompariBou' of tbe Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus

\ Banier Pillar Width for Data'obtained from In Situ Tape
MeasUrements at every SO Arch Intervals far Material and
Coal Roadl in Ungan Mine.

?"
 ....,
coal roads than material roads. The reason why the bottom

level (coal roads) shows more vertical c~nvergence than that

of the top level (material roads) can be explained as follows:

The to~\ and bot tom levels are excavated and support~d
\

parallel "in time and orientation. Since the panel excavation

takes place firs~, a redistribution of stresses around the

,
panel occurs. Depending upon the method of excavation and

time interval between e~cavation and support installation, the

roof strata will be disturbed and hence vertical displacement

will occur. During the formation of the gate roads and

,Placfment o~the compressible pack supports at the goaf side,'

ano~er redistribution of stress t:kes place. If a second

longwall is extracted later, parallel to the first longwall, a

barrier pillar is left between the first bottom level (coal

road) and a new, top level (material road). As a result of

the longwall excavation a redistribution of stress takes place

in the new panel, but may not immediately influence the old
1

bottom level. Due to the second longwall operations, continued

strata subsidence above the two panels creates a further

redistribution of stresses over the pillar, resulting in new

movement on the old bottom level. In other words, the stress

concentration curves from both sides of the barrier pillar may

1

~
intersect one another above the original field stress at the

middle of the barrier pillar. Therefore, each top level will

be subjected to redistribution of stresses around it in two

stages, whereas each bottom ~ev~l experiences redistribution

166
--------- --- -~--------------------------------- ---

\c of stresses around its abutments in three stages~ The overall

stress concentration in each stage is greater than that 1n the

preèeding stage. Fig. 4. 2~ sho,ws that the mean vertical

convergence in both access tunnels for a distance of ""

approximately 64 m from the face lines are the same and that
the graphs coincide with one another. This shows that the

, 64 m from the face line may not be influenced

first \
by the

second longwall operatiGn. This portion of the graphs may

indicate the effect of the face position only.

4 • 8 COMBINED EFFECT OF CONTROLLING FACTORS ON J\CCESS TUNNEL CLOSURE

"',
The analysis of the vertical convergence for various
7
"
tunnel classes in the Lingan Mine haye been presented in

previous sections. The results of the individual tunnels are

classified into two major groups. Group 1 represents tunnel

closure in the material roads (Fig. 4.26), while group 2 shows

1

the behaviour of access tunnels (coal roads) in the Lingan

r.'f ft

Mine (Fig. 4~27). It is important to notice that if the

material roads (Fig. 4.26) were in similar cqnditions, their

induced closures should also be the same. From Fig. 4.26 it

can be seen that T3W tunnel exhibi ts the least vertical

displacements, whereas, T8E shows the highest closure. The

major differences between these tunnels are in depth of cover

and the barrier pillar width. T3w is located at a depth ~f

423-436 m with a barrier pillar width of 52-64 m, while, T4w

and T8E are located at depth of 461-465 m and 514-531 m with

167
 )"'"

80 "

--'
oZ! eo T8E
.!..
~
40 T4W
!. T3W

~,
30

20

10
~
"", .
0
0 100 200
Dlatance F'l"ot1'\ Tunnel F'ace Cm)
300
'\ ....
400
....
,~

Fig. 4.26 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus,

Distance from the Access Tunnels Facelines for Material li'
Roads, in Lingan Mine.

80

-
.!
û
eo
B6E
B2W
B4W
' .Jo'

~ 40
.' '0 B7E
!. B8E
., 30
fifi D'

§ 20

1 10

O;-----.-----~----~~--r.~.~~~--~~--~----~
o 100 200 300 400
Dlatance lirom Tunnel Faca Cm)
Fig. 4.27 Comparison of the Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus
Distance. from the Access Tunnels Facelines for Coal
Roads, in'Lingan Mine.

168
....
~------~--------------------------------~---------------

c barrier pillar width of 60-8; m ~nd'-~(m respectively. This

clearly indicates a difference betweeti~3W and T4W which is

possibly due to a 35 m increase in depth of coyer at T4W. The

higher vertical convergence in T8E can be partly attributed

to an insufficient barrier pillar width and partly due to

higher depth of cover (about 90 m deeper than the T3W). In

Fig. 4.27 B8E, B7E and B4W represent the access tunnels

behavio~r in the first phase, while B3W, B2W and B6E show the

coal roads in the second phase. Fig. 4.27 illustrates the

• behaviour of the access tunnels in different classes with

. higher vertical convergence in the second phase coal roads as

.compared with that in coal roads in the f,rst phase.

,..../1

4.9 LATERAL CONVERGENCE AND DISTANCE FROM ACE

At the
" ti~e conditions stabilize, the resulting size

of the access tunnel is of the utmost importance to the rnining

engineer. The final size must be appropriate to the functions

for which it is des.igned. This final size is not only effected

by vertical convergence, it is also influenced by inward

lateral movements of the tunnel walls. This is due to a

substantial ~eduction of lateral confinement as a result of

tunnel excavation. The percentage of this lateral closure with

respect to the original width of the tunnel is called lateral

~onvergence. AlI the in situ lateral deforrnation measurernents

in the Lingan Mine have been analyzed for each individual

c tunnel arnong which sorne are illustrated in Figs. 4.28-4.33.

This ,analysis indicates the lateral convergence linearly

l 169
 a -....
oC
;SO
f
.r-

'"
• +'
'1:J
2a
"- 3 2e
r-
~ QI
c:: 24
c::
:::1
1- 22
20
....s-
0'1

0 1a
~
0 18 .,
~ 14

•••
QI
u 12
c::
CI.I
0'1 10
s-
QI lJl,
> S
c::

L
0
u e
r-
ni
s-
....
QI
+' 2
ni
-l
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1 1.2 1 .....
Dtetano. from Tunnel Faae (>e 1000 m) __ -
Fig. 4.28 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the Access Tunnel
Faceline in B4W First Phase Coal Road at Lingan Mine.
)
-....
oC
+'
'1:J
;so
2S -
3 28 -
.-
QI
c:: 24 -
c::
:::1
1- 22 - A
20 -
....s-0'1 A
AA

! 0 1S - •• A
A
1
l+-
0 18 - A .~ A
,1
~ 14 - •• A
A
A A
~

~
A

•••
1
! .. QI
12 - A A
u A 6A A.
1 c:: A A
u~ ... ~ • •
QI
10 -

\
1 A A
0'1 A
s-
QI
> s- .6:A A~ A A A
A
A
c:: ilA A A AA AA
\a:
,6

1
0
u e- A 6 -- A
AA
.- 4- 6 A A
ni A
s-
CI.I
2- A A
+'
ni
-l
0 •
AA
• 1
. 1 T 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 '
Dt.tanoe from Tunnel Faoe (>e 1000 m)
~~
./fi,; Fig. 4.29 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the Access Tunnel
Faceline in B5E Second Phase Coal Road at Lingan Mine.

170
 ,' , , .... ~

c ~
~
~
30'~r-~-------------a------------------------------~------_
28
:II:
....cu 28
c 24
C
::J
1- 22
,01
.....s... 20
c 18
....o

~
18 a
-~

CIl
U
14 a
te
D%~
a
a
D
c- 12
CII
.iI..~ __ cD CD D
D>
':-y---- ..,J a
>
o
u
C
s...
CIl.
10
8 D -
D
Va a o
~
8 D a
... a D

2 '6 o~
O~--~--r--.'--'--~---r--'---~--r-~FL~---r--~~
o 0.2 o.... 0.8 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
DI.tance from Tunnel Face (x '000 m)
Fig. 4.30 Variation of Lateral Conv~rgence from "the Access Tunnel
Faceline in B3W SC~ûnd Phase Coal Road at Lingan Mine.
/

30~-~------------------------------------------------~~
28
28
,...
~
c
{:. ''i:
2 ...
22
\
.....s...tn 20
c 18
....o 18
~ 0;;;:.14
CIl
U
C 12
CIl
D> 10
r...
CIl
> 8
o
c
u 8
r-
lU
s... ...
....CIl
-lU
...J

o 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1 1.2

DI8tance from Tunnel Face (X" 1000 m)

c Fig. 4.31 Variation of La\eral Convergence from the Access Tunnel

Faceline in B8E First Phase Coal Road at _Lingan Mine.

171

,-> •
8 ,....
oC
30
(,

+-1
't:J 28 -
.....
31:
2e -
.-
lU
c
c
c
204 -
22-
) J:>
1-

0>
.,..
. 20 -
L
0 18 -
....
-
"U
0
al!

lU
c
1e -
14 -
12 -
~.
~ ..
V- l\
,. V' • •
•
• .~
lU

,.
··V•
0>
L
10 - ".

lU
• •
,..
> 8-
c • • 0
u
.-
0

...,
e- •o •
L
lU
4-
•
+-1 2-
....
/'CI

0 1
--
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 ' 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
DI-tonce from Tunnel Foce ()( 1000 m)
Fig. 4.32 Variation of Lateral Convergence fram the Access Tunnel
Faceline in T3W Material Raad at Lingan Mine.

-
oC
+-1
.....
't:J
30
28
:J:
2e
.-
lU
c 2<4
c
::J
1- 22

f-
0>
.,.. 20
'. i5 18
.... A A

- ,....
0 '6
al! A~
,

u
QJ
U
c
QJ
0>
L
lU
>
c
0

,....
12
10
8
6
tv A
J \tJV~ ) A
A
..., 4 A
L
lU A
......., 2
+-1 '1'

0
0 0.2, 0.4 0.8 0.15 1 1.2 1.111-
) D~ono. from Tunne' Foce ()( 1000 m)
Fig. 4.33 Variation of Lateral Convergence from the Access Tunnel
/ ,-'

Faceli.n..e. in TSE Material Raad At lingan Mine.

172
(
 \1
\

inc'ases as the face-distance increases to a range of 4

. ~Om t~i\
SOom~ However, aIl
, , the tunnels shJ;>w ind-ividuai lateral \'1

convergence pattern~ as indicated in the aforemention,~d

(, figures.
~
(
4.10 COMPARISON OF LATERAL CONVERGENCE1 IN ACCESS TUNNELS

A comparison of the lateral convergence is made by

!

superimposing of the resulting graphs of the material roads

(T3W and T8E) with coal roads in s (B3W) and first

phase (BSE), respectively, as sho in Figs. 4.34 and 4.35.

#"

Additionally, the lateral ce of coal roads in the

Q
second phase (~7E) and fi~st phas (B4W) are also compared
with that of coai roads in the second phase (B2W and B3W)
(Figs. 4.36 and 4.37).
Fig. 4.34 indicate~-higher lateral convergence within

the first 250 m from the face line in the material road (T3W)
as compared with that in the second phase coal road (B3W),

however, this change is negligible afterwards. While,

""~
...
.
Fig. 4.35 exhibits higher lateral convergence in the material

road (TSE) than that in the ,first phase coal r~d (BSE) aIl --
along the tunnel length. The lateral convergence in coal roads

(B2W, B7E) with a secondary longwall panel in parallel is

almost the same (Fig. 4.36), while, the coal roads without a

secondary longwall panel in parallel (B4W) show less lateral

convergence than that the coal roads with a secondary longwall

panel (B3W) (Fig. 4.37).

173
 .. (

II ~

.....
.r:
:so
~
28 [] - T3W
....
'0
:.
.....
GI
28 l +- 83W
c 2~
c
::s
1- 22~ ...
Cl 20
1:
0 18
....0
~
......
.18
14
CIl
u
c 12
CIl
f'GI 10
>
c 8
0 l'
u 8
....
ni 4
q

J,..
GI

,
~
ni
...J ~
2
0
o 0.2 0.8 1 1 .2
- .
1 ....
Dletana. from Tunnel Foce (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.34 Compari son of Lateral Convergence Profi Te of. 83W Second
Phase Coal.Road with T3W Material Road At lingan Mine.
~

.s:
~

~
3
30
28 '0 8E -
....GI 28 8E
c
c
...ti4
::s
"22 .
1-

Cl
. 20
.....
J,..
0 18
....
0 18
\ ~
......
CIl
,...
u
, cCIl
12
Cl
J,..
10
CIl
>
c 8
0
u 8
....
ni ...
...
J,..

'.
,- GI
ni 2
...J
O~I--'---~--T---~--~--~--r---r---r---~~~~~~~~
o 0.2 o.... 0.8 0.8 1.2
" Dletanc. from Tunnel Foce (x 1000 m)
Fig. 4.35 Comparison of Lateral Convergence Profile of B8E First
Phase Coal Road with TSE Material Road At Lingan Mine.

174
 c ~

30~'~--~'~-----------------------------r------------------~
)

28 -
<> - B2W'
1
.• 1

, . 28 -
r-
QI
A - B7E,
C 2 ... -
C
t= 22 -
f .
0>
.,.. 20 -
s... 115 - o
c
~
o HI -
......
~
1. -
QI
U 12 -
C"
QI 10 _ A
f' o A 0
QI
>
•
e _~~o6 ,
c • o6!o606
o
~ o6O~H>
u 06
8 - A: 0
,....

~
ni
s...
al
. . -1 ~IJ
2 - 0 A A
A
~
0 4
ni
...J (~ . ~
·O~--~Ir-_'-r-___~--r-I--r-I--~I----'I---'I--~I--~I___~Ir---r---r-~
o Ç.2 O.... 0.8 0.15 1 lA.. 1.2 ~ . 1....
,
DI.t:ance fr'OM Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
Compari son of Lateral Convergence Profi le of B7E Second
.. Phase Coal Road with B2W Second Phase ·Coal Road At
Lingan
.. Kine. •
.'

-
.r:
~
30~----------------------------------------~~------------------------~
28 - B3W
."
"0
.,.. <> .
=- 26 -
84W
24 -
22 -
,
0>
.,.. 20-
s...
C
t+-
~.
o
.....
~

al
U
C
QI
,.
f' '\
QI
>
C
o •
u

, . r-
ni
s...
QI
+>
ni
...J

0.8' ,
•
o 0.2 O•• 0.8 1 1.2

c ,
Fig. 4.37
DI.tance fr'Om Tunne' "1:-aèe (x '000 m)
Comparison of Lateral Convergence Profile of 84W First
Phase Coal Road with B3W Second Phase Coal Road At Lingan
Mine.

l 175
.
 (
. '

--
"4J:' " 4.11 SUMMARY" OF THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
} ~

. Interpretation 4rnd comparison of the results 'of the

analyses in each mine (The Lingan 'and No. 26 JwÙnes)

highlighted the mechanism of tleformation in access ~nnels.

The ef~~cts of adjaceht workings and barrier Eillar width on

the tunpel closu,re have been invest:i,,5Jated and evaluat~d

, quantitatively. The influence of depth of cover and type of

suppor~ however, _have not;: been expl ici 1;ly addressed. In

- \ '

order to màke a rational evaluation of the,se effects; tunnels

should be chosen 50 that they are the same in functions? size,

shape 1 have similar barrier pillar width and longwall

extraçti0!l' but" differ in depth of cm)er and steel arch

~
•
supports respectively. Fig. 4.38a illustrates the influence of
~ d
depth of cover on the tunnel closure. Curve B4W represents a
\}

fir~t phase coal'road located at depth/0f approximately 500 m •

-in the" Lingan Mine. While, curv~ ,B13S indicqtes the effect of
>
depth also on a fir.st phase coal road but at depth of 700 m in

No: 26 Colliery. ~oth tunnels have (igid steel.ar~h ,support.

It can be seen that B13S shows about 10% Inore vertical

convergence
.
which corresponds to a 200 ID ~ifferenc~ in depth
)
\ 1
pf,cover. It might be inferred that vertical convergence could ~
.
be a non-linear function of 'depth of cover. This ilhas been
t :.. a
t ~ ~ . . . . .
,1 • A •

-l..nvestl.gated by the author theoret~cally (s~e, ,Chapter 7) and

,
is shown in Fig.,38b which confirms that the vertical
,.
convrrgence of th~ access tunnels is a non-1inear' fun~tio~ ~f.

de~h. ~This can also be che.cked against the ..! in situ 1

...

" 176
~'

..
 .. ..tt:: .....
, .
".
~
. '
~
-~

~ . ~

i
1 ~) ..
, ,
~ 1
~13S 700 m Caver, 212 m Panèl ~idth (No. 2~ Colliery).
B4W - 590 m Caver, 230 m,Panel (~gan Mine).

Fi rst Ph~e Coa l Roads,

Rigia ~te~l Arch Support.
BIlS
').

B4W'

200 400 800 800

Distance From Tunnel Face Cm)

,
b)
~ 80 ~'-------------------------------------------------------'T-~-'
.
.~
..c:
en ,. ,
GJ
:x: '_•
.- !So
•
\
GJ
c:
c:
:l
.....
t en 40
.~

s-n
0
~
0

ri -
~

GJ
U
c:
30

GJ
20
..
' C-

"- S-
GJ
>

V
U'
c:
0
..
0-

-
ns
....+'u
. r..
GJ
> O~----~--~~---T----~----T-----~--~----~----T---~
o 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 0.8 1

f Depth of Cover (m)

F-ig. 4.3~Effect;of Oepth of Cover on_the Access Tunnels,-Vertical
-
Convergence (a) From the'F&celine, (b) 400m Away from the
Facel ine. .. \,
177
 -----'" ~

..- /
1 c
...
l,
11'
. 1 - -,
. C -;Ç>

v
~, ./
~
mea,sureIll'erfts as shown in Fig. 3.20 (see C~apter 3) . 1
The effect of type of;steel arch support has been also
, ~tigated and; shown in Fig. 4.39 __ curve TrS represents

beh~viour "~~
0-; 'an'\. acc:ss' ~un~i ,wi th • 0- c
yielding steeJ arch

) supporj;,.s, whereas, B~ shows the --performat!ce of an access

tunnel with rigid steel ar~h supports. ,Both tunnels located at

depth of approximately 700 m. According to Fig. 4.39 an access

c

tunnel, with yieldJ.ng supports exhibits a continuous increase

.) '-"" "

of convergence from the faceline with decreasing rate. The

t~nnel with ~igid steel arch supports indicates high increase

'.'"
, Q
• .
/

1 /1 at facé and becomes in equi~ibrium s60n after., The differenèe

in vertical convergence at faceline could be attribu~d to the

tunnel face end-design.

(f,j

The effect of barrier pillar width on vertical,

convergence also was investigated and shown in Fig. 4.25. It

could be concluded that the contribution of barrier pillar as

, "\.
a natural support has a limit beyond which the [ndre~ of
"-
baJrier pillar width has no more effect on the tunnel closure

(see also Chapter 8). This also, can.. be proved by comparing

- )

•
the total v~tical convergence of an access tunnel in the
"
, f~st phase with that in the second phase. This is illustrated

iJ iig. 4.~O hn wh~ch the vertical convergence of B13S coal

road with an In~inite barrier pillar (without a secondary ~

.working in parallel ot first phase) is compared with B12S coal

(1

road with a definite barrier pillar width (with a secondary

workipg in parallel or second phase) . Both tunJ:lels were

,.;-
'0

" 178 -,
\
.--"
"-
--~--
 \

\
• ~

.z::
....c::n
QI
:r:
.....
eo,-------~----~------------

T13~
________________________
- Yielding Steel Arch Support
813S - Rigid Steel Arch Support
~

QI
c:
c:
::J
Panel Width = 212 m
t- Depth of Cover = 700'm (No. 26 CoTliery)
T13S

813S
QI
U
c:
QI
c::n
s...
cv
>
c::
o
u

....1.-"'
u

~ O;------r----~~----~----_r----~~----~----~----~
o 200 400 800 800

Distance From Tunnel Face (m)

"Fig. 4.39 Effect of Type of Steel Arch Supports on the Access Tunnel;
Vertical Convergence in No. 26 Colliery.

-~
tn
eo~--------------------------------------------------~
cv
B12S - Second Phase Coal Road, 183 m Panel Width
:x: Bl3S - First Phase Coal Road, 212 m Panel Width
a:; so
c:
c: Rigid Steel Arch Support B12S
1-
::J
Depth of Cover = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1
700~m!:-

....
s...
o
.....
-0

-~

cv
u
30 813S
c:
cv
E' 20
cv
>
c:
o
u
.- 10
"'
u
....s...
cv
>
01-----~------r-----~~--_r----~~----~----_T-----.~
o 200 -400 800 800

c Distance From Tunnel Face (m)

Q'

Fig. 4.40 Effect of Adjacent Working on the Access Tunnel s Vertical

\ Convergence in No. 26 Co 11 i ery. '

179
 -

'supported by ii9id S~Ches and located at approximately

700 m depth i~26 Colliery. It can be inferred that the

B13S (first phase) coal road with an infinite barrier pillar

width exhibits 32.0% of vertical convergence which is only

(

f
1
12.0% less than that of the B12S (second phase) coal road with

a definite barrier pillar width. Hence, the 12.0% ~ertical

convergence ls produced by the second cycle of lohgwall

extraction . But the relationship of vertical convergence,

• extracted seam height and panel width at this stage due to the
narrow range of the corresponding data could have not been

conclusive. Consequently, these effects are further

investigated by utilizing a numerical technique (finite

element method) which is described in Chapter 6. Therefore, in

designing access tunnels serving longwall coalfaces, the

quantitative effects of aIl the aforementioned parameters must

be taken into consideration.

4.12 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The influence of design I(lrameters on the access

tunnel closure based on the in si tu deformation measurements

obtained from extensive underground deforma~ion surveys in 14

'~
• 4
access tunnels with total length of 18.5 Km at the Lingan Mine
r
has been presented and discussed.

An empirically derived fonrtula for prediction ~f the

access tunnel closure based on this investigation has also

been proposed, and the !9ll0wing concluding remarks are made:

Although monitoring deformation at 50 arch intervals

180

r
 (
gives a satisfactory overall impression of the deformation
process, for detai1ed analysis of the interactions among
factors controlling deformation, measurements taken at 10 arch
intervals were superior.
overall relationships between the convergence with the

barrier pillar width and distance from face has been preeented
for different access tunnel classes. The effect of secondary
working or developed longwall panels on coal road convergence

is eva1uated to be 5% to 10% In general the first and

.
second phase coal roads experie~ce 7.4% and 14,3%

,respectively, more convergence than material roads.

'1)
The in situ lateral deformation measurements have also
been analyzed and presented. The analysis indicates that the
material roads experience h~gher lateral convergence than the
coal roads. Whi~e, the coa1 roads without a secondary longwa11
panel in parallel (firs't phase) exhibits less Iaterai

convergence than the coa1 roads with a secondary 10ngwall

panel in para1lel (second phase).

, --

The effect of depth of cover on the access tunnel

convergence indicates a non-linear relationship between the.

two.
The effect of two different steel arch supports have

been investigated. The analysis shows that the access tunnels

wi th Yielding steel arch supports exhibi t more vertical

convergence than those with rigid arches.
c These analyses together with the detailed parametric

l 181·
 ," ~ ,

studies based on finite element simulation of the access

J
~
tunnel in longwall mining environment (see Chapter 6)
..
substantiate a proper modification of the theoretical
•
equa;tions developed in this research (see Chapter 7) for

design of the access tunnels for longwall mining opejations".

In addition, this study also aims at formulating a sp~cific

barrier pillar design criterlon for the Sydney Coalfleld (see

Chapter 8).

~.f ,Of :'"

.. t'''' ( ..

.
• ' 'f •

"

.'

t
 ,
\

- "
CHAPTER S

fi PHOTOGRAPHIC DEFORMATION MEASUP,J.NG TECHNIQUE

5.1 .~TRODUCTION

Taking photographs of underground structures is very

eommon, however, the photographs have tradrtionally been used

as /a quali tati v'e tool, partieularly in eoal mining industry.

Over 1000 photographs have been taken in 26 access tunnels

with a total length of 36 Km in No 26 and Lingan Mines, in the

Sydney Coalfield of Cape Breton Island, Nova-seotia.

In this ehapte~, the aim is to present a method of

deformation measurements 'by making, use of the photographie

n t ! . •
approach and ta analyze the data ln the same manner as the ln

situ measurements which have been pres~nted and diseussed in

Chapters 3 and 4. Furthermore, a comparative investigation of

the data obtained by the photographie technique is made with

the in situ rneasurements to define the accuracy of the

photographie method, which i~a potentially faster and simpler

technique.

5.2 TUNNEL DEFORMATION SURVEY

Despit~ the eomplexity of the aecess 'tunnel

environment, effective and simple measurements of their

deformations can give an understanding of basic deformation

( processes. A survey of mine operating plans indicated that

sorne 36 km of access tunnels in the Sydney Coalfield remained

183
accessible and it was judged important to try to surv~y aIl of

these accessible roadways (caiA.~nd Aston, 1983) to obtain the

widest range of data. For speed and efficiencYl the follpwing

survey method was adopted:

1. Vertical heights of the tunnels were measured from the

center of the steel arch to the floor every ten arches

from the faceline, using tape measure;

2. A photograph of the arch profile was taken every f

l
-'V~
fifty arches from the face line, mostly corresponding with

height determinations. At these points, the gate road

width 1 m above the floor was also determinedi

3. Camera-arch distance was regulated by means of a 7.6 m

long piece of cord, fastened to a cIipboard which in turn

was held beneath the arch being photographed. For

additional accuracy; the arch flange was marked with chalk

and a 1 m long white scal ing rod hung from the arch

1 center. Photographs were taken using a Nikonus IVA camera

loaded with 400 ASA black and white print film and a

Bl iZlich-lgerat FC631 explosion proof photo-flash,

manufactured by Gesellschaft fur Geratebau Mbttu Co. of

Dortmund.

In this manner, aIl accessible roadways were quickly

and efficiently surveyed.

5.3 DAYA PREPARATION, PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

The exposed films were subsequently developed and

184
c printed to 20 cm by 25 cm size. Choosing the~~me size for
aIl the photographs ensured that the scaling rod in each

photograph was reproduced to approximate~y the same size.

The arch profiles were then traced on the photographs-.
The photographs were digitized by means of a Zeiss Semi-

Automated Interactive Image Analysis System at McGi11

University. Cross-sectional areas, half perimeters, heights

and widths of the tunnels were measured by the digitizer from

the photographs. The photographie measurements were tabulated

along with the extracted seam heights, depths of cover, panel

width and barrier pillar widths whieh were obtained from mine

plans. These data were subsequently used for the analysis.

For the purpose of this chapter aIl the deforrnation

data obtained fro~ the photographie technique at Lingan Mine

were eompiled (Majdi et al., 1986) as follows:

1. Combination of aIl rnaterial roads (Figs. 5.1, 5.2).

2. Combination of aIl eoal roads (Fig. 5.3).

3. Combination of eoal roads without a seeondary working or

developed longwall face in paraI leI (Fig. 5.4).

4. Combination of coal roads with a secondary working or

developed longwall face in parallel (Fig. 5.5).

In No. 26 eOlliery, the data obtained from the

photographie technique has been classified into the first two

categories, that is, 1 and 2 as mentioned above. The data was

anplyzed to investigate and compare the photographie technique

c with the in situ tape rneasurements"and ti'define the accuraey

of the photographie technique which is a potentially faster

185
 -- te

~ 160 lr~;:~:;::~:;~~~~::--~-:~~---------------------------­
Data obtained by Photographie Technique '-
~ ~ 150
ID at every 50 Arches Intervals.
tt: 140
S 130
~ Q)
tI) "' 120

.........oJ::: 110
u 100
ro
J..
..... 90 ... ."-
X
~
ct-t eO
o
70
.... ~
co 60
0'1 ID
U
J:::
ID
50 + ... '" '"\, ...
on 40 + ...
~
> .30
o
J::: ++ +
U 20 +
+ +++

--r--:f-~~ ~I-----,r---,--~1
r-I
ro 10
....u
+-'
o 30
:;:-1 .
'. ~ 50
0 70
70 90
BatTier Pillar Width, (m)

l
Fig. 5.1 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus the BatTier Pillar
Width for aU the Material Roads at Lingan Mine.

~
 " o
.r
"
-.a..., 160
bD
• poO
Q)
::t:
150
140
i Data obtained by Photographie Technique
at every 50 Arches Intervals.
'- -- ..
eIls
130 ?:-
Q)
U) 120
c::
0 110
...,
• poO

u 100
Ils
H 1 ~
+"
~
90.
~
'M
"80
0

....03
-
!R
Q)
70
60 ..J .
'-..1
u
c::
Q) 50 j, ++ + + + + +"++ +++
bD
r..
Q)
1 40 _+ -al- =1\. + ..++ ++
_.a. + ~ + + ..1. ... . +
> 30
c::
0
U 20
.....Ils
r ...,u
.....
H
la
0
~ 0 . 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8

Distance from Face, (1000 x m)

~
Fig. 5.2 The Vertical Convergence Profile Versus Distance from the
Face for ail the Material Roads in Lingan Mine.
 ---------------------------------------------~
ft (" f ft
•

1-

G
~ 160
..c:
~
.9!'
Q)
150 Data obtained by Photographie Technique
::r: 140 at every 50 Arches Intervals.
~ 130
"Q) \.
U) 120
e:=
.8 110
~

~ 100
....
-Joi
90 + ..
~
~
so
, ~~~ '.
,
'-
0
.70 +
~
CD -~
60 + +
*
~ l' ~+.. ","+tw
0) Q)
u ok ....'" + +:t.. +
s:: 50 + + ++ il-of
Q)
00
Joi
Q)
40 + + ..+*'- '.t.+ _..+~:+ + c,

s::
U
:>
0
30
20
+ .
+.+" +..,*
++ * + '+ +
v 1"""4

........ucd 10
Joi 0
Cl) " (
> 30 50 ~ 70 90 ,
Barrier Pillar Widtb, {m}

Fig. 5.3 The Vertical G>onvergence Profile Versus the Banier Pillar ~
Width for ail the Coal Road$ at Lingan Mine.

f ~

.. '-
'-

~ ~
 •
J
J

o ~\-"
"
•
-;:;-
..c: 160
bD
....
(LI
150 Data obtained by Photographie Technique
'"'\ ::c 140 at every 50 Arches Intervals.
8
ro 130
(LI

V) 120
~
0
....
+'
110
u
ro 100
J.t
Q. +'

~
~ 90 ..

"-
"--
~
0 80
70

ft.++
IV 60
t-l
u
~
...
\D (1) 50 +
0 on
J.t
(1) 40 ++ +'+ +'+ +
..- > ""'.........+ +
~
30 +++++T' +
-0
U
+
.....ro 20 -.
u
..... 10
+'
J.t
(LI 0
> 2' 2."
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 .. 1.6 2.8
-.
Distance from Face, (1000 x m) '. '
!

.... ~Fig. 5.5 The V~rtical- Convergence Profile Versus ~is~ance from the
Face for the Coal Roads with a Secondary'Longwall Panel in
Q
Par.allel, at Lingan Mine.
,.,.
;J
j'
 ..

an~ simpler one. For the purpose only part of

t
the analysis of the data obtained from extensive photographie .
deformation surveys of aIl the accéSs ib,le longwall gate

roadways at the Lingan Mine and at the 'tI0. 26 ColJ. iery are
presented.

5.4 COMPARISON Or"THE ROADWAVS DEFORMATION SURVEV TECHNIQUES

Similar statistical analyzes,

, which were conducted on

the data obtained by the in situ tape measurements ~50 arch

r
intervals and reported earlier, were also carried out on tpe

data obtained from the photographie technique. The summary bf

these analyzes are presented in Tables 5.1-5.4.

In arder to make a brief and rational comparison

between these techniqu~s, the relati~~~~ips of the vertical

convergence and the barrier pi "!.lar width evah.:."\ted h~T either

of these ~echniques are presented in Figs. 5.6-5.8. These,

,
clearly, show the similarity of the trends obtained. The

maximum difference between thesè techniques is approximately

} 5%. The photographie technique gi ves' a. more conservative

\ , \... ,
indication of the convergence. similar conclusion can be made

~
.
between the relationships of verticil convergence and distance
.
from faceline. Fig. 5.9 illustrates the comparison of vertical

convergence for indrv1dual material roads with combinat ion of

al~ material roads, wh~le, Fig. 5.10 shows the compar'ison mad~
,

c -among the material roads and coal roads in three different

classes.

191
 ~
~I'
\
0 . Table 5.1 Resu1ts of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based
on ~quation tv.C. = a(l-eXP(-~»+c for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurement and Photographie
Technique at Every '50 Arch Interv ls at No. 26
Colliery. .

Tunnel
Code N·~ Nr a b c NLCC SEE·
J

T26YDEVM 153
75
ii 43.37
35.61
"'- 69.45
91.79
15.00'
22.80
0.3344
0.4443
19.06
10.50
~
36 51.46 57.45 10.66 0.7353 8.06
. ~

B26CDEVM 184 43.93 40.95 9.21 0.4504 1'1.86

91, 38.36 56.96 14.98 0.6409 5.55
44 46.10 37.98 8.39 0.8059 5.06

T26YDEVF 153 "

43.25 60.62 8.97 0.355.9 17 .. 58
75 43.24 . 64.64 8.92 0.5409 8.56
36 5,3. 27 54.20 2.30 0.7977- 6.69

B26CDEVF 179 46.68 35.45 6.98 0.4281 13.27

88 46.19 38.71 7.7'2 0.6425 5.94
43 ~ 48.92 34.37 5'.48 0.7707 5.90

%V.C.= Vertical convergence as~a percentage of extracted seam

height
N·1 = Initial number of data points
N = Reduced data points - ~
NLCé = Non-1inear coefficient of correlation
SEE = Standard error of estimate
"
... "

)
~.--

192
( Table 5.2 Results of Non-Linear Least Square Technique Based
on Equation %v.C. = a(exp(b-x)jc)+d for Data
Obtained from In Situ Measurements and from
Photographie Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals
at No. 26 colliery

Tunnel
Code a b c d NLCC SEE

T26YPEVM 94 28.52 63.70 19.43 36.85 0.5902 12.07

30 30.25 63.70 19.92 35.91 0.7883 7.08
22 31-.33 63.70 19.03 36.10 0.8424 5.80

B26CPEVM 107 21.57 63.20 19.81 52.88 0.4422 13.28

34 22.24 63.20 17.80 53.51 0.7115 6.45
25 23.45 63.20 15.31 54.05 0.7628 - 5.56

T26YPEVF 95 31. 63 63.70 16.31 41. 68 0.6241 12.40

30 32.93 63.70 17.49 40.66 0.7817 8.00
22 32.97 63.70 17.72 40.59 0.8146 6.91

B26CPEVF 106 30.64 63.20 17.23 54.45 0.5533 14.00

34 31.83 63.20 15.17 55.4b 0.8147 6 .. 58
25 33.47 6,3 .20 14.55 55.25 0.8761 5.12

%V.C.: Vertical convergence as a percentage of extracted seam

heights
N·l. = Initial number of data points
Nr = Reduced data points
NLCC = Non-linear coefficient of correlation
SEE = Standard error of estim~te

c
193
 Table 5.3 Regression Analysis of ~~Relationship between Vertical
Convergence Profile wit~arrier Pillar Width
(B -Xb)
_ , V.C. = A[e --c-- ) + D

\ _\.
..............
Data obtained at every 50 arches A B C D

Photographie - AIl Materia l Roads 31. 98 33.60 2.742 31. 39

with Pillar
- All Coal Roads 23.85 52.00 2.646 44.29
with Pillar

;,.
In Situ Tape AlI Material Roads 32.40 33.60 3.540. 28.01
Measurements with Pillar ;
-
- AIl Coal Roads 27.07 52.00 2.588 45.22
with Pillar
A, C and D • Constants
B - Minimum Barrier Pillar Width used
x = Barrier Pillar Width
, V.C. s , Vert1cal Convergence.

Table 5.4 Regressl0n Analysls of Relatl0nshlps between Vertlcal

Convergence Profl1e with Dlstance from Face for L~ngan Mlne 1
% V.C. = A[l - e(-X/Bl) + C

a
Da ta obta lned at every 50 arches A B C
,
Photographlc - AU Materla1 Roads 16.88 50.64 16.73
Technlque - AU Coa1 Roads 32.50 84.94 10.79
- Coal Roads wlth Secondary 31. 91 52.15 12.84
Worklng in Parallel
(Second Phase)

, - Coa1 Roads without seco~~ 35.86 53.22 2.92

Worklng (First Phase) ,

In Si tu, - Al! Materia1 Roads 20.23 43.37 11. 46

Tape - AU Coal Roads 39.44 57.26 4.265
Measuremt.pts - Coa1 Roads with Secondary 34.40 55.23 11. 64
working in parallel
(Second Phase)
. -
- Coal Roads without Secondary 33.28 52.44 5.85
Working (FI,rst Phase)
ft~ !
''!J
A, Band C • COnstants
x • Distance trom Pace Line
, V.C. • , Vertical Convergence

194
 -....
+J
.r:.
CI
t20

, 10
!826F - Data obtained fram the photogr~phic technique.
C QI
:1:
E 100
826I - Data obtained fram the in situ measurements.
ni
QI
VI SlO

~
+J
>< 80
W
'f-
0
70

-1I~

u
QI
80

!sa
B26E
( c::
QI
826I
CI
"- 40
QI \
,-~
> \
c:: ::SO
0
u
.- 20
u"'
.,...
...."- 10
QI
::- 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Barrier pillar width (m)

Fig. 5.6 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus Barrier
Pillar Width for Data Obtained fram In Situ Measurements
and .the Photographie Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals
in all Goal Roads at No. 26 Colliery.

120
.....
.c T26F - Data obtained from the photographie technique .
CI 110
cv
:I::
T26r - Data obtained from the in situ measurements.
. VI
E
"'
QI
100

90
...... BO
X
lU
'f- 70

"-==-_______
0
~ 80
cv
u !SO
c:: T26F
cv
0\ 40
s...
cv
>
------====TZ61 - ' .
0
c:: ::so
U
r- 20
"'u 10
.....s...
cv 0
::-
40 60 Bc 100 120 140 160
Barrier Pillar width {m}

c Fig. 5.7 Comparis~n of Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus Barrier

Pillar ~idth for Data Obtalned from In Situ Measurements {
and the Whotographic Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals
in all Material Roads at No. 26 Colliery.
1

1 195
 o ,

\
\

\ \
\
• ~

...
,"

I·~., ...
)
·f-····
1 - Photographie Data
'~O
-
....,
..c
en
''''0
2. - ln Si tu Tape Measurement. ] Coal Roads

3 - Photographie Data
r-

'1 JO
4 - ~ Situ Tape Measurements ] Material Roads
'r-
(IJ
::I:
e 120
ni
(IJ
1,10 •
....,.
V')

100
x
L.I.I
90 ~
.... 4-
0
\D
~
80
0\
......
(IJ 70
·u
c
(IJ 60
en
s-
cv 50 2.
>
c
u
0 40

) r-
ni JO
...
U
..-
....,
s..
Q)
::-
20
10
"
0
30 so 70 90
Barrier Pillar Width (m)

Fig. 5.8 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus Barr;~r

Pilla~ Width for Data Obtained from In Situ' Measurements
? a~d the Photographie Technique at Every 50 Arch Intervals
in Co al Roacs and Material Roads at Lingan Mine.

....".~::l~~'''~~.,.'Ii'_~\~~t'':W2t'MWJ~~. ~~''_~r1:.
__________.....____ """" ~ ..... --,...- -- ... ~~ ~
 ~

""-

J,
. "
., -:
"
120

-
+0)
..c
Cl
.,..
110 M - In situ measurements at every 10 arch intervals.
F - Photographie technique at every 50 are~ intervals.
QI 100 ).
::t:
elU
QI
90
V)

+0) 80
x
LLI
4- 70 T12SH
0
T13SM
~
\0
....,
-
~

QI
U
60
....
c:
QI
50
Cl
s-
QI
> 40 T13NM
c:
0
u
.30
.....lU <
U
.,.. 20
+0) {
s-
QI
:> la
0
0 200 400 600 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
If> Fig. 5.9 Comparison of Vertical Convergence Profiles Versus Distance
---from Faeelines for the Individual Material Roads with Those
Obtained by the Photographie Technique for Combination of
All Material Roads at No. 26 Colliery.
 ~~
. '~i~"
1
"iià

~~'.
/'t ; ,
--
- --
+' 160
.a
.~ 150 ~ 1 - AlI Material Roads
2 - First Phase Coal Roads
~ 140
3 - Combination of First and Second Phase Coal Roads
8
cd
130 4 - Second Phase Goal Roads
QI
en 120 -
a
.2 110-
+' 1
~ 100-
"

b>:: 90 -
. ~ ~
.... 80 -
, ,0
~ç p~ 70 -
~,,-.""-'"'

....
\1)
Q)
u
60 ~

(XI a
Q) 50 -i "
. c

.::~f?C;
,tlI)
4
~ 3
.Q)
2 \
:>
r::
0
1
U 20 -
~
u
...... 10 --u T-
+'
~
Q) o -, , , - 1 --
".
:> 0 ,0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
i

2.4 2.8
o '
Distance from Face, (1000 x m)

Fig. S.IO Gomparison of the Vertical GO!1vè-gence Profiles Versus '"

the Distance from Face for Data obtained from Photographie
Technique at every 50 AJ:ch Intervals for Material and Goal
Roads in Lingan Mine. \
'Ii

~
 If one is interested in calculating the area closure
or volume closure, the photographie technique is perhaps the
only reliable technique which can provide the required
information, wi th the added bene fi t of giving the exact
deformed shapes of the tunnels as weIl. Fig. 5.11 illustrates
the area closure of the T8E material road in the Lingan Mine.
The graph reflects similar exponential trend as was indicated

by the vertical closure. However, care !UI~ be exercised

since the area or volume closure is not the best approach to
\
closure interpretation, because, in sorne cases, the difference

between the deformed area and the original area may be

negligible but with high vertical convergence. Hence, under
certain circumstances the application of the latter approach
for the stability analysis may be misleading.
Comparisons of the resul ts obtained from the
photographie technique with that measured in situ, indicate

that this technique gives a reliable results with reasonable

.
accuracy provided the graphs are accurately digitized.
Therefore y three sources of error may lead to inaccuracy:
1. Personnel error during digitizing of the photographs;
2. Personnel error due to scaling of the photographs during
\
..
ph9tographing (direction and angle of view);

3. Improper determination of the tunnel boundaries and their

marking prior to photographs being taken.

Points (11 and (2) could be eliminated by totally

c automatic digitizing. The photographie technique has the

199
 ., te
'-

-nJ
cu
100
~
<:
r-
nJ
c:
90 ,
.....0
.p)
80
u
Cl.I
V)

V)
1
70
V)
0
~
u 60
r-
Cl.I
c: ../
N c:
50
0
....
:::J
0
. ~

.....
C')
40
~
0
4-
0 30
-
~

~
Cl.I
:::J
20
V)
,0
r-
u 10
nJ
Cl.I
~
c:( 0 .,
0 1.4
~ Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m) ~

fig. 5.11 Area Closure Profile Versus Distance from ~~~e~ Tunnel
Faceline for T8E Material Road at Lingan Mine.
• advantage of being quick, relia1:>le/ sufficiently accurate and

economical. It also has the advantage of 1:>eing a simple

technique which may 1:>e ad,apted in remote mon:btor ing in
1

unfavorable conditions wheie other techniques cannot 1:>e

1

applied. It should however be borne in mind tbat this

technique has its limitation with regard to accuracy of

displacement measurement under l CID.

5. 5 COMMENTS ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE

In arder to improve the photographie technique for

more general use in deformation measurements, the following

comments are made:

1. Hang a white one meter scale rod at the deformed

pentreline of the arch to 1:>e photographed.

2. Hang a white one meter scale rad at the hinge of two

\

arches on the roof.

3. By using steps "1" and "2" we can determine bath vertical

o
displacement and lateral movement from one side to

another, for example, movement from rib-side to gob-side

or vice versa.

4. Use a white colour ta show the desired arch profile to a

level of exactly one meter a1:>ove the floor in both legs

which ~s the boundary more clear.

5. Use a ite T-shape one meter in height scale rod at the

tunnel flaor in sarne extension as the scale rod in no.

f

"1". This aiso helps to join the two sides of the tunnel

201
L

•
'" r •

boundary properly for digitizing purposes.

6. By a white colour show "RS" in the' rib-si~ and "GS" in

the gOb-side on the arch legs to be photographed.

7. The camera-arch distances both horizontally and vertical

:<
always must be kept constant. k.,

8. Photographs must be taken at a constant angle of view.

9. Photogr~phs must be taken in the same day for a complete

tunne1 length. Any delay in advancing the tunnel drivages

must be.taken into account.

10. It is assumed the rate of advance is constant along the

tunnel unless otherwise noted.

With respect to the above recommendations the following

measurements must be made:

a. Make in situ measurements together with taking a

photograph at every 5m (or at every 5 arch intervals) for"

the first '100 m distance from the facelin1' (NOM = 20).

b. Repeat step "a" at every 10 m {or at every 10 arch

intervalsr from 100 m t,o 200 m distance from the faceline,

(NOM =10) •

c. Repeat step lia" at every 20, m (or at every 20 arch

intervals) for the distance ffom 200 m to 500 m, (NOM =

15). These make the total nuJner of measurements, TNOM··

"
45 which are adèquate for access tunnels convergence

analysis with sufficient accuracy.

\
 "

c 5.6 CONCLUSION

Analysis of the deforma~ion survey da~a obtained from

the photographie technique and in situ tape measurements has

eharacterized the basic meehanisms of deformation. A

eomparison of the different survey techniques has indieated

~

that f?r general analysis the photographie technique can

provide sufficientIy aecurate data with the added benefit of

simplicity and speed. If the area elosure or volume elosure

L
.
together with the deformed shapes of the tunnels are also

desired, then' the photographie technique is perhaps the only

reliable method of approaeh whieh provides the required

information.
.
Suggested measurement frequeneie~ and reeording
t ,
intervals have been identified through extensive analysis of

the deformation qata obtained " using both the photographie and

in situ deformation surveys.

e i

c
203
1
• CHAPTER 6

FINITE ELEMENT ANAL VSIS

,

6.1 INTRODUCTION
./"-'
Based on the data obtained by the photographie

technique and in situ deformation'measurements, the effect of

vatious contributory factors and their interactions on tunnel

closures have been investigated and 'presented in Chapters 3

,
and 4. In some cases however, due to the narrow range of data,

the effect of su ch parameters as extracted seam height, panel

width and the tunnel size could not be examined, nor could the

influence which the material properties-may have on tunnel

closure be identified.
In recent years, particular atten~ion has been given to

the application of numerical modelling in longwall mining

design (for example,

j
peng and Hsiung, 1'982, Payne and Isaac,

1985 and Vervoort et al" 1987).

In this chapter, the aim is to investigate the effects

of the major contro~ling parameters in design of an advancing

longwall and their interactions on the stabil~ty of adjacent

access tunnels. The inve'stigation is based on comprehensive

parametric studies using the finite element method to

simulate the access tunnel.

A finite element model, called MSAP2D, for linear

..
elas~ic analysis of underground openings has been developed
t for use on microcomputer by Chau et al., (1987). The model is

\J '204
c designed to serve as a useful analysis tool for the mlning
engineer to conduct a 2-dimensional analysis of ~ultiple-

material domain surrounding a mining excavation for the

purpose of ~redicting areas of potential failure and critical

stress. The model accommodates any arbitrary geometry of the

opening and allows for a variety of loading conditions and

combinations which may be encountered in a mine environment

such as in si tu stress, gravi ty loading J and boundary

tractions. Material failure is checked by means of Drucker-

prager, Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek and Brown failure criteria.

'?
The model utilizes a 4-node quadrilateral isopara-
metric element and employs a mesh generating routine to

facili tate node and element data pre~~\tion. Element

1 )
stiffness matrix and consistent load vectors are evaluated
numerically using the Gauss quadrature rule. The discretized
equilibr ium equations are sol ved by a banded Gauss' sol ver
routine.

6.2 FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION

~
The finite element model MSAP2D is used to model the
access tunnel and the adjacent protective pillar and longwall

panel. Physical and mechanical properties of surro~nding

materials together with the gravit y loading have also been

incorporated in this analysis.
The dimensions of access tunnel, barrier pillar,
c longwal~ panel and their physical and
.
mechan1cal
,
....
propert1es
"

205
used in this simulation are summarized and presented in a

design matrix (Table 6.1). AJreferenee model based on the

intermediate va~ues (Fig. 6.1) has been first established and
1

used for the purpose of comparison. The surrounding rock mass

of the reference model has been eonsidered to be sandstone
with the following physical and meehanical properties:
J -
E=20 GPa, V=0.25, (Jc=60 :t,tPa, <1>=40°, ')'.": 25 KN/m 3 •

In aIl analyses, the surrounding strata are 'isotropie,

homogene us and follow a linear-elastic behaviour. - Due to
s~etry, only half of the total model i5 simulated. In order
to~ount situ stresses, an initial stress condition
has
n situ str,ess measurements in the Sydney
coalfield at a depth of approximately 600m indieate
0h=l.l to 1.2ov ' (Cain, 1986) a non-hydrostatic in litu

stress condition has been assumed, where, 0h=1.2 0v has

been seleeted.
Furthermore, the tunnel section has been assumed
unsupported, sinee the intention herein is to examine the
tunnel behaviour under the worst possible,conditions.

6. 3 PARAMETRIC STUDIES

6 • 3 • 1 SENSITIVITY ANAL VSIS

,
One of the important aspects of finite element
simulation is to a select proper number of elements for each
model~ This has an impact on both the'economy and the aecuraey

206
 1

\,
~

,C Table 6.1 Design _Matrix for Parame tric Studies

Wt(m) Wbp/Wt WofWt Er/Ec Er/E, Er/Et

6 10 24 1 l 1

4 10 24 1 1 1
5 10 24 1 1 1
7 10 24 1 1 1
8 10 24 1 1 1

6 6 24 1 1 1
6 14 24 1 1 l
6 24 - 24 1 1 1
6 10 ll< 1 1, l
6 10 34 1 1 1
6 10 42 1 1 l

,6 10 24 3 1 1
6
6 ;J 24
24
6
10
1
1
1
1
6 10 24 1 10 1
6 10 24 1 20 1
6 10 24 1 40 1
6 10 24 1 1 o. 5
6 10- 24 1 1 1.5
6 10 24 6 10 ,
0.5
6 10 ' 24 6 10 1 .0
6 10 24 6 10 1.5
:-

6 10 24 6 20 0.5
6- 10 24 6 20 1.0
6 1~ 24 6 20 1.5
)

Tunnels: Arch-, Circular- and Rectangu1ar- Shapes"

~c -14-18, r ~ -22-28,
. 16-22-28, 1-16-20,
g
(Units in KNim3 )
lIc-0.2-0.41" II r -0.2-0.3, v[-0.2-0.-3, lIg-0.3;0.4,

Ec-2 - 5 , Er":'10-30, Ef -lO-30, Eg-0.5-3, (Units in <Wa)

Cc~-!9, Cr -5-24, Cf-S-24, ég-O-0.03) , (Units in/MPa)
~e -30-40, ~ r -30-50, ~f-30-50,
g ~ -30-45 (Units in Degrees)
Note: r-Roof Strata, f-(loor Strata, c - Coal Pillar, g-Gaof Bro~en Rocks
- Wt-Tunnel Width, c~bP-Barrier Pillar Width, Wo-Panel Width
E-Modûius of Elastic~ty, Depth of cover-400m-800m

207
 fi,
~
"
1
.-J
1/"

-
..
Ground. Surf ace

II)DEL il "
-. Pl1rl1meterii :
'"
.
·U
.
t:1
Er.Eo.E, • Epie ,WH:' .lrp,R.;
Il Z , FI' H .' 1ft. Hl • Cil' G l
N
o
N
.,
CP
:

pi llar
.5 'fil
Fl (Patte 1) , pi Il 8t:'
" -

1
...
1
'=-====."
"
'r
" Fig. 6.1 Schematic Cross-Section of Access Tunnels in Langwall
Mining Technique -(Base Madel).
r

~
..
c of the -finite element analysis. In order to aCh~ this, a
sensitivity analysis has been first performed. /

Five different meshes with 100, 200, 300, 450, and 600
elements have been selected. These have been used to check

the cha~ges of maximum total vertical displacements in the

tunnels. The total number of elements around the immediate

tunnel walls, roof and floor have been plotted versus the
corresponding displacements (Fig. 6':-2). It 'can be seen tha\':
the displacement\ is linearly proportional to the number of
elements to a limit beyond which the rate of increase declines

towards a horizontally asyprntotic line. The change of the

maximum vertical displacernent between 300 and 600 element was

about 0.3 mm (3%). Therefore,
/
considering the little change
,
in
"
displacement, it has been found that selection of a 300-

element rnesh for the purpose of subsequent analysis is

adeguate.

6.3.2 EFFECT OF TUNNEL SHAPE

Thr~ ~ifferent tunnel shapes have been investigated

in order t~ntifY the differences due to the shape effects.
The geornetrical dimensions of the tunnels are summarized in
Table 6.1, while the corresponding finite element meshes are
shown in Fig. 6.3. Four di/ferent types of materials are taken

into account, namely a monolithic roof bed, a coal pillar,

goaf materials and a rnonolithic floor bed. The extracted panel

c which is filled with broken rock (goaf material) is simulated

with a Young's modulus of elasticity egual to 10 percent of

•

209
 '-

c et

\
\
l
.........
11.0
10.8
10.8
,.... 10.'"
e

,...
N
-e
E

:J
•
0
10.2
10.0
9.8
/
0
Ü
9.8
'0
Q'
9.'"
d:J
E
9.2
9.0
8.8
- • '1;-_-

'B -1 .. ~
::E 8.8
l
\.

8.4 ..., IY 1
l

8.2
S.O ,
10

F'ig.
30 so 70
Number of Elements Around the Immediate Tunnel Opening
6.2 Effect of Mesh Oensity on vertical Closure of
the Access Tunnel.
\
~
"
..................--------------------------~----------------­ )

a)

) o Il.... .. fr.. • 1 Uud D ,Ihod

c)

c o flnd • Ir.. • 1 n .." D ,

Fig. 6.3 Finite Element Mesh For Access Tunnels with

n .."

(a) Circular-Shape (b} Arch-Shape (c) Rec~

tangul ar-Shape.
211
• that of the

thickness of
intact roof

these materials
stratum.

with
The location and the

respect to the three

different tunnels have been illustrated in Fig. 6.4.

For the sake of comparison of displacements and

stresses around these tunnels, the surrounding materials are

assumed to have the same isotropie properties.

The displacement pattern around the tunnels (Fig. 6.5)

clearly indicate the different performance of each tunnel. The

circular tunnel exhibits higher lateral displacement than

vertical due to non-hydrostatic stress condition as was

mentioned previously. Hence, the original circular cross-

sectional shape after being subjected to high lateral stress

has been deformed ta elliptical shape with major axis being in

the vertical direction. The arch-shape tunnel responds with

;
almost uniform distribution of displacements around the arch

but higher displacement at f1oar. The high vertical movement

at tunnel invert known as the floor heave can be described as

a bearn-action due to floor ,unloading. It is important to

notice that the effect of high lateral stress has not been

manifested in the arch-shape tunnel. This has a practical

implicatjon in the selection of proper shape of tunnel for a

specifie mine environ~ent (stress-field). The floor appears

tg contribute 64% of the total tunnel closure. Comparison of

;

1- total vertical closure between the circular- and arch-shapes

tunnels indicat~s a 10% tq l~% greater vertical displacements

produced by the arch-shape.

212
 /

MATL
:c

c Fig. 6.4 Assumed Type of MateNals Around the Access Tunnels. '

213
 - ......
. ....
. .. ....

.. ..

.. .
••• 411 • • • • Il • ...
. '
··
·
··· '.

,
B
~
! .
,j
1

· ... , .,
• • • •
,, .
, .
··• ··
, .. ..... ... .... ...
: ,~IIJr/l \1,ln, 1
·: f ~JI '~\"I

• .
.III'~\""
, ""
"
·
• ,.

Fig. 6.5 Effect of Shape on the Distribution of Displacements

Around the Access Tunnels.
214
, The rectangular tunnel indicates a totally different

displacement pattern with high vertical displacements. 'the

tunnel floor and roof contribute 54% and 46% bf total vertical
displacem~nt respectively. The 8% difference in displacements

is due to the difference in vertical loading at tunnel roof

and tunnel floor. This rectangular-shape tunnel exhibits 10%

and 25% greater vertical closure than the arch- and circular-
,shapes respecti vely. The profile of these displace-ments

exhibits a curved-shape with the maximum being at the middle

of tunne~ floor (for both arch shape and rectangular shape)

and the minimum value at the corners.

By comparison of the displacements arcund the three

different shapes it can be concluded that for non-hydrostatic

stress-field the arch-shape tunnel is preferable, whereas the

circular tunnel shows high lateral' closure and the rectangular

..
one indicates the worst condition .

6.3.3 EFFECT OF TUNNEL SHAPE ON FAILURE PATTERN

AND STRESS DISTRI8UTION

The stress distribution around an opening depends upon

the shape of the opening, the loading cond i tion and the

-defàrmation properties of the surrounding rock masses.

Fig. 6.6 shows the stress distribution around three different

openings. The circular tunnel shows compressive stress at both

roof and flocr whereas a tensile stress pattern is growing at

the springlines. These arr,~ due to the high lateral stress.

The tangential stress at tftè tunnel wall reaches its maximum

215
 CPP56.0C5 (600)

++++++++++++
+ +
++++++++++++
+ + +
or-+- -+- + +" + + + + -1- -1- .,.. ""'1- .,.. -1-
or or '1- -1-
-1-
or -1-

+
!0\-
-1- +(
-1-
or +
'1-
+ -+-or +
+ + + + +

+++++++ + + + + +
+ +
"1- +
+ +
+ +
+ +

+ +

i +t
+
"""
+
...
.... +
... """ +
+
+

... + + + + + + + + + +
+
+++++++ +++ ++
... ... + +
.,..
+
.,..
... ...... ~~X + ~ ..............................."I-
+

i ~ nfr
+ ... J( J!XXK---......... ~y.."'>t y..
+
....

-]H ~
+
+
... "1- + +
t
+
+ ! ~~
.,..i Jj ! t l~\~-:.-~X~xx
'I.'I.'lI. ......... _ _ _ ........ .. Z ....+ +
.Ir -+-
i+
+ +'1- ................... _ K X X ... + .... +
+ ++ + .... ..... ... ... + .. ... +""" ...
++ + ... + +
Fig. 6.6 Effect of Shape on the Distribution of Principal
Stresses Around the Access Tunnels.

216

._----------- -
 c value. Therefore, the stress concentration factor which is
- defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the pre-mining

vertical stress is also high.

The stress distribution around the arch-shape tunnel

is similar to that of the circular with the exception that

tensile stress appears at the floor and high stress

-
concentrations are at the corners. The rectangular opening

shows higher stress concentration at the corners and also

tensile stress at the floor. It has been found that the

difference in stress distribution around the three different

tunnels due to the shape effect vanishes after 1.10 or 1.lWt

in which "0" and Wt are diameter and width of tunnels

-respectively (Fig. 6.6). This may have an implication for the

failure consideration of the surrounding rock massos.

Fig. 6.7 represents the safety levels around the three

--
tunnels using the ~ohr-Coulomb failure criterion with the

following strength propertiesi

inherent cohesive strength (c) = 2 MPa

interna! frictiona! resistance (~) = 35°

The extent of the failedjcritical zones both at the,

roof and floor of the rectangular tunnel has been observed to

be more than that in the other two tunnels.

6 • 3 • 4 EFFECT OF TUNNEL SIZE

The choice of proper dimensions for any underground

c opening design is a major consideration of safety and economy.

Finite element simulation has been performed in order to

l 217
,. CPPa6.OC5 (600) SAFETY
LEVEL

FAIlED

CRITICAL 'v

m
SAFE

FAILED

m
CRITICAI,.

SAFE

FAILED

CRITICAL

m
SAFE

~
Fig. 6.7 Effect of Shape on the Mode of Failure and Extent
of Failed Zcne Around the Access Tunnels.

218
c of tunnel size on, the stress

concentration in a critical element at the immediate rib side

of tunnel wall. Fig. 6.8 represents the variation of vertical

stress concentration from the tunnel wall towards the pillar

center for different tunnel sizes. It clearly indicates the

size dependency of the stresses around the opening. The

following tunnel dimensions have been used for the simulation:

Wt =4, 5, 6, 7, 8 m and h l= 3.2, 3.6, 4, 4.6 and ç' 5.2 ID

respectively, where "hl" is tunnel height. Fig. 6.8 shows

that the size-dependency of the stresses become negligible

after a distance of approximately 2.5 Wl from the' tunnel

wall. It also illustrates that the larger the tunnel size the

higher, the stress concentration factor within the limited

distance (2.5 Wl ) . More clearly, this size-dependency may

also be shawn as in Fig. 6.9. It indicates that the increase

of stress concentration is a linear function of the tunnel

width~ "',

6. 3 .5 EFFECT OF PANEL WIDTH

Investigation of the panel size effect on the stress

distribution by finite element simulation is now considered.

Soon after the panel is extracted the face powered supports

are repositioned, the panel is filled with broken rock. Hence,

the panel is assumed ta have received a new rnaterial with

different mechanical properties. For this broken rqck, a

rnodulus of elasticity equal ta 10% of that of the original

219
 •
"-

2 ....
2.3
2.2
... 2.1
~
:.c: 2.0
1.9

1
:1c:
,1.8
1.7
1.8
of Acc.s. TUnnel-8 m

8 1.!S'

...enl' 1....
1.3
l'} Ü 1.2
u
1: 1.1
~
1.0
0.9 Width of Aceass Tunnal-4 m
0.8
.. 1 0.0 2.0 .....0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 1 .....0 18.0
DIRanc. From Tunnel wall, (m)

Fig. 6.8 Effect of Tunnel Size on the Distribution of

Stress Concentration on the Barrier Pillar in
Longwall Mining.

3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
~ 2.8
:. 2.S
2 ....
c:

1•
u
c
2.3
2!2
2.1
2.0
8 1.8 '1
1.8
1
in
1.7
".8
g 1.S
1: f ....
~ 1.3
1.2
'.1
1.0

o 2
Tunnel Wldth(m)
a

Fig. 6.9 Relationship between Vertical Stress

Concentration and Access Tunnel Width.
220
,
l
~ --
0:
Î.
t

~'. rock has b~en assumed c?nstant, while the panel

width is changed. Fig. 6:' f~ reflects the verticàl stress
'"
distribution in a critical eiement at the immediate ribside
,t~
:\ tunnel wall. The results suggest that the change of vertical
~: ~ )
...." stress in", the pillar due to increasing' the panel width is
'r~.
~: small. This change disappears after a distance of
approximately 1..lWI when the depth of cover be.low the ground
r
.
ie surface is 500 m.
~
In conclusion it may be said that wider panels (panel

~ widthjdepth of cover ratio greater than' 0.4 ) will not

'r
seriously disturb the access tunnel performance. This is true
,\ q &.
:r'... provided the ratio of panel height to the depth of ,cover is
v ..
f: within the range examined herein (0.005). It shoqlo be noted ~
f'
i
that in this case the tunnel deformation is not syrnmetric at
b' I~

~,' the.vertical axis (see section 6.3.8). This is due to the

~ lower stiffness;of the goaf.~

" 6 • 3 • 6 EFFECT OF BARRIER PILLAR WIDTH

à
It has beèn shown in the previous chapte!s that the
1

t,.~ ~Aarrier pillar is the only natural support which takes the
majority of the redistributed stresses. Hence, calculation of
the optimum barrier pillar size is vital principally from the
economy point of view and to avoid the fear of excessive
ground subs idence. This has been simulated for the

geometrical information provided in Table 6.1. The results of

redistributed stresses for a critical element at the i~~ediate

ribside of tunnel wall were plotted and have in Fig. 6.11.

221
 ~

~
_ ,4
"-

.' \II l ,t:>

...
2.2
2.1
2.0
-t
a2
1.9
Panel width.. 254 m
)
c 1.8
0

1.,
c
1.7
1.5
204 m
u
c 1.S
0
0 ~44 m
1.04-
J
UJ
1.3

g
u
1.2
1.1
Panel W\dth- 84 m •- -
~
~
't9
0.8
0.8
0 2 04- e 8
Dt.tance From Tunnel Wall (ml"

Fig. 6.10 Effect of Extracted Panel Width on Vertical--

Stress Concentration of the Barrier Pillar.

2.2 f
..
2.1
2.0
~ 1.9
of Barrier Pillar-J6 m
.f
c 1.8
0

- l3
c
1,.7
1.5
1.S
S 1.04-
j 1.3
1.2
..
"6
" t.1
i 1.0 Barrier Pillar-144 m
0.9 ('
0.8
0 2 .... 6 es 10 12 ,... ~~

rn··-
,... Ol.tance From Tunnel Wall (m)

Fig. 6.11 Effect of Barrier Pillar Width on Vertical

Stress Concentration Around Access Tunnels.
222
• The graphs indicate that the wider the pillar the. lower the

vertical stress for the first 10 m of the pillar width from

the tunnel wall, afterwards the differences become negligible.
;

It may be concluded that the contribution of the pillar by

increasing its width has a limit beyond which it has no more

role for taking more load.

6. 3 .7 EFFECT OF EXTRACTED SEAM HEIGHT

This effect may not be separated flôom the panel

function since it is the height of extracted panel. However,
it plays an important role in longwall mining ev en if the
panel width is kept constant. In this finitè elernent
simulation the extracted s~am height was selected as be~ng

0.5, l, 2 and 3 m. The extracted space is assurned to be filled

with broken rocks due to roof caving as mentioned earlier.
Therefore, a reduced modulus of elastici ty of 10% of the

Origiral rock was also assigned. Table 6.1 shows the

geometrical information for the input data, w~ile Fig. 6.12
répresents the exponential post-mining vertical stress
distribution in terms of stress concentration factor on the
1

pillar. I~ clearly indicates that by extraction of the searn

height the stress concentration sharply increas~s, then the
-
changes wi th further increase of this height becorne less
(\

pronounced. The effect of these changes also becomes

insignific;:ant after a distance of 1.lWl m from the tunnel
c wall towards the centre of pillar. Fig. 6.13 reflects the

223
• .~
2.2
2.1 hss Extracted Seam Height (m)
2.0

~ 1.a
c
0 1.8

18 1.7

1.8

1.!5

1 1.04-

1
:>
1.3

1.2

1.1
1.0
0 2 04- e .,
DI.tance From Tunnel Wall Cm)

-Fig. 6.12 Effect of Extracted Seam Height on Vertical

Stress Concentration Around Access Tunnel s.
\
2.4

2.3
t; -- --
2.2
~ 2.1 i'

i - 2.0
~--------

J 1.9

).

1
1.8

1.1
..

1 1.8

1.0

1.04-
0 1 2 J

S EJctract.d SeGm He/COIht (m)

Fig. 6.13 Relationship between Maximum Vertical Stress

1
Concentration Around the Access'Tunnel and
Extracted Searn Height in longwal1 Mining.
224
 c variation of vertical stress concentration with respect to the
,extracted seam height (or the height of broken rock filled in
place). The trend of the curve exhibits a non~linear stress

distribution wi th the extracted seam height. It can be

concluded that the effect of extractedseam height filled

with the broken rock on the stress concentration follows a

power law.

6 • 3 • 8 EFF'ECT OF ROCK MASS STIFFNESS

The effect of modulus of elasticity of the surrounding

rock strata is now considered. A constant and equal value-of

modulus of elasticity for both roof and floor strata have been

assumed (Er=Ef=20 G?a). Also the modulus of elasticity of

broken rock in the goaf area after seam extraction is taken to

10% of ~ and is kept constant.

Using different moduli of elasticity for coal pillar

~

in each model (Ee = 2.5, 3.5, 4.5 GPa), the variation of

vertical stress concentration wi th respect to modul us of

elasticity of coal can be obtained. Fig. 6.14 ind~cates that

the incre~se of vertical stress concentration on the adjacent

pillar of the tunnel is linearly proportional to the mo~ulus

of elasticity of the pillar. If the mOdulilof elasticity of

the coal pillar, broken rock in goaf and the)floor stratum are
1
kept co nstant then the variation of vertical stress

concen~ration on the pillar takes an exponential forro and

c decreasing with an increase in the roof modulus as shown by

curve 1 (Fig. 6.15). Changing the floor modulus and keeping

l / 225
 o

• ...
1.8

1.7
0

l c
1.S

:8
,g 1.!5
c
8c
0 1.4-
()

J
"0
u
1.3

1.2
1:
~
1.1

r 2 2.8 3.2 3.8

Ec (Gpa)
4- 4.4 4.8

1
'/1
Fig. 6.14 Relationship between Maximum Vertical Stress
Concentrat ion Around the Access Tunnel and
Modulus of Elas~icity of the Barrier Pillar.
.;

1.8

1.7
1.

~
~ 1.8
c

i.-
c
u
1.15

c 1.4
0
U

..e
'1
CI)
1.3

"0 1.2
=Ë
~
1.1

1
0- " 10 20 30 .. 0

t Er and Et CGPa)
Fig. 6.15 Relationship between Maximum Vertical Stress
Concentration Around the Access Tunnel and
Modulus of Elasticity of (1) Roof (2) Floor
Strata in Longwall Mining.
226
 • the rest constant g~ves the variation of stress concentration
-as i11ustrated by curve 2 (Fig. 6.15). The stiffer the roof
and floor the less vertical stress concentration on the coal
pillar can be observed.
The effect of moduli of elasticity of surrounding rock

mass may be more clearly illustrated by Figs. 6.16a-6.16c.

r

Fig. 6.16 shows the displacement pattern of the tunnel wall

for three different conditions. Fig. 6.16a represents the

tunnel closure when aIl the surrounding rock masses are

assumed to have the same modulus of elasticity. Whi,le,

Fig. 6.1Gb reflects the tunnel closure when the broken

material of the panel is assumed to have an elastic mudulus of
10% of the rest of surrounding rock masses. Finally,

Fig. 6.16c illustrates the tunnel closure when the coal pillar
and the broken material have moduli of elasticity of 20% and
10% respectively of the roof and floor strata. These

indicate that the softer materials exhibit larger displace-

ments. This causes tilting of the roof rock strata and non-
symmetrical loading distribution around the tunnel.
The combined effects of mechanical properties and
elastic moduli of the surrounding rock masses is also

investigated from the safety point of view, hence, the process

of the progressive failure and the extend of yield zone around

the tunnel is examined and illustrated in Fig. 6.17.

It may be inferred that the elastic modu1i of the
~

surrounding rock~masses are the major controlling factors of

l 227
• a)

l 1 /
/"
'
/

-- --
.,..,...,.

f J l
--
b)

\, ,
-- -

f ! l ----\
\ \ \
c)

- -----
7ÎIIII '1
Fig. 6.16 Comparison of Oisplacement Distribution in Access
Tunnels of (a) Surrounding Materials are Isotropie
(b) Broken Rocks in Panel Behave Different, (c)
Roof and Floor are the Same.
228
, - SAFETY
LE'IEL

fAILEO

CRITICAL

SAfE

FAILEO
~
~

CRITICAL

~
SAFE

F/.lLEO

Il
CRITICAL

~
SAFE

~
--~ .
c
Fig. 6.17 Mode of Failure and extent of Failed Zone around
Access Tùnnels in Longwall Mining.
229
 - ----- ----------------------------------

tunnel closure. This may cause non-symmetrical loading

distribution around the tunnel. Hence, the vertical stress
.'
concentration factor on the pillar is also a function of
elastic moduli of roof and floor strata, goaf materials and
the coal pillar.

6.4 CONCLUSION

A two-dimensional finite element program (MSAP2D) has

been used to simulate two access tunnels by taking the
intervening barrier pillar, ad;acent longwall dimensions and
their deformation properties into account. Both ~oof and floor

have each been considered as a monolithic ,stratum. The

analysis of the tunnel models simulated in this study leads
to the following concluding remarks:

1. In a non-hydrostatic stress-field, where O'h=1.20'v'

the arch-shape tunnel performance is preferable to the

circular and the rectangular tunnels.

2. The stress distribution around the tunnel is tunnel-shape

dependent. This shape-dependency becomes insignificant

after a distance of 1.10 or 1.1Wt away from the edge of

the tunnel.

3. ~he stress distribution is tunnel-size dependent. This

dependency is insignificant after a distance of 2.5~

away from the tunnel wall. It has been found that stress
concentration factor is a linear function of the tunnel
width.

4. The panel Width/det of cover ratio greater than 0.4

, 230
 (
without seriously disturbing the access tunnel performance
.;
can be achieved, provided the the ratio of extracted searn

height/depth of cover is kept very srnall (say 1/200).

5. The effect of ~eam height simulated as a height of broken

rock with a modulus of elasticity of 10 percent of the

original rock. This exhibi ts an increase in stress

concentration follo~ing a power law.

6. The elastic moduli of the surrounding rock masses have an

important influence on the stress concentration. This may

cause a non-symmetrical loading distribution around the

tunnel.

. /

. ,

c
1
 CHAPTER 7

THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A TUNNEL CONVERGENCE EQUATION 1"

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter, is to presen~ a

theoretical development of tunnel convergence analysis

applicable to both single tunnel and multiple tunnel of
longwall mining.

In order to analyze the stresses around minin.g

excavations, Krauland (1971) gives a comprehensive review of

the methods for analyzing elastic and non-elastic stresses

around mining tunnels using various strata behaviour models.
The elastic solutions permit the céHculation of
radial, tangential and shea~ stresses within the ei~stic rock
l'
mass. Fig. 7.1a illustrates the variation of the induced
stresses with increasing distance from the spring-line, and at
the crown of a circular tunnel.
When the induced stresses reach a certain critical
level, failure of the rock mass occurs, resul ting in the
formation of a yield zone (Fig. 7.1b). For effective design
of the tunnel and lining, which is required when a fai~ure

zone is presen~, it is essential to determine the extent of

the yield zone and the distribution of stresses inside and
outside this zon~

",
Various methods exist for the determination
of the induced stresses under such conditions. The concept of
yield zone was originally examined by Fenner (1936)"'. The

232
 /"-
"\
~~-( \
ELAS"l'IC ZONE
\
" ,/
Ir--_LL
DEFORl.ŒP STATE

PLASTIC ZONE

c Fig. 7.1b
EUSTIC-PLASTIC BOUNDARY

Idealized Formation of Plastic Zone Around an

Axisymmetric Single Circular Tunnel.
J
\
" 233
extent of the plastic zpne was studied by Kastner (1949). The

work of Fenner and Kastner has been extended by many

investigators and a number of theoretical and empirical

solutions for the determination of state of stress and strain

r

around circular opening in rock masses have been proposed.

For example Bray (1967), Ladanayi (~974), Wilson (1977, 1980,

1983), Hoek and Brown (1980) and Brown et al. (1983) have
developed thebretical design criteria to_calculate the radius

of a fracture zone and the state of stresses, and to predict

tunnel closure. A comparative study of the above-mentioned

theoretical solutions with the results of in situ measurements

have been given by Whittaker et al. (1983). The latter authors

showed that aIl these solutions underestimate the tunnel

closure because the effect of longwall extraction has not been

taken into account. A brief discussion is presented in order

to highlight the corresponding assumptions together with the

parameters involved.

Bray's formula (1967) was based upon the theory of

limiting equilibrium for finely jointed rock masse The stress

\
distribution in the fractured zone has been derived from the

assumption that the shear resistance on the fracture surface

is purely frictional (i. e. Ladanyi (1974) in the

development of a design criterion considered a long-term

strength concept of the rock surrounding' the tunnel

excavation. Ladanyi' s closed form solution offers the

advantage of taking into account 'a number of signifîcant

234
 7 5' If' 1

f·
'-.
characteristics of the rock mass, such as its linear or non-
linear failure criterion, and th~ post- failure reduction of
"
~~stre~gth associated with the volume dilation, as weIl as its
strength decrease with time.
wilson's formula (1983) was originally derived from
r the basis of theoretical considerations which have been

r modified to consider the empirical observations from the

1
','
British coal mining environment.
Oc Wilson takes one fifth of the
For in situ application of
laboratory determined
r",
Î,
uniaxial compressive strength of small sample into account. He
"
also assumes that the angle of internaI friction of intact
•
!Fol • rock remains unchanged for the post-failure condition.
Hoek and Brown (1980) and Brown et al. (1983) based
their formula"· upon an empirically derived failure criterion
",
il
(Hoek and Brown, 1980) which takes the post-failure strength
reduction into account.
The a forementioned formu1ae, however, have the
1imj,tation of giving c10sure at on1y one point a10ng the
'tunnel length. Therefore, none of them can be used to predict
the tunnel convergence profile along the tunnel. They also
c,

high1y underestimate the tunnel ,.convergence

. as compared with
in situ measurements (Whittaker et al, 1983).

.." The empirical approach proposed by Pan et (1979), and

, .
extended by Guenot et al. (1985), Sulem et al. (1987) and
Barlow and Kaiser (1987) gives the convergence as a function
of distance from face and time. However, this' approach has the
,
limitation of being applicable only to a single tunnel. Henca,

235
.
f
J
• {

the effects of longwall extraction and in situ structural

defects have not been taken into account. In review of the

afo~ementioned formulae and their limitations, the development

of a new theoretical criterion to reduce or to eliminate the

above-mentioned drawbacks for prediction of radius of the

yield zone and tunnel convergence was felt essential for the

coal mining environment. Hence, in the following section a

theoretical formulation is proposed.

7 • 2 A THEORETICAL APPROACH FOR THE ,DETERMINATION OF A VIELD ZONE

\

Jaeger, (1976) introduced an analysis of a case, in

which the rock contains well-defined, parallel planes of

weakness whose normals are inclined at an angle e (Fig. 7".2)

to the major principal stress direction (measured counter-

clock-wise from ~-direction). Each plane of weakness has a

limi ting shear strength defined by the Mohr-Coulomb failure

criterioni
1
1 = C + On tanct> (7.1)

Slip on the plane of weakness becomes incipient when

the shear stress on the plane, 1, becomes equal to, or

greater than the shear'strength. -The stress transformation

equations give the normal and shear stresses on the plane of

weakness as follows:
1

(7.2) ,

236
 -.
, ,-. ••
, -.

Fig .7.2 Shear f ai 1ure on plane é.. b

f
"~~

237

?
 • where 0, ; °3 = Tm (maximum sh~ar stress).
. . (7.3)

,The relationship of the cohesion, C, and the uniaxial

. compressive strength, oc' can be written in the following

form:

Ge(l - sinep)
C = 2cos<p' (7.4)

Substituting Eqso(7.2), (7.3) and (7.4) into Eq.(7.l)

after simplification results; t
{705)

If e = (n/4+ct>/2) then sin (2 a-ct» reduces to unityo

Fail ure requirement can be stated as 4> < e < nj 2 hence,
failure does not take place when (a = 4» or (a=7Tj2) 0

- Employing Eqo (7.3) to a 1aboratory uniaxial stress condition

for a solid sample where 03=0 and G1=ocl' givEl)s:

(706)
i

Similarly, f~r a rock sample with ~iscontinuity, the stress

required to produce displacement leads to the following
equation:

2T d
°cd == cosepd (1..7)

,
According to Bishop (1972), the actual or the maximum strength
lies betwe~~ ~thé two limits of the peak and the residual

!l
 values. Renee, the in situ uniaxial compressive strength,
c 0el' can
.."
be obtained if ~~h~_
~
ratio of Eq. (7.7) to

Eq. (7.6) is used as an in situ structural defect index 1 Id'

This results

(7.8)

in which

TdCOS4>s
Id = TsCOS4>d
(7.Sa)

where ~, ~ and ~, ~ are shear strengths and

angles of internaI friction of defected sample and laboratory

solid sample respectively. An al ternative approach to /
/

approximate the in situ structural defect ind,~, :4,/ can

also be achieved i f in si tu discontinui ty information is ,.
obtained from the cOFe log. This can be proposed by'- the
following empirical equation:

(7.9)

in which; nd, = number of discontinuities or structural

defects per meter of core log ( or per meter of tunnel

height) • "ail represents the slope of log(Id/cosœ) versus

number of discontinuities per meter of tunnel height. œ =

maximum inclination of structural defects with} horizontal in )
degrees. whereas, and l d =1 for
\

Iaboratory solid samples when nd=O. The relationship between

RQD and average number of' discontinui ties was previously
( investiqated by Priest and Hudson (1976) which also revealed a

239
 \':>

• negative exponential function.

By taking, the above assumption and replacing Oc

r with from Eq. (7 .8) we may now

Eq. (7.5) to obtain a modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

further reduc.e

(7.10)

It is àssumed that the fail'tre of rock mass due to

excavation takes place gradually and progressively from tunnel
wall wi thin the original rock mass. Ifence, Id becomes
-'Ii6
increasingly smaller from the p,lastic-elastic boundary towards

the tunnel wall. For this reason, in the plastic zone Id is

replaced by a weakening index, Iw' to "" the post-failure

ta~
'J'
strength reduction into account too. with regard to this
assumption the failure criterion- applicable to the broken
).
material in the triaxial stress condition can be' written in
the fOllowing (orm;

(7.11)

in which;

(7.12)

Where Tb' ~ are shearing strengths

1"
and angles of friction of broken and original in situ rock

masses respectively, and 0 S Iw S Id.

Eqs. (7.10)' and (7.11) are useful expressions of

~odified failure ~riteria applicable to both the original rock

,240
• mass and broken materials (Figs. 7.3,7.4).
Such failure criteria in triaxial compression are used
for the yield ~one formulation and derivation of the governing
equations of the radial and tan~ential stresses. Furthermore,
~ ,
//<f~ ;~
they' ye also used ta derive theoretical formula for
predicting tunnel closure in access tunnels of longwall mining
"'f

with the following ~ssumptions:

1. virgin stress field is hydrostatic;
2. Plane strain conditions exist with the major principal
stress circumferential (oe)' the minor principal

stress radial (or)' and the intermediate principal

stress (oz) longitudinal;

3. The tunnel has a circular cross section;

4. It is driven in a homogeneous, isotropie rock masse
There are several parameters involved in the
formulation of convergence equation and the corresponding
yield zone and stress determinations. These parameters and
their corresponding symbols, are listed below:
q = overburden pressure;
laboratory-determined, compressive strength
Oc -:;::
/
Il
of intact rock;

ks = triaxial stress of intact rock;

~ ~ = triaxial stress factor of broken rock;

<l>s = 'angle of internaI friction of intact rock;

<l>b = angle of internaI friction of broken rock;

)

Ps = support resistance;

ri = initial radius of the tunnel at undeformed state:

241
• A
..

•
b·
1
b

E
Fig. 7.3 Ideal ized ·El ast1c-Brittle-Pl astic Stress-Strain
Model (After Brown et al., 1983).

"

C0'lflnlng Pressure

Fig. 7.4 Assumed Failure Criterion in Triaxial Compression.

242,
 rp = radius of the plastic zone;

For the case of cylindrical symmetry, the differential

equation of equilibrium i5

(7.13 )

In the plastic zone, the failure criterion applicable

to the broken rock, must be satisfied. Hence, sUbstituting

Eq.(7.11) into Eq.(7.13) and satisfying the boundary condi-

tions r = = (Jrp at r = rp after

~t~gration and-required simplification yields the following

. t i o n for radial str,ess in the plastic zone, that is at

r ,.

(7.14)
"

Equatioh representing tangential stress distribution

in the plastic zone at r<rp can be calculated by recalling

Eq. (7.11) and sUbstituting for or from Eq. (7.14)

(7.15)
fi"

.C It mu~t be borne in mind that the failure criterion 'of

243
J

the original rock mass must also be satisfied at the ~nternal

./
boundary of the elastic zone, that is at r = rp.

Satisfying Eq.(7.13) for linear-elastic behaviour and

the boundary condition 0r=arp at r=rp and 0r=q at r=oo resul ts

"" '

in the followi,ng equations for the !?tresses in the plastic

zone:

(7.16)
(-.

(7.17)

From Eqs. (7.16) and (7.17) the principal stress

difference can be written as follows:

(7.18 )

)
Substituting for a( =,.. aep and ,a3 = (Jrp in Eq. (7.10) and

equating the right hand sides of Eqs.(7.18) and (7.10) after

simplifications leads to the equation of radial stress at the

plastic~rlastic boundary:

(7.19 )

In order to der ive the-governing equations of pred~cting

, tangéntial strèsses at the plastic-elastic boundary, that is

at r = rp let a(=aep represent tangential stress at the

~

internaI boundary of the plastic zone and o(=cr ee be the

tangential stress at the internaI boundary of the elastic

244
c zone. Recalling Eq.(7.10) and substituting for o~:== 0rp ,from

Eq.(7.19) and by properly assigning rock properties (solid or

broken) gives:

0ep

oSe
= ~(l-sin4>s) (q-!IdOc )+ Iwoc

= ~(l+sin4>s) (q-~IdOc)+ IdOc

l (7.20)

(7.21)

Ir
Equating the right hand side of Eqs.(7.14) and (7.19) after

simplffication gives the equation for predicting the radius of

the pla&tic zone (~) around a single circular tunnel in a

1
hydrostatic stress field:

(7 . 22)

For the case when cohesion of the materials in the

elastic zone is zero, the term related to trle "I w' in the

Eq.(7.22) vanishes. This formulation is based on the elastic-

brittle-plastic model. The advantage of Eq.(7.22) is that many

parameters together, with that of the post failure behaviour

and an in situ strength reduction factor have been taken into

1
(

account. Fig. 7.5 illustrates the variation of predicted

radius\of the plastic zone for different support resistance

\
with depth of cover based on Eq.(7.22).

Based on the finite element stress analysis presented

"
in Chapter 6, the shape effect of the opening vanishes after
( .1

1.1 D from the tunnel wall. It has been also shown that there
ft
--

v-

p s ssO
•
•6

1t

t
€'

'"
1 1
20 40
Overburden Pressure (MPCI)
.
Fig. 7.5 Variation of Radius of the Yield Zone "
Around an
AXisymmetric single circular Tunnel.
\
 j

• is no significant difference between arch-shape tunnel and

circular tunnel in tenns of stresses and displacemen,ts around

the immediate opening, except at the tunnel invert. The

,deformation at the floor of arch-shape tunnel is more

pronounced than that .:-: in a, circular tunnel. This is due to

higher stress concentration at the corners and'also due to the

bending of the floor because of its beam-like behaviour. This

causes CI. 10% to 15% greater vertical convergence to be

~
produced in arch-shape tunnels as compared with that in' the

circular one (see Chapter 6). The stress concentration will

also increase as the panel is extracted.

The following empirical equation as a stress concentra-

tion criterion in longwall mining has been established. It is

,
•
based on the finite elernent stress analysis and the ïn situ

deformation measurements as presented in chapters 3, 4; 5, 6:

M, = { [ 0.08 (h,)O.S; + 0.7 J{ :; (O. O,02W,) r' + 1 } (7.23)

where hs is the extracted seam height, Ep and Eg are the

L,.
moduli of elasticity ~of pillar and goaf materials respectively

and Wo is the width of extracted panel.

Eq.(7.23) indicates that the pre-mining stress (q) in

Eq. (7.22) has been increased by a factor Mc due to panel

'extraction. Taking this into aCEount Eq."C7. 22) can b~ modified

as follows:

247
'J

o
rp =

Eq. (7.24) can be used to predict the radius of the

plastic zone around an access tunnel in longwall mining.

The resul twill also be used to establish a new

criterion torothe barrier pill~r design in further contribu-

tion to the longwall mining technique, particularly to coal

mining industry (see Chapter 8).

) In order to der ive equations predicting radial and

tangential stresses in the elastic zone recall Eqs. (7.16) ,

r

(7.17) and substitutin'g for 0rp and- rp froID Eqs. (7.19) and

(7.24) respectively leads

\ .
(7.25)
\

(7.26)

Where~

(7.27)

[ (Mcq-!IdOC ) (1-sin~s) (l<t;:f- 1 ) sin~b + Iwoc]

(7.28)
[Ps (~+l) sinct>b + ,IwOc]

Fig. 7.6 represents distribution of the radial and tangential

stresses wit,h depth of cover in the elastic zone, at the

plastic-elastic boundary and in the elastic zone based on

o . stress equations derived in this section .
,;J

248
 _. C)Jt:_~ ...... ~~V\l4 ....~~... 'T:a; . . 9",,'iIiP~~
" --r;--....... «... . '\Lf'..... ·"
-t.t~ ~ ~g~;~ ~'~~,.~ .~....:

'. ""
~-"''tI;-O'" V , r"~t5
... "

..
26 -t ....
"..

, ,
Il 24
.
.. """ 22 -1 -il! C>

~
0
~ -
:1
fi)
q)
fi)
20 -1

18 1... · Wp
p

......
0

(1).
<;,
l'le
e ' -16 '" ~

'"
~

ut
0 14 l'

lIJ :0 ;.
0 12
,
.eo. 0:
\0 "-
'0
C
0
10 -:1 "
ë 8
:;:;
cQ)
0)
6
c
{!. 4~ -/ /o~ ·r~
2...1 ./ ~

<'
"
0
1 :3 5 7 9 11 13 1~ .
Distance >from the Centre of Tunnel (r/rt)
.. f'

., 0

Fig. 7.6 Radial and Tangential Stress ~stribution Around an

AXisymmetric Circular Tunnel. I~
~
~
~
 • 7.3 THE~RETICAL DEFORMATIONj:ANALVSIS

relationship
According to
in polar
Hooke's
coordinates
law the
for the plane
,
stress-stral.n
strain
.
'1>

conditions can be writtèn as follows:

(7.29)

(7.30)
..1

strain-displacement relationship can be written as

(7.31)

(7.32)

Wherei
r = radial distadce from the center of the tunnel;
,
ur == radial displacement.

At the plastic-elastic boundary, that is at r=rp' Ur=f~' Hence,

tangential strain at the plastic-elastic boundary' can be

written as
•
u~
€ep == r ,p (7.33)
/
1

Subs1:i tuting for €ep from 1 Eq. (7.30) leads

f/

(7.34 )

The radial displacement of the plastic-elastic boundary, u~

,
.0 when q decreases to 0rp at r=rp due to excavation will be tha~

250
 induced by the change in the stress field. From Eqs. (7~25) and
(7.26) the changes of the radial and tangential stresses at
the plastic-elastic boundary are given below:

(7.35)

(7.36)

Where Rr and ~ are gi:ven in Eqs. (7.27) and ~(7.28)

respectively. Substituting the changes of these stresses for

.. b

,tangential and radial stresses in Eq. (7-.34) after simplifi-

,
cation results

urp (7.37 )
~

Eq:(7.37) can also be written in the fOllo~ing~eneràl form;,

(7.38)

.where El is the i'n si tu determined

mudul:us , of elasticity
,
of the' stratified
<1{
ro~k strata (Muir

Wood, 197~), which is also a fU1ction of in situ co~fining

pressure (Hobbs, 1968; Santarel i and Brown, 1987), and in
situ structural defects (Kulhaw and Rose, 1979). In this
research, El has been formulate 50 that to take the above
factors 'into account.-This leads following equation:

()
(7.39)

c in which El is laboratory-determined modùlus of elasticity

251
\ h'
1
,1
r'
 =
•
..

• ~f solid sample.
SUbstituting Eq.(7.39) into Eq.(7.38) yields

(7.40)

Eq. (1.40) can be used to predict the elastic

\
(,
displacement of the elastic-plastic boundary. The displacement
f
of the access tunnel boundary at' r = ri is larger than that

whieh oceurs at the elastie-plastic boundary. This is due to

volume expansion and associated with the passage of the rock
from solid (or densely interlocked) to broken state (Ladanyi,
1974, Hassani et al, 1984). Ladanyi (1974) and Wilson (1980)
il l'
derived an expression that can be used to approxim?te this
~ expansion. The latter authors suggest that the immediate
7expansion ean be added to the elastic displacement. Hence, let
;-
"
us rewrite Wilson,'s expression hereunder;

rp) (l+er)
'u = urp ( r (7.41)

in which "u" is the, radial displacement at radius r = ri and ,

L,

f.
r,"
"er" is an expansion factor lying between 0.-0 and 0.50 r

depending upon the type of rock mass as reported by Wilson

'(1980) •

Substituting Eq. (7.40) for urp in Eg. (7.41) leads to

2
U = (l+v) (1-2v) [RJ] (7.42)
ri IdEt(l-v) -"{ r

where

252
 (.
(7.43)

Eq.(7.42) can be rewritten in more general form

2
U = d (1 +V ) (1- 2 li) [RrJ ] (7.44)
1 IdEJ Cl-v) r

in which dl is the initial diameter of the tunnel. Eq. (7.44)

.
can be used to predict the diametric closure of the circular

tunnels in the de~p soft rocks of coal mine~.

"- 1

Variations of .the ~iametral tùrnel for

different support resistance with depth 1'..of based.oon

. 1
1 /1
Eq. (7. 4~) is illustrated in Fig. 7.7: ,
Il iJ \J
•are
It has been mentioned , that the above
/
"
bas4d on plane stra in condition. Therefore, Eq;' (7.44)
\ ' \
represents tunnel displabement far away from the faceline.
-

Based on the in situ displacement measurements in

Donkin Morien main access tunnels, it has been found that

80%+5% of the vertical closure takes place within ~he first

30 m from the faceline (Anon, 1985). This is equal to four

times the tunnel diameter (D=7.6 ml. Furtherrnore, the analysis

of in situ deformation measurements

p
of 26 access tunnels (see

Chapters 3, 4) indicated that 80%±5% of vert,:ical convergence

~
takes place within the first 60 m to 70 m from the facelinè.

This is equal to four times the access tunnel diarneter plus

.one-fourth of longwall panel width. In Chapters 3 and 4 it has

c also been show~that the vertical convergence profile from the

253

. !
 ... ~~

r'"

,;
<~
.,.
,,-
"
;.

130
120
'"'"'
E 110
.......,
0
.....c: 100
CI)

E
CI)
90
0
0 80
Q.
0) ~

i5 70
N 0 -1
CJI
",. .....LCI) 60
E 50
0
i5
40
"0
....
'Il)
0 - 30
:0
CI)
L 20
a..
10
0
0 fif. ~ 12 16 20 24 28
(l
\ Overburden Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 7.7 Variation of Diametral Displacement for D~ent

Support Resista~ce wi~ Depth.

~ ~
 (

faceline can be obtained by employing the fOllO~ing

exponential function:

VC% = a[l-exp(-xjb)]~+ c (7.45)

in which "a", "b" and "c"-' are constants and "x"- __ is the
distance from the faceline. Constant "a" in the ab~~guation
represents the total .vertical convergence which may be taken

equal to the displacement calculated based on plane strain

'1
conditfén, Eq. (7.44). Tl}e constant "b" which was calculated
based on the least'square technique yields an average value of

2.3 0-" for single tunnel and (2.3 D + for the"

access tunnel in the longwall mining, in which Wo = the

panel width. The constant "c" represen'ts two components of

"
vertical displacements, that is, c= cl +c2. One compone nt
!
represents the time-dependent displacement whicli may be

written in the following form, (Panet, 19~9),:

"

cl = G[l - exp(-tjT)] (7.46)

in which "G" is a constant represënting the maximum o time-

depepdent deformation when "t" app~aches infinity, and '~T" is
/

a time factor.
The second component of "c" that is "c2" represents

the vertical displacement which may be induced due to face-end

design (Blades and Whittaker, 1973; Anon, 1982).

c

Substituting EqS.(7.44) and c = cl +c2 into Eq.(7.45)

after required simplifications yie~ds:

255
 2E

(
(7.47) .

Eq.(7.47) is a 'new equation which can be used

to predict tunnel convergence profile from the faceline in

both single and multiple circular openings of longwall mining

e)'lvi.ronments.
1 "
Basad on finite element analysis (see Chapter 6) the
,
Eq. (7.47) can also be used for convergence -prediction in

,noncircular tunnels by in~roducing a new term as a coefficient

cf compensatiop, ,Cc' 'to take the. shape. effect into account.

This coefficient depends upon the tunnel shape and lies

between 0.1 to 0.15.for arch shape, 0.2 to 0.3 for rectangular

shape and is zero for circular one as discussed in chapter 6.

The tunnel diameter also should be replaced by tunnel width.

Therefore, the Eq.(7.47) can be rewritten in the following

g'eneral form:

V~= {
(1+\1)2(1-2\1) ,
IdEl ( 1-\1) [ RrTr]
[
1-exp
(-4X)
9.2 O+W.
] +c1 +c2 }x
o
(l+C c ) (100) (7.48)

in which ~, Ep J r and cl. have '.Seen given by Eqs. (7.27,

7.39, 7.43, 7.'46), respectively. It is import~ntto note that

/1 l
the term "Wo" does not exist, if there is no longwall panel
)
extraction. The time dependent closure was not measured in No.

2~ Colliery and in Lingan Mine. Practical application of the

equation developed herein, Eq. (7.48), with illustrated

l examples are presented in the following section.

256
 c 7.3.1 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

1
/'
EXAMPLE FOR ARCH-SHAPE FACE-ACCESS TUNNEL:

Consider the following ihformation which was obtained

1
from B4W coal road of the Lingan Mine to ~nvestigate the
access tunnel' behaviour in terrns of vertical convergence after-
~

support installations and longwall extraction:

Average laboratory determined uniaxial compressive

strength of surrounding rock strata, oc' = 30 MPa

Average laboratory determined modulus of elasticity

of the first 10 m of~oof and the first 5 m o~ floor
15 GPa

Average laboratory determined mOdUl\S of elasticity-,

<>

. of coal seam, Ec,

,#
= 4 GPa

Average laboratory determined modulu "'- e 1 astJ.C1ty

ef ..
a
of compacted broken rock in the goa area,' Eg, = 1 GPa

Average Poisson's ratio of surroundi V,= 0.3

Assumed support resistance, Ps ' = 0.1 MPa

Assumed in si tu structural defect index of the

,
~

surr~unding
,
rock strata, Id' = 1
0.3

Assumed\weakening index of the broke rocks, Iw' = 0.0l.

,
Depth of cover, Oc' \ = 420 m
\
Initial tunnel width, WIf = 5 ID
\'i
Arch-shape Tunnel with initlf'cll height;, hl' = 3.5 m
1

Averagé unit weight of the roof strata, ')1 = 25 KN/m

C Average extracted panel width, Wo ' = 220 m

257
 ------------------------------------

• Average extracted Se~m height, h s '

Assumed average expansion factor of yielded materials

in the plastic zone, ~,

= 2 m

=
t

0.2

Average angle of internal friction of the solid ro(;k

(

p, strata, 4> s , • =
1\verage angle of friction of broken rocks, <Pb'

Assumed Coefficient of compensation for tunnel shape

effect, Cc' = 0.15

SOLUTION

In arder ta calculate the vertical convergence by

means of Eq. (7.48), the equivalent vertical modulus of
II-
elasticity ,.1~ust be calculated. >
This can be achieved either by
"
J'
assuming a global average val ue or by --'calculating the

equivalent elastic moduli o~ ribside and goafside separatel~

then to be averaged. In the latter case, the following
-'-
equation is recommended for stratified strat.a by Miur Wood -
(1979) ;
.,

On thJ.s
;
base ErlbSlde = 11 GPa andm EgOarSlde = 3 GPa. By back

substitution of the above information in Eqs.(7.23, 7.27,

7.43) for determination of Mc' ~ and JI' respectively

r es u 1 t s i n Mc =2 . Il 2 , 1\ = 8 . 1 0 and JI =4 3 . 9 7 .

substituting the required information in Eq. (7.48) yields a

.;
maximum total vertical convergence, ve, of 25.16% as compared

258
/
 c with 27.19% which was obtained by the 1eas
V'ariation of this vertical convergence
r square method.
from the
The
tunnel. ,
face1ine is illustrated in Fig 7.8 and is compared with both
in situ measurements and the best fit curve obtained from the
non-1inear least square method.
lof r _-_r-'

EKAMPLE FOR CIRCULAR MAIN ACCESS TUNNEL:

Calculate the vertical convergence of a circular main

access tunnel with 7.6m- in diameter, locdted 204 m depth in ~t
-
Donkin-Morien. additiona1ly, the following information based
on the average values for the surrounding rock strata and

support resistance was also avail~ble:

12 GPa, MPa, 1ft.

'f'b
= 300 '. v=0.25,

y=Q.{)25 KN/m 3 ,
1 •\
MPa.

SOLUTION

In this case, ,since there is J;lO longwall op"eration

exists, hence, the influence of longwall extraction on the
access tunnel convergence is zero. Therefore, in Eq.(7.23)
The access tunnel excavated is circular, hence, the
,
coefficient of compenshtion, Cc in Eq. (7.48) due to the

shape effect is zero. Now, following similar steps as of

example 1 for calculàting Rr, and Je' resul t~s Rr-=4. 85 and

Finally by substituting the given inicrmation in

c Eq.(7.48) yields a maximum total vertical closure of 17.23 mm

as compared with 15.9mm of in situ measurement by

l
259
• -
~en eo~---------------------------------------------------------,
QI
::t:

a;
c:
c:
o - In Situ Measurements
~o 1 - Theoret i ca 1 Pred i ct i on
:::1
1-
2 - Best Fit Curve Obtalned by L.S.M.
40-
....s..-
Cl

o
~
o
30
~
.......
QI
U
~ 20
E'
CIl
>
c:
3 10
<-
tU
U
~

~ - 0 ~----~----'-----T-----~----r---~~--~~--~----~----~
> 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distancè From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
,
Fig. La Comparison of Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Convergence
with In Situ Measurements for B2W Coal Road in ~ingan Mine
(Example Pro~lem 1).

o~
.s::; 30 ~----------------.----------------~-----------------------,
.~ 28
QI
o In situ Measuremepts
::c
r-
~
c:
26
24 • Theo~etical Prediction

''= 22
20
1: 18
o
~ 16
o
~ 14
.......
(IJ 12
u
~ 10
Cl
s.. 8
CIl
>
c: 6
o
u
4
.....tU
U 2
~
s.. o~--~----~--~----T----T----T----T----~---r----~--~
>
CIl
o 20 " 40 60 80 100
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
Fig. 7.9 Comparison of Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Convergence
with In Situ Measur~ments for Main Access Tunnel in Donkin·
Morien (Example Problem 2).

260
 extensometers. The profile of this vertical closure is
compared with the in situ deformation measurements from the
tunnel faceline as illustrated in Fig. 7.9.

7.3.2 VERIFICATION OF THE CONVERGENCE EQUATION'

DY FIELD MEASUREMENTS
.'
The convergence equation devel~ped herein is used to
further i~vestigate t~ valid~ty and .applica~i1ity of the
e~ation as applied to the ,arch-shape tunnels. Hence, the in
'situ
,
deformat~on measurements from both the
/ .
L~ngan and No. 26
" ."
. Mines have b,een used to compare wi th the theoretical
1>
predictions. Figs. ..7.10, 7.11 represent the face-distance
• 1
vertical convergence profiles of the B4W and B6E coal roads in
the Lingan mine. Additionally, the corresponding theoretical

predictions and the best fit curves obtained by the non~linear 1

least square technique are also superimposed. It can be seen
that the, theoretical predictions are in goo,d accord wi th in

situ measurements. similarly, Figs. 7.12-7.14 il1ustrate the

vertical convergence profiles from the access tunnels

facelines forlf'B12s, B13S coa1 .roads and T13S material road in
. /
. No~ 26 Colliery. The comparison of the results indicate the
validity and the range of applicability of the convergence
equation. The theoretical prediction shows a good agreement

with the in situ measurements with a maximum difference up to

5% as compared with the best fit curve. This indicates the

versatil i ty of the equation devei"oped herein as being

applicable to both circu1ar- and arch-shape. tunnels. Finally,
/

261
 ,,>

• -....
oC
~
.....
,!I
.::1:
,....
cv
80

tsO
[J - :j:n Situ MeasureDien!s' -
1 - Theoretical Prediction
,
,

c
C
::1 2 - Best Fit,curVe obtained by L.S.M.
f-
. 40
....
c::n
~
0
II-
0
. 3.0
-
~

cv
U
c /
cv 20
Cl
$..
cv
>
c
\
;P 0
u 10
....
lU
.,..
U
'+-,
~
cv 0
> 0 200 400 800
'1\,

Distance From Tunnel Face (m) ~

Fig. 7.10·Comparison of Jheoretical Prediction of VerUcal Convergence

with In Situ Measurements for B4W Coal Road in Lingan Mine.

\)
-....
+-'
oC
Cl
80~------------------~--------------~~--~
0-ln Situ Measurements te
cv D
:t:
,.... !So 1 - Theoretical Prediction
cv
c
C
::1
2- Sesto Flt Curve Obtained by L.S.M.
1-
.
....
Cl
~
0
ll-
e 30
-~

OJ
U
C
OJ 20 2
Cl
~
OJ 1
>
c
e
u 10
,....
lU
1 U
+-'
~
OJ
> 200 400 800 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
Fig. 7.11 Comparison of Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Convergence
withln Situ Measurements for BGE Çoal Road in Lingan Mine.

262
 Q

, ..

••
~
/
-...,
oC
en
100~~----------~--~------------------------------------~
.,.... o - In Situ Measurernents
QI
::J:
gO
,..... 1 - T~eoret ; ca 1 Predi ct ion
QI
, c 80 r
J C
:::1 2 - Best Fit Curve Obtained by loS.M.
,1
i
1- 1
70
Cl
S-
C
1+-
e
~
---
QI
U
C
al
Cl
S-
QI
:>
c
e
u
,.....
ni
U
''7"
+-'
S-
al
> o 0.2 l' 0.4 0.8 0.8 1 , .2 1.4
Di stance From Tu'nnel Face (x 1000 m)
, Fig ~ 7.12 Comparison of Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Converaence
with In Situ Measurements for 812S Coal Road in No-. 26
) Coll iery.

+-'
oC 80
....
Cl
al o -'"In Si tu Measurements
::J:
,..... 70
al
C
1 - Theoretical Prediction
C
::1
1- 150 2 - Best Fit Curve Obtained by loS.M.
Cl
S- ~o
C
1+- 1 2
e

-~

al
U
40

30
c
"QI
Cl
S-
al
> 20
c
e
u
,..... 10
ni
U
+-'

0;
S-
al 0
'.8
o

> 0 o.... 0.15 0.8 , ,'.2 1 ....

)
Distance From Tunnel Face (x 1000 m)
a ,. fi

Fig. .7 .13 Comp.arison of Theoret i cal Pred; ct i on of Vertical Convergence

wi th In Si tu Measurements for Tl3S Materi al Road in No. 26
Coll iery.

j 263
 "

( -
+.J
.c
0'1 80 ~----------------------------------------------------__~
.~

QI
o ...: In Situ Measurements
:x:
,.....
QI
c:
eo 1 - Theoretical Prediction
c:
::::1
t- 2 - Best Fit Curve Obtained' by L.S.M.
OI
S-
a
.....0
JO
-~

QI
U
c:
QI
0'1
20
s-
QI
>
c:
'+ 0
LJ 10

"'
U
+-'
s-
QI O;-------~--------~------~--------r_------_r------~
:> o 200 400 800
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
Fig. 7.14 Comparison of Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Converoence
with In Situ Measuremen~s for 813S Coal Road in No~. 215
Coll iery.
.-... a)
~
0\ eo~--------------------------------------------------------~
QI
::I:
O"c-20 MPa, P.-O.I KPa, Wt -5 m, h.-2 m, Panel Width - 100 m
Ci)
~
eo
~
;:,
1-

0\40
.
c
s- Depth af Caver - 800 m
.....
o 30
-
~

QI
U
C
~ 20
s-
QI
>
c:
o
LJ 10
.-
nf
U
Depth af Caver - 300 m
__~
+.J

~ ~ o~----------~----------~----------~----------~------
>- 0 200 400

c Distance From Tunnel Face (m)

Fig. 7.15 Theoretical Prediction of Vertical Convergence of Access
Tunnels From the Facelines at"Different Oepth of Cover for'
• Extracted Panel of (a) 100 m, (b) 200 m and (c) 300 m.
-./
264
 -
(.
\

'.....{
I!.> il
" ' ,
'tI
î-

• ........
....
oC
....
X
""
QI

....
eo

~o
a.-)~a
b)

. "-
-
P.":O.l MPa, 'W't.-5 m, h.-2 m.. Panel Width - 200 m

QI
e::
e::
::::1
..
1-
Depth of'Cover - BOO m
0'1 40 ....
~
0
~
0
30
Il
--
~

IV
U
"'le::
IV
0'1 20 (
~
QI
>
e::
0
u
....
tG
10,
U
........
~
Depth of Cover - 300 m
QI
1 > 0
0 200 ...ao
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)

, ,

c)
.....
.r:.
eo ..
0'1
cv
"
a c -20 MPa, P.-O.l MPa, Wt-S m, h.-2 -m,<- Panel Width - 300 m
x
....
QI
::SO
e::
e::
1-
::::1 Depth of Cover - BOO m
0'1 40
r-
I..
0
~
0
~
30
.....,
cv
u
e::
cv 20
0'1
1..
cv
>
c
0
u
,... 10
III
.....U
.,J
1..
Depth of Cover - 300 m
cv
> 0
0 Il> 200 r <400
Distance From Tunnel Face (m)
0
Fig. 7.15

265

~
,
-1
i ,
'" -f
~

"
...
(
c ...
,
based on Eq. (7.48) Figs. 7.15a-c have been produced for
,j'

- different .ll\ining con~ions to reflect the variation of the

vertical èonvergence~r~rn the tunnel faceline with respect to

'. the major controlling factors.

7 • 4 CONCLUSION
-----..,
, ~

A theoretical formulation for prediction of the

vertical convergence in access tun~els has been developed. The

method presented here takes into account the effect of panel

width, extracted searn height,~ elastiç rnoduli of the goaf

rnaterial and pillar, and tunnel shape. Furthermore, the rnethod

'1
has been checked with the in situ deformation measurements of

26 access tunnels in the Sydney Coalfield. The results

..predicted
'
by this method have shown a good accord with the in

s~deformation measurements. Based on this method a series

of vertical ~onvergence profiles for different depths of cover

has been produc~~

L~ 266 ...
" .
 - ~---------~-----...,.-------------------------

•
'\

,
• , .
THEORETICAL
-, ,
CHAPTER 8

DEVELOPMENT OF BARRIER PILLAR DESIGN CRITERIA

v

8 • 1 INTRODUCTION

The. design of barrier pillars between longwalls. is a

major consideration in the economics of the mining operation.

The primary function of the pillar left betwee~

, , adjacent

roadways is to protect the gateraads which serve the longwall

"
face of the current extraction from the effects of ,excessive

deformation, and to protect the surface from excessive

subs idence. The design of the barrier l-pillars invol ves the

determination of the proper geometrical dimensions for

.Jr 1

/
J
~f
given

mining pondition. Therefore, the strength properties of the

pillars are used as basic parameters.

"'"
King and Whittaker (1970) Whittaker and Singh (1979,

1981) examined a wide range of conditions with a view to

producing a more rational approach to determining the pillar

,
size. The main finding of their survey was that pillars in the
"

width range of 10 to 30 meters tended to resul t in wdrse

roadway conditions than pillars of a greater width (less than

L

1/10 of the depth). In fact, exàmination of cases wher~ no

pillar (taken as the 0 to 5 meter range) was present

, ,
revealed

better conditions than where a narrow pillar was lef~. Wilson

(1972, 1983) derived empirical barrier pillar design criteria

with reference to different roof and flaar conditions of the

" J

267 '
\
 .

roadways., These were based on a concept of a central elastic

coré surround by a yield zone which was suggested by Wilso,Îl

and Ashwin (1972). This concept also was investigated by

Barron (1978) using an air injection technique for considering

the integrity of pillars and ribs in coal mines. The

approaches, however, contain many restrictions. In the absence

~ 1Ôl

of appropriate theoretical design criteria the existing

metnods with many'restrictions have been employed by the coal

mining industry. Hence, in this chapter the aim is to develop

new design criteria for barrier pillars in longwall mining.

The developed methods are compared with the existing criteria

and currently used pillar widths in the Sydney Coalfields.

8.2 EKISTING BARRIER PILLAR DESIGN CRITERIA

,
There are two basic approaches to coal pillar design:

. 1. The ul timate strength approach, which contends that "'a

pillar will not fail if the applied load is equal to-or

less than the ultimate strength of the pillars. It assumes

th~t the--Ioad bearing c,apacity of a pillar is reduced to

zero when its strength is exceeded. In this case, a global

,
or average factor of ~afety is obtained for the entire

pillar based on an average pillar strength and load.

Therefor~ it is constant across the 'entire pillar.

2. The progres~ive failure approach hlghlights the existen'ee

of micro-structural defects within the pillar and a non-

uniform stress distribution in the pillar. Based on this

,C
approach, failure is initiated at the mèst critical point

268
 "

-)
o , and propagates gradually to ul timate failure. Overall

stahility can he maintained despite theolocal failure.

Local safety factors are the primary aim of' the stability
analysis, and they are based on pillar strength a~d load
at a given point. Hence, pillar strength and stress

concentration across a pillar are variable. This is

o
\
.probably a more realistic representation of the ~n sitû
1

Cdnditi~n.

In the absence of appropriate theoretical design

criteria the following empirical formulas for barrier pillar
y
design have been employed by the coal mining industry.

8.2 • 1 RULE OF THUMB METHOD

The Rule of Thumb technique used by the British coal -

operators (Cain and Aston, 1983) suggests that the width of a'
barrier pillar should be one-tenth of the overburden depth

plus 45 ft .( or 13. 72m) •

.
- ~I' '

Wbp = to + 13. 7 (8.1)

where;

~bp= barrier pil'lar width (m)

H = depth of cover (m)

1

8 • 2 • 2 THE MINE INSPECTORS' METHOD

The Mine Inspectors' formula which was dev~,loped in

~
Pennsylvania by the Mines Inspectors' Commission established
, 1

by the state government in 1927, (Ashley, 1930) states that

269
 ---------------------------:---------!"----
-~.

J
I,

, ,
"!he.,;.i~,t~1pII ,piilàr
times the thic~ess
Shal,l be not less _ti.an, 20
'of the coa~
~~,
bed, plus. 10. ft Ifor eaq,h 100
plus fOi ·
,

feet or fra.cti&n thdreof of" cover r·at the

~:; ' \ 1
boundary
•
rn
question" . This could be represented in the folloVfing' form: ~
".,~.

W
'lf
= /0 + 4h + 6.1 (8.2)
l'

where, h = extracted $.eam height (m)

8.2.3 WILSON' S METHOD

'.
Wilson (1983) pro~osed a formula for the' width of the

yield zone "~". ThU~, the mini,um ~oal pillar width

"Wbp'~ will be equal te twice the yi-eld zone ,l'xb '' plus

a constant '.'C".

Wbp = 2 (C+~) (8.3)

where; C = an exponential decay factor

In order to make use of the ab ove equ~tion we must
clarify the W/H ratio.

Based on field and laboratery o);:>servatJions it is

assumed that the seam strength is comparable to the roof and

floor and W/H < 0.6, then the fol~wing equations are selected
'-
for obtaining the ~ and c:

M q (1
~ = '2"[ {P+P.} k-1) 1] - (8.4)

We
C- C =
[~(1 r:2lf) - ~J (8.5)
[ 400 ]
(K-1)+~ ,.
~

270
.

~here;

M = height of the tunnel

K = triaxial stress factor • .,

P = horizontal pressur~ supplied by the ribside support

,-,1- ,
.,..~ .1o'r

pl = '~thé uni-direct:ional compressive strength of ;he failed

-(

rock
.....
q = cover load
( 1
'" Wo = length of the longwall face (panel width)
-""4,,"
H = depth of cover . " J , ,

(10 = in situ uniaxial compressive strength of the coal

8 • 2 • 4 NORTH AMERICAN METHOD "

/
Another commonly used equation is the N~rth American
formula (Cain and Aston, 1983) which is express~4 as:

J •
H
(l-R) = 2133.6 l .
(8.6)
,

where; H ... Depth of Cover and R

.\
= extract10n ratio.
Using a definition of the extraction ratio as

mined out area on p~an Wo

r R = total area on the plan = w;- = '·(~.7)

)-
Rearranging the Eq. (8.6) by sUbstituting Eq. (8.7) for "R"

Wbp = (2133.6-H ) (8:'8)

\
where;

• = Panel width in meters

271
 , . ,

"

Wbp = Barrier pillar width in meters

\
It is also iQ~eresting ~o compare, a pillat width
d~signrule which was used ih the early stages of development
, (, t{
,i
of longwall working method wi th thoefe which are currentl'J.y

being emp19yed.

\h8 • 2 • 5 DUNN'S RULE

"
, A ru.le for the - size of coal pillars suitable for

various depths was given by Matthias Dunn in 1846, (Anon,

1954):

"At 180 ft: deep a width of 5 yards, to be jncreased by 1

. yard for each-additional 60 feet of depth" •

This could be represented,in the following form:

~ ~

(H-180) (8.9)
\ Wbp = 2Q + 15
~ I,
r-

where units ar~ in feet and

F
(H-54.90)
W;p = 6.10 + 4.60 (8.10)

where units are in meter.

8.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE EXISTING BARRIER PILLAR DESIGN CRITERIA

_J

-The aforementioned barrier pillar design cr~teria can

b~ divided into two groups:

- Group l includes ernpirical criteria which were

charact~ristics
c, expressed independent of strength
masse Therefore, these equations lead to a too conservative
of the rock

\ -
272
,
 ~.. ,'-
'. 1
ç,
o

• design and béi~ inapplicable

600m as is discQssed in a later section.
to a d~~~h
/J'
"
of cover greater than,

Group II wilson's method includes the ~esign criteria

which takes the strength properties of the rock mase 'intf - .
account but retaining the following restrictions:
1. An explicit variable unit weight is used in the
det~ination of plastic zone} whereas, a constant unit
•
weight is implicitly employed in the formulation of the
elastic zone.
2. The ~epth of.cover was used in a contradictory form in the
.
formulation. For example, it assumes that' the width of
plastic zone is linearly proportional to the depth of
cover, while, the width of elastic zone is inversely
proportional to the depth of cover. This artifiC~llY
- ,
causes t·he width of barrier pillar to become almost
constant after a depth of 1000 m below the ground
surface. Furthermore, as the depth of cover increases
beyond 1000 m, the width of elastic zone wiîl only be a
linear function of,panel width which is not true, since
the effect of strength is negligible in the strengthj
depth of cover ratio used in the formulation.
3. The natural occurrence- of discontinuities in cQal or in
coal measure rocks under different geological environménts

need not neEessarily be the same as the method implies by

always dividing the uniaxial compressive strength by
number 5.

"
273
 t.{ '\.. • _,"
4. The ~ethod assumes a constant value for the strength of
material in the plastic z~e.which mar not represent the
real condition.
~
5. The effect of confining pressure has not been taken into
account for the formulation of both th~Plastic zone and
the elastic zone.
6. The effect of wilth of access tunnel has not been taken
">
into account, whereas, in chapter 7 based on fini te
element analysis i t has been shown that the vertical
displacement is a linear function of width of tunnel ..~\

8.4 NEW BARRIER PILLAR DESIGN CRITERIA

The optimum barrier pillar width (or the minimum

requïred) is, a function of strength characteristics of i ts
constituent rock), loading condition, the adjac~~t tunnel and
pa~imensions, and the type of support systems. The stress
distribution on the pillar based on the equati'~ns developed in
chapter 7 can be depicted as that presented in Fig. 8.1. 1
f
Fig. 8.1 indicates failure of the rocks around9the tunnel due
,r
to ~verstressing. This causes a substantial decrease in the
load carrying capacity of the surrounding rock masse The load
capaci ty of the rock in plastic - zone, wp ' is a non-linear
function of the confining
, pressure as shown in Fig ... B.1.
diffefential load from the plastic !one i~ ~transferred to the
~ .
The

n '
neighbouring rock mass which still has its ori~inal load

c c!apacity (elastic zone,

distribution on the elastic zone

We ) . The

~. t~e
tangential

pillar i~~xponential
stress

274
 .. .. \

J '"
a .
/
\
~
. .. \ ., --~

,..
~
, ...",

•
'- , ""}

) ~
~ -. -\
, tl..
",\
\,
\

30
28 ~

\ (
. - J~ \,

i 26 ~

\ il

24 Wbp
,.....
-
?
0 , j
\.
a. 22 ...
~
......, 20
,0
,
:
(./ .
L--.
fi)
fi)
CD' 18 Wp~ We \ "14 ,W e . .'4-W
L.
+1
A P
16
.",,
(f) L'
\ \, N
~
U1
~, 14 9
'ü
r:: 12
'C
D.t
10
L. ~ .....
'-
~
0
0 8
6 <-
>;:.....
'!!!"i
;>~ ~
i

4 ....
.,
2
0
--
. 0 10
Distance from Tunnel Centre /
20
o •

T. Radius
30 40

. ~/
~
Fiq .. 8.1. Assumed Major Princip~l stress fistribution on the Barrier
Pillar of Longwall Mininq. G

/
~
"
-'

... <"; (/"

'-~.
..
" ~ ~
~.,~'
~

• l ,"- "'~ ~_
, ~ ~\ ,~'f~ ..'-~J
... T"IJ~~
 (Fig. 8.1), decreasing with increasing dista~e from the\
elastic-plastic boundary. This exponential curve will become
asymptotic to th~ horizontal axis indicating that the load
pillar reaches its original or pri-mining
vertical stress . the distance from the tunnel wall to where
•f

the stress-cur becomes asymptotic to the horizontal is

calculated, then 's will be half of the width
/
of barrier

pilla r, Wbp ' the w:i.dth of plastic, zone, WP ' and

\
•
b
width of elastic zone, We at each side of the access tunnel
f are te be d~termined.
'. l'
t· In order to formulate this, let us recall the equatien
,~~ répresenting the ,width of plastic zone around the access
tunnel in the longwall mining env ironment developed in
chapter 7:

c'

where Wl is the tunnel width and Mc has been formulated

".,.
,, empirically based on the results of in situ measurements and
finite element simulation of the access tunnel. This is given

as follows:
.
{

(8.12)

Hence, the width of plastic zone can be.determined by ~sing

'C Eq. (8.11. )
"
 \'

• ,-
1
For the determination. of the barrier pillar width two
approaches are developed and presented below.

8 • 4 • 1 APPROACH 1 (STRESS METHOD)

o •
~

1
Recall the equation representi~g the tangential stress
distribution in the elastic zone (Fig. 8.1).
1

°ge = q + (R,I;) ( ~ )2 (8.13)

wherei
q = ')rH ';. (8.14)

1
~
Rr
~
= qsinlP s + '2I dO'c(l - sinlP s)

;'~~
(8.15)
·n 1
1

[(Mcq-~IdOc) (l-sinlPs~~+l) sinlPb + IwOcl } ((i,b+dslnflb)

(8.16)
1

[ps (~+1) SinlPb+I\IIO'cl

Since the function given by Eq.(8.13t theoretically

becomes asymptotic at an in~ni te distanceJ henc~, by
introducing a limi t of the d~mping distance at which the
change of tangential stress becomes k per meter of pillai"
width wpich can be written a,
(
1

If k = 0, then from Eq.(8.17) r = œ, that is too conservative

,J

barrier pill~idth is obtained. Hence, for practical

purposes a value of k > 0 must be assumed. In order to olttain
a rational pillar width, k = 0.1 MPa/m is used in Eq. (a. 17) •

277

.,'
 ( Substitut~ng Eqs. (8.14-8.16) for 0ee in Eq. (8.17)
.\
after differentiation and simplification yields:
/

(8. 18)

where

(8.19)

The pillar width is a summation of the width of plastic zone,

Wp ' and the width of elastic zone, We , mul tiplied by 2.

\~
Hence,

(8.20)

in which

" (8.21)

therefore,

(8.22)

Substituting for "r" from Eq. (8.18) into Eq. (8.22) and

after simplification results:

(8.23)

or after substi tution for 1, and ~ Eq. (8.23) can be

written as:

1/3
= 3.3 ( [qsin~s + }IdOc (l-sin<l>s) ]Wl2} x

le - Wd8. 24)

".-'
278
 • AlI parameters in the preceding equations have SI-units,.
Eqs.(8.11) and (8.24) can he used to determine the width of
Plas~ic zone and the opti~um barrier pillar width in metre for
longwall mining, design respectïvely.
.
8.4.2 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF APPROACH 1

Let us consider a longwail mining design with the

following informati~n:

= 30 MPa ./
Ps = 0.1 MPa

')f = o. 02 5 MN / m3
1
Eg = 0.5 GPa

Ec = 3.6 GPa
.
Id = 0.225

Iw = 0.01
\
ct>s

D = 4 m
D = 5 m

Depth of cov~ = 500 m

Panel width = 200 m
ElCtraction seam height, hs = 2 m

Calculate the width of plastic zone, wp ' width of

,-
elastic zone, We and the width, of optimum barxier pillar,
Wbp for th i s ID i ne.

Employing Eqs.(8.11) and (8.24} with respect to the

279
f
 given information yield:
FC'r D =\ 4 m .... Wp = 11.0 m, We = 16.5 m, . Wbp ... 55 m

For D =5 m .... Wp = 13 • 8 m, We = 18.2 m, Wbp = 64 m

8.4.3 APPROACH 2 (FORCE METHOD)

Approach 2 is developed based on th~tangential stress

? distribution on the' barrier pillar and taking the effect of
1
\
confining pressure into account. If the function representing
tangential stress given in Eg. (8.13)' is integrated by
employing boundary conditions from elastic-plastic boundary,
wp , to a distance where the tangential stress becomes equal

to the pre-mining ertical stress. This yields:

(8.25)

substituting fo oSe from Egs. (8.14-8.16) after integration

~
and simplification results in the total post-mining force , -
t
, .
FIf existing on the elastic zone 1 We ;~' per meter length of
/""'
barrier pillar. This is shown as f911ows:

(8.26)

The force, Ft' is the load which is carried by the

elastic portion of the pillar width. Therefore, we are ta

( ,
design the area of this portio!l sa that the elastic zone
remains elastic with a strength factor, Fs' greater than
'f'

( unit y . The strength factor 1 FsJs defined as

280
 ul timate strength of the elastic zone (oull'>
(8.27 )
Fs = post-mining stress on the elastic zone (Ot)

where
F ')
al = l
We x1 (8.28)

The ultimate strength of the elastic-zon~ can be calculated

from the modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for triaxial

"
compression condition wh~ch was
derived in Eq. (7.11) of
\
'"'",
Chapter 7. It is important to note that the confining pressure

c~ributing to the stabili ty of the elastic zone must be

taken'at the elastic-plastic boundary, not at the center of

the elastic zone, because, the confining pressure at,the-

, latter location leads to an under-eptimation of the pillar

width. Neglecting the contribution ~f the confining pressure

in pillar strength calcul~tion will lead to an over-estimation

of the ba'rrier pillar width. confining pressure at the

elastic-plastic boundary has been formulated and presented in

Chapter 7. This is given as follows:

.~

(8.29)

L
Substituting Eq.(S.29) in~o the Eq.(7.ll) of Chapter 7 leads

to the determination of ultimate strength of the rock mass >in

the elastic zone

(8.30)

S?bstituting Eq.(S.26) into Eq.(S.2S), yields:

~~1
 , LO
t
(8.31)

By back substitution of Eqs. (8.30,8.31) into Eq.(8.27)

after required, simplification results:

(8.32)

in which

[
[ (Mcq-!IdO c) (l-sin<ps) (~+l) sin<Pb +
[ps (kb+1) sinct>b+lwOcl -L}
Eq.(8.32) is an equation which can be used to determine the

ba~rier pillar width based on the desired strength factor. The

strength factor, Fs ' in Eq. (8.32) controls the minimum'
required width of elastic zone.

8.4.4' PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF APPROACH 2

Let us use the information given in section 8.4.2 to

calculate the width of barrier pillar for a s~rength factor,
Fs of 1.5.

c /

l 282
• SOLUTION

Since determination of width of plastic zone in both

approaches is the same, Wbp can be calculated from Eg. (8.27) .
~l '"

hence, for

D = 4 = 11. 0 m, We = 19. 2 m, Wbp = 60.5 m

D = 5 -. 13 .8 m, We = 24. 0 m, Wbp = 75.7 m

8.4.5 VERIFICATIO OF THE DEVELOPED METHODS DY

VERGENCE MEASUREMENTS

The relationship betw,een barrier pillar width and

vertical convergence in longwall mining based on in si tu
deformation measurements was found to be an exponential
function (see Eq. (4.2) in Chapters 3 and 4). This relationship
indicates that when the width of barrier pillar is less than
one tenth ~f the corresponding depth of cover (Fig. 8.2a) the

vertical convergence increases exponentially. This also was

indicated by Whittaker and Singh (1979). If the width of

barrier pillar exceeds a limit which is greater than one tenth

of the depth of cover,. the vertical convergence remains

constant. Hence, developing a theoretical method for barrier

"
pillar design to result in a value of pillar width close to

this limi~ is of great importance. Figs. 8.2b, 8.3a-b indicate

that the width of barrier pillars in Lingan mine exceeded the

upper 1 imi t, hence, no apparent relationship between the

barrier pillar width and vertical convergence can be observed.

similar, conclusion, can be made for No. 26 colliery (see

Chapter 3). These indicate that the barrier pillar width for
, ,

283
,..--------------------------------------------------_. c,

'>

C a)
/"

1()0
- +- Depth of Cover

-!
'i
80

80
I::t.- Barrier Pillar width
540

--
c
c
70 l'!
t=
0- 60 530
~
QI
"t:

...
0 lo
~
0 150 u

-
t(

Ê'
...0
~ 520
IH
0
.t::
~
c
u0
-t
30

20
t bAil.Abb
b
A
bb
A
b
/JI>.
A
bA

iItP li
b
b

A
.....•
11.11.

AA ,~A
~.li
510
4J
p..
QI
Cl

A
~
b
0 , b A ~t
10

0
...0 :2 56 60 S-4 SB
Barrie. Pilier Wldth Cm)

b)
100~--------------------------------------------------~

90 •
b.
Depth of Cover
Barrier Pillar width
490

80
, 480

70 470 1"1

SO , 4S0
k
CIl

-
o
g
50
• .. • . . . . . . . tt . . . . . . , ••

•
...... "1' .....-- ........
........ 450

440
>
0
u
~
0
.c:
...,
0-
430 CIl
A 0
A
A
A
A A 420

410-
"

se
Barrier Plllar W1dth (m) ~ ~ ~.;:

Fig. 8.2 Variation of Vertical Convergence of Access Tunnel Versus

Barrier Pillar Width with Corresponding Depth of Cover in
(a) T8E Material Road, (b) B3W Co al Road in Lingan Mine.
r

l 284
 b)
,oo~----------------------------~~------------------~
o - Depth of Cover

-..,
:t:
'i
80
I::t.. - Barrier pillar width
0440
c
! .70

60 430
l~

420

30

20 410

10

1
-- Bar.rier Pillar W1dth Cm)
e~ Fig. 8.3 Variation of Vertical Convergence of Access Tunnel Versus
Barrier Pillar Width with Corresponding Depth of Cover ln
(a) T3W Material Road, (b) B6E Coal ~oad in Lingan Mine.
285
"
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------

( the Lingan Mine may not be greater than 60 m based on the

aVerage values o~ depth of coyer (4~O m), panel width (220 m),
extracted seam height (2 m) and a tunnel width of 4 m for the

material !oad. However, for a coal road which is 4.6 m wide, a

barrier pillar width of 70 m is required. It i5 to be

emphasized that the barrier pillar width must be ftesigned

, '
based on ,the coal road width. Figs. S.2-3a, b clearly show the

applicab~lity of ~he two newly developed methods in designing

of the b~rrier pillar width. Since the barrier pillar width

calculated by method 2 is in close agreement with that

calculated by method 1, it can be said that an implicit

strength factor, Fs ' of about 1.5 has been taken into the

formulation of method 1. Hence, the 10% limit introduced in

,this method is reasonable and retains the method on the safe

,
side.
(
However, meth0d 2 has the versatility of taking the . ~

desired controlling strength factor, Fs ' into account. In

ord~ to ~ive rurther somparison w~th the in situ convergence

measurements, the induced vertical convergence based on the

predicted barrier pillar width by using Eq. (8.24) is presented

~n Fig. 8.4. This suggests that the method remains on th~

stable portion of the curve while indicating two· different

barrier pillar widths for the material road and coal road.

However, the design must be established based on the coal road

~

width (see Chapters 3 and 4). Based on Eq. (S.ll) the width of
,
plastic zone around the access
. tunnel for different longwall

,
c ~

panel width and different strength characteristics for depth

L
1
286
 o
\
"
•
160
- ~
-'=
;:n
or-
QI
150
140
j 1-
2-
Coal Roads
Material Roads
3- Present Oeveloped Stress Method
::t:
l~O
4- Present Developed Force Method
E
"'
QI
CI) 120
-0
~
QI 110
U
IV
s.. 100
+J
~
>< 90
l+-
CI BO

-
~
70 ,
~4
QI

""
CD
...a
u
c
Cl)
60
en
s..
QI
50. o ,
> 1
c 40
CI 3 '4
u
.30 2 , ~ f
! r-

"'
U
• .J
.,
20
~
s..
>
QI la
a <Ii' "
i
30 50 70 90
Barr;er Pillar Width (m)
Fig. 8.4 Compar1son of Theoretically ~alculated Barrier Pillar
W1dth w1th Ins1tu Data in L1ngan Mine.
g

--J(

~
c up to 2000), m below
illustrated in Figs. 8.5a-b~
surface have been calculated and

The corresponding barrier pillar

widths based on method 1 have also been determined and shown
in Figs. 8.6a-b.

8 • 5 COMPARISON OF THE CURRENT BARRIER

il
PILLAR DESIGN CRITERIA

To compare the design criteria, the average panel

dimensions used above, with the inclusion of an average
gateroad héight of 3.3 m have been used. The resul ts are
illustrated in Figs. 8.7a-b. The predicted values are compared
with the measured values by highlighting them on curves
showing the relationships of the vertical convergence with the
barrier pillar width for both material and coal roads in
Figs 8.7a-b.
The vertical convergence in thê material roads
obtained by aIl of these design criteria lies in the~

portion of the curve in Fig. 8. 7a, indicating vertical

convergence of 28%. The results indicate that the methods
developed here would clearly be beneficial to bath miÏling
economics and safety. T~~ data t~~m material roads indicate
that previous desiqa criteria considered here overestimate the
width of the barLier ~llar for this specifie situation.
\

Similar com'Parison for the cbal roads in Fig. 8. 7b

. l
indicate§ that th~ vertical convergence calculated on the
basis of different predicted barrier pillar width vary
slightly from each other. This is mainly becau~e they )ie

288
,
 . :..... ,

'.
j .....

'.::...J
a)
30.0
2e.O 0'0-40 :a, Wt -5 m, h.-2 m, .p -0.1
•
....E 26.0

-
0
N
0
c
24.0
22.0
. ~

20.0
] 18.0
~
...
0
16.0
14.0 tract\ot\
" t~
17
~
12.0
10.0
~e~O"('
e \.ot\'l'lla ,

...."
u 8.0
...
:0
e
n.
8.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 • 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 " 1,.0 1.2 1.4- 1.8 1.8 2.0
, Depth of Cover (x 1000 m)

b)
...
0'0-20 MPa, Wt -5 m, h.-2 m, p.-o.1 KPa 1

0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 -- 1.8 1.8 .2.0
Depthof Cover (x 1000 m)
Theoretical Prediction of Width of Yield Zone Versus Oepth
of Cover 1n Longwall Mining for Average uniaxial Compressive
Strength of. Surrounding Materials l (a) 40 MPa '(b) 20 MPa.
rSi

289
 -----------------------,--------------------------
•
~

~f 200.0
190.0
a)

. ~
180.0
170.0
..Î' 160.0
:1 1 !50.0
f Ê 14-0.0
..... 1 :50.0
120.0
110.0
100.0
90.0
.. 80.0
'Ë
a
70.0
60.0
m
!50.0
40.0
30.0
2d.0 "
/
\
10.0
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0~8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Depth of Cbver ( x 1000 rIn)

b)
200.0~----------------------------------------------------~

190.0
180.0
0
170.0
~
160.0
150.0
~
'"' 140.0
• .....E 130.0
~
.... 120.0
oC
"C
li 110.0
...
.. g 100.0
fi: 90'.0
.,...
-c:
80.0
... 70.0
0
ID 60.0
" 50;0
" 40.0
t-- 30.0
~ 20.0

~
., 10.0
O.O~~--~_r--~~~--~_r~~~~--~~~--~_r--~~~~

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0

.... Oopth of Cov~r (x 1000 m)
Fig. 8.6 Theoretical Prediction of Barrier Pillar Width Versus Deoth
of Cover in Long~all Mining for Average uniaxial Compressive
c~ Strength of Surrounding Materials, (a) 40 MPa {b).20 MPa.
.
~
290' "
,
i
 -a)
Z"
..r::
' ao
....
0'1
CI)
"0 D Dunn's Rule
W - Wilson's Method
1 :J:
E
tU
CI)
V)
'40
, JO

'20
R - Rule of_Thumb Method
N North American Method
"0 M - Mine Inspectors' Hethod
(1)
+-'
u
110 PF - Present Developed Force Method
"'
~ 100 PS - Present Developed Stress Method
+-'
><
L&J !JO
'+-
0
150

-
~

( 1)
u
c(1)
70
60

C>
so
~
(1) 40 W D
R M
~ .30
0
u
r-
20
"'
u 10 PS PF N
+-'
50-
n>
0
.
:> 30 50 70 eo
Barrier Pillar Width (m)

b)
:;::;- 160
.c
.~ ,SO
:r:
CIl D - Dunn/s Rule
E
' .... 0 W Wilson's Method
'"
CIl
1JO R Rule of Thumb Method JO'
U')
120 N - North American Method
"0
CIl
,,0 M - Mine Inspectors' Method
+-'
u PF - Present Developed Force Method
'"
5o-
+-'
100 PS - Present Developed Stress Method
X 90
w
....0 80
~ 70

Ji.,...
u
CIl
u
c
CIl
C'I
50-
CIl
>
c
0

.-
60
50
40
30
20
-\1 il r N PS PF

'"U 10
+-'
s... 0
CIl
:> 30 50 70 10
Barrier Pillar width (m)

0 Fig. 8.7 Comparison of Seven Barrier Pillar Design Criteria With

In Situ Measurements "for (a) Material Roads, (b) Coal ~oads ~
in lingan Mine.
291
,
c near the non-linear portion of the curve, giving values of

convergence of 45% to 48%. This analysis of coal road data

indicates that/the Rule of Thumb, North American and Mine
Inspectors' design equa ions slightly underestimate, whilst

( Dunn's Rule overestimat s the barrier pillar width. However

\. the Wilson' s Equation giv almost similar values of minimum
barrier pillar to that evaluated from the presently developed
methods. AlI the previous design methods are independent of
J
the tunnel width, hence, the difference between two tunnel
with two different widths but similar heights has not been

differentiated. The previous barrier pillar design criteria

and the methods developed ~ere are further used to compare

with respect to depth of cover. The results are illustrated in

Figs. 8.8 and 8. 9, from whi~ it is apparent that previous

d~,~ign criteria overestimate the required minimum harrier ....

pillar width at depth greater than 600 m below the ground

surface. However, exception is due to Wilson's_ equation which

yields acceptable estimation for depth of up to 900 m, but

1

underestimates afterwards. The methods developed here result

in good agreeme,ne with the values of minimum r,equired barrier

pillar width to that evaluated from the field data. From

Fig. 8.9 It is apparent that the present beveloped methods.

have the versa til i ty of- being appl icable to depths even

gr~ater than 2000 m.

8 • 6 CONeL USION

c The range of t~lidity of existing barrier pillar

L 292
1
300.0
280.0
o • D~'I Rule
W • \{Ulon" Method
260.q R . Rule of ThUlb Method
240.0 N . North American Method
M . Mine Inspectora' Mithod
...... 220.0

-...
E 200.0
.s:.
180.0
"...
~ 160.0
~
.2 140.0
ii:
...
Il
120.0
"E0 100.0 w
ID
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.B 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.a 2.0
Depth ot Cover (x 1000 m)
Fig. 8.8 Comparison of the Existing Barrier Pillar Design Criteria
for Different Dep~h of Caver.

~OO.O o . DI.M'YI' 8 Rule C

280.0
W . Wi laon's Method
260.0 R • Rule of ThUIt> Method
240.0 N . North American MethQ9

.-.. 220.0
M rMine Inspectora' Method

-...
f

E 200.0 PF . Present Developed'Force Method

PS • Present Develqped Stress Method
'.s:. .ft-
1ao.0
"...
~ 160.0
~ 140.0
0:
...
Il
120.0
"E0 100.0
ID
ao.o
60.0
40.0
20.0

-
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 , o.a 1.0 1.2 1-;;4 1.6 1.a 2.0
Depth 01 Cover (x 1000 m)
Fig .' 8.9 C.omparison of the Present Developed Barrier Pillar Design
Criteria with the Ex1sting Criteria for Different Depth
of Cover.
293
, design criteria has b'een
.
in~estigated.
~
Based
"" been found that , there is a need to
on this

investigation, it has

develop a new method of designing barrier pillar width in

longwall mining. Hence, two approaches have been developed and

examined based on in situ deformation measurements obtained

) from 26 access tunnels in the Sydney coalfield. Soth

~approaches appea'r to be in good accord wi th the minimum

required barrier pillar width evaluated ~from the field data.

compari~on of the existing barrier pillar design criteria with

~
the in situ measu~ements indicate that the methods which are

,independent of strength characteristics y~eld top conservative

a design and are not suited for depths greater than 600 meters

below ground surface. How~er, the method derived by Wilson

regardless its major restrictions, results in satisfacto~y

barrier pillar design fO~ to 900 meter below ground

surface, it underestimates the minimum required barrier pillar

width beyond that depth. The two new approaches developed

(
herein ,have the advantages of taking several parameters into

account and being applicable to greater depths.

294
1
• CHAPTER 9

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE PRESENT

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
~~
RES:~~
WITH

9 • 1 SUMMARY AND CONCL USIONS

The cause and effect of induced stresses and the

corresponding displacements due to tu~nelling and l~ngwall

mining operations around face-8ccess tunnels based on the

related information in literature,have been investigated. The

effect of the barrier pillar, together with longwall

extraction, and their complex interactions on the acces'S
tunnel behaviour have been considered. In view of aIl

available papers and publications on the subject of face-

access tunnel stability in longwall mining, it is recognized
that, due to the complexi ty of the mining environment,
research for the improvernent of the access tunnels stability
- ,)

·has made slow progress as compared with the considerably

improved coalface brought about by the development of powered
supports. Hence, based on this investigation, it has been
found that the existing methods of tunnel convergence
prediction due to their limitations could not be applied to
•
the face-access tunnels in longwall mining, nor the current
barrier p.i1lar design criteria could have been employed to
great dep~hs. Therefore, the development of new criteria was
felt essential. In order to achieve these, quantitative infor-
~.

; mation regarding the parameters controlling the tunnel closure

295 .,
--------------~------------------------------~----- --

, are required in advance. Hence, data has been obtained from

underground deformation surveys for approximately 36 km. of 26
,accessible face-access tunnels at the No.
,

26 Colliery and

Lingan Mine, using in situ tape measurements and a

photographie technique. This provided a wealth of data for
comparative studies of face-access tunnel behaviour. The
analyses of this data characterized the basic mechanisms of

deformation. comparison of the different survey techniques has

ind~C~general analysis the photographie technique

can provide sufficiently accurate data with the added bene fit

of simplicity and!speed. This investigation has been followed

up by two-dimensional Ïinite element simulations of face-

access tunnel~ in longwall minin9 using MSAP2D pr6gram. Hence,

comprehensive parametrie studies have also been undertaken to

,
investigate the effect of various eontributory factors on the

stress and displacement distributions and the extent of any

failed zone aro~nd the tunnel. By these approaches the effects

of . the most important factors on tunnel closure have 'been

evaluated and quantified. These include; depth of cover, panel

width, extracted seam height, tunFel size, tunnel shape, type

of supports and adjacent workings. Based on these results the

initial trend of face-access tunnels convergence profiles from

the faceline was first established. This has indicated that.

the empirically derived exponential f\lnction is the most

representative one. Then a theoretical method of prediction of

vertical convergence profile from -the faceline has been

developed. The method has the advantages of taking into

c 296
 account the effect of· panel· width, ex~racted seam height,

• -elastic moduli of the goaf materi~l and coal

size and tutinel shape additional to strength characteristics'
of surrounding materi~ls.
p~llar,

Comparison of this method with in

tunnel
1 •

situ deformation measurements in botbVcircular and arch-shape

'" <' \ h
tunnels indicated good aocord between the two. Furthermore,
the design of barrier pillar width between adjacent access
tunnels is a major consideration in the economics and safety
.;J
of the mining operations. Hence, the range of validity of
existing barrier pillar design criteria has also been.

investigated. As a result of this investigation the current

<
barrier pillar design criteria have been. categorized in two
-Ç.-
groups:

GroUp'I includes the empirical criteria which were expressed

in~ependent of strength characteristics of the surrounding

rock masses.
p

Group II (Wilson's Method) includes the design criteria which

take the strength propert~es of the rock mass into account but

retaining many restrictions as mentioned in Chapter 8.

However, comparison of the existing barrier pillar

.
design criteria with the in situ measurements indicates that

~he meth~ds which are independent of strength characteristics

yield conservative design and are inapplicable ~t d~Pth
l:reater than 600 m below ground surface. The method derived by
Wilson, regardless of its major restrict'ions, results in

satisfactory barrier pillar design for up to 900 m

297

,)
(
 J
ground ~rface, i~nderestimates the !1nimum required barrier

pillar width beyond that depth. More importantly, sinee

c wilson's method is independent of width of aceess tunnels, it

yields the same barrier pillar width for different size If
aecess tunnels at similar de~ths of cover, which may not b'e

safe. Based on this investigatioA, it has been found that,

"..

there is also a nèed- to develop J,

new method of designing
, . ;;
barrier pillar width in longwall mining. Henee, two

theoretical approaches ha~een developed and examined based

on in situ deformation measurements obtained from 26 aceess
• e
tunnels 1n the Sydney coalfield. Both approaches have shown
good agreement with the minimum required barrier pillar width

evaluated from the field data. The two new methods developed

in this research have the advantages

1
of taking several

parameters into account and being applicable to greater

depths.

9 • 2 CONTRIBUTION

The present studies can be concluded with noting the

following contributiqns to science and 'the mining industry:

1. The effect of the major controlling factors on face-access

tunnel closure, based on both in situ deformation measure-

ments and finite element modelling, has been

systematically analyzed and evaluated. These include;

depth of cover, panel width, extracted seam height, tunnel

size, tunnel shape, type of supports, adjacent workings

and elastic moduli of coal pillars and goaf materials.

298

1
 ...
2• A photographie technique as a quantitative means of in

• situ'deformation measurements based on digitizng of over

1000 photographs with their subsequent analysis has.been

evaluated and proposed. The photographs have traditionally

been used as a qualitative means in coal mining industry.

3. A new theoretical formula for calculation of in situ

modulus of elasticity of the rock mass has been developed

and examined.

4. A new theoretical method of predicting vertical

convergence profile from tunnel faceline based on a

modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion has been developed

f

and examined. The method has the advantages of taking into

account the effect of extracted seam height, panel width,

elastic moduli of goaf material and coal pillar, tunnel

size, tunnel shape, in situ structural defects and time-

dependent behaviour of surrounding rock strata.

5. Two new theoretical methods of designing barrier pillar

width for longwall mining have been developed and

examined. The methods have the advantages of taking the

effsct of parameters mentioned in "3" into account and

being applicable to great depths.

\
9.3 RECOMMENDATIONS, FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The following recommendations should be considered for

extending the present research:

1. To investigate the structural defect index, Id' and

299
 -----.--- • il').:

, weakening index, Iw' as developed in this research!

different ,rock types ·and broken materials so that the

indices could be generalized .

for

•
2. To consider the effect of tunnel shape on tu~el closure
, 1
by means of the three-dimensional finite element method,

for comparison with that developed in this study.

3. To evaluate the combined effect of heterogenei ty and

anisotropie characte~istics of surrounding rock materials

/ on face-access tunnel elosure.

4. To investigate the extent of the yield zone in roof strata

of ,extracted panels) and i ts influence on fae~-access

.
tunnel closure.

5. To examine the recommended method of improving the

photographie teœhnique for more general use of underground

"
data collection.

6. To develop a theoretieal method for the prediction of

tunnel roof load in longwall mining and comparison of the

results with in situ measurements.

!e 1
300
,~

• REFERENCES

1.

/J
Adler, L. Ind Sun, M.C. "Ground C:0r.trol in Bedded
Formationcs", Bulletin 28, Research Dryision, virginia
Polytechnic Insti tute and State Unl. versi ty 1 pp. 266
(1976) •
2. AIder, H., ~alker, A. and Wal'ker, L. "Subsidence and i~s
Bearing on 'Mining Methods", Trans. IME., Vol. 102,
pp.302, (1942).
3. AIder, H., Potts, E.L.J., and Walker, A., "Yielding
Pi1lar Technique", Co11iery Guardian, Vol. 179, No. 4628,
pp. 361-394 (1949).
4. Anon, "west German Technique - Decision aids for Gate
- Roads Planning, taklng into account the as~ects of Rock
Mechanics and Support Techniques", Recommen ed Operating
Procedure for Coal Mines, No. 203. Publis ed by Verlay
Glukauf, Essen, W.G., pp. 60 (1982).
5. Anon, the North of Eng1and Safety in Mines Research
Committee, "Seventh progress Report of an Ïnvesti-gation
into the causes of Falls and Accidents due ~o Falls-and-
The Improvement of working Conditions by the Controlled
Transference of Roof Load", Trans. IME., Vol. 108, pp.489
(1948-49) . ~

6. Anon, Support of Workings in Mines Committee, "Fourth

progress Report of an Investigation into the Causes of
Falls, and Accidents due to Falls ~n Bord-and-Pillar
Whole Workings", Trans. IME., vor. 91, pp.349 (1935-36).
7. Anon, the North England Instit~te Strata Control Research ~. •
Sub-commi ttee, "Control of the Strata in Mining:
Investigations in the Durham and Northumberland
Coalfield", Trans. IME, Vol. 113, pp.83- , (1953-54).
8. An~n, "Divisional strata Control Research Committee,
National Coal Board,) Durham and Northern DivisionS Report
on the Effects of Working in Adjacent Seams upon New
Developments", Trans. IME, Vol. 113, pp.389-403 (1953-
54) . t ",

9. Anon, "Measurement and Analysis \ of Deformation in the

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