Concepts

Points to Remember

1
DEFINITION

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
e.g. methane, butane, etc.
2
DEFINITION

Properties of organic compounds containing covalent bonds

Organic compounds have relatively low melting points and boiling points in comparison to
the inorganic compounds of a similar molecular mass. Organic acids and bases are less
stronger and they have a limited dissociation in aqueous medium. Organic compounds with
metal combinations are called organometallic compounds which are industrially a very
important compounds used as catalysts, promoters, analysers and stabilizers.
3
DEFINITION

Catenation
Catenation is the linkage of atoms of the same element into longer chains. It occurs most
readily in carbon, which forms covalent bonds with other carbon atoms to form longer chains
and structures. e.g. pentane, butane, etc.
4
DEFINITION

Allotropes
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties. Carbon exists both in crystalline
and amorphous allotropic forms.
5
DEFINITION

Tetravalency of carbon
Carbon has 4 valence electrons. Since, it is difficult to either lose or gain 4 electrons to attain
inert gas configuration, carbon does not form ionic compounds. Carbon forms covalent
bonds- single, double and triple covalent bond. It is tetravalent in nature.
6
DEFINITION

Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties. Carbon exists both in crystalline
and amorphous allotropic forms. Crystalline allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite and
fullerene. Amorphous allotropes of carbon: coal, coke, charcoal, lampblack, gas and coke.
7
DEFINITION

Bonding in carbon
Carbon has 4 valence electrons. Since, it is difficult to either lose or gain 4 electrons to attain
inert gas configuration, carbon does not form ionic compounds. Carbon forms covalent
bonds- single, double and triple covalent bond.
8
DEFINITION

Versatile nature of carbon

The unique nature of carbon atom and the arrangement of the bond carbon forms with other
atoms enable the existence of a large number of organic compounds. It can form so many
compounds due its tetravalent nature and catenation property.
9
DEFINITION

Saturated carbon compounds

Saturated hydrocarbons are molecules that only contain single bonds and a maximum amount
of hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atom present. eg C2H6C2H6.
10
DEFINITION

Covalent bond
Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of electrons are shared by atoms. Atoms will covalently
bond with other atoms in order to attain the nearest noble gas configuration.
11
DEFINITION

Unsaturated carbon compound

Unsaturated hydrocarbons are compounds that consist only of the elements carbon (C) and
hydrogen (H) and contain at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond.
eg C2H4,C3H6C2H4,C3H6.
12
DEFINITION

Chain, branch and ring structure of carbon compound

The compounds of carbon in which all the carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain are
called straight chain molecules. Branched chain compounds consist of one or more carbon
atoms of a straight chain compound forming bonds with more than two carbon atoms. Ring
chain compounds consist of a ring of carbon atoms.
13
DEFINITION

Formation of covalent bond

When two atoms share electron mutually, they are said to be joined by a covalent bond.
Covalent bond is of three types: single bond, double bond and triple bond.
14
DEFINITION

Factors influencing covalent bond

Factors favouring covalent bond are similar electronegativity and high ionisation energy.
15
DEFINITION

Combustion of carbon compounds

All carbon compounds react with oxygen to produce heat and light along with carbon dioxide
and water. This reaction of carbon with oxygen is called combustion. Aliphatic compounds
on combustion produce a non-sooty flame. Aromatic compounds on combustion produce
sooty flame.
16
DEFINITION

Oxidation of carbon compounds

1. Oxidation is a reaction in which carbon compounds get oxidized by oxidizing agents into
compound with more number of oxygen atom
2. For example : Alcohols undergo oxidation in presence of oxidizing agents like alkaline
potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate to form carboxylic acids
3. Ethyl alcohol on oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium
dichromate gives acetic acid
17
DEFINITION

Addition reaction of carbon compounds

A chemical reaction is said to be an addition reaction if two substances combine and form a
third substance. In general, unsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes and alkynes prefers to
undergo addition reactions. In addition reactions, molecules add across double bond or triple
bond. Hydrogenation reaction involves the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons
in presence of catalyst like nickel or platinum to form saturated hydrocarbons.
18
DEFINITION

Substitution reaction of carbon compounds

A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms replaces another atom or group of atoms is
called substitution reaction. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions. Example: Chlorination of
methane in presence of sunlight gives a mixture of products like methyl chloride, methylene
chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.
19
DEFINITION

Octet rule
Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another (gaining
or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet or 8 electrons in their
valence shells. This is known as octet rule.
20
DEFINITION

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

Carbon compounds undergo different types of chemical reactions: substitution reactions,
addition reactions, polymerisation reactions, combustion reactions and thermal cracking.
21
DEFINITION

Single, double and triple bond

A covalent bond formed between atoms can be single, with two electrons shared; double,
with four electrons shared; and triple, with six electrons, shared.
22
DEFINITION

Surface active agents or surfactants

Chemical substances which concentrate at the surface of the solution or interfaces, form
surface films, reduce surface tension and help in removing dirt and dust by emulsifying
grease.
23
DEFINITION

Types of surface active agents

A substance which tends to reduce the surface tension of liquid in which it is dissolved is
called as surfactants.
There are types of surface active agents,
1. Soaps
2. Detergents
3. Emulsifiers
4. Foaming agents
5. Dispersants
24
DEFINITION

Soap
Soap is a sodium salt or potassium salt of long chain fatty acids having cleansing action in
water. They are used as cleansing agents to remove dirt, oil from the skin and clothes.
Examples : sodium stearate, sodium oliate and sodium palmitate formed using stearic acid
oleic acid and palmitic acid.
25
DEFINITION

Cleansing action of soaps

Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water. The molecule of soap
constitutes sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. In the case of soaps the
carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap molecules
form structures called micelles. In micelles one end is towards the oil droplet and the other
end which is the ionic faces outside. Therefore, it forms emulsion in water and helps in
dissolving the dirt r when we wash our clothes. The soap is a kind of molecule in which both
the ends have different properties. The first one is the hydrophilic end which dissolves water
and is attracted towards it whereas the second one is the hydrophobic end that is dissolved in
hydrocarbons and is water repulsive in nature. If on the surface of water, soap is present then
the hydrophobic tail which is not soluble in water will align along the water surface.
In water the soap molecule is uniquely oriented which helps to keep the hydrocarbon part
outside the water. When the clusters of molecules are formed then hydrophobic tail comes at
the interior of the cluster and the ionic end comes at the surface of the cluster and this
formation is called micelle. When the soap is in the form of micelles then it has the ability to
clean the oily dirt which gets accumulated at the centre. These micelles remain as a colloid in
the solution. Therefore the dirt from the cloth is easily washed away. The soap solution
appears cloudy as it forms a colloidal solution which scatters light.
26
DEFINITION

Oxygen molecule

Each oxygen atom has six valence electrons, and is two electrons short of nearest noble gas
configuration of neon. Two oxygen atoms can both achieve stable structures by sharing it's
electron pair to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. It forms a covalent bond, as their
electro-negativities are equal. Oxygen molecule has double covalent bond.
27
DEFINITION

Methane
In methane (CH4CH4) molecule, each of the 4 electrons in the outermost ("valence") shell of
carbon is shared with one hydrogen. In turn, each of the hydrogen also shares one electron
with carbon. Overall, carbon "owns" 8 valence electrons, satisfying the octet rule, and each
hydrogen has 2, satisfying the duplet rule.
28
DEFINITION

Homologous Series
A Homologous Series is a group of organic chemical compounds, usually listed in order of
increasing size, that have a similar structure (and hence, also similar properties) and whose
structures differ only by the number of CH2CH2 units in the main carbon chain.
29
DEFINITION

General characteristics of members of homologous series

Members of the series can be represented by a general formula. Successive members differ
from each other by CH2CH2. Physical properties change regularly with increasing number of
carbon atoms. Members have similar chemical properties because they have same functional
group. Members of the homologous series can be prepared using the same method.
30
DEFINITION

Significance of homologous series

1. Homologous series is the characteristic feature of carbon compounds in which carbon and
hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons varying by single parameter.
2. Homologous series helps in determination of structure of the successive member of the
series and the property of that members can also be predicted by their series.
31
DEFINITION

Homologous series of hydrocarbons

Alkanes can be represented by the general formula CnH2n+2CnH2n+2. Alkenes can be
represented by the general formula CnH2nCnH2n. Alkynes can be represented by the general
formula CnH2n−2CnH2n−2.
32
DEFINITION

Condensed structural formula of alkyl and functional group

1. Condensed structural formula represent structure of organic compound written in
condensed form or short form in which same repeating groups are condensed in one group.
Example : CH3CH2CH2CH3CH3CH2CH2CH3 can be written as following in condensed
form CH3(CH2)2CH3CH3(CH2)2CH3.
33
DEFINITION
Functional group in organic compounds
Functional groups are specific atoms or group of atomsjoined in a specific manner within
carbon compounds that are responsible for the characteristic chemical and physical properties
of these carbon compounds. eg -OH,-CHO,-COOH.
34
DEFINITION

Nomenclature of a carbon compound

Rules of nomenclature of carbon compounds have been given by IUPAC:

 According to IUPAC nomenclature longest continuous carbon chain should be taken as

the parent hydrocarbon.
 Other than parent chain remaining groups are consider as substituent or prefix.
 Any functional group present in carbon chain consider as part of parent chain.
 The carbon chain is numbered in a manner so that substituents and functional groups get
least possible number.
 The first letter of the name should be capital.
 There should be a hyphen between number and letter.
 Example : CH3CH2CH2OHCH3CH2CH2OH = 1-Propanol( The carbon atom which is
attached to OH group is numbered as 1 and there are 3 carbon atom in structure hence
name is 1-Propanol.)
35
DEFINITION

Trivial system of naming a organic compound

1. The non-systemic name which is not given by any rule is called as Trivial name of organic
compound.
2. The trivial names are given on the basis of the source and certain properties of organic
compounds. ex- Ethanoic acid is named as Acetic acid in trival name system as it is obtained
from by vinegar.
36
DEFINITION

IUPAC system of naming a organic compound

In 1947, the IUPAC, i.e. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry system of
naming compounds was first developed. The IUPAC system is a systematic nomenclature in
which the name of a compound correlates to its molecular structure. The IUPAC
nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used to write a unique name for
every distinct compound. According to the IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound
consists of a root word, a suffix and a prefix.
37
DEFINITION

General rules for IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds

1.Identify longest continuous carbon chain , this is called as parent chain.
2.Identify all the substituents.
3.Number the carbon atom in the chain so that the substituents get least possible number.
4.If the substituents occur more than 2 or 3 times the word di,tri , tetra etc are used.
5.If two or more different substituents are present then alphabetical order is used.
6.A cyclic hydrocarbon is given the prefix cyclo.
38
DEFINITION

nomenclature of saturated hydrocarbon

The names of such compounds are based on their chain structure , and end with suffix - ane
and carry a prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms present in the chain.
For example : Methane , Ethane.
39
SHORTCUT

Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes

For alkenes The longest continuous chain, considered as a parent chain should include double
bond in it and the chain ends with suffix -ene with position of double bond.If more than 1
double bond is their it is named according to the number of carbon in the chain..
For alkynes the longest continuous chain ends with -yne suffix and rest is similar to alkene.
40
DEFINITION

Nomenclature of branched chain alkanes

1. The longest carbon chain in the molecule is identified
2. The numbering is done in such a way that the branched carbon atoms get the lowest
possible numbers
3. The names of alkyl group attached as a branch are then prefixed to the name of the parent
alkane and position of the substituents is indicated by the appropriate numbers
4. Numbers are separated by commas
5. Lower numbers is given to the one coming first in the alphabetical listing

41
DEFINITION

Rules for unsaturated hydrocarbon

1. The longest continuous chain containing the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bonds
is selected.
2. While writing the name of the alkene or alkyne, the suffix ane of the corresponding alkane
is replaced by ene or yne respectively.
3. If the multiple bond occurs twice in the parent chain, the alkene and alkyne are
called diene and diynerespectively.
4. The numbering of atoms in parent chain is done in such a way that the carbon atom
containing the double or triple bond gets the lowest number.
All the rules for naming the side chains or substituents are similar to alkanes.
42
DEFINITION

Alicyclic compounds

1. For alicyclic compounds the word cyclo is used along with structure type.
2. For example: 3-membered carbon ring is called as cyclo propane.
43
DEFINITION

Writting structural formulae from IUPAC NAME

CH33CH22CH22Cl = 1-Chloropropane
44
DEFINITION

Isomerism
The phenomenon of existence of two or more compounds possessing same molecular formula
but different properties is known as isomerism.
Types of isomerism :
1.Structural isomerism 2. Stereo isomerism
45
DEFINITION

Isomers
1. Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different
arrangement of the atoms in space.
e.g. 1-pentene and 2-pentene are isomers
CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2(1-
Pentene) & CH3CH2CH=CHCH3CH3CH2CH=CHCH3(2-Pentene)
46
DEFINITION

Describe ethanol
Ethanol also commonly called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal
type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, produced by the fermentation of sugars by
yeasts. It is one of the oldest recreational drug.. It can cause alcoholic intoxication.when
consumed in sufficient quantity.
47
DEFINITION
Properties of ethanol
 Ethyl alcohol is a colorless liquid with boiling point 351 K.
 It has a characteristic smell and burning taste.
 It is miscible in water.
 It is good solvent for fats , oils, paints etc.
 Ethyl alcohol is typical monohydric alcohol gives all general monohydric alcohol
reactions.
48
DEFINITION

Physical properties of ehanol

 Ethyl alcohol is a colorless liquid with boiling point 351 K.
 It has a characteristic smell and burning taste.
 It is miscible in water.
 It is good solvent for fats, oils, paints etc.
49
DEFINITION

Chemical properties of ethanol

It is a typical monohydric alcohols hence the reaction like Halogenation, oxidation, reduction
etc. will remain same.
50
DEFINITION

Reactions of ethanol
Ethanol readily reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas. Ethanol on
heating to a temperature of 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid, gives
ethene. Ethanol undergoes oxidation in presence of potassium dichromate to form initially
ethanal and finally is oxidised to ethanoic acid. Reaction of ethanol with carboxylic acids is
called esterification reaction. The product formed in this reaction is an ester along with
water.
51
DEFINITION

Properties of acetic acid

 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent vinegar odour and sour taste
 It dissolves sulphur, iodine and many other organic compounds
 It is corrosive in nature
 It reacts with thionyl chloride to form acetyl chloride
 It reacts with alcohols in the presence of sulphuric acid, it form esters
52
DEFINITION

Physical properties of acetic acid

 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with pungent vinegar odour and sour taste.
 it is corrosive in nature.
 It is miscible in water, alcohol and ether.
53
DEFINITION

Chemical properties of acetic acid

 Acetic acid gives effervescence when treated with NaHCO3NaHCO3.
 Acetic acid reacts with thionyl chloride to give acetyl chloride.
 Acetic acid reacts with zinc to give zinc acetate.
54
DEFINITION

Reactions of ethanoic acid

Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate to give sodium acetate, carbon dioxide
and water. Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to give salt and water. Ethanoic acid reacts with
sodium carbonate to give sodium acetate, carbon dioxide and water.
55
DEFINITION

Reactions of ethanoic acid