Índice

Preface to Second Edition 13

Goals and Objectives 13
Supplementary Resources 14
A Message for Students 15
Acknowledgements 15

Chapter 1: Understanding the physical universe

1.1 The Programme of Physics 17
1.2 The Building Blocks of Matter 17
1.3 Matter in Bulk 20
1.4 The Fundamental Interactions 21
1.5 Exploring the Physical Universe: The Scientific Method 21
1.6 The Role of Physics: Its Scope and Applications 23

Chapter 2: Using mathematical tools in physics

2.1 Applying the Scientific Method 24
2.2 The use of Variables to Represent Displacement and Time 24
2.3 Representation of Data 25
2.4 The Use of Differentiation in Analysis: Velocity and Acceleration in Linear Motion 27
2.5 The use of Integration in Analysis 31
2.6 Maximum and minimum Values of Physical Variables: General Linear Motion 36
2.7 Angular Motion: the Radian 37
2.8 The Role of Mathematics in Physics 40
Worked Examples 41
Problems 43

Chapter 3: The causes of motion: dynamics

3.1 The Concept of Force 45
3.2 The First Law of Dynamics (Newton's First Law) 45
3.3 The fundamental dynamical principle (Newton's second law) 47
3.4 Systems of Units: SI 49
3.5 Time Dependent Forces: Oscillatory Motion 51
3.6 Simple Harmonic Motion 53
3.7 Mechanical Work and Energy: Power 57
3.8 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 61
3.9 Dissipative Forces: Damped Harmonic Motion 64
3.10 Forced Oscillations 69
3.11 Nonlinear Dynamics: Chaos 72
Worked Examples 73
Problems 76

Chapter 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

4.1 Vector Physical Quantities 78
4.2 Vector Algebra 79
4.3 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 83
4.4 Force as a Vector Quantity: Vector form of the Laws of Dynamics 85
4.5 Constraint Forces 86
4.6 Friction 88
4.7 Motion in a Circle: Centripetal Force 91
4.8 Motion in a Circle at Constant Speed 91
4.9 Tangential and Radial Components of Acceleration 94
4.10 Hybrid Motion: the Simple Pendulum 95
4.11 Angular Quantities as Vectors: the Cross Product 96
Worked Examples 99
Problems 101

Chapter 5: Force fields

5.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation 103
5.2 Force Fields 103
5.3 The Concept of Flux 105
5.4 Gauss' Law for Gravitation 107
Surface Integrals 108
5.5 Motion in a Constant Uniform Field: Projectiles 112
5.6 Mechanical Work and Energy 114
5.7 Energy in a Constant Uniform Field 119
5.8 Energy in an Inverse Square Law Field 120
5.9 Moment of a Force: Angular Momentum 123
5.10 Planetary Motion: Circular Orbits 125
5.11 Planetary Motion: Elliptical Orbits and Kepler's Laws 126
Worked Examples 128
Problems 132

Chapter 6: Many-body interactions

6.1 Newton's Third Law 135
6.2 The Principle of Conservation of Momentum 137
6.3 Mechanical Energy of Systems of Particles 139
6.4 Particle Decay 139
6.5 Particle Collisions 141
6.6 The Centre of Mass of a System of Particles 145
6.7 The Two-Body Problem: Reduced Mass 146
6.8 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles 149
6.9 Conservation Principles in Physics 150
Worked Examples 151
Problems 155

Chapter 7: Rigid body dynamics

7.1 Rigid Bodies 159
7.2 Rigid Bodies in Equilibrium: Statics 160
7.3 Torque 161
7.4 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 162
7.5 Measurement of Torque: The Torsion Balance 164
7.6 Rotation of a Rigid Body About a Fixed Axis: Moment of Inertia 165
7.7 Calculation of Moments of Inertia: The Parallel Axis Theorem 166
7.8 Conservation of Angular Momentum of Rigid Bodies 169
7.9 Conservation of Mechanical Energy in Rigid Body Systems 170
7.10 Work Done by a Torque: Torsional Oscillations: Rotational Power 173
7.11 Gyroscopic Motion 175
7.12 Summary: Connection between Rotational and Translational Motions 176
Worked Examples 177
Problems 179

Chapter 8: Relative motion

8.1 Applicability of Newton's Laws of Motion: Inertial Reference Frames 182
8.2 The Galilean Transformation 183
8.3 The CM (Centre-of-Mass) Reference Frame 186
8.4 Example of a Noninertial Frame: Centrifugal Force 190
8.5 Motion in a Rotating Frame: the Coriolis Force 192
8.6 The Foucault Pendulum 197
8.7 Practical Criteria for Inertial Frames: The Local View 198
Worked Examples 199
Problems 203
Chapter 9: Special relativity
9.1 The Velocity of Light 205
9.2 The Principle of Relativity 205
9.3 Consequences of the Principle of Relativity 206
9.4 The Lorentz Transformation 208
9.5 The Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction 210
9.6 Time Dilation 211
9.7 Paradoxes in Special Relativity 212
9.8 Relativistic Transformation of Velocity 213
9.9 Momentum in Relativistic Mechanics 215
9.10 Four Vectors: The Energy-Momentum 4-Vector 216
9.11 Energy-Momentum Transformations: Relativistic Energy Conservation 218
9.12 Relativistic Energy: Mass-Energy Equivalence 219
9.13 Units in Relativistic Mechanics 222
9.14 Mass-Energy Equivalence in Practice 222
9.15 General Relativity 223
9.16 Simultaneity: Quantitative Analysis of the Twin Paradox 224
Worked Examples 226
Problems 229
Chapter 10: Continuum mechanics: mechanical properties of materials
10.1 Dynamics of Continuous Media 231
10.2 Elastic Properties of Solids 232
10.3 Fluids at Rest 236
10.4 Elastic Properties of Fluids 238
10.5 Pressure in Gases 239
10.6 Archimedes' Principle 240
10.7 Fluid Dynamics 241
10.8 Viscosity 244
10.9 Surface Properties of Liquids 246
10.10 Boyle's law (Mariotte's law) 248
10.11 A Microscopic Theory of Gases 250
10.12 The Mole 252
10.13 Interatomic Forces: Modifications to the Kinetic Theory of Gases 253
10.14 Microscopic Models of Condensed Matter Systems 255
Worked Examples 257
Problems 259
Chapter 11: Thermal physics
11.1 Friction and Heating 261
11.2 Temperature Scales 262
11.3 Heat Capacities of Thermal Systems 264
11.4 Comparison of Specific Heat Capacities: Calorimetry 266
11.5 Thermal Conductivity 267
11.6 Convection 267
11.7 Thermal Radiation 269
11.8 Thermal Expansion 270
11.9 The First Law of Thermodynamics 272
11.10 Change of Phase: Latent Heat 273
11.11 The Equation of State of an Ideal Gas 274
11.12 Isothermal, Isobaric and Adiabatic Processes: Free Expansion 274
11.13 The Carnot Cycle 278
11.14 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 280
11.15 The Helmholtz and Gibbs functions 282
11.16 Microscopic Interpretation of Temperature 283
11.17 Polyatomic Molecules: Principle of Equipartition of Energy 285
11.18 Ideal Gas in a Gravitational Field: the ‘Law of Atmospheres’ 287
11.19 Ensemble Averages and Distribution Functions 288
11.20 The Distribution of Molecular Velocities in an Ideal Gas 289
11.21 Distribution of Molecular Speeds, Momenta and Energies 291
11.22 Microscopic Interpretation of Temperature and Heat Capacity in Solids 293
Worked Examples 294
Problems 297
Chapter 12: Wave motion
12.1 Characteristics of Wave Motion 299
12.2 Representation of a Wave which is Travelling in one Dimension 301
12.3 Energy and Power in a Wave Motion 304
12.4 Plane and Spherical Waves 304
12.5 Huygens' Principle: the Laws of Reflection and Refraction 305
12.6 Interference Between Waves 307
12.7 Interference of Waves Passing Through Openings: Diffraction 312
12.8 Standing Waves 314
12.9 The Doppler Effect 317
12.10 The Wave Equation 319
12.11 Waves Along a String 319
12.12 Waves in Elastic Media: Longitudinal Waves in a Solid Rod 320
12.13 Waves in Elastic Media: Sound Waves in Gases 322
12.14 Superposition of Two Waves of Slightly Different Frequencies: Wave and Group Velocities 323
12.15 Other Wave Forms: Fourier Analysis 324
Worked Examples 327
Problems 328
Chapter 13: Introduction to quantum mechanics
13.1 Physics at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century 330
13.2 The Blackbody Radiation Problem 331
13.3 The Photoelectric Effect 334
13.4 The X-ray Continuum 337
13.5 The Compton Effect: The Photon Model 338
13.6 The de Broglie Hypothesis: Electron Waves 340
13.7 Interpretation of Wave-Particle Duality 342
13.8 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 343
13.9 The Wavefunction: Expectation Values 346
13.10 The Schrödinger (Wave Mechanical) Method 346
13.11 The Free Particle 348
13.12 The Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation: Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues 350
13.13 The Infinite Square Potential Well 351
13.14 The Potential Step 354
13.15 Other Potential Wells and Barriers 360
13.17 Further Implications of Quantum Mechanics 365
Worked Examples 366
Problems 368

Chapter 14: Electric currents

14.1 Electric Currents 370
14.2 Force between Currents 372
14.3 The Unit of Electric Current 373
14.4 Heating Effect Revisited: Electrical Resistance 374
14.5 Strength of a Power Supply: emf 376
14.6 Resistance of a Circuit 377
14.7 Potential Difference 377
14.8 Effect of Internal Resistance 379
14.10 Comparison of Emfs: the Potentiometer 381
14.10 Multiloop Circuits 382
14.11 Kirchhoff's Rules 383
14.12 Comparison of Resistances: the Wheatstone bridge 385
14.13 Power Supplies Connected in Parallel 385
14.14 Resistivity 387
14.15 Variation of Resistance with Temperature 388
Worked Examples 389
Problems 391

Chapter 15: Electric fields

15.1 The Electric Charge Model 394
15.2 Interpretation of Electric Current in Terms of Charge 395
15.3 Electric Fields: Electric Field Strength 397
15.4 Forces Between Point Charges: Coulomb's Law 398
15.5 Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density 399
15.6 Electric Fields Due to Systems of Point Charges 401
15.7 Gauss' Law for Electrostatics 404
15.8 Potential Difference in Electric Fields: Electric Potential 406
15.9 Acceleration of Charged Particles 412
15.10 Dielectric Materials 413
15.11 Capacitors 415
15.12 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 418
15.13 Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor Through a Resistor 419
Worked Examples 422
Problems 425

Chapter 16: Magnetic fields

16.1 Magnetism 427
16.2 The work of Ampère, Biot and Savart 429
16.3 Magnetic Pole Strength 430
16.4 Magnetic Field Strength 431
16.5 Ampère's Law 432
16.6 The Biot-Savart Law 434
16.7 Applications of the Biot-Savart Law 436
16.8 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density 437
16.9 Magnetic Fields Due to Systems of Poles 438
16.10 Forces between magnets 440
16.11 Forces Between Currents and Magnets 440
16.12 The Permeability of Vacuum 441
16.13 Current Loop in a Magnetic Field 442
16.14 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetic Materials 444
16.15 Moving Coil Meters and Electric Motors 448
16.16 Magnetic Fields Due to Moving Charges 450
16.17 Force on an Electric Charge in a Magnetic Field 451
16.18 Magnetic Dipole Moments of Charged Particles in Closed Orbits 453
16.19 Electric and Magnetic Fields in Moving Reference Frames 454
Worked Examples 457
Problems 459

Chapter 17: Electromagnetic induction: time-varying emfs

17.1 The Principle of Electromagnetic Induction 462
17.2 Simple Applications of Electromagnetic Induction 466
17.3 Self-Inductance 467
17.4 The Series L-R Circuit 470
17.5 Discharge of a Capacitor through an Inductor and a Resistor 471
17.6 Time-Varying emfs: Mutual Inductance: Transformers 473
17.7 Alternating Current (a.c.) 475
17.8 Alternating Current Transformers 478
17.9 Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance in a.c. Circuits 479
17.10 The Series L-C-R Circuit: Phasor Diagrams 482
17.11 Power in an a.c. Circuit 485
Worked Examples 486
Problems 488

Chapter 18: Maxwell's equations: electromagnetic radiation

18.1 Reconsideration of the Laws of Electromagnetism: Maxwell's Equations 490
18.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 492
18.3 Experimental Observation of Electromagnetic Radiation 495
18.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 496
18.5 Polarisation of Electromagnetic Waves 498
18.6 Energy, Momentum and Angular Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves 501
18.7 Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves at an Interface Between Nonconducting Media 504
18.8 Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium 505
18.9 The Photon Model Revisited 507
18.10 Invariance of Electromagnetism Under the Lorentz Transformation 508
Worked Examples 509
Problems 511

Chapter 19: Optics

19.1 Electromagnetic Nature of Light 513
19.2 Coherence: The Laser 515
19.3 Diffraction at a Single Slit 516
19.4 Two Slit Interference and Diffraction: Young's Double Slit Experiment 520
19.5 Multiple Slit Interference: The Diffraction Grating 523
19.6 Diffraction of X-Rays: Bragg Scattering 527
19.7 The Ray Model: Geometrical Optics 530
19.8 Reflection of Light 531
19.9 Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors 533
19.10 Refraction of Light 535
19.11 Refraction at Successive Plane Interfaces 539
19.12 Image Formation by Spherical Lenses 541
19.13 Image Formation of Extended Objects: Magnification 545
19.14 Dispersion of Light 548
Worked Examples 549
Problems 552

Chapter 20: Atomic physics

20.1 Atomic Models 554
20.2 The Spectrum of Hydrogen: the Rydberg Formula 556
20.3 The Bohr Postulates 557
20.4 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 558
20.5 The Quantum Mechanical (Schrödinger) Solution of the One-Electron Atom 562
20.6 The Radial Solution of the Lowest Energy State of Hydrogen 565
20.7 Interpretation of the One-Electron Atom Eigenfunctions 567
20.8 Intensities of Spectral Lines: Selection Rules 571
20.9 Quantisation of Angular Momentum 572
20.10 Magnetic Effects in One-Electron Atoms: the Zeeman Effect 573
20.11 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment: Electron Spin 575
20.12 The Spin–Orbit Interaction 577
20.13 Identical Particles in Quantum Mechanics: the Pauli Exclusion Principle 579
20.14 The Periodic Table: Multielectron Atoms 580
20.15 The Theory of Multielectron Atoms 584
20.16 Further Uses of the Solutions of the One-Electron Atom 585
Worked Examples 585
Problems 587
Chapter 21: Electrons in solids: quantum statistics
21.1 Bonding in Molecules and Solids 589
21.2 The Classical Free Electron Model of Solids 593
21.3 The Quantum Mechanical Free Electron Model: The Fermi energy 595
21.4 The Electron Energy Distribution at 0 K 597
21.5 Electron Energy Distributions at T>0 K 600
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity and Conductivity in the Quantum Free Electron Model 601
21.7 The Band Theory of Solids 603
21.8 Semiconductors 606
21.9 Junctions in Conductors and Semiconductors: p-n Junctions 608
21.10 Transistors 614
21.11 The Hall Effect 617
21.12 Quantum Statistics: Systems of Bosons 618
21.13 Superconductivity 619
Worked Examples 621
Problems 622

Chapter 22: Nuclear physics, particle physics and astrophysics

22.1 Properties of Atomic Nuclei 624
22.2 Nuclear Binding Energies 626
22.3 Nuclear Models 627
22.4 Radioactivity 631
22.5 α-, β- and γ-decay 632
22.6 Detection of Radiation: Units of Radioactivity 636
22.7 Nuclear Reactions 637
22.8 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 639
22.9 Fission Reactors 640
22.10 Thermonuclear Fusion 642
22.11 Subnuclear Particles 645
22.12 The Quark Model 648
22.13 The Physics of Stars 652
22.14 The Origin of the Universe 658
Worked Examples 661
Problems 663

Answers to Problems

Appendix A: Mathematical Rules and Formulas

A.1 Perimeters, Areas and Volumes 686
A.2 Plane Geometry 686
A.3 Trigonometry 687
A.4 Algebraic Identities 688
A.5 The logarithmic and Exponential Functions 689
A.6 Differentiation 689
A.7 Integration 691
A.8 Complex Numbers 694
A.9 Series Expansions 694
A.10 Analytical Geometry 695
A.11 Vector Algebra 699
A.12 Vector Calculus 701
A.13 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems in three Dimensions 702

Appendix B: Some fundamental physical constants 704

Appendix C: Some Astrophysical and Geophysical Data 706