What is Subsurface Water?

-Is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in

rocks and sediments beneath the earth’s surface.
Subsurface water, or ground water, is the water that lies beneath the ground surface, filling the pore
spaces between grains in bodies of sediment and clastic sedimentary rock, and filling cracks and crevices
in all types of rock. It is also the water that is flowing within the aquifers below the water table.
(AQUIFERS – a layer of sand or rock that can absorb and hold water)

-It is an important phase of hydrological cycle.

Source of ground water is rain and snow that falls to the ground a portion of which percolates down into
the ground to become ground water, where it eventually makes its way back to surface streams, lakes,
or rivers.

-It is relatively free of pollution and is especially useful for

domestic use in small towns and isolated farms.
Hydrological cycle is one of the nature’s ways to recycle and clean the water.

-It makes up about 1% of the water on the Earth (most

water is in ocean). It makes up to about 35 times the
amount of water in lakes and rivers.

-It occurs everywhere beneath the Earth’s surface but is

usually restricted to depths less that about 750m. The
over-all volume of groundwater is an equivalent to 55m
thick layer spread out over the entire surface of the Earth.

-It is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and

industrial use by constructing and operating extraction
wells.
Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often
occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands.

Occurrence of Subsurface Water

SUBSURFACES ZONES
Zone of Aeration, or the Vadose Zone
-a subsurface zone in which rock openings are generally
unsaturated and filled partly with air and partly with
water.
Zone of Saturation, or the Phreatic Zone
- the subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled
with water.
The zone of aeration is further sub-divided into three layers—soil moisture zone, intermediate zone and
capillary zone, collectively called Vadose Zone. Some amount of water in this zone is used by plants. At
the bottom of the intermediate zone lies the capillary fringe (a thin layer of 2 to 3 cm) from where water
moves upward. The capillary condition is temporarily destroyed when heavy rain takes place. In such
cases the groundwater body is replenished by recharge.
The zone of saturation lies below the zone of aeration and is also called the phreatic zone. The water
available in this zone is known as groundwater. The groundwater table or water table segregates the
zone of aeration and the zone of saturation. The maximum elevation of water in a well which penetrates
the groundwater zone is known as piezometric water table. Generally, the water table follows the
irregularities of the earth’s surface; for example, the water table is highest beneath hills and lowest
beneath valleys.

MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER
-most ground water moves relatively slowly through rock
underground
-because it moves in response to differences in water
pressure and elevation, water within the upper part of
the saturated zone tends to move downward following
the slope of the water table
-First, the groundwater moves downward due to the pull
of gravity. But it can also move upward because it will
flow from higher pressure areas to lower pressure areas.

Factors Affecting the flow of Water:

-the slope of the water table
the steeper the water table, the faster ground water moves

-permeability – is the capability of a rock to allow the

passage of fluids.
If rock pores are small and poorly connected, water moves slowly; when openings are large and well
connected, the flow of water is more rapid

-Porosity - is a measure of the void spaces in a material,

and is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of
the formation.
– In sediments or sedimentary rocks the porosity depends on grain size, the shape of the grains, and the
degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation.
- in igneous rock and metamorphic rocks, porosity is usually low because the minerals tend to be inter
grown, leaving little free space. Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks, however, could have
high porosity.

Moisture in the Vadose Zone

Above the water table, moisture is raised by capillarity
into the capillary fringe. If the water table is close to the
ground surface, the capillary fringe and the soil moisture
region may overlap, but where the water table is deep,
an intermediate region exists where moisture levels
remain constant at the field capacity of the soil and rock
of the region.
The vadose zone is the undersaturated portion of the subsurface that lies above the groundwater table.
The soil and rock in the vadose zone are not fully saturated with water; that is, the pores within them
contain air as well as water. In some places the vadose zone is absent, as is common where there are
lakes and marshes, and in some places it is hundreds of meters thick, as is common in arid regions.

Water in the vadose zone has a pressure head less than atmospheric pressure, and is retained by a
combination of adhesion (funiculary groundwater), and capillary action (capillary groundwater). If the
vadose zone envelops soil, the water contained therein is termed soil moisture. In fine grained soils,
capillary action can cause the pores of the soil to be fully saturated above the water table at a pressure
less than atmospheric. The vadose zone does not include the area that is still saturated above the water
table, often referred to as the capillary fringe.
Movement of water within the vadose zone is studied within soil physics and hydrology, particularly
hydrogeology, and is of importance to agriculture, contaminant transport, and flood control. The
Richards equation is often used to mathematically describe the flow of water, which is based partially on
Darcy's law. Groundwater recharge, which is an important process that refills aquifers, generally occurs
through the vadose zone from precipitation.

Factors Affecting the flow of Ground Water

-Water Table is the surface separating the vadose zone
from the saturated zone.
-The capillary fringe is the subsurface layer in which
groundwater seeps up from a water table by capillary
action to fill pores.
Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in a narrow space without the assistance
of, and in opposition to external forces like gravity.

The velocity of groundwater is based on hydraulic

conductivity (K), as well as the hydraulic head (I). The
equation to describe the relations between subsurface
materials and the movement of water through them is
Q = KIA
Where: Q = Discharge
A = Area
K=Hydraulic conductivity
I= hydraulic head

Sources of Water:
Ground water has gotten into the earth from one of the
following sources:
1. Meteoric water.
It includes waters formed by infiltration of atmospheric precipitation like rain, sleet, snow, hail
etc. as well as by the infiltration of water of rivers and lakes.

2. Condensational water.
This water is mainly the source of replenishment of ground waters particularly in deserts and semi
deserts, where precipitation is scanty and there is rapid evaporation. In such regions, there is ground
water at certain depth below the surface.

3. Connate water.
This is also known as fossil water and includes water entrapped in sediments at the time of their
deposition on lake or sea bottom. They are classified in to two types as syngenetic and epigenetic
connate water.

4. Juvenile water.
It is also known as magmatic water as it is associated with the magmatic activities within the crust. With
the cooling of magma, its gaseous contents and water vapour etc. separate out from it.
The water vapour then gets condensed into superheated water and move upwards from a region of high
temperatures and pressures to that of low temperature and pressure. This is also called virgin water.

5. Mixed source water.

It is quite natural to expect that along their complex-migration routes the aforesaid waters get mixed up
and thus constitute ground water of a mixed type.

Moisture in Phreatic Zone

The term phreatic is used in hydrology and the earth
sciences to refer to matters relating to ground water (an
aquifer) below the water table (the word originates from
the Greek phrear, phreat- meaning "well" or
"spring").The phreatic zone defines the lower edge of the
vadose zone.
Within the phreatic zone all pore spaces are filled with
water, and the different states of moisture, moisture
tension, etc… are of little concern. Interest is centered on
the amount of water present, the amount which can be
removed and the movement of this water.

Ground Water Potential

The important hydrogeological parameters such as
porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the geologic
stratum determine the performance of the aquifer. Added
to this, an important factor is the length of data
considered for predicting the groundwater potential.
Groundwater was the major source for irrigation prior to the introduction of canal irrigation
system. Water contained in the voids of the geologic materials that comprise the crust of the earth is
the groundwater. It exists at a pressure greater than or equal to atmospheric pressure. The
experimental and mathematical methods required for analyses are distinctly different as it is exploited
and used in human affairs in different ways. The important hydrogeological parameters such as porosity
and hydraulic conductivity of the geologic stratum determine the performance of the aquifer. Added to
this, an important factor is the length of data considered for predicting the groundwater potential. Thus,
with adequate length of the database, the prediction of any derived model will reproduce the statistical
properties. Otherwise, it is difficult to predict the regional groundwater flow conditions, subject to
measurable hydrological, hydrogeological and meteorological variables in nature. As it is largely
uncertain in nature, this cannot be left in isolation.
Estimation of Ground Water Recharge
The commonly used method for estimating groundwater
storage available annually is based on
Q = (Area) x (Depth of fluctuation in Groundwater Table)
x (Specific Yield) (1)
In the above equation, the depth of fluctuation in groundwater table or the drop in groundwater
table has to be calculated by taking the duration over which the fluctuation occurs.
The area in equation (1) is the area of influence of the well in the basin. This is obtained by Thiessen
Polygon Method (Fig 2). By this method, the watershed area is subdivided into polygonal sub areas using
the wells as nodes. The Thiessen polygon around each well permits the assignment of weights on the
basis of the relative areas of the respective polygons. The sub areas are used as weights in estimating
the average depth of fluctuation for each well.
The dynamic reserve has been computed by measuring the net change in storage of the phreatic
aquifer. The storage of the groundwater in the aquifer is dependent upon the input components such as
precipitation; seepage and return flow of irrigated water during various seasons.
The fluctuation of groundwater depth over the study period is analysed and plotted as shown in Fig. 3,
to understand the behaviour of the aquifer. High variations in annual recharges to groundwater body
are observed between monsoons. To avoid compilation in the estimation and management of these
replenishable resources due to variation in the annual recharge, quantification of optimum dynamic part
of the groundwater resource is adopted in the dynamic groundwater reserve estimation.

RECHARGE BY FLUCTUATION IN MONSOON SEASON

The determination of groundwater recharge (in a minimum period of monsoon variations) in the basin
was done first. The difference between the highest and lowest water levels is calculated during the
monsoon period and the equation (1) is used to estimate the recharge in the basin. This is repeated for
all five zones (in the basin) using 20 years of water level data (1972 to 1991). The estimated quantity of
recharge is listed in Table 1.

RECHARGE BY YEARLY WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION

In this method, the fluctuation of groundwater level is taken as the difference between the highest level
(of the second season) and the lowest (of the first season in a year) and the equation (1) is used for
estimating the recharge values for 20 years from 1972 to 1991. Zonewise recharge quantity is calculated
and is tabulated in Table 2.

RECHARGE BY TEN YEAR FLUCTUATION

The study is further extended for a long span of water level fluctuations in the aquifer. Here, the depth
of fluctuation is taken as difference between the highest level (of second season) and the lowest (of the
first season) over ten years. Considering these variations groundwater recharge was estimated by
equation (1). This is repeated with 20 years of data. Zonewise quantity of recharge is computed and
listed in Table 3.
RECHARGE BY AVERAGE OF TEN YEAR FLUCTUATION
The estimation is worked out for the average fluctuations over ten years in the basin. The difference
between the highest level of second season and the lowest of the first season for every year is taken and
the average over the ten years is calculated. This is done for all the five zones and the quantity of
recharge is calculated. The estimated quantity of recharge is given in Table 4. Thus, the assessment of
groundwater potential is done in different time scale. This study is further extended to see the
variations spatially. The recharge results are plotted z

TABLE 1: RECHARGE BY FLUCTUATION IN MONSOON SEASON

Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Zone-1 338.5 334.5 366.03 242.8 401.19 616.6 252.83 431.5 194.87 217.19

Zone-2 195 187.1 137.15 181.4 159.11 309.1 140.95 259 169.36 186.78

Zone-3 195 189.8 166.26 206.3 171.48 310.1 182.92 278.5 138.88 300.25

Zone-4 196.8 201.5 180.93 236 179.91 315.2 233.61 245.1 195.55 269.68

Zone-5 146.5 155.4 115.66 111.8 120.9 290.3 128.2 172 102.73 190.75

Annual 1072 1068 966.03 978.4 1032.59 1841 938.51 1386 801.39 1164.7

Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Zone-1 219 159.3 242.28 157.2 130.6 275.8 145.8 246 188 191.1

Zone-2 119.5 138.2 90.5 84.15 125.5 189.3 112 121 157.4 128.7

Zone-3 154.2 196.1 96.06 167.5 158.5 210 113.5 194 139.2 244.8

Zone-4 115.3 208.4 147.1 135.2 141.4 169.5 102.4 178 139.7 173.5

Zone-5 150.6 90.79 114.22 97.9 88.39 190.1 107.8 104 130.7 95.99

Annual 758.5 792.7 690.16 641.9 644.3 1035 581.5 843 755 834.1

TABLE 2: RECHARGE BY YEARLY WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION

Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Zone-1 185.1 330.8 270.23 184.8 303.87 168.4 357.35 231.1 214.35 270.28

Zone-2 156.63 174.82 221.33 109.20 197.87 141.91 179.70 188.12 160.79 153.61

Zone-3 121.42 172.49 203.56 205.14 191.73 127.24 196.03 179.36 176.04 225.22

Zone-4 154.32 198.79 231.81 165.21 214.46 139.24 229.66 226.03 233.65 227.44

Zone-5 157.47 162.93 169.45 87.84 154.29 152.70 181.05 153.12 151.74 151.58

Annual 758.6 1023 1095.8 747.8 1064.42 725.1 1143.79 947.1 1001.7 1028.13

Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
 Zone-1 263.5 234.1 169.79 212.7 169.4 181.2 255.4 206 212.5 165.6

Zone-2 182.06 125.71 138.56 139.1 126.8 111.9 127 122 170.3 128.4

Zone-3 215.67 207.41 130.09 202.2 233.7 280.3 175.4 141 233.7 205.6

Zone-4 222.13 137.40 168.14 200.8 154.2 163.4 182.4 121 151.6 153.5

Zone-5 179.09 172.42 114.42 155.5 127.7 112 150.6 138 139.1 113.7

Annual 1018 861.1 743.74 910.2 811.8 848.8 890.8 729 907.3 766.9

TABLE 3: RECHARGE BY WATER LEVEL DIFFERENCE OVER TEN YEARS

Year 1972-81 1973- 1974- 1975- 1976- 1977- 1978- 1979- 1980- 1981- 1982-
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Zone-1 543.7 566 582.78 577 584.792 547.4 616.973 619.8 668.52 642.05 692

Zone-2 522.4 563.6 560.7 562.5 574.38 583.9 606.23 605.4 619.14 558 578.1

Zone-3 397.8 373 398.66 430 432.55 429.9 494.45 493.8 484.91 475.77 503.4

Zone-4 687.8 651.3 663.02 622 621.68 639.1 652.52 667.2 669.61 652.57 652.6

Zone-5 475.8 475.1 473.88 443.6 455.55 488.3 569.8 520.7 549.59 531.65 533.4

Annual 2627 2629 2679.1 2635 2668.95 2689 2939.96 2907 2991.8 2860 2959

TABLE 4: RECHARGE BY AVERAGE W.L DIFFERENCE OVER TEN YEARS

Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Zone-1 264.4 265.3 261.8 257.2 302.9 253.4 276.73 221.1 219.65 188.79 198.3

Zone-2 168.40 170.94 171.08 164.53 170.72 165.49 168.90 167.00 159.47 157.25 166.82

Zone-3 134.17 187.45 206.38 162.01 178.47 136.27 206.01 180.10 195.79 216.01 215.67

Zone-4 201.58 208.41 209.59 207.13 213.10 212.88 227.58 227.08 227.57 224.62 221.99

Zone-5 152.22 154.38 153.43 151.43 160.51 161.55 163.32 158.89 160.81 165.34 179.09

Annual 920.75 986.49 1002.28 942.31 1025.70 929.55 1042.54 954.21 963.29 952.01 981.86

Ground Water Contamination

Over 50% of the United States population depends on groundwater for drinking water. Groundwater is
also one of our most important sources of water for irrigation. Unfortunately, groundwater is
susceptible to pollutants.

Groundwater contamination occurs when man-made products such as gasoline, oil, road salts and
chemicals get into the groundwater and cause it to become unsafe and unfit for human use.
Materials from the land's surface can move through the soil and end up in the groundwater. For
example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into groundwater supplies over time. Road salt,
toxic substances from mining sites, and used motor oil also may seep into groundwater. In addition, it is
possible for untreated waste from septic tanks and toxic chemicals from underground storage tanks and
leaky landfills to contaminate groundwater.
Dangers Of Contaminated Groundwater
Drinking contaminated groundwater can have serious health effects. Diseases such as hepatitis and
dysentery may be caused by contamination from septic tank waste. Poisoning may be caused by toxins
that have leached into well water supplies. Wildlife can also be harmed by contaminated groundwater.
Other long term effects such as certain types of cancer may also result from exposure to polluted water.

Potential Sources of Groundwater Contamination

• Storage Tanks
May contain gasoline, oil, chemicals, or other types of liquids and they can either be above or below
ground. There are estimated to be over 10 million storage tanks buried in the United States and over
time the tanks can corrode, crack and develop leaks. If the contaminants leak out and get into the
groundwater, serious contamination can occur.
• Septic Systems
Onsite wastewater disposal systems used by homes, offices or other buildings that are not connected to
a city sewer system. Septic systems are designed to slowly drain away human waste underground at a
slow, harmless rate. An improperly designed, located, constructed, or maintained septic system can leak
bacteria, viruses, household chemicals, and other contaminants into the groundwater causing serious
problems.
• Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
In the U.S. today, there are thought to be over 20,000 known abandoned and uncontrolled hazardous
waste sites and the numbers grow every year. Hazardous waste sites can lead to groundwater
contamination if there are barrels or other containers laying around that are full of hazardous materials.
If there is a leak, these contaminants can eventually make their way down through the soil and into the
groundwater.
• Landfills
Landfills are the places that our garbage is taken to be buried. Landfills are supposed to have a
protective bottom layer to prevent contaminants from getting into the water. However, if there is no
layer or it is cracked, contaminants from the landfill (car battery acid, paint, household cleaners, etc.)
can make their way down into the groundwater.
• Chemicals and Road Salts
The widespread use of chemicals and road salts is another source of potential groundwater
contamination. Chemicals include products used on lawns and farm fields to kill weeds and insects and
to fertilize plants, and other products used in homes and businesses. When it rains, these chemicals can
seep into the ground and eventually into the water. Road salts are used in the wintertime to put melt ice
on roads to keep cars from sliding around. When the ice melts, the salt gets washed off the roads and
eventually ends up in the water.
• Atmospheric Contaminants
Since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle, contaminants in other parts of the cycle, such as the
atmosphere or bodies of surface water, can eventually be transferred into our groundwater supplies.
MEASURES TO COUNTERACT A HIGH
POTENTIAL FOR GROUND WATER
CONTAMINATION
A high or moderate ground water contamination potential is an indication of the speed that
contaminants could move downward to the water table if a spill or leak occurred. The result could be a
rapidly contaminated aquifer and a potentially polluted water well on your property and your
neighbours’. If this high risk exists on your property, special care should be taken not to have
leaks or spills of contaminants. Regular inspection, maintenance, and water testing of the water well
should be done. Containment of manure, livestock yard runoff, milking centre washwater, etc. is
necessary to reduce leaching down to ground water. As for field areas, manure and fertilizer must be
applied at the proper rate to meet the crop’s requirements and at the proper time of
year to maximize the use of the nutrients, otherwise, valuable nutrients could infiltrate down to ground
water.
Report in Hydrology
Subsurface Water
Alo,Isidoro III D.
Balading,Darylle Ross A.
Etac, Nathalie Joy E.
Fabile, Desiree Ann C.
Rioflorido, Rheajane P.
Unay, Iris Joyce