DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

DIGESTION

The following steps are discernible:

• Digestion is the breakdown food to molecules that are small enough to be

absorbed by the body for energy, growth, and repair.

1. Mechanical homogenization of food and mixing of ingested solids.

2. Secretion of digestive enzymes.

3. Secretion of electrolytes, acid, or base

4. Secretion of bile acids

5. Hydrolysis of nutrient oligomers and dimmers by intestinal surface enzymes

6. Transport of nutrient molecules and of electrolytes from the intestinal lumen

across the epithelial cells into the blood or lymph.

ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• When the food is chewed the saliva starts breaking down some of the
carbohydrates molecules known as glucose (sugar).

• From the mouth, the food moves to the esophagus, and into the stomach.

• The stomach acts as a reservoir for food. lt contains special juices and
enzymes that are both substances that will break down the food and thereby
aid digestion (assimilation of the food).

Secretions of the Stomach

• Intrinsic factor

• HCl

▫ Kills bacteria

▫ Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase

▫ Denatures proteins

▫ Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin

• Pepsinogen: chief cells. Packaged in zymogen granules released by

exocytosis. Pepsin catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins.
 • G-cells: secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulates HCl secretion from
parietal cells

ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• The first place where the absorbed food goes is into the liver that will process
it further before it proceeds into the rest of the body

• 36 hours.

Regulation of Gastric Secretion

• Neural and hormonal mechanisms regulate the release of gastric juice

• Stimulatory and inhibitory events occur in three phases

▫ Cephalic (reflex) phase: prior to food entry

▫ Gastric phase: once food enters the stomach

▫ Intestinal phase: as partially digested food enters the duodenum

SURFACE EPITHELIA, AND CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVATION AND

SECRETION FOR DIGESTION

ENTEROCYTES

• final digestion occurs on the luminal surface or inside the enterocytes

• Microvilli also contain enzymes for further digestion of nutrients

• These surface enzymes are glycoproteins, which render its inherent stability
towards the hydrolytic effects of pancreatic proteases and detergents.

• Cytoplasm of enterocytes is the 3rd site of digestion.

• intracellular digestion is important for hydrolysis of di- and tripeptides.

• SURFACE EPITHELIA, AND CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVATION AND

SECRETION FOR DIGESTION

ZYMOGEN

• Proenzymes that protect cells from autodigestion.

• Pancreas is rich in potentially active enzymes, hence it was described as a

“loaded bomb.”

• Autodigestion examples: gallbladder disease, alcoholism, acute

hemorrhagic pancreatitis
 • Zymogens are synthesized with extra long polypeptide chains which render
them inactive.

• The triggering event for activation is their exposure to secretions from the
intestinal mucosa after passage from the pancreatic duct.

• Enterokinase - a highly specific protease activates trypsinogen to trypsin.

When active trypsin appears, it attacks other zymogens - proelastase,
chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidases, as well as trypsinogen itself.

• SURFACE EPITHELIA, AND CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVATION AND

SECRETION FOR DIGESTION

• The triggering event for activation is their exposure to secretions from the
intestinal mucosa after passage from the pancreatic duct.

• Enterokinase - a highly specific protease activates trypsinogen to trypsin.

• When active trypsin appears, it attacks other zymogens - proelastase,

chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidases, as well as trypsinogen itself.

• SURFACE EPITHELIA, AND CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVATION AND

SECRETION FOR DIGESTION

SECRETAGOGUES

• Regulation of secretion

• Secretagogues interact with receptors on the contraluminal surface of

exocrine cells

• Acetylcholine, histamine,serotonin, gastrin, chotecystokinin/pancreozymin

neurotransmitters, hormones, pharmacological agents, and certain bacterial
toxins can be secretagogues

• Different exocrine cells possess different sets of receptors

• Interaction of the secretagogues with the receptors sets off a chain of events
that ends with fusion of intacellular membrane-bound granules with the
plasma membrane and release of granular material into the extracellular

SURFACE EPITHELIA, AND CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVATION AND

SECRETION FOR DIGESTION

SECRETAGOGUES

• Three general classes of secretagogues:

1.) Neurotransmitter – Acetylcholine

 2.) Biogenic amines - Histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine

3.) Peptide hormones - gastrin, CCK, Secretin

HORMONES THAT REGULATE THE DIGESTVE TRACT

• Gastrin - stimulates flow of stomach enzymes and acid; stimulates

contraction lower esophageal sphincter; slows gastric emptying

• Gastric inhibitory peptide - inhibits secretion of stomach acid anti

enzymes; slows gastric emptying

• Cholecystokinin - causes contraction of the gallbladder and flow of bile to

the duodenum; causes secretion of enzyme pancreatic fluid; slows gastric
emptying

• Secretin - causes secretion of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic fluid and slows

gastric emptying

ABSORPTION

• Absorption is defined as the transport of nutrients from the lumen of the

gastrointestinal tract, across the cells and through the blood vessels.

• The small intestine can absorb about 95% of the food energy it receives in
the form of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and alcohol.

• The extent and efficiency of absorption in the small intestine are linked to its
incredible surface area.

• The villi contains many absorptive cells (enterocytes) which has brush border,
or microvilli, cap covered with hairlike projections called glycocalyx

• Intestinal enzymes are found on the glycocalyx.

TYPES OF ABSORPTION

1.) Passive absorption eg. Water and fat absorption

2.) Facilitated absorption eg. Fructose/glucose

3.) Active absorption eg. Glucose

4.) Phagocytosis/Pinocytosis/exocytosis

PORTAL AND LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION

 • The nutrients that are soluble in water are carried in the blood.

• Blood leaves the heart through the arteries, travels to the intestine, and
eventually travels in capillary beds inside the villi.

• The bloods exits the capillary beds and collects in the portal vein and exists
to the liver.

• The Iymphatic system also drains the villi.

• The lymphatic vessels also known as lacteals carry particles that are either
fat soluble or too large to pass through the capillaries into the bloodstream.

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• Major dietary CHO that we consume is in the form of starch, sucrose, and
lactose.

• Minor fraction comes in the form in glycogen, maltose, glucose and fructose.

• Cellulose, pentosans, inulin, and oligossacharides are not digested by non-

ruminants.

• Initial digestion of starch and glycogen occurs in the mouth.

• Ptyalin or salivary amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha 1, 4 glycosidic

linkages in starch, glycogen and dextrin and convert them to maltose and
oligosaccharides.

• In the stomach there is no significant hydrolysis due to acidic environment

and absence of enzymes in the gastric juice.

• In the duodenum, pancreatic amylase acts on partly digested food.

• It is an endoglycosidase also called α-amylase or amylopsin.

• Alpha-1,4 linkage of starch are broken down to yield maltose, maltotriose.

• The 1,6 branches are in a mixture of glu5 to glu9 compounds known as α-

dextrins.

• After pancreatic digestion, individual monosaccharides undergo absorption

while the di- and oligosiaccharides undergo further degradation by luminal or
brush border enzymes of enterocytes.

• Further down into the small intestines, enzymes such as oligosaccharidases

and disaccharidases are responsible for the formation of monosaccharides.
 • Isomaltase or α-dextrinase catalyzes the hydrolysis of α-1,6 bonds and
coverts α-limit dextrin to oligosaccharide and maltose.

• Maltase another oligosaccharidase catalyzes the removal of a single glucose

unit by hydrolyzing α-1,4-linkages of oligosaccharides and disaccharides from
the non-reducing ends.

• Sucrase catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose. Lactase

catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose.

• Thus by the combined action of amylasese, oligosaccharidases, and

disaccharidases, dietary polysaccharides and disaccharides are disintegrated
into constituents monosaccharides (glucose) for absorption

• Glucose is transported through enterocytes via facilitated diffusion and

majority by sodium-dependent facilitated transport.

• Glucose enters the absorptive cells by binding to transport proteins,

membrane-spanning proteins which bind the glucose molecule on one side of
the membrane and release it on the opposite side

• There are two types of Glucose transport proteins: Na dependent glucose

transporters and the facilitative glucose transporters.

• Galactose is absorbed via the same mechanism.

• Fructose both enters and leaves absorptive epithelial cells via facilitated
diffusion apparently via transport proteins which also has some activity for
glucose transport, but functions mainly for fructose

DIETARY FIBER:

• Fiber or cellulose are not enzymatically digested by human digestive

enzymes.

• Therefore, they do not directly serve as a source of nourishment

• Examples of fiber are: cellulose, hemicellulose,pectins, gums, mucilages,

lignins.

• Bacterial flora in the human gut may degrade the more soluble fibers,
releasing the products into the lumen of the gut

• Fiber functions in various ways: Dietary fiber soften stools by virtue of their
hydrating capacity. They also increase bowel constipation. Prevents colonic
CA and diverticuiar diseases.

FAT DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

 • Foods like meat, animal fat, butter, cheese, egg yolf, and cooking oils contain
lipids.

• The lipids present in them are mainly triglycerides, phospholipids,

glycolipids, cholesterol and its esters, fatty acids, sterols, and carotenes.

• Triglycerides accounts for 90% of dietary lipids

The digestion and absorption of lipids is divided into five phases and
these are:

1. Hydrolysis of TAG to free fatty acids and monoacyglycerol

2. Solubilization of free fatty acids and monoacylglycerol by detergents (bile

acids) and transportation from the intestinal lumen toward the cell surface.

3. Uptake of free fatty acids and monoacyglycerols into the cell and resynthesis
to TAG

4. Packaging of newly synthesized TAG into special lipid-rich globules, called

chylomicrons.

5. Exocytosis of chylomicrons from cells and release into lymp.

FAT DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• Little lipid digestion occurs in the mouth or stomach

• Lingual lipase more active on TAG having short chain fatty acids for the ester
linkage in the 3 position.

• Its activity can continue even at low pH in stomach.

• Stomach contain gastric lipase which hydrolyze long or short chain fatty
acids.

• Released hydrophilic short chain fatty acid are absorbed via stomach wall
and enter the portal vein, whereas long chain FA dissolve in the fat droplet
and pass on to the duodenum.

• Small intestine is the major site of lipid digestion.

• Pancreatic lipase and co-lipase hydrolyses long chain FA

• Bile salts emulsify fats for easier digestion by lipase.

• Bile salts facilitate formation of micelles

 • The micelles travel through a layer of water to the mIcrovilli on the surface of
the intestinal epithelial cells where the fatty acids, 2-monoacylglycerol and
other dietary lipids are absorbed

• The bile salts which remain in the gut enter the enterohepatic circulation, for
recycling.

• Short and medium chain FA (C4 to C12) are absorbed directly into the,
intestinal epitheliai cells.

• They do not need to be packed into chylomicrons.

• They enter the portal blood and are transported to the liver bound to
albumin.

• Within the intestinal epithelial cells the fatly acids and 2 monoacylgiycerols
recombine by enzymatic reactions in the srnooth endoplasmic reticulum to
form TAG.

• The newly synthesized TAG are then packed together with proteins and
phospholipids to form chylomicrons and are transported in the Iymph to the
blood.

PROTEIN DIGESTION AND AMINO ACID ABSORPTION

The phases of protein digestion:

1) Gastric Phase

2) Pancreatic Phase

3) Intestinal Phase

GASTRIC PHASE

• Proteins enter the stomach and stimulates secretion of HCI by the gastric
parietal cells. (pH 1-2.5).

• The acidity causes denaturation of proteins or unfolding, rendering the inner

peptides of the molecule accessible to enzymatic hydrolysis.

• The K-H-ATPase or the proton pump is intimately involved in the mechanism

of active HCI secretion.

• In the presence of HCl, pepsinogen is converted into its active form, pepsin.
 • This product can autocatalytically activate other pepsinogen or can serve as
an endopeptidase to different protein substrates.

• After the gastric phase, protein is converted mainly to large peptides.

PANCREATIC PHASE

• The major digestion of proteins is accomplished in the lumen of the small

intestine where several powerful proteolytic enzymes are being secreted by
the pancreas.

• Acidic contents from the stomach upon entry to the small intestine stimulate
secretion of hormone secretin in the blood.

• Secretin stimulates pancreas to secrete bicarbonate rich fluid to neutralize

gastric HCl.

• Entry of stomach contents into the duodenum releases hormone

cholecystokinin, which stimulates the secretion of several pancreatic
enzymes with an optimum pH near 7.

• Enteropeptidase (from duodenal cells) stimulates the activation of

trypsinogen to trypsin which then autocatalytically activates other
trypsinogen molecules as well as other proteolytic zymogens secreted by the
pancreas

INTESTINAL PHASE

• Completion of protein digestion is accomplished by peptidases produced by

the intestinal mucosal cells. Eg. Aminopeptidases, dipeptidases

• Brush border peptidases converts the oligopeptides to a series of free amino

acids and dipeptides, and a few tripeptides.

• Transport mechanisms: Dipeptide tranport mechanism, Na independent.

• Inside enterocytes, peptides are rapidly cleaved to their component AA by

cytoplasmic peptidases. A few peptides however escape hydolysis and
appear intact in the blood.

• Four sodium-coupled transporters have been identified. They have been

identified in the luminal (brush border) membrane. These are analogous to
the Na-coupled glucose uptake mechanism.
 • The two sodium-independent transport systems are located in the
contraluminal plasma membrane of the small intestinal cells.

FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF FECES

• Absorption is normally complete except for water when the food enters the
large intestine. Additional water and sodium sbdorption may also occur.

• Consistency is dependent of the nature of diet, water content, and GI motility.

• Dark brown color of stools is due to bile pigment derivatives.

• Odor is due to indole and skatole which comes from bacterial degradation of
tryptophan.

• Gases include carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, and hydrogen

sulfide.

• Acid include acetic acid, lactic, propionic, and butyric acids.

• Ph= 7-7.5

REFERENCES:

1. Devlin, Textbook of Biochemistry, 4th Edition.

2. Lehninger, Biochemistry, 2nd Edition

3. Matthews, Van Holde, Biochemistry

4. Montgomery, Biochemistry: a Case Oriented Approach, 5th Edition

5. Murray, et al. Harper’s Biochemistry, 25th Edition .

6. Stryer, Biochemistry, 4th Edition

7. Champe, Lippincott’s Biochemistry

8. Paulev, Medical Physiology And Pathophysiology Essentials and clinical

problems

9. Seeley, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

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