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In this work, thermal conductivity, viscosity, and boiling heat transfer coefficient of
a biologically produced nano-coolant were experimentally quantified. The nanoparticles
were produced from silver nitrate via the plant extraction method and by means of green
tea leaf extract. The mean size of the particles was 50 nm, with spherical morphology
and single-phase structure of Ag (silver). The synthesized particles were dispersed in
coconut oil as base fluid. Thermal conductivity and viscosity of the nanofluid were ex-
perimentally measured and correlated based on temperature and concentration of
nanoparticles via the regression analysis. Thermal performance of the nanofluid inside an
annular heat exchanger with convective boiling conditions (in forced convection and
nucleate boiling heat transfer regimes) was assessed. The results demonstrated a superior
thermal performance in both heat transfer regions over the base oil, and revealed that this
nanofluid can be used as a coolant as well as a lubricant in engines with high heat flux
conditions, as its thermal conductivity and viscosity were enhanced due to the presence
of Ag particles inside the oil.
Key words:
silver nanoparticle, thermal conductivity, viscosity, boiling heat transfer, plant extraction
Sarafraz et al.14–16 established experiments on addition, the experimental results indicated that
thermal performance of alumina and copper oxide there is an optimum volume concentration of
nanofluids in a boiling pool. They demonstrated nanoparticles, in which the heat transfer coefficient
that pool boiling heat transfer can be deteriorated has its maximum value. Furthermore, the optimum
over extended time, since nanoparticles can form a volume concentration of nanoparticles and the max-
fouling layer on the surface, which causes a signifi- imum increment of boiling heat transfer coefficient
cant thermal resistance. Tang et al.17 performed a in their study were 0.75 % and 64 %, respectively.
set of experiments on pool boiling heat transfer Although they reported a slight enhancement in
characteristics of gamma alumina/R141b nanofluids thermal performance of the system, they mentioned
on a horizontal flat square copper surface at heat no information regarding the sedimentation and sta-
fluxes in the range 10–200 kW m–2. The surface tus of particles over the extended period of opera-
roughness has been controlled by sandpaper of tion. As mentioned, water/ethylene glycol is not an
grade #2000 before boiling. The results show that appropriate coolant for high heat flux conditions. To
the presence of alumina nanoparticles can enhance address this challenge, oil-based nanofluids are a
or deteriorate the pool boiling heat transfer coeffi- promising option for high heat flux systems. Much
cient, which strongly depends on the concentration efforts have been made to investigate the effect of
of nanoparticles dispersed in the base fluid. the presence of particles in oils. A summary of these
In another study, nucleate boiling heat transfer researches is presented in Table 1.
of alumina–water–ethylene glycol nanofluids under According to Table 1, nanoparticles have a sig-
atmospheric pressure was investigated by Raveshi nificant role in thermal performance and viscosity
et al.18 He and his co-workers evaluated six differ- of oil-based nanofluids. Nanoparticles can be pro-
ent volume fractions of the nanofluids to study the duced using green synthesis via plant extracts.
impact of concentration on boiling heat transfer of Much effort has been made to obtain biologically
binary mixture of water/ethylene glycol based nano- produced nanoparticles from plant extraction meth-
fluids. The results showed the high effectiveness of od. For instance, in a study conducted by Wang et
the nanoparticles on the heat transfer coefficient. In al.28, AgNPs were synthesized using the cell filtrate
Ta b l e 1 – Investigations on the influence of the presence of particles in oils and on thermal performance of the systems
Author Nanofluid Remarks
vol. % = 0.5–1.5, Laminar regime, heat exchanger with micro-fin tubes, heat transfer
Behabadi et al.19 CuO-synthesized oil
enhancement up to 230 %, no stability analysis, maximum pressure drop 42–47 %
vol. % = 0.001–0.2, Preparation of nanofluid was carried out by Two-step method.
Thermal conductivity was measured using hot wire method, thermal properties were
Shi et al. 20
Cu-oil
enhanced due to the base fluid and intensified because of the nanoparticles, maximum
enhancement was 18 % for vol. % = 0.2
vol. % = 0–2.5 %, Ultrasonically Two-step method was employed to prepare the nano-
Hemalatha et al.21 ZnO-coconut oil fluids, experimental viscosity was measured and correlation was proposed. Shear thin-
ning behavior was reported. No information on thermal conductivity.
wt. % = 0.2–2, laminar flow, all thermal properties were experimentally measured,
Behabadi et al.22 CuO-base oil heat transfer enhancement = 12.8 %, Newtonian behavior is reported for the coolant,
no information on stability of nanofluids are reported.
CNT fraction not mentioned. Multi-walled carbon nanotube was produced using
MWCNT-silicon
Xie et al.23 mechano-chemical method, functionalized and dispersed in silicon based oil, potential
based oil
thermal application for nanofluids is reported by measuring the rheological properties.
vol. % = 0.002, 0.005, 0.01, at fully-developed regime and constant wall temperature
condition, heat transfer enhancement is reported. No specific values of enhancement
Ashtiani et al.24 MWCNT-oil
are given. Better thermal properties were seen for oil based nanofluids rather than
base fluids.
Two-step method, flash point and heat transfer enhanced 6.7 and 13.2 % for wt. % =
Ahmadi et al.25 MWCNT-engine oil
0.1 respectively.
Diamond-Refrigerant/oil wt. % = 0–5, surfactant including SDS, CTAB were employed as dispersant. Enhance-
Ding et al.26
R113+oil (VG68) ment in pool boiling heat transfer coefficient up to 63.4 %.
For refrigerant/oil mixture heat transfer coefficient increases for (vapor quality < 0.6).
Behabadi et al.27 R600/CuO/oil For refrigerant/oil mixture heat transfer coefficient decreases for higher vapor quali-
ties. Adding CuO nanoparticles improves the heat transfer coefficient up to 63 %.
M. M. Sarafraz et al., Thermal Performance and Viscosity of Biologically Produced…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 30 (4) 489–500 (2016) 491
Fig.Scanning
Fig. 2(a) 2(a) Scanning electron
electron microscopic Fig.Transmission
microscopicFig. 2(b) 2(b) Transmission
electronelectron microscopic
microscopic
imageimage
of Agof
nanoparticles
Ag nanoparticles image image
of Ag nanoparticles dispersed
of Ag nanoparticles in coconut
dispersed in coconut
oil oil
(c) (d)
Fig. Scanning
Fig. 2(a) 2(a) Scanning electron
electron microscopic Fig.
microscopic Fig.
2(b)2(b) Transmission
Transmission electron
electron microscopic
microscopic
imageimage
of Agofnanoparticles
Ag nanoparticles image
image ofnanoparticles
of Ag Ag nanoparticles dispersed
dispersed in coconut
in coconut
oil oil
F i g . 2 – (a) Scanning electron microscopic image of Ag nanoparticles; (b)Transmission electron microscopic image of Ag nanopar-
Fig. in2(c)
ticles dispersed Results
coconut oil; (c)of digital
Results of digital Fig.
lightlight scattering for2(d) Results
determining of X-raysizediffraction
the dominant testResults
of particles; (d) for aof X-ray
diffraction test forFig. 2(c) Results
a biologically ofsample
produced digital light Fig. 2(d) Results of X-ray diffraction test for a
52
52
Fig. 2(c) Results of digital light Fig. 2(d) Results of X-ray diffraction test for a
Fig. 2(c) Results of digital light Fig. 2(d) Results of X-ray diffraction test for a
M. M. Sarafraz et al., Thermal Performance and Viscosity of Biologically Produced…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 30 (4) 489–500 (2016) 493
in the surrounding pipe. The dimensions of the test mated at ±0.3 K. The local heat transfer coefficient
major uncertainties in the measurement
section can be seen in Fig. 3. The length of the heat- of the heat
a transfer
was thencoefficient
calculated can
from:be related to the
ed section
errorswasin140
the mm, meaning that
measurements only theflow
of volume firstrate, hydraulic diameter, and all the q temperatures.
140 mm of stainless steel is heated uniformly and
a= (2)
radiallyTherefore, the main
by the heater. uncertainty
Therefore, theforaxial
the heat
heattransfer coefficient as thermal − Tb )ave. index
(Twperformance
is 16.234 %. More information about uncertainty analysis can be found in our previous
publication37.
– Scheme
F i g . 3Fig. of the test
3 Scheme rig test
of the for the
rigassessment of thermal performance
for the assessment of thermalofperformance
nanofluids and of
details of annularand
nanofluids test section
54
analysis for estimating the thermal conductivity. Noticeably, for better understanding, an
enhancement ratio was defined as:
k nanofluid (3)
Thermal conductivity Enhancemen t ratio
k base fluid
while in the regression analysis, the weight fraction tained results, the viscosity decreases with an in-
was converted to vol. %. crease in temperature, while by increasing the
Fig. 5 represents the results of comparison for nanoparticles concentration, the viscosity signifi-
available correlations in literature38 and the pro- cantly increases. Similar to thermal conductivity,
posed correlation. As can be seen, the Maxwell for viscosity, the enhancement ratio is defined as:
equation and correlation suggested by Patel et al. mnanofluid
overestimated the experimental data, while Xue et Enhancement ratio = (7)
mbase fluid
al., Yu-Choi and Hamilton-Crosser, all underesti-
mated the experimental data. Fig. 6 represents the dependence of viscosity
enhancement ratio on temperature for different
Viscosity nanoparticles concentrations. As can be seen, dete-
rioration of viscosity with temperature is obvious,
Viscosity of oil is a key parameter, especially
which is in accordance with earlier works2,21. No- 58
for nano-lubricants, in which the presence of parti-
ticeably, viscosity of nanofluids is relatively higher
cles may result in enhancement of viscosity and than that measured for the base fluid.
changes in the behavior of the oil. Viscositylayers of oil, which
can sig- increases the interlayer movement of lubricants and also on the surface,
nificantly influence pumping power and lubrication It can also be stated that addition of nanoparti-
but at higher concentrations, the nanoparticles form clusters and aggregations, which increase
performance of oil for high-friction surfaces. In the cles leads to an increase in viscosity, which is not
the roughness. These all result
appreciable for insome
enhancement of nanofluid
applications, such asviscosity.
low-tem-According to the
present work, viscosity of nanofluid was measured 57lubrications, while for heavy-oil applica-
58
at different temperatures and concentration obtainedof perature
results, the viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature, while by increasing
nanoparticles using Brookfield digital viscometer layers of oil, tions, such as
which increases the high heat-temperature
interlayer movement of lubricants conditions
and also oninthe surface,
Constant a b c d
the
k0
nanoparticles concentration,
R2 engines, Standardusing
the viscosity significantly increases. Similar to thermal
error the nano-lubricants can enhance the
DV-E series (uncertainty: 0.1 % of readings). but Theat higher concentrations, the nanoparticles form clusters and aggregations, which increase
thermal properties
conductivity, for viscosity, the enhancement and viscosity in comparison
ratio is defined as: with
results showed that with an increase in nanoparticle the roughness.
0.99981base These5.42all38%result in enhancement of nanofluid viscosity. According to the
Numerical value 58.6146 0.0052 – –2.22E–5 0.7688 oils .
concentration, the viscosity of the nanofluid signifi- obtained results, the viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature, while by increasing
1609.0286 (7)
cantly increases. Noticeably, at lower concentra- Enhancemen t ratio
the nanoparticles
nanofluid
concentration,
Boiling thermaltheperformance viscosity significantly increases. Similar to thermal
tions, a thin layer of nanoparticles is deposited on base fluid
conductivity, for viscosity, the enhancement ratio is defined as:
the surface and between layers of oil, which in- Conveniently, the convective boiling heat trans-
creases the interlayer movement of lubricants
Fig. 6 and
represents
Fig. 5 represents the results of comparison for available correlations in literature andthe fer
the coefficient
38 dependence
nanofluid
ofwas considered
viscosity enhancementas thermal
ratio on perfor-
temperature for (7)different
also on the surface, but at higher concentrations,Enhancemen the tmance
ratio index for high heat flux conditions. Boiling
base fluidAs can be seen, deterioration of viscosity with temperature is
proposed correlation. As can be seen,clusters
the Maxwell nanoparticles
equation and correlationconcentrations.
suggested by comprises different heat transfer mech-
nanoparticles form and aggregations, which heat transfer
increase the
Patel et al. overestimated the roughness.
experimentalThese all result
data, while Xue inet obvious,
enhance-
al. whichand
, Yu-Choi isanisms,
Fig. 6 represents
in accordance
Hamilton- namely
the dependence
with
offorced
works2, 21. Noticeably,
earlier enhancement
viscosityconvection
viscosity
heatontransfer
ratio and
temperature
of nanofluids is
for different
ment of nanofluid viscosity. According torelatively the nanoparticles
ob-higher than nucleate boiling
that measured regimes.
forbethe base fluid.
Crosser, all underestimated the experimental data. concentrations. As can seen, deterioration of viscosity with temperature is
obvious, which is in accordance with earlier works2, 21. Noticeably, viscosity of nanofluids is
relatively higher than that measured for the base fluid.
F i g . 5 – Comparison between thermal conductivity enhance- F i g . 6 – Experimental viscosity of nanofluid at different tem-
ment ratio obtained by the correlations against the experimen- peratures for different concentrations of nanofluids
Fig. 5 Comparison between thermal conductivity enhancement ratio obtained by the
Fig. 6 Experimental viscosity of nanofluid at different temperatures for different
tal data; temperature = 25 ○C Fig. 6 Experimental viscosity of nanofluid at different temperatures for different
correlations against the experimental data; temperature = 25 ○C concentrations of nanofluids
concentrations of nanofluids
It can also be stated that addition of nanoparticles leads to an increase in viscosity, which is
4.1.2. Viscosity
It can not
alsoappreciable
be statedforthat addition
some of nanoparticles
applications, leads to lubrications,
such as low-temperature an increasewhile
in viscosity,
for heavy- which is
Viscosity of oil is a key parameter, especially for nano-lubricants, in oil applications,
not appreciable
which thefor such applications,
some
presence as
of high heat-temperature conditions in engines,
such as low-temperature using the
lubrications, nano-
while for heavy-
38
lubricants can enhance the thermal properties and viscosity in comparison with base oils .
particles may result in enhancement of viscosity and changesoilin applications,
the behavior such
of theasoil.
high heat-temperature conditions in engines, using the nano-
496 M. M. Sarafraz et al., Thermal Performance and Viscosity of Biologically Produced…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 30 (4) 489–500 (2016)
Ta b l e 3 – Operating conditions related to flow boiling exper- base fluid as well as that of Castrol oil. In fact, the
iments addition of Ag nanoparticles improves the thermal
Operating parameter Value SI unit performance of coconut base oil. On the other hand,
the presence of nanoparticles influences the thermal
Heat flux 5–170 kW m–2
conductivity, Brownian motion, and viscosity of co-
Mass flux 80–1200 kg m–2 s–1 conut oil. Therefore, better thermal performance is
Reynolds number 900–15503 – reported for the nanofluid in comparison with en-
gine oil and coconut oil.
Concentration 0.5, 1, 1.5 wt. %
It is worth noting that fouling formation is a
0.4 (clean) – major drawback in the use of nanofluids in cooling
Surface roughness µm
0.52 (deposited)
systems. In this work, fouling formation of Ag par-
Sub-cooling 353 K ticles on the heating surface of an annular heat ex-
changer was constantly monitored using IUP500X
digital microscope. The results were compared to
Table 3 shows the experimental conditions alumina and copper aqueous nanofluids to under-
used for the boiling experiments. As can be seen, stand the fouling behavior of a biologically pro-
Reynolds number varies from 900 (laminar regime) duced nanofluid. In our earlier publications, fouling
to 15503 (turbulent regime) to assess the perfor- of different nanoparticles on the heating surface
mance of nanofluids at different flow regimes. Also, was investigated28,29,34. 60
heat flux is varied from 7 kW m–2 (forced convec-
tive) up to 170 kW m–2 (nucleate boiling heat trans-
of nanoparticles which can enhance the thermal conductivity of nanofluid. This results in
fer regime). enhancement of thermal performance of nanofluid.
According to the experimental results, in the
nucleate boiling region, higher heat transfer coeffi-
cient is seen in comparison with forced convection
region. This is largely due to the bubble formation
on the heating surface, which intensifies the local
movements of fluid. Bubble interactions also inten-
sify the Brownian motion of particles. Overall, Ag/
coconut nanofluid presents reasonable cooling per-
formance at high heat flux and two-phase systems.
Fig. 7 shows the dependence of heat transfer
coefficient on Reynolds number for different con-
centrations of nanofluids and at different heat fluxes
belonging to forced convection and nucleate boiling
regions. Noticeably, with an increase in concentra-
tion of Ag nanoparticles into the base oil, higher
heat transfer coefficient is seen for both heat trans- F i g . 7 – Comparison between heat transfer coefficient at dif-
fer regions. Moreover, an increase in fluid flow rateFig. 7 Comparison
ferent heat transfer
between heatregions
transfer for differentat weight
coefficient differentconcentrations
heat transfer regions for
results in enhancement of heat transfer coefficient. of Ag nanoparticles
different weight concentrations of Ag nanoparticles 61
However, the value of heat transfer coefficient for
laminar region is relatively lower than that obtained
Fig. 8 presents the heat transfer coefficient of Ag/coconut oil nanofluids and base oil (coconut
for the nucleate boiling region. More importantly,oil) in comparison with car engine oil (20W–50 provided by Castrol GTX). Castrol GTX was
with an increase in concentration of nanofluid,selected
the as it is widely used in the automotive industry, however, other oils can also be
boiling heat transfer coefficient increases. This is
compared. As can be seen, for all the heat fluxes, the heat transfer coefficient of Ag/coconut
mainly due to the presence of nanoparticles which
can enhance the thermal conductivity of nanofluid.oil nanofluid is greater than that of the base fluid as well as that of Castrol oil. In fact, the
This results in enhancement of thermal performanceaddition of Ag nanoparticles improves the thermal performance of coconut base oil. On the
of nanofluid. other hand, the presence of nanoparticles influences the thermal conductivity, Brownian
Fig. 8 presents the heat transfer coefficientmotion,
of and viscosity of coconut oil. Therefore, better thermal performance is reported for the
Ag/coconut oil nanofluids and base oil (coconutnanofluid
oil) in comparison with engine oil and coconut oil.
in comparison with car engine oil (20 W–50 provid-
ed by Castrol GTX). Castrol GTX was selected as it
is widely used in the automotive industry, however,
other oils can also be compared. As can be seen, for
all the heat fluxes, the heat transfer coefficient of F i g . 8 – Comparison between thermal performance of nano-
Ag/coconut oil nanofluid is greater than that of theFig. 8 Comparison
fluid, base oil, and
between car performance
thermal engine oil of nanofluid, base oil, and car engine oil
It is worth noting that fouling formation is a major drawback in the use of nanofluids in
cooling systems. In this work, fouling formation of Ag particles on the heating surface of an
annular heat exchanger was constantly monitored using IUP500X digital microscope. The
results were compared to alumina and copper aqueous nanofluids to understand the fouling
60
k – Thermal conductivity, W m–1 K–1 10. Lee, J., Jeong, Y. H., CHF enhancement in flow boiling sys-
tem with TSP and boric acid solutions under atmospheric
k0 – Constant
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nanofluids, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Trans. 58 (2014) 96.
bf – base fluid doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2014.08.028
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