Investigation of the reverse power flow requirements

of high penetrations of small-scale embedded

generation
L.M. Cipcigan and P.C. Taylor

Abstract: The research carried out to investigate the ability of power transformers to facilitate the
required power flows associated with the anticipated high penetrations of small scale embedded
generation (SSEG), within small-scale energy zones (SSEZs) is described. A small-scale energy
zone is defined as a section of low-voltage, network with a high penetration of SSEGs, controllable
loads and energy storage units. SSEZs, coupled with active control techniques, have the potential to
assist the growth of SSEGs by removing network constraints and enabling blocks of aggregated and
controlled SSEGs to participate more effectively in energy markets and network operational tasks.
The research focused on identifying the reverse power flow and thermal-rating constraints imposed
by power transformers. The analysis was performed using an approved UK generic PSCAD/
EMTDC electrical network model, with varying levels of SSEGs. Simulations were carried out
examining cases with a uniform distribution of SSEGs contained within a number of SSEZs. It
was observed that in some cases the reverse power flow capability of the primary transformers
would exceed if each customer installed an SSEG with a rating of approximately 1 kW.

1 Introduction capability of primary transformers fitted with on-load tap

Historically, distribution network operators (DNOs) have
planned and managed their distribution networks on a
passive basis with a unidirectional flow of both real power
(P) and reactive power (Q) from higher to lower voltage
levels. With a significant and uniform penetration of
small-scale embedded generations (SSEGs) the power
flows may become reversed. In this context, a new approach
to the organisation and operation of the network based on
active management techniques may be required [1].
Distribution transformers are used to enable the connec-
tion of embedded generators to the distribution networks
and are referred to in terms of operating voltage and
nominal rating. The rating of a transformer indicates the
amount of power it can transfer between its two sets of term-
inals. Primary transformers usually have a nominal rating
and a cyclic emergency rating and they are usually sized
to accommodate maximum peak demand load without
becoming overloaded. As a result, these transformers are
often actually loaded to only a small fraction of their
rated power, possibly as little as 50% or less [2]. In tra-
ditional radial networks it is often the case that primary
transformers are located in pairs to ensure compliance
with Engineering Recommendation P2/5 [3].
The research work carried out at Durham University to
address the challenges related to the potential reverse real
power flow that would be caused by future SSEG high pen-
etration scenarios is presented.
The article is organised as follows: Section 2 presents
related work which has analysed the reverse power flow
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2007
doi:10.1049/iet-rpg:20070011
Paper first received 26th February and in revised form 29th May 2007
The authors are with the School of Engineering, Durham University, Science
Site, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
E-mail: l.m.cipcigan@durham.ac.uk
160
changers; Section 3 presents the technical modelling of a
generic UK distribution network with multiple SSEZs;
Section 4 presents the simulation conditions used in this par-
ticular study; Section 5 discusses the implications of the
reverse power flow requirements caused by high penetration
of SSEGs. Finally, in Section 6 the conclusions are drawn.
2 Related work
In order to identify the distributed generation penetration
level that can be accommodated by the distribution
network, an analysis of the reverse power flow capability
of distribution and primary transformers is first required.
The issue for distribution transformers is relatively
simple. The distribution transformers have a thermal
rating that should not be exceeded beyond limit. This
rating is symmetrical and therefore does not vary depending
on the direction of the power flow.
When considering primary transformers the situation is
more complex as the limiting factor is often the on-load tap-
changing (OLTC) mechanism which imposes an asymme-
trical power flow limit. Concerning primary transformers,
the physical constraints that limit the switching process
are identified in [4] where calculations of the reverse
power flow capability are carried out using an optimisation
technique. The developed model is applied particularly to
one type of single-resistor tap changer that is mounted on
the 33 kV high-voltage side. An important factor for the
reverse power flow capability was identified to be the con-
figuration of the high-voltage side windings. Finally, con-
clusions on the variation of the reverse power flow
capability with respect to vector group, size of transformers,
resistance of the bridging resistor and power factor are pre-
sented. It was found that for the single resistor type
33/11.5 kV primary transformer, with a nominal rating of
7.5 MVA, the reverse power flow capability was 66.3% of
rated capacity.
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 On-load tap-changing transformers and their associated
automatic voltage-control relays play an important role in
keeping customer voltages within tolerance limits and it is
well known that this is a priority for distribution network
operators [5, 6]. The effects on the automatic-voltage
control relays based on power flow changes are of particular
interest, and in [5] it was identified that the limiting factor
for the embedded generation connection is the range of
the tap positions available on the primary-substation trans-
formers. High penetration can cause the lowest available
position to be reached and a subsequent loss of voltage
control, and it was found that this problem is not caused
by the control relay but that it is a limitation of the transfor-
mer itself. According to [6] transformer tap-changers may
not be adequately rated to accept significant flows of
reverse real power and the voltage control schemes for tap
changers may also be affected by the flows of reverse real
and reactive power.
A number of areas where additional work is required in
order to remove potential barriers to the connection of
additional generation were identified in [7]. This report
states that AREVA is developing solid-state tap changers
and it is expected that the tap changers would have full
reverse power capability and these could be retrofitted to
the existing transformers or could be fitted to new transfor-
mers. The document also describes the development of a
two-position tap changer for smaller distribution transfor-
mers and this would give an increased range of operation
by providing low-high-load positions, winter/summer or
load/generation positions. Dynamic transformer-rating
equipment is presented as an option for closer control of
the maximum transformer load and a possible means of
postponing reinforcement requirements. It was found that,
potentially, dynamic ratings could increase the allowable
loading by 10 – 20% [7].
3 Small-scale energy zones modelling
A three-wire representation of the MV/LV network was
dynamically modelled in PSCAD/EMTDC. The system
comprises 192 small-scale energy zones (SSEZ), with
wind generation distributed uniformly along the LV
network and 18 432 customers supplied. Each SSEZ con-
tains 96 customers. The summation of each of these
SSEZs is referred to as a Virtual Power Station (VPS).
Domestic loads have been represented as purely resistive
components. Load demand figures produced by the
Electricity Association show that the minimum and
maximum demand figures are 0.16 kVA and 1.3 kVA,
respectively, after diversity has been taken into account
[8]. For this study 100% penetration was defined to describe
a situation where all customers have installed a SSWT of
1.1 kW capacity. 200% penetration describes a situation
where each customer has installed a SSWT of 2.2 kW
capacity. The maximum capacity of the VPS for a number
of penetration scenarios was calculated taking into consider-
ation these assumptions as seen in Table 1. The penetration
levels and corresponding VPS generation capacities, shown
Table 1: Main characteristics of SSEZ
SSEZ network topology Generation type
urban radial network wind urban-specific
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in Table 1, were used during the simulation studies described
in the subsequent sections of this article.
Fig. 1 presents the dynamic PSCAD/EMTDC model of a
generic UK distribution network [8] which was developed
to analyse the reverse power flow capability of both
primary and distribution transformers. The model was
developed with different levels of aggregation [9]:
† Upper level of aggregation: the virtual power station
(VPS) concept was defined as an upper level of aggregation
which acts as the interface with the 33 kV network. The
VPS comprises of a section of LV network with a radial
layout, with a lumped generator and lumped load connected
on the feeder and eight MV/LV substations (11/0.433 kV)
connected to a 3.0 km 11 kv feeder. Seven of the substations
are represented as simple lumped generators and lumped
load while the last one is represented in detail. In total
there are 384 domestic single-phase house loads on each
substation (Fig. 1a).
† Second level of aggregation; the detailed MV/LV distri-
bution substation comprises of one 11/0.433 kV ground
mounted distribution transfomer, delta-connected primary
and a wye-connected secondary winding with a rating of
500 kVA, and four Small Scale Energy Zones. Each zone
is connected on an outgoing 400 V three phase feeder. In
total there are 384 customers (96 customers on each zone)
distributed equally between the feeders cables. Three
zones are represented as lumped generation and lumped
load while one zone is represented in full detail (Fig. 1b).
PSCAD/EMTDC was selected for modelling the SSEZs as
it allowed variable wind speed studies to be conducted and the
network effects to be evaluated, it also allowed the effects of
aggregation to be studied. Another attractive feature of the
PSCAD/EMTDC SSEZ model is that it allows the dynamic
effects of active controllers to be observed. Active controller
development is an important aspect of the research being
carried out at Durham University .
The most important technical characteristics of the MV/
LV network under study are presented in the following
subsections.
3.1 Primary transformers
The high voltage (HV)/MV primary substation feeding the
MV network comprises two transformers in parallel with a
nominal rating of 7.5 MVA and a Cyclic Emergency Rating
(CER) of 15 MVA. A primary substation with two transfor-
mers has a firm or secure capacity of 15 MVA in the winter,
which is reduced to only 7.5 MVA in the summer [2]. Each
transformer has an impedance of 18%, an X/R ratio of 15
and is equipped with on-load taps at the HV winding [8].
Its connection group is YY0, which corresponds to a wye-
connected primary and a wyeconnected secondary winding.
In addition to increasing and decreasing nominal vol-
tages, many transformers are equipped with tap changers
in order to realise a limited range of voltage control.
OLTC transformers are usually employed to correct
Max. no. of SSEZ Load type min. SSEG penetration levels and
corresponding VPS maximum
capacities
0.16 kW 50% 100% 150% 200%
192 Household domestic 10 MW 20 MW 30 MW 40 MW
161
Fig. 1 SSEZs with wind generation connected to LV distribution network
a Virtual power station model
b Detailed model of a SSEZ
c Detailed model of a segment

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voltage profiles on an hourly or daily basis to accommodate
load variations. With an OLTC the transformer voltage ratio
can be varied in steps by adding or subtracting turns. Fig. 2
presents some basic tap-winding connection configurations
according to [10, 11].
Two different principles of OLTC are generally applied:
resistor-type tap-changing or reactance-type tap-changing.
There are two methods used to perform a tap-change oper-
ation with respect to the duty of contacts: the flag cycle and
the pennant cycle. The flag cycle is the most frequently used
method in the case of divider switches as well as selector
switches. The advantage of this method is that it ensures
maximum reliability when the OLTC operates with over-
load. The power transfer function can be symmetrical or
asymmetrical, the former providing similar switching
conditions for forward or reverse power flow through the
transformer [11].
3.2 Cables in 11 kV distribution network
The 11 kV distribution cables are constructed from copper
conductors and have been represented by single-phase
resistances and reactances related to the R, L equivalents
of two sizes of cable: 185 mm2 and 95 mm2 with the par-
ameters presented in Appendix [8]. The total length of
each 11 kV feeder is 3 km, comprising two 0.75 km long
sections of 185 mm2 cable and two 0.75 km long sections
of 95 mm2 cables. All 11 kV cables have been represented
in PSCAD/EMTDC by single-phase resistances and
reactances.
3.3 Distribution transformers
Each of the eight MV/LV distribution substations feeding
the LV network comprise a single ground-mounted transfor-
mer 11/0.433 kV of vector group Dy11 (a delta-connected
primary and a wye-connected secondary winding) with a
rating of 0.5 MVA. The transformer has an impedance of
5% and an X/R ratio of 15 [8].
3.4 Wind generator model
The wind turbine model is implemented in PSCAD/
EMTDC and the parameters used for simulations are
based on a commercially available Small Scale Wind
Turbine (SSWT) designed for an urban environment [12].
In PSCAD, the complete wind generator cycle is composed
of the following components:
† The wind source component which simulates all wind
conditions and in this study a mean wind speed of
10.7 m/s is used.
† A 2.5 kW, 3 bladed horizontal axis wind turbine is con-
nected to a Squirrel Cage Induction Generator. The rated
Fig. 2 Basic connection configurations of tap windings [11]
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characteristics of the turbine and the generator are deter-
mined according to the mean wind speed.
† For variable wind speed conditions a time series of turbu-
lent wind speed data is the input of the model using an X-Y
transfer function block as an interface with an external file
containing the turbulent wind speed data generated using
the method outlined in [13]. The variable wind speed is
used for all wind turbine models and on all levels of
aggregation.
4 Simulation conditions
The simulation conditions used in this study are presented in
the following subsections.
4.1 Primary and distribution transformers
In PSCAD there are two transformer models available and
in this particular study, three single-phase transformers,
which include saturation effects but do not include coupling
inductances between the windings, were used. The coupling
inductances were neglected because balanced transformer
loading conditions were maintained throughout the simu-
lations. The positive sequence leakage and copper losses
were calculated using the transformer X/R ratio, no temp-
erature correction being taken into consideration.
The primary-substation 33/11.5 kV transformers are
modelled with on-load tap changers and the tap settings
are set up and down with 1.67% tap steps in order to
ensure the voltage at the MV side is maintained between
11.0 kV and 11.1 kV. Fig. 3 presents the action of the tap-
changer in order to control the voltage on the MV side, it
was assumed that both of the primary transformers were
operated such that they always had the same tap position
and therefore no circulating currents are taken into con-
sideration. The upper bound of 1.1 and lower bound of
0.94 are the UK LV statutory limits of the 0.433 kV
network.
As the 11/0.433 kV transformers are not equipped with
an on-load tap changer, the variations can only be limited
by controlling the MV voltage.
4.2 Penetration scenarios
The main purpose of the power flow analysis presented in
this article was to identify different SSWT penetration
levels that could cause reverse power flow back up onto
the 11 kV and 33 kV networks. The following levels of pen-
etration were considered, from 0% (as a base for compari-
son) through 100% penetration (all customers have
installed a SSWT of 1.1 kW capacity) up to 200% pen-
etration (all customers have installed a SSWT of 2.2 kW
capacity), (see Table 1). As the network operator has no
control over the embedded generator all decisions concern-
ing the network must be made considering the worst poss-
ible conditions of the generation for any set of network
conditions. In this study, the worst case scenario was con-
sidered to be the maximum generation output, minimum
load consumption case. In this case, the power flow in the
network is reversed from the conventional situation.
4.3 Wind speed conditions
Throughout the simulations a mean wind speed of 10.7 m/s
was used. This was selected to represent a period of high
wind power availability in an urban environment and one
163
Fig. 3 Voltage regulation case tree structure for tap-changer position

at which most urban wind turbines would be operating at
maximum power output.
4.4 Loading conditions
The loading conditions were designed to exhibit a worst
case scenario in terms of the impact of SSEG within the
LV network. Therefore each load customer was assigned
the Electricity Association’s minimum demand figure of
0.16 kVA [8].
4.5 Generation location
The study assumed a uniform penetration of SSWTs across
the LV network and uniform penetration of the SSEZs
on the MV/LV substation and it was found that reverse
power flow through the 11/0.433 kV distribution transfor-
mer is first experienced at approximately 10% penetration.
5 Investigation of transformer power flow
constraints
Reverse power flow capability is limited by at least two
main transformer characteristics: nameplate rating of the
transformer and tap-changing mechanism.
5.1 Reverse power flow constraints of the
primary-substation transformers
† In one direction of movement of the OLTC, the circulat-
ing current starts flowing before through-current is diverted
from the main contacts.
† In the other direction of movement, the through-current
is diverted from the main contacts before the circulating
currents start flowing.
The main switching contact has to break the through-
current in one switching direction and the circulating
current minus the through-current in the other switching
direction. The maximum current to be switched occurs
when the vectorial sum of these two currents becomes
maximal. This is reached when the phase angle between
the two currents is 908 which means at power factor zero.
According to [11], the circulating current is determined
by the relevant step voltage and the transition resistor.
Fig. 5 shows the locus curve of the output voltage Ū of
the transformer when moving from one tapping to the adja-
cent one [11].
For single-resistor tap changer configurations that are
mounted on the HV side (33 kV) of the primary transfor-
mers the reverse power flow capability is only 66.3%, of
rated capacity, according to the optimisation model devel-
oped in [4]. On the basis of the simulation study performed,
the threshold was exceeded for a SSEG penetration level of
54.7% (Fig. 6) taking into consideration the reduced power
flow capabilities.
According to tap changer manufacturers’ data some tap
changers mounted on the HV transformer side present

For the primary-substation transformer it was found that

there is a reverse real power flow back onto the 33 kV
power system and a threshold occurs for 82.5% penetration
when the nominal rating of 7.5 MVA is quoted as presented
in Fig. 4.
A problem identified by the DNOs is that the design of
some primary transformers load tap changers is such that
reverse power flow may not be possible or may be limited
to significantly less than the rating of the transformer [14].
For example, tap changers employing the asymmetrical
pennant cycle normally use selector switches and are used
with a load current flow in one direction only. The following Fig. 4 Power flow through primary-substation transformers with
operation is more typical: nominal rating as a threshold

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Fig. 5 Output voltage locus curve [11]
Fig. 6 Power flow through primary-substation transformer for
single resistor changer type
reverse power flow capabilities reduced to as little as 30%, of
rated capacity, in this case the reverse power flow limit is
experienced at a SSEG penetration level of 25%.
5.2 Power flow constraints of the
distribution-substation transformers
5.2.1 Constant wind speed: The constant wind speed
study confirms that the 500 kW rating of the 11/0.433 kV
distribution transformer would be exceeded at 107% pen-
etration as presented in Fig. 7. It has been assumed that
the distribution transformers can pass 100% of their rating
in the reverse direction and this is a reasonable assumption,
though it will not be true for all distribution transformers,
and it would not be the case for some ‘on load’ tap-changing
transformers.
Fig. 8 Power flow through distribution transformer, 114% penetration and variable wind speed
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Fig. 7 Power flow through distribution-substation transformer
5.2.2 Variable wind speed: For variable wind speed
studies each wind turbine and each lumped generator was
presented with a different wind input profile, each with an
average wind speed of 10.7 m/s. This wind regime rep-
resents a particularly windy day in the context of an urban
environment. Variable wind conditions could cause fluctu-
ating power which can change the power flow direction
several times a day as the result of power output and
demand changes, and Fig. 8 presents the variable active
power flow through the distribution transformer for 114%
penetration.
In this study, it was found that aggregation of a number of
wind turbines rapidly smoothes the net power output com-
pared to the power output from an individual wind
turbine. In order to quantify the smoothing effect of the
aggregation, the power output profiles were analysed.
Fig. 9 shows the variation in power output, as a percentage
of the average output, for a single turbine and for the aggre-
gated outputs of two, three and four turbines (see Segment 4
in Fig. 1c). It can be seen that the variations decrease, from
7– 2%, as the number of turbines being aggregated
increases. The issue of the aggregation effects of SSWT at
both ac and dc are discussed in greater detail in [15].
As a consequence of the variable wind speed regime and
the aggregation effect arising from multiple wind turbines,
the transformer is loaded between 73% and 118%. Clearly,
the transformer hot-spot winding temperature will tend
to follow this loading pattern. The transformer hot-spot
winding temperature is usually the principal factor limiting
the extent to which a power transformer can be loaded.
Higher winding hot-spot temperatures cause degradation of
the winding insulation material [16].
165

Fig. 9 Power output variations for different numbers of wind
turbines aggregated
6 Conclusions
In conclusion, the generic UK distribution network model
incorporating multiple SSEZs, allows analysis to be
carried out at three levels of aggregation and detail. A
variety of penetration studies have been considered, first
at full output and no diversity and second with variable
output, for all levels of aggregation. This allows an evalu-
ation of the reverse power flow requirements of SSEZs con-
nected to LV networks to be carried out.
The main findings of this work were that the reverse
power flow limits of the primary transformer in many
cases will exceed when each load customer has a SSEG
of approximately 1 kW installed. This clearly depends on
a number of assumptions, most notably that the primary
transformer uses an asymmetrical pennant cycle on load
tap-changing mechanism. It was also found that the
reverse power flow limits of the primary transformer are
likely to be reached before the power flow rating of the dis-
tribution transformer exceeded.
The simulation conditions were designed to exhibit a
worst case scenario in terms of the impact of SSEG
within the LV network. Therefore each load customer was
assigned the Electricity Association’s minimum demand
figure of 0.16 kVA [8], a mean wind speed of 10.7 m/s
was used and the SSEGs were distributed uniformly
across the section of network considered.
However there is no load and no generation considered
on the 11 kV network. The simulations therefore assume
that the load and generation on the 11 kV network are
matched. Clearly, there could be a more onerous condition
than this, in the context of primary transformer reverse
power flow, which would be a situation where the 11 kV
generator exports more power than the 11 kV load although
the SSEG penetration remains high.
It is clear that the change in real power flows caused by
embedded generation has important technical implications for
the power system. Therefore it may become necessary to
limit the net export to the higher voltage system through the
transformers and this could be achieved through the use of an
active local controller operating within the zone. This would
allow control of the generation outputs as well as control of
the load and energy storage devices within the zone to minimise
reverse power flow. Active control within a zone should enable
the costs of replacing or modifying transformers to be avoided.
The simulation results have provided valuable infor-
mation for identifying the network constraints which
would be encountered for potential future high penetrations
of SSEGs. The next step for this research will be to use the
PSCAD/EMTDC SSEZ model to investigate the use of
active network management techniques not only to over-
come these network constraints but to allow large
166
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aggregated blocks of SSEGs, contained within multiple
SSEZs, to interact more effectively with electricity
markets and potentially to provide ancillary services, such
as distribution network voltage control support.
7 Acknowledgments
The work presented has been performed within the project
‘Intelligent active energy management for small scale
energy zones,’ funded by the EPSRC. The authors would
also like to thank CE Electric UK and EON UK for their
support during this work.
8 References
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9 Appendix
11 kV distribution cables parameters used in PSCAD/
EMTDC models
11 kV PICAS cable, 3-core 185 mm2 copper conductors
resistance 0.164 V/km
reactance 0.08 V/km
cable length 2  0.75 km long
11 kV PICAS cable, 3-core 95 mm2 copper conductors
resistance 0.32 V/km
reactance 0.087 V/km
cable length 2  0.75 km long
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