Professional Documents
Culture Documents
When Frederick Jackson Turner announced in 1893 that "the American character did not spring
full-blown from the Mayflower," but that "it came out of the forests and gained new strength
each time it touched a frontier," his speech punctuated nearly three centuries of examinations
into the American wilderness.1 From Jamestown and Plymouth Plantation to the Louisiana
Purchase of 1803 and the subsequent expedition of Lewis and Clark, to Turner's "Frontier
Thesis" at the Columbian Exposition of 1893, the geography and ecology of the American
continent was the center of debate among Americans. Two primary views of the wilderness were
contested: the wilderness either contained savagery and temptation which threatened the
authority of the community or it represented a new Garden which could flourish with the proper
cultivation by the European settlers. Although these contrasting views of the wilderness shared
the goal of establishing a civilization by removing the obstacles presented by the natural
environment, the state of wilderness that originally characterized the young nation eventually
became the source of national pride and identity for America.
In an essay entitled "The Cultural Significance of the American Wilderness," Roderick Nash
notes that early settlers in the New World were not Americans at all, but transplanted Europeans
who regarded the land as a spiritual and physical void which had to conquered and civilized in
the name of Christianity and progress.2 Because it was an unknown entity with bizarre animals,
unusual topography, and strange indigenous inhabitants, the wilderness represented a place
where community and consensus would be put in peril by the total absence of European law,
religion, and civilization. Early New England literature, art, and folklore presents the wilderness
as the place where reason succumbs to passion and the devil can seduce and corrupt even the
holiest in the community. In other early colonies, particularly Pennsylvania and Virginia, the
wilderness represented the Garden--a place to be tamed and cleared for the establishment of a
human community. In this outlook, however, the land supplied the raw materials for building a
society, and nature was to be used, not feared. Despite the different outlooks, the goal was the
same: to destroy the savage wilderness and make it bloom with European civilization.
In this Thomas Cole painting of 1836 entitled The Oxbow (The Connecticut River near
Northampton), the tension between wilderness and garden, savagery and civilization, is
recorded visually as European conventions of landscape painting are employed to comment on
the state of the physical place of America. The savagery of the storm clouds over the wilderness
retreats from the advancing cultivated landscape of civilization. And, as Cole scholar William
Cronon has suggested,"in the lazy turn of the great oxbow--echoed by the circling birds at the
edge of the storm-- we can make out the shape of a question mark: where is all this headed?" The
concerns expressed in Cole's painting reflected the debate among Americans. Would the
wilderness disappear completely for the sake of civilization, or would the two exist in perpetual
tension with one another?
During the Lewis and Clark expedition in the Jeffersonian era, the primary goal of wilderness
investigation was to take inventory of the garden and complete a taxonomy of the American
continent. Jefferson's interest in taxonomy was supported in Pennsylvania by the Philosophical
Society of Benjamin Franklin, a group of scientists that included anthropologist Charles Wilson
Peale, botanist Benjamin Rush, and chemist/physicist Joseph Priestley. Jefferson and the men of
this society often compared notes and shared the results of individual experiments to assess and
quantify the land and its contents. Although these men displayed a genuine curiosity about their
environment, they were eager to discover what resources of economic value lay in the land for
their use in building a civilized society. Northern strides toward industry and technology led by
Franklin, and Southern emphasis on the idealized agrarian society of gentlemen's farms espoused
by Jefferson shared a desire to tame and contain the wilderness by imposing upon it a
constructed landscape of human civility and divine order. The wilderness exploration of
Jefferson's time suggested that America's success as a nation was tied to the cultivation of the
wilderness. America could have a rural character, but not a wild one. To achieve our "manifest
destiny," Americans had to create a pastoral middle landscape of rolling hills and prosperous
farms, much like the terrain of Cole's painting.
The more penetrating of these examinations into the changing landscape emerged during the
1850's and 1860's in the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau during the
early era of the American Renaissance, which was influenced in part by British Romanticism.
Nature was once again a subject for American art and letters, but the perceptions of it had shifted
to reflect the new American concern with the changes in the landscape. Rather than presenting
nature as an obstacle to the establishment of a civilization, American authors and painters alike
upheld nature as the source of the animating spirit behind the American character.
The Romantics approached the subject from a different perspective. Romanticism set up
opposition to the Neoclassic insistence on order and hierarchy by championing individual
freedom through man's relationship to nature. The Romantics believed that nature was the
inherent possessor of abstract qualities such as truth, beauty, indepence and democracy. In the
natural world, people could reclaim or at least approximate the lost innocence of their origins--
both individual and national. The image of America as a garden could apply to the Romantic
perspective of nature, but the gridwork of civilization had to be stripped from the landscape. The
original state of American wilderness--as well as areas of the country yet undeveloped gave
America a valid claim to a possession now desirable in European thought. Wild nature thus
became a source of national pride as the root of character traits for a unique national identity.
This embrace of wilderness released at last a true native creativity in the American mind. No
longer bound by classical notions of art and literature in Europe, many American artists and
authors disregarded European traditions and began to explore the natural world of America for
its possibilities of new subject matter.
Romanticism in painting drew its inspiration in part from American neoclassicism, a genre which
relied on European landscape iconography to paint the American continent as a mythological
land. Through landscape painting, artists wrote a creation myth for America that focused on the
primacy of the white settlers. These paintings feature European explorers on horseback, arriving
in their promised land to find noble savages and unspoiled wilderness. Artists of this genre
granted a privileged role for an American elite and enobled the white discovery and settlement of
the wilderness by evoking images of classical painting. These two images by Albert Bierstadt
which hang in the Capitol exemplify this style of painting through their representations of the
white explorers and the native tribes. Although both paintings borrow heavily from the grandiose
iconography of European istoria painting, the background of wilderness is purely American.
Bierstadt departs from traditions by placing a mythological tale of civilization in the context of
the American wilderness--a transition which would inspire later Romantic painting.
American Romantics also drew their inspiration from painter John Turner and authors such as
William Wordsworth, each of whom involved the spectator or reader as a participant in the
dynamic experience of nature instead of maintaining an objective distance to the natural world in
their portrayals. Nature was perceived as divine and sublime in literature, art, and nature writing.
Cliffs were described as castles, trees and mountain peaks evoked the structure of spires, and the
rolling plains metamorphosed into mythic oceans of grass. Europe was littered with the wrecks
of man, but America was blessed with the undiminished majesties of God. This emphasis on the
sublimity of nature by itself encouraged dramatic innovations in American landscape painting,
when artists would travel across the Mississippi to paint the landscapes that impressed them in
the West. Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Church, and Thomas Moran jointly founded a school of
American art which freed itself of European conventions by painting the rough beauty and
uniqueness of wilderness for its own sake. These landscapes experiment with new subject matter
and brush techniques, but the focus of the scene still speaks to the white heritage. These scenes
illustrate the notion of uninhabited, virgin wilderness, seen for the first time by European
explorers and American pioneers alike. The emphasis is on the experience of wilderness, and
these painters show that this experience is one in which anyone--specifically any white man--can
participate. This painting of Niagara Falls by Regis Gignoux hangs in the U.S. Capitol and
illustrates the experience of the common man in a sublime natural setting, a change in subject
matter which marks a critical point in the changing perceptions of the American wilderness.
Representations of sublime nature expressed for Americans the roots of their national character.
Not only did the Edenic portrayal of America give it the status of a promised land, but also
turned into a country where true equality--among the European setters at least--could prevail, and
freedom could exist in as pure a form as ever existed in Europe. Peggy Wayburn of the
University of California states that "the wilderness of the continent made obsolete and alien the
old ideas of rank, caste, and inherited aristocracy...common man could become uncommon
man."3 The explorers in paintings such as Regis Gignoux's or Thomas Moran's were common
men, not aristocrats or European dignitaries; they had embarked on journeys westward and were
driven by a taste for adventure and a curiosity about the land, but also by the need to survive
alone in the wilderness. As Turner would argue in his thesis, the obstacles presented by the
wilderness fostered the beloved American traits of independence, ingenuity, pragmatism, and
resourcefulness, and the existence of a rolling frontier line which was constantly redrawn and
redefined both geographically and politically at each stage of western expansion continually
reaffirmed national faith in democracy and equality.
Dime novels, Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, and the newly established
National Park System capitalized on the urban fatigue and discretionary
income of wealthy easterners. In advertisements, artists' sketches, and
photographs from the west, sublime portrayals of nature solicited the
money of people in the east. The west reaffirmed the existence of the
American identity and promised that it was still as robust as ever.
The first congressional acquisitions of landscape painting for the Capitol were the powerful
images of the American west done by painter Thomas Moran. Moran had accompanied two
geological surveys to the West and provided visual images of the unbelievable descriptions that
surveyors and travellers alike were reporting in letters to the east. The allocation of $10,000 for
Moran's first painting, "The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone," suggested the importance of
both the idea and the land of the west and also served as a federal endorsement of wilderness as
the wellspring of American nationalism. Other paintings would follow Moran's, but the
pioneering work of this artist carries with it the complex history of America's relationship to its
environment during the late Nineteenth century--suggesting that more than sublime Nature alone
is enshrined in the Capitol building.
Thomas Moran and the American Landscape | For Further Reading | Home
Joshua Johns
April 5, 1996