Direct Method

Direct method is a method of teaching language directly establishing a direct or

immediate association between experience and expression, between the English word, phrase
or idiom and its meaning through demonstration, dramatization without the use of the mother
tongue.
The direct method of teaching was developed around 1900 in Germany and France. It is
sometimes called the natural method because the aim is to teach students in a similar way that
they acquire their first language.
The direct method of teaching came as a response to the shortfalls of the grammar-
translation method, which works to teach grammar and translate vocabulary from the native
language of the student.
Therefore, the grammar-translation method relies heavily on the written language,
whereas the direct method places the emphasis on both listening and speaking.
Although the direct method isn’t limited to teaching foreign language, it is however, often
used for this purpose. In fact, you can see evidence of it being used in many English classrooms
around the world today. The aim of this method for teaching English is to immerse the students
in English, the teacher would use realia, visual aids and demonstrations to teach English to
students.
The teacher would in this instance focus on repetitive patterns of teaching with grammar
being taught inductively. This means that the rules of grammar are not taught directly, instead
students would learn to change different parts of the sentence. For example, “I go to school”,
the word go could be changed for other verbs like walk, run, jog, drive, etc.

Background
Gouin had been one of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build
a methodology around observation of child language learning. Other reformers toward the end
of the century likewise turned their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning, and
for this reason they are sometimes referred to as advocates of a "natural" method. In fact at
various times throughout the history of language teaching, attempts have been made to make
second language learning more like first language learning. In the sixteenth century, for example,
Montaigne described how he was entrusted to a guardian who addressed him exclusively in Latin
for the first years of his life, since Montaigne's father wanted his son to speak Latin well.
Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in the nineteenth
century was L. Sauveur (1826-1907), who used intensive oral interaction in the target language,
employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language. He opened a language school
in Boston in the late 1860s, and his method soon became referred to as the Natural Method.

Natural Method
Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could
be taught without translation or the use of the learner's native tongue if meaning was conveyed
directly through demonstration and action. The German scholar F. Franke wrote on the
psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target language
(1884) and provided a theoretical justification for a monolingual approach to teaching. According
to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using
analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers
must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. Learners
would then be able to induce rules of grammar. The teacher replaced the textbook in the early
stages of learning. Speaking began with systematic attention to pronunciation. Known words
could be used to teach new vocabulary, using mime, demonstration, and pictures.
These natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be
known as the Direct Method, which refers to the most widely known of the natural methods.
Enthusiastic supporters of the Direct Method introduced it in France and Germany (it was
officially approved in both countries at the turn of the century), and it became widely known in
the United States through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial
language schools. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the term; he referred to the method used in his
schools as the Berlitz Method.)

Principles
In practice it stood for the following principles and procedures:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized
around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small,
intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
9. Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
 10. Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.

Methodology
The direct method of learning English is fairly simple. In consists, primarily, of just five parts.

 Show – The student is shown something so that they understand the word. For example, they
might be shown realia or other visual aids such as flash cards for nouns. The teacher might
use gestures to explain verbs, and so on.
 Say – The teacher verbally presents the word or sentence, taking care to pronounce the word
correctly.
 Try – The student then tries to repeat what the teacher is saying.
 Mold – The teacher corrects the students and ensures that they are pronouncing words
correctly.
 Repeat – Finally, the students repeat the word a number of times. Here the teacher uses a
number of methods for repetition, including group repetition, single student repetition and
other activities designed to get the students to repeat the word.
Specific teaching methods would include such things such as students reading out aloud,
question and answer exercises, conversation practices, dictation, fill-in-the-blank exercises,
amongst others.

Advantages
Probably the biggest advantage of this method of teaching English is that it actually
teaches the language and doesn’t teach about the language. Furthermore, due to its emphasis
on speech, it is better for students who have a need of real communication in English. Finally,
this method introduced the use of teaching vocabulary using realia, which is still widely used
today when teaching English to speakers of other languages.

Merits

1. Facilitates understanding of language – understanding of the target language becomes

easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences from the mother tongue, it
establishes a direct bond between contexts, and helps in understanding directly what is
heard and read
2. Improves fluency of speech – fluency of speech results in easier writing, it tends to
improve expression, expression in writing, and it is a quick way of learning and expanding
vocabulary
3. Aids reading – reading becomes easier and more pleasant, and it also promotes a habit of
critical studying
4. Improves the development of language sense
5. Full of activities, which make it interesting and exciting
 6. Emphasizes the target language by helping the pupil express their thoughts and feelings
directly in target language without using their mother tongue
7. Develops listening, speaking,reading and writing
8. Increase in market for goods and services
9. Increased employment opportunities
10. Helps in bringing words from passive vocabulary into active vocabulary
11. Helps in proceeding the English language from particular to general, it bridges the gap
between practice and theory
12. Makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilitates reading and writing
13. Facilitates alertness and participation of students

Disadvantages
One major disadvantage for this method is that is works on the assumption that a second
language is learnt exactly the same way as the first. Second language acquisition varies
considerably from first language acquisition.
Another criticism of the direct method is that it was hard for public schools to integrate
it. In his book, R. Brown (1994:56) explains that the direct method wasn’t successful in public
schools because of “constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background (native
speakers or native like fluency) made such a method difficult to use.”

Demerits

1. Ignores systematic written work and reading activities

2. May not hold well in higher-level classes where the translation method is more suitable
3. Supports only limited vocabulary – it restricts the scope of vocabulary as not all words can
be directly associated with their meanings
4. Lacks application – the method aims at active command of a language, only the clever
child can profit by this method
5. Needs skilled teachers; e.g., most of the teachers in Indian schools have a poor command
of English
6. Does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes
7. Inconvenient in a huge class
8. Ignores reading and writing aspects of language learning
9. Does not teach grammar systematically
10. Time-consuming in creating real life situations
11. Less suitable for slow learners, who struggle with this method

Guidelines for teaching

These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language, which are still
followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a speech: ask questions
Never imitate mistakes: correct
Never speak with single words: use sentences
Never speak too much: make students speak much
Never use the book: use your lesson plan
Never jump around: follow your plan
Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
Never speak too slowly: speak normally
Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
Never be impatient: take it easy

Techniques

1. Question/answer exercise – the teacher asks questions of any type and the student
answers.
2. Dictation – the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate passage and reads it aloud.
3. Reading aloud – the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue
aloud.
4. Student self-correction – when a student makes a mistake the teacher offers him/her a
second chance by giving a choice.
5. Conversation practice – the students are given an opportunity to ask their own questions
to the other students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-learner interaction
as well as a learner-learner interaction.
6. Paragraph writing – the students are asked to write a passage in their own words.
Demonstration
The demonstration method of teaching is a traditional classroom strategy used in
technical and training colleges and in teacher education. It shows learners how to do a task using
sequential instructions with the end goal of having learners perform the tasks independently. Put
more simply, demonstration means 'to clearly show'.

In teaching through demonstration, students are set up to potentially conceptualize class

material more effectively as shown in a study which specifically focuses on chemistry
demonstrations presented by teachers. Demonstrations often occur when students have a hard
time connecting theories to actual practice or when students are unable to understand
application of theories.

Teachers not only demonstrate specific learning concepts within the classroom, they can
also participate in demonstration classrooms to help improve their own teaching strategies,
which may or may not be demonstrative in nature. Although the literature is limited, studies
show that the effects of demonstration classroom teachers includes a change of perspective in
relating to students, more reflection in the teachers’ own classroom strategies, and more
personal responsibility for student learning

Demonstrations can be used to provide examples that enhance lectures and to offer
effective hands-on, inquiry-based learning opportunities in classes or labs. Used in classes of all
sizes in multiple grade and subject areas, demonstrations are most commonly found in science
and technology courses.
When using the demonstration model in the classroom, the teacher, or some other expert
on the topic being taught, performs the tasks step-by-step so that the learner will eventually be
able to complete the same task independently. The eventual goal is for learners to not only
duplicate the task, but to recognize how to problem-solve when unexpected obstacles or
problems arise. After performing the demonstration, the teacher’s role becomes supporting
students in their attempts, providing guidance and feedback, and offering suggestions for
alternative approaches.

Focus, Structure and Principles

Demonstration Strategy focus to achieve psychomotor and cognitive objectives. If we talk about
its structure, it is given in three successive steps:
1. Introduction. In this step objectives of the lesson are stated. The teacher may be called
demonstrator. He demonstrates the activity before the student that is to be developed.
2. Development. Students try to initiate the demonstrated activity. If there is any query the
teacher tries to satisfy them by further demonstration and illustrations.
 3. Integration. At this step, the teacher integrates all the activities and then these activities
are rehearsed revised and evaluated.

Principles

This teaching strategy is based on the following principles:

1. Learning by doing maxim is followed
2. Skills can be developed by limitation
3. The perception helps in imitation

Application

This strategy is applied mainly in technical or training institutes. In teacher education

programs it is used to develop skills in the student teacher. At school level, a teacher applies it in
teaching science, biology, nature study arts and crafts.

Advantages
 It helps in involving various sense to make learning permanent
 Though, teacher behavior is autocratic, he invites the cooperation of pupils in teaching
learning process
 It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active participation
 It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives
 Any simple or complex sill becomes easy to understand

Disadvantages
 It can be used only for skills subjects
 Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity demonstrated. They are not
free to discuss about it
 Due to poor economic conditions of the government schools, there is scarcity of audio-visual
aids and equipment and the teachers are not so creative to produce handmade models for
demonstration
 There is a general lack of sincerity and diligence among teachers who wish to complete the
syllabus or syllabi at the earliest without putting sincere effort.
Deductive Method
It is the strategy in which principles and generalizations are presented initially followed
by application/testing of this principles. It is basically leading the students from Unknown to
Known, Abstract to Concrete or Complex to Simple.
Deductive teaching, also called direct instruction, is much less “constructivist” and is
based on the idea that a highly structured presentation of content creates optimal learning for
students. The instructor using a deductive approach typically presents a general concept by first
defining it and then providing examples or illustrations that demonstrate the idea. Examples that
do not fit the idea are helpful in confirming the idea. Students are given opportunities to practice,
with instructor guidance and feedback, applying and finding examples of the concept at hand,
until they achieve concept mastery.

Purposes
It is a Teacher-Centered Approach - where students are taken as blank slate. This
strategy creates dependency in students limiting their thinking ability. This strategy is basically
used to help students with learning disability to enhance their learning.

Phases
1. Presentation of Abstraction.
2. The teacher illustrates it with examples.
3. Students give examples of concept and apply them in new situations.
4. Students restate the concept/definition that they have learned.

Advantages
1. It is different from rote learning as it is the strategy, where logical interlinking of
element is encourage.
2. Most of the school material/curriculum can be easily taught following deductive
strategy.
3. This method involve all level of questions.

Disadvantages of Deductive teaching strategy

1. Students are not actively involve in the beginning of the lesson.
2. Since it is a teacher centered approach, it may be challenging for higher students.
Inductive Method
Inductive teaching, also called discovery teaching or inquiry teaching, is based on the
claim that knowledge is built primarily from a learner’s experiences and interactions with
phenomena. An instructor using an inductive approach begins by exposing students to a concrete
instance or instances of a concept. Then learners are encouraged to observe patterns, raise
questions, or make generalization from their observations. The teacher’s role is to create the
opportunities and the context in which students can successfully make the appropriate
generalizations, and to guide students as necessary.
In inductive teaching, philosophy allows learners to discover and experience
phenomenon to achieve learning on their own.
Inquiry-Based Teaching are other strategies associated with Inductive Teaching. As the
terms suggest, the learners are provided with opportunities to observe, experience, raise
questions and formulate generalizations from the learning experience that they are exposed to.
It is up to the teacher to create and present activities for the students to generate sound
generalizations. And while the students are in the exploration process, the teacher must guide
them so that ambiguities may be avoided.

Why Use Inductive Teaching?

Since information is not directly supplied by the teacher, the students are given more
avenues to think and make sense out of what they have observed and experienced. Independent
thinking is developed in this strategy, and the students learn to analyze and process the
information. Higher Order Thinking Skills are utilized, and authentic learning is achieved.
Inductive teaching allows opportunities for students to interact with each other.
Brainstorming, Buzz Sessions, and experiments are just some examples of Inductive teaching
methods may be applied. Since the students get to collaborate in discovering and learning a
concept, they get to improve their personal and social skills. And the road to learning becomes
more fun, enriching and interactive for them.

Stages of Learning
These are the stages that a learner goes through in Inductive Teaching. They may overlap at
certain points.
1. Presentation of the area that is to be studied - The students must be given the most
relevant and actual area where they would do the exploration.
2. Gathering and evaluating the data gathered - After the observation process, evidences of
learning must be collected and scrutinized for their relevance.
 3. Creating ideas based on the learning experience - The students now produce questions
or share their opinions about the topic.
4. Producing hypotheses - The questions are refined and presented as hypotheses that are
to be tested.
5. Verifying the concepts gathered - This is done by testing the hypotheses created. By
simply applying past schema, the students will be able to appropriateness of the
hypotheses that they made.
6. Utilization of the concepts learned - After the acquisition of new knowledge, the students
are given concrete opportunities to apply it.

Putting It All Together

Students retain information longer when they were acquired by means of self-discovery and
experience. The learning process becomes meaningful for them, as they are able to take active
part in it. With Inductive Teaching, students are taught how to learn through the means that work
for them.
Concept Development/Formation Model
Reading high quality literature, discussing it with others, and responding through writing and art can be
powerful learning experiences for students. However, if you want students to acquire an in-depth
understanding of a theme, you need to guide them.

Through the concept development process outlined on this page, you can guide students to grasp
important "big ideas" or life lessons from the theme. The reason students need this guidance is fairly
simple: In every valuable theme, there is an almost limitless number of possible "big ideas." Take the
theme, "Finding the Courage to Help Others" -- what would you want your students to know, remember,
and be able to do as a result of studying this theme? There are as many good answers to that question
as there are teachers, students, and great books.

The concept development process gives you a way to focus on a selected number of "big ideas" -- or
generalizations -- that you want your students to grasp. The following example comes from teacher Carin
Sullman, whose third grade students explored the theme, "Persevering Despite Obstacles." Carin's
concept development process uses a simple concept web to collect traits of characters that show what it
means -- and what it takes -- to keep going when the going gets rough. She then grouped traits into
categories, and from those categories formed her generalizations.

The following steps are arranged in two parts: What you can do as you plan the unit, and how you might
guide students as you teach the unit.

Planning the Teaching the

Concept Development Process Concept Development Process

Step 1: Develop central Step 1: Brainstorm responses to central questions

questions Step 2: Begin a concept web
Step 2: Select books Step 3: Read books
Step 3: Extract character Step 4: Model how to extract character traits
traits Step 5: Add to concept web
Step 4: Arrange in a concept Step 6: Group similar traits
web
Step 7: Form generalizations
Step 5: Group similar traits
Step 8: Use generalizations as the basis for extension projects
Step 6: Form generalizations
and further reading

Planning the Concept Development Process

Planning the process will help you anticipate some of the challenges your students may have as they
come to understand the theme. In addition, the steps you will go through to plan the concept development
process will be very similar to how you can guide students. After you have completed the planning, see
"Teaching the Concept Development Process" for specific steps you can use to guide your students as
they come to understand the theme.

Step 1: Develop Central Questions

Carin brainstormed the following central questions that she wanted to explore through her themed
literature unit. These questions guided her search for good books, informed her teaching, and helped her
shepherd her students as they learned the big ideas from the unit.

Step 2: Select Books

High-quality children's and young adult literature will naturally incorporate a range of themes. You can, of
course, use books in any combination -- picture books, easy readers, stories from your anthology,
nonfiction, chapter books, and/or young adult novels. Carin chose picture books for her themed literature
unit because her students could read them quickly. She selected the following books:

Fly Away Home by Eve Cassie's Journey by Brett Grandfather's Journey by I Have Heard of a Land by So Far from the Sea by Eve
Bunting; ill by Ronald Harvey; ill by Deborah Allen Say Joyce Carol Thomas; ill. by Bunting; ill. by Chris
Himler Kogan Ray Floyd Cooper Soentpiet

Step 3: Extract Character Traits

The key to examining what it means and what it takes to persevere despite obstacles can be found within
the characters -- what they say and do, how they think and react, how they interact with other characters,
and what the author tells us about them. Therefore, the next step is to identify those traits that illustrate
how people cope when obstacles roll into their paths.

Carin read each book and extracted what she thought were the relevant traits. In this step, as in others
below, Carin needed to do it first for herself so that she would know what traits rose naturally from these
books. Later, she guided her students to identify what they thought were the relevant traits.

Here are the traits that Carin found [NOTE: Each reader may find different traits -- there is no one right
way]:

Cassie's Journey: Positive attitude/optimism, support from family and friends, imagination and dreams of
a better life, reason/purpose to live, willingness to take risks, collaboration/working with others,
motivation, and hard work -- physically and mentally.

Grandfather's Journey: Adventurous spirit [and others already noted]

So Far From the Sea: Rational thinking, understanding [and others already noted]
Fly Away Home: Resources/resourcefulness, will to go on [and others]
I Have Heard of a Land: Hope/prayer, what lies at the end of the road, courage, industry

Step 4: Arrange in a Concept Web

A concept web is a visual way to show how various ideas are related -- in this case, the traits that show
how the characters persevered despite obstacles.

Carin began by drawing a blank concept web: And then began to add the character traits she
had identified in each book.

She added to the concept web, using a different color for the traits she extracted from each book. The
following image shows the combined traits from Cassie's Journey and Grandfather's Journey and So Far
From the Sea.
The finished web, showing the character traits from all five books, looked like this:

Step 5: Group Similar Traits

The objective of concept development is to discover the general life lessons or "big ideas" that arise from
literature. Therefore, Carin needed to begin to synthesize the traits from the five books to find
commonalities among them. She looked for groupings of traits that seemed to fit together. [NOTE: This
process is highly flexible -- there is no one right way to group the traits. Look for similarities that make
sense to you.]

Carin grouped the traits under the following categories, each marked with a symbol:

Positive spirit or inner force

within the characters that helped
them persevere

Intelligence, thinking, and

hard work

Finding purpose in looking to

the future

Support of others
Carin then listed the traits on paper under each category's symbol.

Step 6: Form Generalizations

Generalizations are statements that synthesize the grouped traits and answer the central questions: What
does it mean to persevere despite obstacles? What does it look like to persevere? and How do we
persevere?

This is the most difficult step in concept development -- but the most valuable, and the pathway to deep
understanding about the theme. As with other steps in the process, there is no one right way to form the
generalizations.

Carin looked at each grouping of traits, and formed a generalization -- a declarative sentence -- that tied
the traits together:
Teaching the Concept Development Process
Most students will not come to an in-depth understanding of the theme on their own. That's why it's
important to guide them through the thinking process of generalizing from their own lives and from the
books they read to come to a more-complete understanding of what it means to persevere despite
obstacles (or any other theme) and how people do it.

Step 1: Brainstorm Responses to the Central Questions

You need to know what students understand about the theme before the unit begins. An effective way to
begin is to ask them to respond to your central questions either orally or in writing. You can present these
on a typed form, chart paper, the board, or an overhead transparency. Students' responses will give you
baseline information about how deep (or limited) their understanding is as you begin the unit.

Step 2: Begin a Concept Web

Build a concept web based on students' brainstorming of what they already know about the theme. As
students then read their literature circle books, add onto the concept web with examples from the books.
The concept web that you developed in the planning process will be helpful to you here -- but use it only
as a guide. Allow students to put their own words to the traits as they extract ideas from their own lives or
from the books they read. You might use one color to show the examples from students' lives, and
another color to add examples from the books. The more examples you gather on the web, the easier it
will be for students to develop their own generalizations.

The photo below shows a simple concept web based on 4th graders' brainstormed ideas of what it takes
to be a persistent person.
Step 3: Read Books
Students now read their books with an eye to finding out how the characters persevered (or worked for
justice, took action to care for others, or overcame adversity, etc.). You can guide them in the same way
you would in any literature circle by offering some effective tools to capture ideas (Prompts, questions,
Post-it Notes, Golden Lines) from what they read. The theme becomes the central focus of students'
discussions and written responses. An easy way to begin is to direct students to "find examples of how
________ took action to care for others." Or ask students to find Golden Lines that tell about the
character overcoming adversity.

Step 4: Model How to Extract Character Traits

It is through the traits of action and character (what the character does and says, what others do and say
in response to him/her) that the author illustrates how the characters embody the theme. Show students
how to identify these traits. Many young readers may have a hard time separating these "theme" traits
("She helped others escape" "He was brave when the soldiers came") from characters' physical traits
("He is tall" "She has brown hair") that don't directly relate to the theme.

Begin by reading aloud a picture book -- or use your daily read aloud book -- so that everyone has the
same frame of reference. For example, Lori Scobie used Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt by Deborah
Hopkinson to help her 4th grade students understand how to identify character traits that helped Clara
take action to care for others. After reading the book, Lori asked her students, "What did Clara do to take
action? What did she have to have inside her to help her do this?" The following photo shows the web
that Lori and her students developed. For a complete description of Lori's process, click here.

• Clara left the quilt so others could use it

• Clara made the quilt with the map to help others
escape
• Aunt Rachel teaches Clara how to sew
• She helped Jack get away

Step 5: Add to the Concept Web

Add traits from the literature circle books to the growing concept web. In the photo below, Lori Scobie
created a second concept web that incorporated the traits from Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt, as
well as from five literature circle books.

• You're doing something you believe in

• It takes courage
• It's hard work
• You may have to give something up
• A little thing can mean a lot
• You have to be patient
• You have to be determined
• You have to believe in yourself
• Could be something others don't like
• You don't just think about it, you do something
• You have to be persistent
• Sometimes it's something you don't want to do
• You take responsibility for others
• You must take risks
Books:
Journey to Jo'Burg by Beverly Naidoo, Snow Treasure by Marie McSwigan, Toughboy and Sister by Kirkpatrick Hill,
Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli, Thunder at Gettysburg by Patricia Lee Gauch, and Randall's Wall by Carol Fenner

Step 6: Group Similar Traits

Guide your students to group similar traits the same way you did it in Planning Step 5.

Step 7: Form Generalizations (to see examples of generalizations, click here)

You can also use the work you did during Planning Step 6 to help you guide students to form
generalizations. Going through the process yourself during the planning stage will pay big dividends now
that you are working with your students. You will already have an idea of the challenges they may face.
First, explain to students what a generalization is and why it is important to help them understand the
theme more deeply. Then, model how you formed one or two of the generalizations. Finally, you might
find it helpful to offer some sentence starters as students try out generalizations on their own:

 In order to stand up for what is right, you must ...

 People who persevere despite obstacles ...
 It takes ... to work for justice

The number of generalizations you end up with will depend on your goals and your students' ages and
experience. One or two good generalizations can be an excellent starting point! Remember that your final
set of generalizations do not have to match those you developed during the planning process. In fact,
students will remember them better if the generalizations are in their own words and come from their own
thinking.

Step 8: Use Generalizations as the Basis for Extension Projects and Further Reading
Now you can use these generalizations as the basis for extension projects and further reading. See
example extension projects on the Literature Circles Resource Center website for ideas.

Concept Formation

What Is It?
Concept Formation is an inductive teaching strategy that helps students form a clear understanding of a
concept (or idea) through studying a small set of examples of the concept.

Rationale
Concepts are the “furniture” of our minds. A well-furnished mind is a source of joy, academic success,
citizenship, career satisfaction, and lifelong learning. When a student forms a concept from its examples,
he or she knows more than the definition of a term (e.g., river: he or she also knows some vivid examples
of the concept that add flesh to a bare-bones definition, such as the Mississippi, the Amazon, the Yangtze,
and the Volga). This is deep conceptual learning rather than superficial knowledge of a vocabulary word.

Description
A concept is defined by critical characteristics shared by all examples of the concept. For something to be
an example of a concept, it must contain all these critical characteristics. To help students form the
concept, the teacher helps them first to see these critical characteristics across different examples and,
then to summarize those characteristics in a definition that students themselves write.

Here are some concepts and examples:

Justice (fairness)
Taking turns
Writing down the rules
Applying rules equally to everyone

Technology
Steamboat
Morse code
Airplane
Computer Chip

Community
Mesa Verde
Jamestown
Washington, DC
Tokyo

Migration
Oregon Trail
Ellis Island immigration
The Great Migration
Angel Island immigration

There are two key parts to Concept Formation. Students begin by studying multiple examples of the
concept to be learned, and then the teacher helps them see the similarities across these examples. When
these similarities are established in students’ minds, they form the concept.

Teacher Preparation

1. Select a concept. Choose one that is at the core of your curriculum. It might be one of the five

themes of geography (movement, region, human-environmental interaction, location, or place) or

a key tool of historical reasoning (thesis, evidence, sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating). It
 could be a concept used to understand media (advertisement, documentary, home page) or the

economy (good, service, production, distribution, money).

2. List the critical characteristics of the concept. Check several sources to find the clearest set of
characteristics. For example, Democracy is (1) a kind of government in which (2) the majority

rules (rules and laws are made by all citizens or their representatives), (3) minority rights and
individual liberties are protected, and (4) rules and laws are written down. Or, modernization

involves (1) the use of technology to control nature’s resources, (2) the use of inanimate (non-

animal) sources of power and energy, and (3) the use of tools to multiply the effects of human

energy. Be sure to list the critical characteristics. This will help you and your students more

easily see which characteristics are present or missing in a particular case.

3. Assemble a good set of examples. A good set of examples is small in number (3–4), varied (shows

the array of differences allowable within the concept), and developmentally and culturally

appropriate (know your students). Be sure that each example has all the critical characteristics

required for the concept. Furthermore, select examples for which plenty of up-to-date

information is available.

4. Make a data-organization chart. Down the left side, present the 3–4 examples. Across the top,

ask 3–5 focus questions. These questions help focus your students' data-gathering on the

critical information in each example. Each student will need a copy of the chart; also, post a

chart on the wall or project it onto a screen. See handout one.

5. Assemble a good set of non-examples. Identify 2–3 non-examples that can be used to help
students classify after they have formed the concept. A non-example has some, but not all, of

the critical characteristics that define the concept. Non-examples make great practice items.

In the Classroom
For the concept democracy:

1. Interest building. Remind students of a recent classroom meeting in which a vote was taken to

resolve a classroom or playground issue. Lead a discussion on the question, “Is majority rule

always fair?”

2. Assess your students’ pre-instructional understanding of the concept.

 What is democracy?

 Is the United States a democracy? Why or why not?

 Are our weekly classroom meetings democratic? Why?

3. Studying multiple examples. Create a data-organization chart that contains four examples down

the left column and focus questions across the top. These questions focus students’ attention

on the critical attributes. See handout 1.

Direct students to use this chart to record information about each example. Provide students
with time in class to find the information in their textbooks and complete the chart. Direct them
to finish the chart as homework. Suggest that they look for regular elections in response to the
first question and push them to find out who can and cannot vote.

4. Noting differences. The next day, verify that students have completed the chart. Then ask

students, “In what ways do these four governments differ?”

5. Noting similarities. Ask, “In what ways are these four governments all alike?” Record students’
responses on the chalkboard for use in the next step. (Note: This is the phase of the lesson when

students themselves identify the critical characteristics of the concept, which are the similarities

across the examples.)

6. Summarizing. Direct students to “take a few minutes now to jot down a summary of these

similarities in one complete sentence. Let’s begin the summary with, ‘These are all ways of

governing that. . . .’” Students compose their own definition of the concept, working with the list

of similarities still on the chalkboard from Step 5. Allow time for sharing and listen carefully to

the concepts they have formed. Provide feedback and correction as needed. Students then

compose a second draft, taking more care to include all the critical attributes of democracy in

their summaries.

7. Labeling. Ask, “What is a word you might use to describe governments like these? Be creative—

invent a word if you like. Make sure it captures the essence of this kind of government.” After

eliciting several nicknames, tell students that the conventional label for this kind of government
is democracy. Then use a good dictionary to read aloud the etymology of this Greek term for

“rule by the people.”

8. Application. Now that students have built a rough idea of democracy, it is time to reinforce and

practice it with a classifying activity.

 Classifying type 1. Ask students to read the brief description of the Plymouth
Colony in their textbooks and then to decide whether it was a democracy. Ask

for a show of thumbs (thumbs up for “Yes, it was a democracy”; thumbs down

for “no”; thumbs sideways for “not sure”). Then ask for reasons.

 Classifying type 2. Give students information about two or three other

governments (China’s, Denmark’s, Japan’s) and ask them to decide which of
 them, if any, is a democracy. This time have them write down their reasons. Call

on several students to share their decisions and reasons. See handout 2.

 Classifying type 3. Form teams of three to four students and direct each team to
brainstorm a fictional example of a democracy. Have them imagine themselves

shipwrecked on an island with no chance of rescue; hence, they must create a

society from scratch. Remind them to look back at their summaries to be sure

the example they create has each of the attributes that all examples of

democracies must have. Direct the teams to share their fictional examples and

tell why they are democracies.

 Classifying type 4. Tell students that you will describe an organization that is not
an example of democracy. The students’ task is to describe the changes that

would be needed to make it into a democracy. (Describe a modern military

dictatorship or a Little League baseball club.)

9. Summary. Ask a sample of students to review the critical characteristics of democracy.

Assessment
Any of the four types of classifying in Step 8 will serve as a good assessment of the extent to which
students have formed the concept. The proof is not in the decisions they reach (thumbs up; thumbs
down), but in the reasons they give.

Common Pitfalls

 Students may have a hard time keeping all the examples in mind at once. That’s why the data-

organization chart is a helpful tool.

 Distinguishing examples from non-examples is the act of classifying. If students have in mind
a list of critical characteristics, they can more easily see which ones are present or absent in a

given item; therefore, their classifying practice will be more successful.

 Students cannot classify an item if they do not have enough information about it. To answer

the question “Is Japan a democracy?,” students will have to study Japan to find out whether

its government has the critical characteristics that democracies have.

Concept Attainment Model
What Is Concept Attainment?
Looking at this set of pictures, what theme do you think all the pictures have in common? If you
guessed, 'weather,' you are right. The pictures and text associated with the pictures (sunny,
rainy and cloudy) all have one thing in common - they are symbols and descriptors of the
weather!

Concept Attainment

That was pretty easy, you may say! Well, that was a very basic and elementary example of
concept attainment. Concept Attainment is a teaching strategy created by Jerome Bruner that
encourages critical thinking and involves a teacher giving students a group of pictures or words
and asking them to decide what the pictures or words have in common. The concept or
common theme, therefore, is kept from the students so that they can use their critical thinking
skills to figure it out themselves! It really is a fun teaching method and fun for students as well!

Why Does Concept Attainment Work?

Jerome Bruner developed the concept under the premise that humans naturally tend to group
together things of similar characteristics as a coping strategy to deal with the diversity and
complexity in our environments. Political parties, eating habits (vegetarians, vegans, meat-
eaters, etc.) and religions (Christian, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, etc.) are all categories that we
group people into, for example. Humans love to group things! That is why this learning strategy
is relevant and works so well!

Concept Attainment Model

The concept attainment model consists of a teacher showing a list of words or a grouping of
pictures and telling the students which words or pictures fit into the unknown concept and
which words or pictures do not fit into the unknown concept.

Here's another example of the concept attainment model at work:

Given the pictures that fit into the concept and the ones that do not, what is the likely
concept? That is right! Vegetables!

Teachers may use the concept attainment model when they want their students to learn a set
of attributes or characteristics about a certain concept, group or category. For example, if a
teacher wanted to teach his students the attributes of mammals, he could use the concept
attainment model. He may have a stack of cards, each card with a picture of an animal. He
would not tell his students the concept and ask them to instead guess the common theme
themselves.
Project Method
The project method is a medium of instruction which was introduced during the 18th century
into the schools of architecture and engineering in Europe when graduating students had to apply
the skills and knowledge they had learned in the course of their studies to problems they had to
solve as practicians of their trade, for example, designing a monument, building a steam engine.[1]
In the early 20th Century, William Heard Kilpatrick expanded the project method into a
philosophy of education. His device is child-centred and based in progressive education. Both
approaches are used by teachers worldwide to this day. Unlike traditional education, proponents
of the project method attempt to allow the student to solve problems with as little teacher
direction as possible. The teacher is seen more as a facilitator than a deliver of knowledge and
information.

Students in a project method environment should be allowed to explore and experience their
environment through their senses and, in a sense, direct their own learning by their individual
interests. Very little is taught from textbooks and the emphasis is on experiential learning, rather
than rote and memorization. A project method classroom focuses on democracy and
collaboration to solve "purposeful" problems.

Kilpatrick devised four classes of projects for his method: construction (such as writing a play),
enjoyment (such as experiencing a concert), problem (for instance, discussing a complex social
problem like poverty), and specific learning (learning of skills such as swimming).

What is Project Method?

The project method is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical problem
over a period of several days or weeks. It may involve building a rocket, designing a playground,
or publishing a class newspaper. The projects may be suggested by the teacher, but they are
planned and executed as far as possible by the students themselves, individually or in groups.
Project work focuses on applying, not imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and on improving
student involvement and motivation in order to foster independent thinking, self-confidence,
and social responsibility.

According to traditional historiography, the project idea is a genuine product of the American
Progressive education movement. The idea was thought to have originally been introduced in
1908 as a new method of teaching agriculture, but educator William H. Kilpatrick elaborated
the concept and popularized it worldwide in his famous article, "The Project Method" (1918).
More recently, Michael Knoll has traced the project method to architectural education in
sixteenth-century Italy and to engineering education in eighteenth-century France. This
illustrates that the project of the architect–like the experiment of the scientist, the sandbox
exercise of the staff officer, and the case study of the jurist–originated in the
professionalization of an occupation.

The project method was first introduced into colleges and schools when graduating students
had to apply on their own the skills and knowledge they had learned in the course of their
studies to problems they had to solve as practicians of their trade. With some simplification,
five phases in the history of the project method can be differentiated:

 1590–1765: At the academies of architecture in Rome and Paris, advanced students

work on a given problem, such as designing a monument, fountain, or palace.
 1765–1880: The project becomes a regular teaching method; newly established schools
of engineering in France, Germany, and Switzerland adopt the idea. In 1865, the project
is introduced by William B. Rogers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology into the
United States.
 1880–1918: Calvin M. Woodward adapts the project concept to schoolwork. At his
Manual Training School students actually produce the projects they designed. Gradually
the idea spreads from manual training (Charles R. Richards) to vocational education
(David. S. Snedden, Rufus W. Stimson) and general science (John F. Woodhull).
 1918–1965: Kilpatrick conceives the project broadly as "whole-hearted purposeful
activity proceeding in a social environment." After being criticized by Boyd H. Bode, John
Dewey, and other leading American Progressive educators, Kilpatrick's approach loses
its attraction in the United States, yet receives general approval in Europe, India, and
the Soviet Union.
 The 1970s: Kilpatrick's project method, now taken as the only adequate method of
teaching in a democratic society, is rediscovered in Germany, the Netherlands, and
other European countries. Under the influence of British primary school education, U.S.
educators attempt to redefine the project, viewing it as an important supplement to the
traditional teacher-oriented, subject-centered curriculum.

There are two basic approaches for implementing the project method. According to the
historically older approach, the students take two steps: initially, they are taught in a systematic
course of study certain skills and facts, then they apply these skills and knowledge, creatively
and self-directed to suitable projects. According to the second approach, the instruction by the
teacher does not precede the project but is integrated in it. In other words the students first
choose the project, then they discuss what they need to know for solving the problem and
learn the required techniques and concepts. Finally they execute the chosen project by
themselves. In both approaches, time for reflection should be provided during all phases of
project learning, giving students the opportunity to evaluate their progress. Many teachers–
especially vocational and industrial arts educators–use a series of small-scale projects to help
students develop continuously increasing competence in practical problem solving.

Meaning of Project Method of Teaching

Project method of teaching has evolved from the philosophy of programatists. It is experience-
centered strategy related to life-situation. This teaching strategy focus on

1. To socialize a child
2. To achieve cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives

This teaching strategy is based on the following principles

1. Principle of Utility. Choose those projects which are closer to the social life.
2. Principle of readiness. Involve the learners in finding the solution of the problem with
their active participation.
3. Learning by Doing. Learner performs certain tasks and experiences new things. This
adds to his knowledge and results in learning.
4. Socialization. It develops the feeling of cooperation and group work.
5. Inter-disciplinary Approach. To involve the knowledge of different subjects in solving
the social problems.

Types of Project Method of Teaching

According to Kilpatric, “A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment. Kilpatric has classified the project method in four types.

1. Constructive. When learners have to construct some things related to social life. e.g.
charts, models, maps, parcels etc.
2. Artistic. These projects are generally allotted in the aesthetic fields of life. e.g. in
music, drawing, painting art and culture.
3. Problem-Solving. These projects are given to solve the problems related to any life-
situation or related to any subject e.g. how to operate bank accounts? Or how to send
 an email or letter. These general problems if solved, will make a child efficient for
social-life.
4. Group-Work. A team of students is assigned a work to be performed. e.g. to develop a
garden in the school.

There are four basic elements of this teaching strategy which make it purposeful 1. Spontaneity,
Purpose, Significance, and Interest or Motivation.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Project method of Teaching

Advantages
1. It helps in developing social norms and social values among the learners.
2. It provides invaluable opportunities for correlation of various elements of the subject
matter and for transfer of training or learning.
3. It helps in growing knowledge very effectively as a results of their close cooperation
on social participation in the spirit of democracy.
Disadvantages
1. The project cannot be planned for all subjects and whole subject matter cannot be
taught by this strategy.
2. It is not economical from the point of view of time and cost.
3. It is very difficult for a teacher to plan or to execute the projects to the learners and
supervise them.
Suggestions
1. This teaching strategy should not be used an independent teaching strategy but as a
supplementary teaching technique.
2. Teacher should try to utilize the inexperience and waste projects to prepare models
etc.
3. To avoid the problem of supervision, teacher may appoint a leader to each group of
students.
4. Teacher should fix a time limit for each project.
5 A’s Method
Bahala na ka sa life nimo for this (I don’t know the right words to say :D)
Folic Method
I am reminded na d lalim maging teacher. Salute!
Alphabetic Method
What is the "Alphabetic Principle"?

Children's reading development is dependent on their understanding of the alphabetic principle

– the idea that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken language. Learning that
there are predictable relationships between sounds and letters allows children to apply these
relationships to both familiar and unfamiliar words, and to begin to read with fluency.

The goal of phonics instruction is to help children to learn and be able to use the Alphabetic
Principle. The alphabetic principle is the understanding that there are systematic and predictable
relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Phonics instruction helps children learn
the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language.

Two issues of importance in instruction in the alphabetic principle are the plan of instruction and
the rate of instruction.

The Alphabetic Principle Plan of Instruction

 Teach letter-sound relationships explicitly and in isolation.

 Provide opportunities for children to practice letter-sound relationships in daily lessons.
 Provide practice opportunities that include new sound-letter relationships, as well as
cumulatively reviewing previously taught relationships.
 Give children opportunities early and often to apply their expanding knowledge of sound-
letter relationships to the reading of phonetically spelled words that are familiar in
meaning.

Rate and Sequence of Instruction

No set rule governs how fast or how slow to introduce letter-sound relationships. One obvious
and important factor to consider in determining the rate of introduction is the performance of
the group of students with whom the instruction is to be used. Furthermore, there is no agreed
upon order in which to introduce the letter-sound relationships. It is generally agreed, however,
that the earliest relationships introduced should be those that enable children to begin reading
words as soon as possible. That is, the relationships chosen should have high utility. For example,
the spellings m, a, t, s, p, and h are high utility, but the spellings x as in box, gh, as in through, ey
as in they, and a as in want are of lower utility.

It is also a good idea to begin instruction in sound-letter relationships by choosing consonants

such as f, m, n, r, and s, whose sounds can be pronounced in isolation with the least distortion.
Stop sounds at the beginning or middle of words are harder for children to blend than are
continuous sounds.
Instruction should also separate the introduction of sounds for letters that are auditorily
confusing, such as /b/ and /v/ or /i/ and /e/, or visually confusing, such as b and d or p and g.

Instruction might start by introducing two or more single consonants and one or two short vowel
sounds. It can then add more single consonants and more short vowel sounds, with perhaps one
long vowel sound. It might next add consonant blends, followed by digraphs (for example, th, sh,
ch), which permits children to read common words such as this, she, and chair. Introducing single
consonants and consonant blends or clusters should be introduced in separate lessons to avoid
confusion.

The point is that the order of introduction should be logical and consistent with the rate at which
children can learn. Furthermore, the sound-letter relationships chosen for early introduction
should permit children to work with words as soon as possible.

Many teachers use a combination of instructional methods rather than just one. Research
suggests that explicit, teacher-directed instruction is more effective in teaching the alphabetic
principle than is less-explicit and less-direct instruction.

Guidelines for Rate and Sequence of Instruction

 Recognize that children learn sound-letter relationships at different rates.

 Introduce sound-letter relationships at a reasonable pace, in a range from two to four
letter-sound relationships a week.
 Teach high-utility letter-sound relationships early.
 Introduce consonants and vowels in a sequence that permits the children to read words
quickly.
 Avoid the simultaneous introduction of auditorily or visually similar sounds and letters.
 Introduce single consonant sounds and consonant blends/clusters in separate lessons.
 Provide blending instruction with words that contain the letter-sound relationships that
children have learned.