Three Phase Induction Motor
Library
➣ Intorduction
➣ Rotating Magnetic Field
(R.M.F.)
Production of R.M.F.
Speed of R.M.F.
Direction of R.M.F.
➣ Concept of Slip Rings and
Brush Assembly
➣ Construction
Stator
Rotor
Squirrel Cage Rotor
Slip Ring or Wound
Rotor
Comparison of Squirrel
Cage and Wound Rotor
➣ Working Principle3
Can N = Ns ?
➣ Slip of Induction Motor
➣ Effect of Slip on Rotor
Parameters (Part1 - Part2 -
Part3)
Effect on Rotor Frequency7
Effect on Magnitude of
Rotor Induced E.M.F. 8
Effect on Rotor Resistance
and Reactance 8
Effect on Rotor Power
Factor 9
Effect on Rotor Current 9
➣ Induction Motor as a
Transformer 10
➣ Torque Equation 11
Starting Torque 12
1
➣ Condition for Maximum
Torque 13
Magnitude of Maximum
Torque
➣ Torque Slip Characteristics
15
Full Load Torque
Generating and Braking
Region 16
➣ Torque Ratios 18
Full Load and Maximum
Torque Ratio
Starting Torque and
Maximum Torque Ratio
➣ Speed - Torque
Characteristics 20
➣ Effect of Change in Rotor
Resistance on Torque 20
➣ Losses in Induction Motor
22
➣ Power Flow in an Induction
Motor 23
➣ Relation Between P2, Pc and
Pm 25
Derivation of k in Torque
Equation
➣ Efficiency of an Induction
Motor 27
➣ Equivalent Circuit of
Induction Motor (Part1 26 -
Part2-32)
➣ Phasor Diagram of
Induction Motor 37
➣ Effect of Harmonics on
Performance of 3 Phase
Induction Motor 38
 Crawling 41 ➣ Obtaining Data to Plot Circle
Cogging 41 Diagram 70
➣ Special Rotor Constructions ➣ No Load Test 71
43 Separating No Load Losses
Deep Bar Rotor ➣ Blocked Rotor Test 72
Construction ➣ Construction of the Circle
Double Cage Rotor Diagram 74
Construction Predicting Performance
Comparison of Single Cage From Circle Diagram
and Double Cage Motors 49 Maximum Quantities
➣ Application 49 Full Load Condition
➣ Induction Generator (Part1- ➣ Load Test on Three Phase
50 - Part2-55) Induction Motor 77
Circle Diagram of Induction ➣ Necessity of Starter 79
Generator Types of Starter
Comparison of Induction
➣ Stator Resistance Starter 80
Generator and Synchronous
Relation between Tst and
Generator
TF.L.
Advantages
Disadvantages ➣ Autotranformer Starter 81
Applications Relation between Tst and
➣ Induction Regulator TF.L.
Induction Regulator : ➣ Star - Delta Starter 84
Introduction Ratio of Tst and TF.L.
Single Phase Induction ➣ Rotor Resistance Starter
Regulator 56 85
Three Phase Induction ➣ Direct on Line Starter
Regulator 59 (D.O.L.) 88
➣ Induction Synchronous ➣ Soft Starters 89
Motor 62 ➣ Speed Control of Three
➣ Circle Diagram : Phase Induction Motor 91
Introduction 65 ➣ Supply Frequency Control
➣ Circle Diagram of a 3 Series or V/f Control 91
R - L Circuit 67 ➣ Voltage Supply Control 93
➣ Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase ➣ Controlling Number of Poles
Induction Motor 69 93
Consequent Pole Method
2
 Multiple Stator Winding
Method
Pole Amplitude Modulation
Method
➣ Adding Rheostats in Stator
Circuit 97
➣ Addnig External Resistance
in Rotor Circuit 98
➣ Cascade Control 99
➣ Injecting Slip-Frequency
E.M.F. into Rotor Circuit 101
Kramer System
Scherbius
➣ Electrical Braking of an
Induction Motor (Part1 - 102-
Part2-104)
Dynamic or Rheostat
Braking
Plugging
D.C. Dynamic Braking
Regenerative Braking
➣ Protection for Induction
Motor 105
Abnormal Conditions and
failure in Case of Induction
Motor
Protection Circuit for
Induction Motor
Single Phasing Preventer
Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker
Miniature Circuit Breaker
(MCB
Working Principle of 3-Phase
Induction Motor
3
Induction motor works on the
principle of electromagnetic
induction.
When a three phase supply
is given to the three phase
stator winding, a rotating
magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced as
discussed earlier. The speed
of this rotation magnetic field
is synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.
Where f = supply
frequency.
p = Number
of poles for which stator
winding is wound.
This rotating field
produces an effect of rotating
poles around a rotor. Let
direction of rotation of this
rotating magnetic field is
clockwise as shown in the Fig.
1(a).
Fig. 1
 Now at this instant rotor is
stationary and stator flux
R.M.F. is rotating. So its
obvious that there exists a
relative motion between the
R.M.F. and rotor conductors.
Now the R.M.F. gets cut by
rotor conductors as R.M.F.
sweeps over rotor conductors.
Whenever conductors cuts the
flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it.
So e.m.f. gets induced in the
rotor conductors called rotor
induced e.m.f. This is electro-
magnetic induction. As rotor
forms closed circuit, induced
e.m.f. circulates current
through rotor called rotor
current as shown in the
Fig.1(b). Let direction of this
current is going into the paper
denoted by a cross as shown
in the Fig. 1(b).
Any current carrying
conductor produces its own
flux. So rotor produces its flux
called rotor flux. For assumed
direction of rotor current, the
direction of rotor flux is
clockwise as shown in the Fig.
1(c). This direction can be
easily determined using right
hand thumb rule. Now there
are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and
other rotor flux. Both the
fluxes interact with each as
shown in the Fig. 1(d). On left
of rotor conductor, two fluxes
4
cancel each other to produce
low flux area. As flux lines act
as stretched rubber band, high
flux density area exerts a push
on rotor conductor towards
low flux density area. So rotor
conductor experience a force
from left to right in this case,
as shown in the Fig. 1(d), due
to interaction of the two fluxes.
As all the rotor
conductors experience a force,
the overall rotor experiences a
torque and starts rotating. So
interaction of the two fluxes is
very essential for a motoring
action. As seen from the Fig.
1(d), the direction of force
experienced is same as that of
rotating magnetic field. Hence
rotor starts rotating in the
same direction as that of
rotating magnetic field.
Fig 1 (d
Alternatively this can be
explained as : according to
Lenz's law the direction of
induced current in the rotor is
so as to oppose the cause
producing it. The cause of
rotor current is the induced
e.m.f. which is induced
because of relative motion
present between the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor
conductors. Hence to oppose
the relative motion i.e. to
reduce the relative speed, the
rotor experiences a torque in
the same direction as that of
R.M.F. and tries to catch up the
speed of the rotating magnetic
field.
So, Ns = Speed of
rotating magnetic field in
r.p.m.
N = Speed of rotor
i.e. motor in r.p.m.
Ns - N = Relative
speed between the two,
rotating magnetic field and the
rotor conductors.
Thus rotor always rotates
in same direction as that of
R.M.F.
Can N = Ns ?
When rotor starts rotating,
it tries to catch the speed of
rotating magnetic field.
If it catches the speed of
the rotating magnetic field, the
relative motion between rotor
and the rotating magnetic field
will vanish ( Ns - N = 0). In fact
the relative motion is the main
cause for the induced e.m.f. in
5
the rotor. So induced e.m.f. will
vanish and hence there can
not be rotor current and the
rotor flux which is essential to
produce the torque on the
rotor. Eventually motor will
stop. But immediately there
will exist a relative motion
between rotor and rotating
magnetic field and it will start.
But due to inertia of rotor, this
does not happen in practice
and motor continues to rotate
with a speed slightly less than
the synchronous speed of the
rotating magnetic field in the
steady state. The induction
motor never rotates at
synchronous speed. The
speed at which it rotates is
hence called subsynchronous
speed and motor sometimes
called synchronous motor.
... N < Ns
So it can be said that rotor
slips behind the rotating
magnetic field produced by
stator. The difference between
the two is called slip speed of
the motor.
Ns - N = Slip
speed of the motor in r.p.m.
This speed decides the
magnitude of the induction
e.m.f. and the rotor current,
which in turn decides the
torque produced. The torque
produced is as per the
requirements of overcoming
the friction and iron losses of
the motor along with the
torque demanded by the load
on the rotor.
When have seen that rotor
rotates in the same direction
as that of R.M.F. but in steady
state attains a speed less than
the synchronous speed. The
difference between the two
speeds i.e. synchronous speed
of R.M.F. ( Ns ) and rotor speed
(N) is called slip speed. This
slip speed is generally
expressed as the percentage
of the synchronous speed.
So slip of the induction
motor is defined as the
difference between the
synchronous speed ( Ns) and
actual speed of rotor i.e. motor
(N) expressed as a friction of
the synchronous speed ( Ns ).
This is also called absolute
slip or fractional slip and is
denoted as 's'.
Thus
The percentage slip is
expressed as,
6
In terms of slip, the actual
speed of motor (N) can be
expressed as,
At start, motor is at rest
and hence its speed N is zero.
This is maximum value of
slip s possible for induction
motor which occurs at start.
While s = 0 given us N = Ns
which is not possible for an
induction motor. So slip of
induction motor can not be
zero under any circumstances.
Practically motor operates
in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05
i.e. 1 % to 5 %. The slip
corresponding to full load
speed of th motor is called full
load slip.
Example 1 : A 4 pole, 3 phase
induction motor is supplied
from Hz supply. Determine its
synchronous speed. On full
load, its speed is observed to
be 1410 r.p.m. calculate its full
load slip.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f
= 50 Hz , N = 1410
r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P =
120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
 Full load absolute slip is
given by,
s = ( Ns - N)/
V2 = (1500-1410 )/ 1500 = 0.06
... %s = 0.06 x
100 = 6 %
Example 2 : A 4 pole, 3 phase,
50 Hz, star connected
induction motor has a full load
slip of 4 %. Calculate full load
speed of the motor.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f=50Hz, % sfl =
4%
sfl = Full
load absolute slip = 0.04
Ns = 120f /
P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
sfl = (Ns -
Nfl ) / Ns = where = full load
speed of motor
... 0.04 =
(1500 - Nfl )/ 1500
... Nfl = 1440
r.p.m.
Sponsored links :
Effect of Slip on Rotor
Parameters
In case of a transformer,
frequency of the induced e.m.f.
in the secondary is same as
the voltage applied to primary.
Now in case of induction
motor at start N = 0 and slip s
= 1. Under this condition as
long as s = 1, the frequency of
7
induced e.m.f. in rotor is same
as the voltage applied to the
stator. But as motor gathers
speed, induction motor has
some slip corresponding to
speed N. In such case, the
frequency of induced e.m.f. in
rotor is no longer same as that
of stator voltage. Slip affects
the frequency of rotor induced
e.m.f. Due to this some other
rotor parameters also get
affected. Let us study the
effect of slip on the following
rotor parameters.
1. Rotor frequency 2.
Magnitude of rotor induced
e.m.f. 3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor and
5. Rotor current
1. Effect on rotor frequency
In case of induction
motor, the speed of rotating
magnetic field is,
Ns = (120 f
)/P
..........(1)
Where f = Frequency of
supply in Hz
At start when N = 0, s = 1
and stationary rotor has
maximum relative motion with
respect to R.M.F. Hence
maximum e.m.f. gets induced
in the rotor at start. The
frequency of this induced
e.m.f. at start is same as that
of supply frequency.
As motor actually rotates
with speed N, the relative
speed of rotor with respect
R.M.F. decreases and becomes
equal to slip speed of Ns - N.
The induced e.m.f. in rotor
depends on rate of cutting flux
i.e. relative speed Ns - N. Hence
in running condition
magnitude of induced e.m.f.
decreases so as to its
frequency. The rotor is wound
for same number of poles as
that of stator i.e. P. If fr is the
frequency of rotor induced
e.m.f. in running condition at
slip speed Ns - N then there
exists a fixed relation between
(Ns - N), fr and P similar to
equation (1). So we can write
for rotor in running condition,
(Ns - N) = (120 fr)/P ,
rotor poles = stator poles = P
..........(2)
Dividing (2) by (1) we get,
(Ns - N)/Ns = (120 fr /
P)/(120 f / P) but (Ns - N)/Ns =
slip s
s = fr/f
fr = s f
Thus frequency of rotor
induced e.m.f. in running
condition (fr) is slip times the
supply frequency (f).
At start we have s = 1
hence rotor frequency is same
8
as supply frequency. As slip of
the induction motor is in the
range 0.01 to 0.05, rotor
frequency is very small in the
running condition.
Example : A 4 pole, 3 phase,
50 Hz induction motor runs at
a speed of 1470 r.p.m. speed.
Find the frequency of the
induced e.m.f in the rotor
under this condition.
Solution : The given values
are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, N
=1470 r.p.m.
Ns = (120 f )/ P = (120 x 50)/4 =
1500 r.p.m.
s = (Ns - N)/Ns = (1500-
1470)/1500 = 0.02
fr = s f = 0.02 x 50 = 1
Hz
It can be seen that in
running condition, frequency
of rotor induced e.m.f. is very
small.
Sponsored links :
Effect of Slip on Rotor
Parameters
2. Effect of Slip on Magnitude
of Rotor Induced E.M.F
We have seen that when
rotor is standstill, s = 1,
relative speed is maximum and
maximum e.m.f. gets induced
in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be,
 E2 = Rotor induced
e.m.f. per phase on standstill
condition
As rotor gains speed, the
relative speed between rotor
and rotating magnetic field
decreases and hence induced
e.m.f. in rotor also decreases
as it is proportional to the
relative speed Ns - N. Let this
e.m.f. be,
E2r = Rotor induced
e.m.f. per phase in running
condition
Now E2r α Ns while
E2r α Ns - N
Dividing the two
proportionality equations,
E2r/E2= ( Ns - N)/Ns
but (Ns - N)/N = slip s
E2r/E2 = s
E2r = s E2
The magnitude of the
induced e.m.f in the rotor also
reduces by slip times the
magnitude of induced e.m.f. at
standstill condition.
3. Effect on Rotor Resistance
and Reactance
The rotor winding has its
own resistance and the
inductance. In case of squirrel
cage rotor, the rotor resistance
is very very small and
generally neglected but slip
ring rotor has its own
9
resistance which can be
controlled by adding external
resistance through slip rings.
In general let,
R2 = Rotor resistance per
phase onstandstill
X2 = Rotor reactance per phase
on standstill
Now at standstill,
fr = f hence if L2 is the
inductance of rotor per phase,
X2 = 2πfr L2 = 2πf
L2 Ω/ph
While R2 = Rotor
resistance in Ω/ph
Now in running condition,
fr = s f hence, X2r =
2πfr L2 =2πfsL2
= s .(2πf L2)
X2r = s X2
Where; X2r = Rotor
reactance in running condition
Thus resistance as
independent of frequency
remains same at standstill and
in running condition. While the
rotor reactance decreases by
slip times the rotor reactance
at standstill.
Hence we can write rotor
impedance per phase as :
Z2 = Rotor
impedance on standstill (N = 0)
condition
= R2 + j
X2 Ω/ph
 Z2 = √( R22+ X2)2) Ω/ph ... Key point : As rotor winding is
magnitude inductive, the rotor p.f. is
While Z2r = Rotor always lagging in nature.
impedance in running
condition
= R2 + j X2r = R2 + j (s
X2) Ω/ph
Z2r = √(R22+ (s X2)2)
Fig. 1
Ω/ph…. magnitude
Sponsored links :
Effect of Slip on Rotor
Parameters
4. Effect on Rotor Power
Fig. 2
Fcator
5. Effect on Rotor Current
From rotor impedance, we
Let I2 = Rotor
can write the expression for
current per phase on standstill
the power factor of rotor at
condition
standstill and also in running
The magnitude of
condition.
I2 depends on magnitude of
The impedance triangle on
E2 and impedance Z2 per
standstill condition is shown
phase.
in the Fig1. From it we can
I2 = (E2 per
write,
phase)/(Z2 per phase) A
cos Φ2 = Rotor power
Substituting expression of
factor on standstill
Z2 we get,
= R2/Z2 =R2/√(R22+ X22)
I2 = E2 /√(R22+
The impedance in running
X 22) A
condition becomes Z2r and the
The equivalent rotor circuit
corresponding impedance
on standstill is shown in the
triangle is shown in the Fig.2.
Fig.3. The Φ2 is the angle
From Fig. 2 we can write,
between E2 and I2 which
cos Φ2r = Rotor
determines rotor p.f. on
power factor in running
standstill.
condition
= R2/Z2r =
R2/√(R2 + (s X2)2)
2

10

Fig. 3
In the running condition,
Z2 changes to Z2r while the
induced e.m.f. changes to E2r.
Hence the magnitude of
current in the running
condition is also different than
on standstill. The equivalent
circuit on running condition is
shown in the Fig. 4.
I2r = Rotor
current per phase in running
condition
The value of slip depends
on speed which inturn
depends on load on motor
hence X2r is shown variable in
the equivalent circuit. From the
equivalent we can write,
I2r = E2r/Z2r = (s E2)/√(R22+
(s X2)2)
Φ2r is the angle between
E2r and I2r which decides p.f. in
running condition .
Fig. 4
Key point : Putting s = 1 in the
expression obtained in
running condition, the values
at standstill can be obtained.
Sponsored links :
Induction Motor as a
Transformer
We know that, transformer is a
device in which two windings
are magnetically coupled and
when one winding is excited
by a.c. supply of certain
frequency, the e.m.f. gets
induced in the second winding
having same frequency as that
of supply given to the first
winding. The winding to which
supply is given is called
primary winding while winding
in which e.m.f. gets induced is
called secondary winding. The
induction motor can be
regarded as the transformer.
The difference is that the
normal transformer is an
alternating flux transformer
while induction motor is
rotating flux transformer. The
normal transformer has no air
gap as against this an
induction motor has distinct
air gap between its stator and
rotor.
In an alternating flux
transformer the frequency of
induced e.m.f. and current in
primary and secondary is
always same. However in the
induction motor frequency of

11
e.m.f. and current on the stator
side remains same but
frequency of rotor e.m.f. and
current depends on the slip
and slip depends on load on
the motor. So we have a
variable frequency on the rotor
side. But it is important to
remember that at start when N
= 0 the value of slip is unity (s
= 1), then frequency of supply
to the stator and of induced
e.m.f. in the rotor is same. The
effect of slip on the rotor
parameters is already
discussed in the previous
section.
And last difference is that
in case of the alternating flux
transformer the entire energy
present in the secondary
circuit, is in the electrical form.
As against this, in an induction
motor part of its energy in the
rotor circuit is in electrical
form and the remaining part is
converted into mechanical
form.
Fig. 1 Induction motor as a
12
transformer
In general, an induction
motor can be treated as a
generalised transformer as
shown in the Fig. 1. In this, the
slip ring induction motor with
star connected stator and rotor
is shown.
So if E1 = Stator e.m.f.
per phase in volts.
E2 = Rotor induced
e.m.f. per phase in volts at
start when motor is at
standstill.
Then according to general
transformer there exists a
fixed relation between E1 and
E2 called transformer ratio.
... At start when N =0 , s =1
and we get,
Key Point : So if stator supply
voltage is known and ratio of
stator to rotor turns per phase
is known then the rotor
induced e.m.f. on standstill
can be obtained.
Torque Equation
The torque produced in the
induction motor depends on
the following factors :
1. The part of rotating
magnetic field which reacts
with rotor and is responsible
to produce induced e.m.f. in = (sE2)/√(R22 +(sX2)2)
rotor. .............(5)
2. The magnitude of rotor and cos Φ2r = R2/Z2r
current in running condition. = R2/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
3. The power factor of the rotor ............(6)
circuit in running condition. Using (4), (5), (6) in
Mathematically the equation (1),
relationship cab be expressed
as,
T α Φ I2r cos
Φ2r
.........(1)
where Φ = Flux ... T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
responsible to produce ......(7)
induced e.m.f. where k = Constant of
I2r = Rotor proportionality
running condition The constant k is provided
cos Φ2r = to be 3/2 for three phase
Running p.f. of motor induction motor.
The flux Φ produced by ... k =3/(2 π ns) =3/w s
stator is proportional to i.e. ............(8)
stator voltage. Key Point : ns = synchronous
... Φ α E1 speed in r.p.s. = Ns/60
.........(2) Using (8) in (7) we get the
while E1 and E2 are related torque equation as,
to each other through ratio of
stator turns to rotor turns i.e.
k. So torque developed at
... E2/E1 = K any load condition can be
obtained if slip at that load is
.............(3) known and all standstill rotor
Using (3) in (2) we can parameters are known.
write, 1.1 Starting Torque
Thus in equation (1), Φ can Starting torque is nothing
be replaced by E2. but the torque produced by an
While I2r = E2r /Z2r induction motor as start. At
start, N= 0 and slip s = 1. So
13
putting s = 1 in the torque
equation we can write
expression for the starting
torque Tst as,
Key Point : From the equation
(10), it is clear that by
changing the starting torque
can be controlled.
The change in R2 at start is
possible in case of slip ring
induction motor only. This is
the principle used in case of
slip induction motor to control
the starting torque Tst.
Example 1 : A 3 phase, 400 V,
50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor
has star connected stator
winding. The rotor resistance
and reactance are 0.1 Ω and 1
Ω respectively. The full load
speed is 1440 r.p.m. Calculate
the torque developed on full
load by the motor.
Assume stator to rotor ratio as
2 :1.
Solution : The given values
are,
P = 4, f = 50
Hz, R2 = 0.1 Ω, X2 = 1 Ω,
N = 1440 r.p.m.
Stator turns/Rotor turns
= 2/1
... K = E2 /E1 =
14
Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 =
0.5
Ns=120f/P =
120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
E1line = 400
V
..............Stator line voltage
given
... E1ph = E1line /√3 =
400/√3 = 230.94 V
But E2ph /E1ph = 0.5
=K
... E2ph = 0.5 x
230.94 = 115.47 V
Full load slip, s = (Ns-N)/Ns =
(1500-1400)/1500 = 0.04
ns =
Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Ns/60 =
1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
= 87.81 N-m
Condition of Maximum Torque
From the torque equation, it is
clear that torque depends on
slip at which motor is running.
The supply voltage to the
motor is usually rated and
constant and there exists a
fixed ratio between E1 and E2.
Hence E2 is also consatnt.
Similarly R2, X2 and ns are
constants for the induction
motor.
Hence while finding the
condition for maximum torque,
remember that the only ... s2 X22 - R22 = 0
parameter which controls the Taking k E22 R2 common.
torque is slip s. ... s2 = R22/X22
Mathematically for the ... s = R2/X2
maximum torque we can write, Neglecting negative slip
dT/ds = 0 This is the slip at which
where T = (k s the torque is maximum and is
E2 R2)/(R2 +(s X2)2)
2 2 denoted as sm.
While carrying out ... sm= R2/X2
differential remember that E2, It is the ratio of standstill
R2, X2 and k are constants. The per values values of resistance
only variable is slip s. As load and reactance of rotor, when
on motor changes, its speed the torque produced by the
changes and hence slip induction motor is at its
changes. This slip decides the maximum.
torque produced
corresponding to the load 1.1 Magnitude of Maximum
demand. Torque
T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 + This can be obtained by
s2 X 2 2 ) .......Writing (s substituting sm = R2/X2 in the
2 2
X 2) = s X 2 2 torque equation. It is denoted
As both numerator and by Tm.
denominator contains s terms, Tm = (k
differential T with respect to s sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sm X2)2)
using the rule of differentiation
for u/v.

... k s E22 R2 (2s X22) -

(R22 + s2 X22)(k E22 R2) = 0
... 2 s2 k X22 E22 R2 - From the expression of Tm,
R22 k E22 R2 - k s2 X22 E22 R2 = it can be observed that
0 1. It is inversely proportional to
... k s2 X22 E22 R2 - R22 k the rotor reactance.
X22 R2 = 0

15
2. It is directly proportional to ... E2 = (1/4) x E1ph =
the square of the rotor induced 230.94/4 = 57.735 V
e.m.f. at standstill. Ns = 120f/P =
3. The most interesting 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
observation is, the maximum i) At start, s =1
torque is not dependent on the .
.. Tst = (k
rotor resistance R2. But the E2 R2)/(R2 +( X2)2)
2 2 where k
slip at which it occurs i.e. = 3/(2 π ns)
speed at which it occurs ns = Ns/60 =
depends on the value of rotor 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
resistance R2. ... k = 3/(2π x 25) =
0.01909
Example 1 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 ... Tst = ( 0.01909 x
phase, 50 Hz star connected 57.7352 x 0.01 )/( 0.012 + 0.12 ) =
induction motor has a rotor 63.031 N-m
resistance and reactance per ii) Slip at which maximum
phase equal to 0.01 Ω and 0.1 torque occurs is,
Ω respectively. Determine i) sm = R2/X2 =
Starting torque ii) slip at which 0.01/0.1 = 0.1
maximum torque will occur iii) %sm = 0.1 x 100
speed at which maximum = 10%
torque will occur iv) maximum iii) Speed at which maximum
torque v) full load torque if full torque occurs is speed
load slip is 4 %. Assume ratio corresponding to,
of stator to rotor turns as 4. N = Ns (1 - sm ) =
Solution : The given values 1500 (1 - 0.1) = 1350 r.p.m.
are, iv) The maximum torque is,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, stator Tm = (k E22)/(2
turns/ rotor turns = 4, R2 = X2) = (0.01909 x 57.7352)/(2 x
0.01 Ω, X2 = 0.1 Ω 0.1) = 318.16 N-m
E1line = stator line v) Full load slip, sf = 0.04
voltage = 400 V as % sf = 4 %
E1ph = E1line/√3 = ... Tf.l. = (k
400/√3 = 230.94 V sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2) =
............star connection (0.01909 x 0.04 x 57.7352 x
K = E2ph/E1ph = 0.01)/( 0.012 + (0.04 x 0.1)2)
Rotor turns/ Stator turns = 1/4 = 219.52 N-m
Torque-Slip Characteristics
16
 As the induction motor is
located from no load to full
load, its speed decreases
hence slip increases. Due to
the increased. load, motor has
to produce more torque to
satisfy load demand. The
torque ultimately depends on
slip as explained earlier. The
behaviour of motor can be
easily judged by sketching a
curve obtained by plotting
torque produced against slip
of induction motor. The curve
obtained by plotting torque
against slip from s = 1 (at start)
to s = 0 (at synchronous
speed) is called torque-slip
characteristics of the induction
motor. It is very interesting to
study the nature of torque-slip
characteristics.
We have seen that for a
constant supply voltage, E2 is
also constant. So we can write
torque equations as,
Now to judge the nature of
torque-slip characteristics let
us divide the slip range (s = 0
to s = 1) into two parts and
analyse them independently.
i) Low slip region :
17
In low slip region, 's' is
very very small. Due to this,
the term (s X2)2 is so small as
compared to R22 that it can be
neglected.
Hence in low slip region
torque is directly proportional
to slip. So as load increases,
speed decreases, increasing
the slip. This increases the
torque which satisfies the load
demand.
Hence the graph is straight
line in nature.
At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T =
0. As no torque is generated at
N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to
achieve the synchronous
speed. Torque increases
linearly in this region, of low
slip values.
ii) High slip region :
In this region, slip is high
i.e. slip value is approaching to
1. Here it can be assumed that
the term R22 is very very small
as compared to (s X2)2. Hence
neglecting from the
denominator, we get
 So in high slip region
torque is inversely
proportional to the slip. Hence
its nature is like rectangular
hyperbola.
Now when load increases,
load demand increases but
speed decreases. As speed
decreases, slip increases. In
high slip region as T α1/s,
torque decreases as slip
increases.
But torque must increases
to satisfy the load demand. As
torque decreases, due to extra
loading effect, speed further
decreases and slip further
increases. Again torque
decreases as T α1/s hence
same load acts as an extra
load due to reduction in torque
produced. Hence speed further
drops. Eventually motor
comes to standstill condition.
The motor can not continue to
rotate at any point in this high
slip region. Hence this region
is called unstable region of
operation.
So torque - slip
characteristics has two parts,
1. Straight line called stable
region of operation
2. Rectangular hyperbola
called unstable region of
operation.
18
Now the obvious question
is upto which value of slip,
torque - slip characteristics
represents stable operation ?
In low slip region, as load
increases, slip increases and
torque also increases linearly.
Every motor has its own limit
to produce a torque. The
maximum torque, the motor
can produces as load
increases is Tm which occurs
at s = sm. So linear behaviour
continues till s = sm.
If load is increased beyond
this limit, motor slip acts
dominantly pushing motor into
high slip region. Due to
unstable conditions, motor
comes to standstill condition
at such a load. Hence i.e.
maximum torque which motor
can produce is also called
breakdown torque or pull out
torque. So range s = 0 to s =
sm is called low slip region,
known as stable region of
operation. Motor always
operates at a point in this
region. And range s = sm to s =
1 is called high slip region
which is rectangular
hyperbola, called unstable
region of operation. Motor can
not continue to rotate at any
point in this region.
At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start,
motor produces a torque
called starting torque denoted
as Tst.
The entire torque - slip
characteristics is shown in the
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Torque speed
characteristics
1.1 Full load torque
When the load on the
motor increases, the torque
produced increases as speed
decreases and slip increases.
The increases torque demand
is satisfied by drawing motor
current from the supply.
The load which motor can
drive safely while operating
continuously and due to such
load, the current drawn is also
within safe limits is called full
load condition of motor. When
current increases, due to heat
produced the temperature rise.
19
The safe limit of current is that
which when drawn for
continuous operation of motor,
produces a temperature rise
well within the limits. Such a
full load point is shown on the
torque-slip characteristics
torque as TF.L.
The interesting thing is
that the load on the motor can
be increased beyond point C
till maximum torque condition.
But due to high current and
hence high temperature rise
there is possibility of damage
of winding insulation, if motor
is operated for longer time
duration in this region i.e. from
point C to B. But motor can be
used to drive loads more than
full load, producing torque
upto maximum torque for
short duration of time.
Generally full load torque is
less than the maximum torque.
So region OC upto full
load condition allow motor
operation continuously and
safely from the temperature
point pf view. While region CB
is possible to achieve in
practice but only for short
duration of time and not for
continuous operation of motor.
This is the difference between
full load torque and the
maximum or breakdown
torque. The breakdown torque
is also called stalling torque.
1.2 Generating and Braking
Region
When the slip lies in the
region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 ≤s
≤1, the machine runs as a
motor which is the normal
operation. The rotation of rotor
is in the direction of rotating
field which is developed by
stator currents. In this region it
takes electrical power from
supply lines and supplies
mechanical power output. The
rotor speed and corresponding
torque are in same direction.
When the slip is greater
than 1, the machine works in
the braking mode. The motor
is rotated in opposite direction
to that of rotating field. In
practice two of the stator
terminals are interchanged
which changes the phase
sequence which in turn
reverses the direction of
rotation of magnetic field. The
motor comes to quick stop
under the influence of counter
torque which produces
braking action. This method by
which the motor comes to rest
is known as plugging. Only
care is taken that the stator
must be disconnected from the
20
supply to avoid the rotor to
rotate in other direction
To run the induction
machine as a generator, its
slip must be less than zero i.e.
negative. The negative slip
indicates that the rotor is
running at a speed above the
synchronous speed. When
running as a generator it takes
mechanical energy and
supplies electrical energy from
the stator.
Thus the negative slip,
generation action takes place
and nature of torque - slip
characteristics reverses in this
generating region.
The Fig.2 shows the
complete torque - slip
characteristics showing
motoring, generating and the
braking region.
Fig. 2 Regions of torque - slip
characteristics
Sponsored links :
Torque Ratios TF.L./Tm = (sf x 2 sm2)/(sm x
The performance of the motor (sm2+ sf2))
is sometimes expressed in TF.L./Tm = (2
terms of comparison of sf sm)/(sm2 + sf2)
various torques such as full 1.1 Starting Torque and
load torque, starting torque Maximum Torque Ratio
and maximum torque. The Against starting with
comparison is obtained by torque equation as,
finding out ratios of these T α (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s
torques. X2)2)
1.1 Full load and Maximum Now for Tst, s =1
Torque Ratio
In general, Tα (s Tst α (E22 R2)/(R22 +( X2)2)
E2 R2)/(R2 +(s X2)2)
2 2
While for Tm, s = sm
Let sf = Full load
slip
...
TF.L. α (sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2)
and sm = Slip for
maximum torque Tm
... Dividing both numerator
Tm α (sm E2 R2)/(R2 +(sf X2
2 2 )2) and denominator by X22 we
get,

Dividing both numerator

and denominator by X22 we Substituting R2/X2 =
get, sm

Infact using the same

But R2/X2 = sm method, ratio of any two

21
torques at two different slip
values can be obtained.
Sometimes using the
relation, R2 = a X2 the torque
ratios are expressed interms of
constant a as,
TF.L./Tm = (a
2 2
sf )/(a + sf )
and Tst/Tm = 2 a/
2
(1 + a )
where a = R2/X2 = sm
Example 1 : A 24 pole, 50 Hz,
star connected induction
motor has rotor resistance of
0.016 Ω per phase and rotor
reactance of 0.265 Ω per phase
at standstill. It is achieving its
full load torque at a speed of
247 r.p.m. Calculate the ratio
of
i) Full load torque to maximum
torque ii) starting torque to
maximum torque
Solution : Given values are,
P = 24, f = 50 Hz, R2 =
0.016 Ω, X2 = 0.265 Ω, N =
247 r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P =
(120x50)/24 = 250 r.p.m.
sf = (Ns - N)/Ns = (250-
247)/250 = 0.012 = Full load slip
sm = R2/X2 =
0.016/0.265 = 0.06037
i) TF.L./Tm = (2 sm sf )/(sm2+
sf2) = (2 x 0.06037 x
0.012)/(0.060372 + 0.0122)
ii) Tst/Tm = (2 sm )/(1 + sm2) =
(2 x 0.06037)/(1 + 0.060372) =
0.1203
Speed Torque Characteristics
Uptill now, we have seen
torque - slip characteristics of
an induction motor. To
compare the performance of
induction motor with d.c.
shunt and series motors, it is
possible to plot speed-torque
curve of an induction motor.
At N = Ts, the motor stops
as it can not produce any
torque, as induction motor can
not rotate at synchronous
motor.
At N = 0, the starting
condition, motor produces a
torque called starting torque.
Fig. 1 Speed Torque
characteristics
For low slip region, i.e.
speeds near the region is
stable and the characteristics
is straight in nature. Fall in
speed from no load to full load
is about 4 to 6 %. The
characteristics is shown in the

22
Fig.1. It can be seen from that and
the figure that for the stable T'st α (E22 R'2 )/√(R'22 +(X2)2)
region of operation, the Maximum
characteristics is similar to torque
that of d.c. shunt motor. Due to
this, three phase induction Tm α (E22)/(2X2)
motor is practically said to be Key Point : It can be observed
'constant speed' motor as drop that Tm is independent of
in speed from no load to full R2 hence whatever may be the
load is not significant. The rotor resistance, maximum
unstable region of operation is torque produced never change
shown dotted in the Fig.1. but the slip and speed at which
Effect of Change in Rotor it occurs depends on R2.
Resistance on Torque For R2,
It is shown that in slip ring sm = R2/X2 where
induction motor, externally Tm occurs
resistance can be added in the For R2',
rotor. Let us see the effect of sm' = R2'/X2' where
change in rotor resistance on same Tm occurs
the torque produced. As R2' > R2, the slip sm' >
Let R2 = Rotor resistance sm. Due to this, we get a new
per phase torque-slip characteristics for
Corresponding torque, rotor resistance . This new
characteristics is parallel to
T α (s E22 R2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2) the characteristics for with
Now externally resistance same but Tm occurring at sm'.
is added in each phase of rotor The effect of change in rotor
through slip rings. resistance on torque-slip
Let R2' = New rotor characteristics shown in the
resistance per phase Fig. 1.
Corresponding torque It can be seen that the
T' α (s E22 R2' )/√(R2'2 +(s starting torque T'st for R2' is
X2)2) more than Tst for R2. Thus by
Similarly the starting changing rotor resistance the
torque at s = 1 for R2 and starting torque can be
R2' can be written as controlled.
If now resistance is further
Tst α (E22 R2 )/√(R22 +(X2)2) added to rotor to get

23
resistance as R2' and so on, it
can be seen that Tm remains
same but slip at which it
occurs increases to sm' and so
on. Similarly starting torque
also increases to T'st and so
on.
Fig. 1 Effect of rotor resistance
on torque-slip curves
If maximum torque Tm is
required at start then sm = 1 as
at start slip is always unity, so
sm =
R2/X2 = 1
R2 =
X2 Condition for getting
Tst = Tm
Key Point : Thus by adding
external resistance to rotor till
it becomes equal to X2, the
maximum torque can be
achieved at start.
It is represented by point A
in the Fig. 1.
If such high resistance is
kept permanently in the circuit,
there will be large copper
24
losses (I2 R) and hence
efficiency of the motor will be
very poor. Hence such added
resistance is cut-off gradually
and finally removed from the
rotor circuit, in the normal
running condition of the
motor. So this method is used
in practice to achieve higher
starting torque hence
resistance in rotor is added
only at start.
Thus good performance at
start and in the running
condition is ensured.
Key Point : This is possible
only in case of slip type of
induction motor as in squirrel
cage due to short circuited
rotor, extra rotor resistance
can not be added.
Example : Rotor resistance
and standstill reactance per
phase of a 3 phase induction
motor are 0.04 Ω and 0.2 Ω
respectively. What should be
the external resistance
required at start in rotor circuit
to obtain.
i) maximum torque at start ii)
50% of maximum torque at
start.
Solution :
R2 = 0.04 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω
i) For Tm = Tst , sm = R2'/X2 =
1
... R2' = X2 = 0.2
Let Rex = external
resistance required in rotor. Rex
R2' = R2 + Rex ... Rex = 0.0135 Ω
.
.. Rex = R2' - R2 = 0.2 - per phase
0.04 = 0.16 Ω per phase This is much resistance is
ii) For Tst = 0.5 Tm, required in the rotor externally
Now Tm= (k E22)/(2 X2) to obtain Tst = 0.5 Tm.
and Losses in Induction Motor
Tst = (k The various power losses in
E22 R2)/(R22 + X22) an induction motor can be
But at start, external classified as,
resistance Rex is added. So i) Constant losses
new value of rotor resistance ii) Variable losses
is say R2'. i) Constant losses :
R2' = R2 + Rex These can be further
.
.. Tst = (k classified as core losses and
E2 R2')/(R2' + X22) with added
2 2 mechanical losses.
resistance Core losses occur in stator
but Tst = core and rotor core. These are
0.5Tm required. also called iron losses. These
Substituting expressions of losses include eddy current
Tst and Tm, we get losses and hysteresis losses.
(k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + The eddy current losses are
X22) = 0.5 (k E22)/ (2X2) minimised by using laminated
... 4 R2' X2= (R2'2 + construction while hysteresis
X 22) losses are minimised by
... (R2'2) - 4 x 0.2 x selecting high grade silicon
R2' + 0.22 = 0 steel as the material for stator
... (R2'2) - 0.8 R2' + and rotor.
0.04 = 0 The iron losses depends
... R2' = {0.8 + on the frequency. The stator
√(0.8 - 4 x 0.04)}/2
2 frequency is always supply
... R2' = 0.0535 , frequency hence stator iron
0.7464 Ω losses are dominate. As
But R2' can not greater against this in rotor circuit, the
than X2 hence, frequency is very small which
R2' = 0.0535 = is slip times the supply
R2 + Rex frequency. Hence rotor iron
... 0.0535 = 0.04 + losses are very small and
25
hence generally neglected, in
the running condition.
The mechanical losses
include frictional losses at the
bearings and windings losses.
The friction changes with
speed but practically the drop
in speed is very small hence
these losses are assumed to
be the part of constant losses.
ii) Variable losses :
This include the copper
losses in stator and rotor
winding due to current flowing
in the winding. As current
changes as load changes as
load changes, these losses are
said to be variable losses.
Generally stator iron
losses are combined with
stator copper losses at a
particular load to specify total
stator losses at particular load
condition.
Rotor copper loss = 3
2
I2r R2
......Analysed separately
where I2r = Rotor
current per phase at a
particular load
R2 = Rotor
resistance per phase
Power Flow in an Induction
Motor
Induction motor converts an
electrical power supplies to it
into mechanical power. The
various stages in this
26
conversion is called power
flow in an inductor motor.
The three phase supply
given to the stator is the net
electrical input to the motor. If
motor power factor is cos Φ
and VL, IL are line values of
supply voltage and current
drawn, then net electrical
supplied to the motor can be
calculated as,
This is nothing but the
stator input.
The part of this power is
utilised to supply the losses in
the stator which are stator
core as well as copper losses.
The remaining power is
delivered to the rotor
magnetically through the air
gap with the help of rotating
magnetic field. This is called
rotor input denoted as P2.
The rotor is not able to
convert its entire input to the
mechanical as it has to supply
rotor losses. The rotor losses
are dominantly copper losses
as rotor iron losses are very
small and hence generally
neglected. So rotor losses are
rotor copper losses denoted The rating of the motor is
as Pc. specified in terms of value of
Pout when load condition is full
load condition.
The above stages can be
shown diagrammatically called
where I2r = Rotor current power flow diagram of an
per phase in running condition induction motor.
R2 = Rotor This is shown in the Fig.1.
resistance per phase.
After supplying these
losses, the remaining part of
P2 is converted into
mechanical which is called
gross mechanical power
developed by the motor
denoted as Pm.

Fig. 1 Power flow diagram

From the power flow

Now this power, motor diagram we can define,
tries to deliver to the load
connected to the shaft. But
during this mechanical
transmission, part of Pm is
utilised to provide mechanical
losses like friction and
windage.
And finally the power is = Pm / P2
available to the load at the
shaft. This is called net output
of the motor denoted as Pout.
This is also called shaft power.

27
Relation between P2, Pc, and Pm and torque T. But rotor
Pm gives output at speed N and
The rotor input P2, rotor not Ns. So from output side
copper loss Pc and gross Pm and T can be related
mechanical power developed through angular speed ω and
Pm are related through the slip not ωs.
s. Let us derive this Pm= T x ω
relationship. where ω = (2πN)/60
Let T = Gross torque Pm = T x (2πN)/60 .............(2)
developed by motor in N-m. The difference between
We know that the torque P2 and Pm is rotor copper loss
and power are related by the P c.
relation, Pc = P 2 - Pm = T
P=Txω x (2πNs/60) - T x (2πN/60)
where P = Power Pc = T x (2π/60)(Ns - N)
and ω = angular = rotor copper loss
speed ...........(3)
= (2πN)/60 , N Dividing (3) by (1),
= speed in r.p.m.
Now input to the rotor P2 is
from stator side through
rotating magnetic field which
is rotating at synchronous Pc/P2 = s as (Ns - N)/Ns =
speed Ns. slip s
So torque developed by the Rotor copper loss Pc = s x
rotor can be expressed Rotor input P2
interms of power input and Thus total rotor copper
angular speed at which power loss is slip times the rotor
is inputted i.e. ωs as, input.
P2 = T x ωs Now P2 - Pc = P m
where ωs = (2πNs)/60 rad/sec P2 - sP2 = Pm
P2 = T x (1 - s)P2 = Pm
(2πNs)/60 where Ns is in Thus gross mechanical
r.p.m. ...........(1) power developed is (1 - s)
The rotor tries to deliver times the rotor input
this torque to the load. So The relationship can be
rotor output is gross expressed in the ratio from as,
mechanical power developed
28
 E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
and it mentioned that k =
3/(2π ns) . Let us see its proof.
The ratio of any two The rotor copper losses
quantities on left hand side is can be expressed as,
same as the ratio of Pc = 3 x I2r2 x R2
corresponding two sides on but I2r = (s E2)/√(R22 +(s
the right hand side. X2)2), hence substituting above

This relationship is very

important and very frequently
required to solve the problems
on the power flow diagram.
Now as per P2 : Pc :
Key Point : The torque
Pm is 1 : s : 1-s ,
produced by rotor is gross
Pc/Pm = s/(1-s)
mechanical torque and due to
Now Pm = T x ω
mechanical losses entire
= T x (2πN/60)
torque can not be available to
drive load. The load torque is
net output torque called shaft
torque or useful torque and is
denoted as Tsh. It is related to
Poutas,
Now N = Ns (1-s) from
definition of slip, substituting
in above,

and Tsh < T due to

mechanical losses.
1.1 Derivation of k in Torque
Equation
We have seen earlier that
T = (k s but Ns/60 = ns in

29
r.p.m.
So substituting in the
above equation,
Comparing the two torque
equations we can write,
Efficiency of an Induction
Motor
The ratio of net power
available at the shaft (Pout) and
the net electrical power input
(Pin) to the motor is called as
overall efficiency of an
induction motor.
The maximum efficiency
occurs when variable losses
becomes equal to constant
losses. When motor is on no
load, current drawn by the
motor is small. Hence
efficiency is low. As load
increases, current increases
so copper losses also
increases. When such variable
losses achieve the same value
as that of constant losses,
efficiency attains its maximum
30
value. If load is increased
further, variable losses
becomes greater than constant
losses hence deviating from
condition for maximum,
efficiency starts decreasing.
Hence the nature of the curve
of efficiency against output
power of the motor is shown in
the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Efficiency curve for an
induction motor
Equivalent Circuit of Induction
Motor : Part 1
We have already seen that the
induction motor can be treated
as generalized transformer.
Transformer works on the
principle of electromagnetic
induction. The induction motor
also works on the same
principle. The energy transfer
from stator to rotor of the
induction motor takes place
entirely with the help of a flux
mutually linking the two. Thus
stator acts as a primary while
the rotor acts as a rotating
secondary when induction
motor is treated as
tranformer.
If E1 = Induced voltage in
stator per phase; E2 = Rotor
induced e.m.f. per phase on
standstill
k = Rotor
turns / Stator turns
then k = E 2/ E 1
Thus if V1 is the supply
voltage per phase to stator, it
produces the flux which links
with both stator and rotor. Due
to self induction E1, is the
induced e.m.f. in stator per
phase while E2 is the induced
e.m.f. in rotor due to mutual
induction, at standstill. In
running condition the induced
e.m.f. in rotor becomes
E2r which is s E2.
Now E2r = Rotor
induced e.m.f. in running
condition per phase
R2 = Rotor
resistance per phase
X2r = Rotor
reactance per phase in running
condition
R1 = Stator
resistance per phase
X1 = Stator
reactance per phase
So induction motor can be
represented as a transformer
as shown in the Fig. 1.
31
a
Fig. 1 Induction motor as a
transformer
When induction motor is
on no load, it draws a current
from the supply to produce the
flux in air gap and to supply
iron losses.
1. Ic = Active component which
supplies no load losses
2. Im = Magnetizing component
which sets up flux in core and
air gap
These two currents give us
the elements of an exciting
branch as,
Ro = Representing
no load losses = V1 /Ic
and Xo = Representing
flux set up = V1/Im
Thus, Īo = Ī c + Ī m
The equivalent circuit of
induction motor thus can be
represented as shown in the
Fig. 2.
 Fig. 2 Basic equivalent circuit
The stator and rotor sides
are shown separated by an air
gap.
I2r = Rotor current
in running condition
= E2r /Z2r = (s
E2)/√(R2 +(s X2) )
2 2
It is important to note that
as load on the motor changes,
the motor speed changes.
Thus slip changes. As slip
changes the reactance
X2r changes. Hence X2r = sX2 is
shown variable.
Representing of rotor
impedance :
It is shown that, I2r =
(sE2)/√(R2 +(s X2) ) =
2 2
E2 /√((R2/s)2 + X22)
So it can be assumed that
equivalent rotor circuit in the
running condition has fixed
reactance X2, fixed voltage
E2 but a variable resistance
R2/s, as indicated in the above
equation.
Now R2/s = R2 +
(R2/s) - R2
So the variable rotor
resistance R2/s has two parts.
1. Rotor resistance R2 itself
which represents copper loss.
2. R2(1 - s)/s which represents
load resistance RL. So it is
32
electrical equivalent of
mechanical load on the motor.
Key Point : Thus the
mechanical load on the motor
is represented by the pure
resistance of value R2(1 -s)/s.
So rotor equivalent circuit
can be shown as,
Fig. 3 Rotor equivalent circuit
Now let us obtain equivalent
circuit referred to stator side.
Equivalent circuit referred
to stator :
Transfer all the rotor
parameters to stator,
k = E2/E1 =
Transformation ratio
E 2' = E 2/ k
The rotor current has its
reflected component on the
stator side which is I2r'.
I2r' = k I2r = (k s
E2 )/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
X2' = X2/K2 =
Reflected rotor reactance
R2' = R2/K2 =
Reflected rotor resistance
 RL' = RL/K2 =
(R2/K2)(1-s / s)
= R2' (1-s / s)
Thus RL' is reflected
mechanical load on stator. Fig. 5 Approximate equivalent
So equivalent circuit circuit
referred to stator can be Now the resistance R1 and
shown as in the Fig. 4 R2' while reactance X1 and
X2' can be combined. So we
get,
R1e = Equivalent
resistance referred to stator =
Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit referred R1 + R2'
to stator X1e = Equivalent
. reactance referred to stator =
The resistance R2' (1 -s)/ s X 1 + X 2'
= RL' is fictitious resistance R1e = R1 + (R2/K2)
representing the mechanical and X1e = X1 + (X2/K2)
load on the motor. While Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r'
1.1 Approximate Equivalent .........phasor diagram
Circuit and Īo = Ī c + Ī m
Similar to the transformer Thus the equivalent circuit
the equivalent circuit can be can be shown in the Fig.6.
modified by shifting the
exciting current (Ro and Xo)
purely across the supply, to
the left of R1 and X1. Due to
this, we are neglecting the
drop across R1 and X1 due to
Io, which is very small. Hence
Fig. 6
the circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.
The circuit is shown in the Power Equations from
Fig.5. Equivalent Circuit
With reference to
approximate equivalent circuit
shown in the Fig. 6, we can

33
write various power equations
as,
Pin = input power =
3 V1 I1 cos Φ
where V1 = Stator voltage
and I2r' = V1 /(( R1e +
per phase
RL') + j X1e )
I1 = Current drawn
where RL' = R2' (1-s)/s
by stator per phase
I2r' = V1/√(( R1e +
cos Φ = Power
RL')2 + X1e2 )
factor of stator
Key Point : Remember that in
Stator core loss = Im2 Ro
all the above formula all the
Stator copper loss = 3
2 values per phase values.
I1 Ro
Equivalent Circuit of Induction
where R1 = Stator
Motor : Part 2
resistance per phase
1.3 Maximum Power Output
P2 = Rotor input =
2 Consider the approximate
(3 I2r' R2')/s
equivalent circuit as shown in
Pc = Rotor copper
the Fig.7
loss = 3 I2r'2 R2'
In this circuit, the exciting
Thus Pc = s P 2
current Io is neglected hence
Pm = Gross
the exciting no load branch is
mechanical power developed
not shown.
... I1 = I2r'
The total impedance is
given by,
ZT = (R1e +
T = Torque RL')+ where RL' = R2' (1-
developed s)/s
I1 = V1 /√((R1e +
RL')2 +(X1e)2)
The power supplied to the
load i.e. Pout per phase is,
Per phase
where N = Speed of Pout = I12 RL' watts per phase
motor ... Total = 3 I12 RL'
But N = Ns (1-s) =, so
substituting in above

34

To obtain maximum output
power, differentiate the
equation of total Pout with
respect to variable RL' and
equal to zero.
But Z1e = √(R1e2 +X1e2)
= Leakage impedance referred
to stator
... Z1e2 = RL'2
Thus the mechanical load
on the induction motor should
be such that the equivalent
load resistance referred to
stator is equal to the total
leakage impedance of motor
referred to stator.
Slip at maximum Pout : This
can be obtained as,
RL' = Z1e = R2'(1-s)/s
where RL' = R2/K2
... s Z1e = R2' - sR2'
.
.. s(Z1e + R2') = R2'
This is slip at maximum
output.
35
Expression for maximum Pout :
Using the condition obtained
in expression of total Pout , we
can get maximum Pout.
... (Pout)max = 3
2
I1 Z1e as RL' = Z1e
But R1e2 + X1e2 = Z1e
1.4 Maximum Torque
In case of induction motor,
the speed of the motor
decreases with increase in
load. Thus the maximum
power output is not obtained
at a slip which corresponds to
maximum torque. In the
previous section we have seen
the condition for maximum
power output. In this section
we will find the condition
which gives maximum torque.
The expression for torque
is given by,
 The condition for
maximum torque can be
obtained from maximum power
transfer theorem. When
2
I2r' R2'/s is maximum consider
the approximate equivalent
circuit of induction motor as Fig. 10
shown in The Fig. 8.

The mechanical torque

developed by rotor is
maximum if there is maximum
Fig. 8 power transfer to the resistor
R2'/s. This takes place when
The value of Ro is R2'/s equals to impedance
assumed to be negligible. looking back into the supply
Hence the circuit will be source.
reduced as shown below.

Fig. 9 This is the slip

The thevenin's equivalent
circuit for the above network is
shown in the Fig.10 across the
terminals x and y.
corresponding to the
maximum torque. The
maximum torque is given by,

36
 Thus torque is directly
proportional to the rotor input.
By defining new unit of torque
which is synchronous watt we
can write,
T=
P2 synchronous-watts
If torque is given in
synchronous-watts then it can
be obtained in N-m as,

Substituting,

Key Point : Unit synchronous

watt can be defined as the
torque developed by the motor
such that the power input to
the rotor across the air gap is
1 W while running at
synchronous speed.
From the above See part 1
expression, it can be seen that
the maximum torque is Downloads
independent of rotor Solved Examples on 3-ph
resistance. Induction Motor
1.5 Synchronous Watt Induction Regulator :
The torque produced in the Introduction
induction motor is given by, In generating station or
substations, a constant
voltage under varying load
conditions can be maintained
with the help of induction
regulators. They are also used

37
for varying the voltage of an arranged vertically and
a.c. supply. It performs the brought out to a pinion or gear
function of independent wheel engaging with a worm
voltage regulation which which enables to adjustment
compensates for various of rotor position over a pole
drops in the line. pitch.
The induction regulator is Phasor Diagram of Induction
a special type of transformer in Motor
which the axes of primary and The phasor diagram of loaded
secondary windings can be induction motor is similar to
rotated with respect to each the loaded transformer. The
other. The primary winding is only difference is the
excited by a.c. supply while secondary of induction motor
the secondary winding is is rotating and short circuited
connected in series with the while transformer secondary is
outgoing side of the line. Thus stationary and connected to
the induced voltage in the load. The load on induction
secondary winding is either motor is mechanical while load
added to or subtracted from on transformer is electrical.
the supply voltage based on Still by finding electrical
the relative angular positions equivalent of mechanical load
of the primary and secondary on the motor, the phasor
windings. diagram of induction motor
The induction regulators can be developed.
are either single phase or three Let Φ = Magnetic
phase type. The constructional flux links with both primary
features of three phase and secondary.
induction regulators are There is self induced e.m.f.
similar to that of three phase E1 in the stator while a
induction regulators are mutually induced e.m.f. E2r in
similar to that of three phase the rotor.
slip ring type induction Let R1 = Stator resistance
motors. But the rotor is not per phase.
required to be rotated X1 = Stator reactance
continuously as in case of per phase
motoring operation. For The stator voltage per
convenience and simplicity in phase V1 has to counter
operation, the shaft is balance self induced e.m.f.
38
E1 and has to supply voltage
drops I1 R1 and I1 X1. So on
stator side we can write,
The rotor induced e.m.f. in
the running condition has to
supply the drop across
impedances as rotor short
circuited.
The value of E2r depends
on the ratio of rotor turns to
stator turns.
The rotor current in the
running condition is I2r which
lags E2r by rotor p.f. angle Φ2r.
The reflected rotor current
I2r' on stator side is the effect
of load and is given by,
I2r' = K I2r
The induction motor draws
no load current Io which is
phasor sum of Ic and Im. The
total stator current drawn from
supply is,
Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r'
The Φ1 is angle between
V1 and I1 and cos Φ1 gives the
power factor of the induction
motor.
Thus using all above
relations the phasor diagram
of induction motor on load can
be obtained.
39
The steps to draw phasor
diagram are,
1. Takes Φ as reference
phasor.
2. The induced voltage E1 lags
Φ by 90o.
3. Show - E1 by reversing
voltage phasor.
4. The phasor E2r is in phase
with E1. So I2r show lagging
E2r i.e. E1 direction by Φ2r.
5. Show I2r R2 in phase with
I2r and I2r X2r leading the
resistive drop by 90o, to get
exact location of.
6. Reverse I2r to get I2r'.
7. Im is in phase with Φ while Ic
is at leading with. Add Im and Ic
to get Io.
8. Add Io and I2r' to get I1.
9. From tip of - E1 phasor, add
I1 R1 in phase with I1 and
I1X1 at 90o leading to I1 to V1 get
phasor.
10. Angle between V1 and I1 is
Φ1.
The phasor diagram is
shown in the Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1 Torque speed
characteristics

The torque-slip
characteristics as shown in
Fig.1 is obtained when the
space distribution of flux wave
along the air gap periphery is
sinusoidal. But the air gap flux
is not purely sinusoidal as it
contains odd harmonics (5th,
7th, 11th etc). Hence at low
speeds, the torque-slip
characteristic is not smooth.
The distribution of stator
Fig. 1 On load phasor diagram winding and variation of air
of induction motor gap reluctance due to stator
Effect of harmonics on and rotor slots are main
Performance of 3-ph Induction causes of air gap flux
Motor harmonics.
The induction motor The harmonics caused due
performance is affected by the to variation of air gap
harmonics in the time variation reluctance are called tooth or
of the impressed voltage. But slot harmonics . Due to these
its effect on the performance harmonics produced in air gap
of the motor is not flux, unwanted torque are
predominant hence it is not developed along with vibration
considered here. and noise.
Now eventhough stator
currents are sinusoidal, the
stator m.m.f. is not sinusoidal
as stator winding has the
number of slots not more than
3 to 4 per phase. If carry out
analysis of stator m.m.f. with
the help of Fourier series it can
be seen that in addition to

40
fundamental wave it contains
odd harmonics m.m.f. waves.
The third harmonic flux
waves produced by each of the
three phases neutralize each
other as it differs in time phase
by 120o. Thus air gap flux does
not contain third harmonics
and its multiplies. The
fundamental mmf wave
produces flux which rotates at
synchronous speed which
given as ns = 2f1/P rps where
f1 is supply frequency and P is
number of poles. Similarly fifth
harmonic mmf wave produces
flux which rotates at 2f1/5P =
ns/5 rps and in direction
opposite to the fundamental
mmf wave. The seven
harmonic mmf produces flux
which rotates at ns/7 rps and in
the direction of fundamental
m.m.f. wave.
Thus it can be seen that
harmonic m.m.f. wave
produces flux which rotates at
1/K times the fundamental
speed and in the direction of
fundamental wave if K = 6m + 1
and in the reversed direction if
K = 6m - 1 where m is any
integer. The most important
and predominant harmonics
whose effects must be studied
are 5th and 7th harmonics.
The electromagnetic
torque that is developed in the
41
induction motor is because of
zero relative speed between
stator and rotor fields. This
fact can be explained as
follows :
When rotor is revolving in
the same direction of rotation
as the stator field, the
frequency of rotor currents is
sf1 and the rotor field produced
will have speed of sns rpm with
respect to rotor in the forward
direction. But there is
mechanical rotation of rotor at
n rpm which is superimposed
on this. The speed of rotor
field in space is thus given by
sum of these speeds
sns + n =
sns + ns(1-s) = ns
The stator and rotor fields
are thus stationary with
respect to each other which
produces a steady torque
maintaining the rotation. This
torque existing at any
mechanical speed n other than
synchronous speed is called
synchronous torque.
The fifth harmonic field
rotates at ns/5 rps and in a
direction opposite to direction
of rotor. Therefore slip of rotor
with respect to fifth harmonic
field speed is

Here -ns/5 represents fifth
harmonic field rotating
opposite to the rotor. The
frequency of rotor currents
induced by fifth harmonic
rotating field is
f2 fifth harmonic = s5 x
Stator frequency
= (6 -
5s) x f1
Now speed of fifth
harmonic rotor field with
respect to rotor is given by
Now, speed of fifth
harmonic rotor field with
respect to stator
Negative sign is used
before ns/5 (6 - 5s) which
indicates 5th harmonic field
rotates opposite to rotor
movement. Thus it can be seen
that speed of fifth harmonic
stator field and rotor field is
equal and relative speed
between the two is zero. Thus
it produces 5thharmonic
42
induction motor torque similar
to torque produced by
fundamental component.
Similar analysis can be
made on 7th harmonic to show
7th harmonic torque produced
similar to fundamental one.
Thus each space harmonic can
be considered to produces its
own asynchronous torque. The
induction motor can be
considered as equivalent to
number of induction motors in
series having poles equal to
number of harmonics
multiplied by number of poles.
The torque produced by
fundamental component and
the harmonic are shown in the
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Presence of harmonics
1.1 Crawling
As fifth harmonic field
rotates opposite to the rotor
rotation, the torque produced
by fifth harmonic opposes
fundamental torque and it acts
as braking torque on motor.
The seventh harmonic field
rotates in the direction of rotor
rotation, the torque produced
by seventh harmonic aids the
fundamental torque. The
resultant torque is shown in
the Fig. 2 which shows the
addition of fundamental, fifth
harmonic and seventh
harmonic torque. The fifth
harmonic torque is zero at -
ns/5 rps while seventh
harmonic torque is zero at
+ns/7.
There are two dips which
can be seen in the resultant
torque, one is near the slip 1.2
and other near slip 6/7. The
slip near s =6/7 is more
important as torque here
decreases with increase in
speed. The load torque is
shown in figure. The rotor will
run at ns/7 with X as the
operating point. Thus stable
operation is obtained near
sub-synchronous speed ns/7.
This is called crawling or
synchronous crawling. Due to
crawling there is much higher
stator current accompanied by
noise and vibration. The
torque obtained from induction
motor here is called
synchronous called.
43
When two harmonic fluxes
of same order one because of
stator and the rotor because of
rotor interact with each other
at one particular speed and
produces harmonic
synchronous torque just like
that produced in synchronous
motor. These torques are
caused by tooth harmonics.
The stable operation at
synchronous speed caused by
slot harmonics is called
synchronous crawling which is
associated with vibration and
noise.
1.2 Cogging
A special behaviour is
shown by squirrel cage
induction motor during
starting for certain
combinations of number of
stator and rotor slots. If
number of stator slots S1 are
equal to number of rotor slots
S2 or integral multiple of rotor
slots S2 then variation of
reluctance as a function of
space will have pronounced
effect producing strong forces
than the accelerating torque.
Due to this motor fails to start.
This phenomenon is called
cogging. Such combination of
stator and rotor slots should
be avoided while designing the
motor.
 Let the slots of stator and would be stationary with
rotor be 24. The stator-slotting respect to each other when
produces its tooth harmonics = (ns-nr / 13) + nr =
of order 2S1/P ±1 whereas the ns/13
rotor-slotting produces its nr = 0
tooth harmonics of order 2S1/P Hence it can be seen that
±1 where S1 and S2 are number harmonic synchronous torque
of stator and rotor slots. The is produced at zero rotor
plus sign refers to the speed. The 11th and
harmonic field rotation in the 13th harmonic fields produced
direction of rotor. by stator and rotor and
Here S1 = S2 so stator and stationary with respect to each
rotor slot harmonics are same other. The harmonic
and given by, synchronous torque is
Let P=4 produced at zero rotor speed
(2x24/ 4) ± 1 = 11 and the motor will remain at
or 23 rest. This is called cogging.
The harmonics of order 11 The torque speed
produce backward rotating characteristic with harmonic
field for both stator and rotor. synchronous torque as ns/7 is
The harmonics of order 13 shown in the Fig.3.
produces forward rotating
field.
The two harmonics fields
of same order say
th
11 harmonic would be
stationary with respect to each
other only when
nr - (ns-nr / 11) =
-ns/11
nr = 0 Fig. 2 Cogging
As the harmonic field due
to 11th harmonic rotates The stator slot harmonics
backward with respect to of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact
stator hence negative sign is with rotor slot harmonics of
used for ns/11. order 2S2/P ± 1 to develope the
Similarly, for 13th harmonic harmonic synchronous
produced by stator and rotor torques.

44
 2S1/P + 1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1 = S 2
And 2S1/P -1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1-S1 = P
It can be thus seen that if
S1 = S2 or S1-S2 = P then
cogging will be definately
observed in the induction
motor.
The cogging and crawling
is not predominately in slip
ring induction motor as these
motors are started with higher
starting torques with external
resistance in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be
reduced by taking proper car
during the design. Still if
crawling is observed then it
can be overcome by applying a
sudden external torque to the
driven load in the direction of
rotor. If there is reduction in
supply voltage then torque
also decreases (Tα V12). Hence
asynchronous crawling may
be observed which is absent
under rated voltage
conditions. Thus
asynchronous torques can not
be avoided but can be reduced
by proper choice of coil span
and by skewing the stator or
rotor slots.
Key Point : The synchronous
harmonics torques can be
totally eliminated by proper
45
combination of stator and
rotor slots.
Hence it can be seen that
harmonic synchronous torque
is produced at zero rotor
speed. The 11th and
13th harmonic fields produced
by stator and rotor and
stationary with respect to each
other. The harmonic
synchronous torque is
produced at zero rotor speed
and the motor will remain at
rest. This is called cogging.
The torque speed
characteristics with harmonic
synchronous torque as ns/7 is
shown in the Fig..3.
The stator slot harmonics
of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact
with rotor slot harmonics of
order 2S1/P ±1 to develope the
harmonic synchronous
torques.
2S1/P +1 = 2S2/P +1
S1 = S 2
And 2S1/p -1 = 2S2/P +1
S 1 - S 1= P
It can be thus seen that if
S1= S2 or S1 - S2 = P then
cogging will be definately
observed in the induction
motor.
The cogging and crawling
is not predominately in slip
ring induction motor as these
motors are started with higher
starting torques with external
resistance in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be
reduced by taking proper care
during the design. Still if
crawling is observed then it
can be overcome by applying a
sudden external torque to the
driven load in the direction of
rotor. If there is reduction of in
supply voltage then torque
also decreases (Tα V12). Hence
asynchronous crawling may
observed which is absent
under rated voltage
conditions. Thus
asynchronous torques can not
be avoided but can be reduced
by proper choice of coil span
and by skewing the stator or
rotor slots.
Key Point : The synchronous
harmonics torques can be
totally eliminated by proper
combination of stator and
rotor slots.
Special Rotor Constructions
and Applications
In case of slip ring induction
motor an external resistance
can be added in the rotor
circuit during starting which
gives higher starting torque
and lower starting line current
at an improved power factor.
This resistance is then
gradually cut from the rotor
circuit which would otherwise
46
result in decrease of full load
speed, poor speed regulation,
more rotor losses and hence
reduced efficiency. With lower
rotor resistance it gives
constant speed, low slip, less
losses and high efficiency.
This is the major advantage of
slip ring induction motor that it
gives high rotor resistance at
starting and low rotor
resistance at normal operating
speed.
In case of squirrel cage
induction motor there is no
provision made for adding
external resistance. If the
resistance is designed in such
a way that it gives better
running performance then it
has high starting current and
consequently low starting
torque. This is major
disadvantage of squirrel cage
induction motor although it is
having the other qualities of
low cost, ruggedness and
maintenance free operation.
Thus the designer had found
different ways of improving the
starting performance of the
motor without affecting the
running performance of the
motor.
In squirrel cage induction
motor high starting torque can
be obtained by the use of deep
bar or double cafe rotors. Both
these types of rotors make use
of skin effect in which
distribution of current is not
uniform but the alternating
current has the tendency to
concentrate near the surface
of the conductor. Due to this
effect, effective area of cross
section of the conductor is
reduced and hence resistance
of the conductor is increased
when carrying alternating
current.
The solid conductor can
be considered to be make up
of large number of strands
each carrying a small part of
current. The inductance of
each strand will vary
according to the position. The
strands in proximity of the
centre are surrounded greater
magnetic flux and has greater
inductance than near the
surface. Due to high reactance
at the centre, the alternating
current flows near the surface
of the conductor. The skin
effects depends upon nature
of material, diameter of wire,
shape of wire and frequency.
Thus the current in the
rotor during starting is having
the frequency of supply. While
under running condition the
frequency of rotor current
reduces to slip frequency. This
variation in frequency changes
47
the rotor resistance as it
depends on skin effect. During
starting it gives high
resistance whereas it gives
low resistance during running
condition which is desirable.
Thus the variation in rotor
resistance can be achieved by
deep bar or double cage
construction of rotor and
induction motor. Both these
types of construction make
use of skin effect
phenomenon.
1.1 Deep Bar Rotor
Construction
There is no constructional
difference between stator of
deep bar motor and that of
ordinary induction motor. The
rotor consists of deep bars,
short circuited by two end
rings one on each side. The
deep and narrow rotor bar of
rectangular cross section is
shown in the Fig. 1(a). The
other rotor bar shapes are
shown in the Fig. 1(b). The
magnetic leakage flux lines are
shown by dotted lines, Now
consider that the bar consists
of many number of layers of
different depths. The top and
bottom layers are shown in the
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Deep bar rotor
The leakage inductance of
the bottom strips is greater
than that of top strips as more
flux links with bottom strip
compared to top strip. All the
strips are in parallel
electrically. The bottom strip
has greater leakage
inductance than the top strip.
During starting the rotor
frequency is equal to the
stator frequency and hence
leakage reactance of bottom
strip is largest and current in it
is least. The top strip has low
leakage reactance and current
in it is large. Thus the current
in low reactance top strip will
be greater than that in high
48
reactance lower strip and the
current will be forced towards
the top of the slot and phase of
current in upper strip will lead
that of the current in lower
one. Thus there is non-uniform
distribution of current which is
shown in the Fig. 1. Due to this
non-uniform distribution of
current, and use to skin effect,
effective are of cross section
decreases. Hence rotor
resistance increases resulting
i high starting torque.
As leakage reactance is
proportional to frequency, the
non-uniform distribution of
current depends upon the
rotor frequency. The Fig. 2
shows a curve indicating a.c.
effective resistance to d.c.
resistance with change in
frequency for a copper bar of
2.5 cm deep. The skin effect is
maximum when rotor is at
standstill.
 motor and normal induction
motor is shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Torque slip characteristics

of deep bar rotor

The equivalent circuit of

induction motor is applicable
Fig. 2
to deep bar rotor also wherein
With the increase in rotor
proper value of r2' and x2' must
speed, the rotor frequency
be determined for satisfactory
decreases and skin effect also
running performance. During
decreases. The reactances of
starting their values should
different strips at this low
correspond to effective value
frequency become almost
at stator frequency. During
equal and the current density
running their values should
over the conductor cross
correspond to their effective
section becomes uniform so
values at low rotor frequency.
its a.c. resistance is equal to
1.2 Double Cage Rotor
d.c. resistance. Thus with deep
Construction
bar rotor has a low starting
This is another way of
current with high starting
obtaining improved starting
torque without affecting
performance without affecting
running performance of motor.
its running performance.
The net reactance of deep bar
Though it is more expensive it
rotor at standstill is higher
gives better performance than
than that in a normal bar
deep bar rotor construction.
design, the breakdown or pull
The stator of double cage
out torque in deep bar rotor is
rotor induction motor is same
lower. The torque-slip
as that of ordinary induction
characteristics of deep bar
motor whereas its rotor

49
consists of two cages or two
layers of bars short circuited
by end rings since the upper
cage is having smaller cross-
sectional area than the lower
cage, the upper cage is having
higher resistance than that of
lower cage. With equal cross
sectional areas of two cages
the upper cage is made up of
high resistance material like
brass, aluminium, bronze etc.
and the lower cage is made up
of low resistance material like
copper. The upper cage and
lower cage are separated by a
narrow slit or constriction.
This is shown in the Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Double cage rotor
construction
The slot leakage flux
pattern is also shown in the
Fig. 4 for the double cage
rotor. Similar to deep bar rotor
construction the rotor bars in
50
the upper cage have less
leakage flux linkage and
therefor has lower reactance.
The dimension of air
construction controls the self
leakage flux linking upper and
lower bars. If air constriction
would have been absent then
the main flux would return via
iron path between the two
slots and thereby missing the
bars in the lower cages which
will not contribute to
production of torque in that
case. Hence it can be seen that
the upper cage has high
resistance and low reactance
whereas the lower cage has
low resistance and high
reactance.
During starting the rotor
frequency is same as stator
frequency or supply
frequency. The division of
rotor current in upper and
lower cage is inversely
proportional to their leakage
impedances. At the time of
starting the leakage reactance
of lower cage is very high and
consequently its leakage
impedance is several times
greater than that of upper cage
whose leakage reactance is
small. Hence most rotor
current flows in upper cage
having lower leakage
impedance. The upper cage
having high resistance sharing
the rotor current results in low
starting current at improved
power factor giving high
starting torque.
When rotor speeds up, the
rotor frequency decreases
which decreases the leakage Fig. 5 Torque slip characteristics
reactance of lower cage. At of double cage induction motor
normal operating speed the
reactance difference between Another type of double
the two cages is negligibly cage rotor construction is also
small. Hence the division of possible which is shown in the
rotor current in this case is Fig. 6. The slot-leakage flux
mainly decided by the pattern for this type of
resistances of the two cages. construction is also shown.
As resistance of upper cage is
very high most of the current
flows through the lower cage
giving excellent operating
characteristics under running
condition. It can be noted that
starting current is confined Fig. 6
mainly with upper cage so if
there is frequent starting of The approximate
motor then it would cause equivalent circuit of double
overheating and buring of cage rotor induction motor is
upper cage. shown in the Fig. 7. Though
The torque-slip the two cages are somewhat
characteristics of double cage coupled magnetically, they can
induction motor are shown in be treated as independent for
the Fig. 5. simplicity and it gives
approximately same results.
The two cages are assumed to
be parallel while drawing the
equivalent circuit.

51

Fig. 8 Equivalent circuit of double
cage induction motor
I2ru' and I2r' are the
currents in the upper and
lower cages respectively
referred to the stator R2u'and
R2e' are the resistance of upper
and lower cages referred to the
stator whereas and are leakage
reactances of the two cages
referred to the stator of the
motor.
1.3 Comparison of Single Cage
and Double Cage Motors
See examples
2. Application
i) Squirrel cage type of motors
having moderate starting
torque and constant speed
characteristics preferred for
52
driving fans, blowers, water
pumps, grinders, lathe
machines, printing machines,
drilling machines.
ii) Slip ring induction motors
can have high starting torque
as high as maximum torque.
Hence they are preferred for
lifts, hoists, elevators, cranes,
compressor.
Induction Generator : Part1
The torque-slip or the torque-
speed characteristics of the
induction motor are shown in
the Fig. 1. The operating mode
of induction machine as a
generator or motor or braking
depends on value of slip s.
Fig. 1
When the slip lies in the
region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 ≤ s
≤1, the machines runs as a
motor which is the normal
operation. The rotation of rotor
is in the direction of rotating
field which is developed by
stator currents. In this region it
takes electrical power from
supply lines and supplies
mechanical power output. The
rotor speed and corresponding
torque are in same direction.
When the slip is greater
than 1, the machines works in
braking mode. The motor is
rotated in opposite direction to
that of rotating field. In
practice two of the stator
terminals are interchanged
which changes the phase
sequence which in turn
reverses the direction of
rotation of magnetic field. The
motor comes to quick stop
under the influence of counter
torque which produces
braking action. This method by
which the motor comes to rest
is known as plugging. Only
care is taken that the stator
must be disconnected from the
supply to avoid the rotor in
other direction.
To run the induction
machines as a generator, its
slip must be less than zero i.e.
negative. The negative slip
indicates that the rotor is
running at a speed above the
synchronous speed. When
running as a generator it takes
mechanical energy and
supplies electrical energy from
the stator. As the speed of
induction generator is not in
synchronism with the line
53
frequency, it is often called
asynchronous generator.
Thus when the slip of the
induction motor is negative i.e.
when the induction motor runs
faster than synchronous
speed, the induction motor
runs as a generator called
induction generator.
The stator of induction
generator must be connected
to a voltage source to produce
the necessary rotating
magnetic field revolving at
synchronous speed. When
rotor is rotated above
synchronous speed and the
stator is disconnected from
the supply, the generating
action will not take place.
When rotor of induction
machine is driven above
synchronous speed, the rotor
conductors cut the flux of
rotating field in opposite
direction to that when it is
operating as a motor. The rotor
currents are also reversed.
Due to the transformer action,
currents are induced in the
stator and the induction motor
can be runs as a generator.
The construction of
induction generator is same as
that of motor with the
difference that the direction of
rotation of the motor and a
generator is opposite for the
same current direction.
The action of induction
machine as a generator can be
explained from the phasor
diagram.
Fig. 2
Consider the phasor
diagram of the induction motor
on load.
Let us consider the speed
of the induction machine is
less than synchronous speed
so that machine takes current
I1 from supply. This current I1 is
phasor sum of no load current
Io and I2r' which is opposite of
I2r and referred as reflected
rotor current in stator. The
rotor current can be resolved
into two components, one in
phase with rotor emf and the
54
other one is quadrature
component.
The rotor current I2r is
given by,
Rationalizing the
denominator we get,
Let the real part of above
current be denoted by A while
the imaginary part of the
current be denoted by B. Thus
the total rotor current I2r be
assumed as A- jB.
Now let the speed of the
induction machine is
increased. With increase in
speed of prime mover i.e. of
rotor of induction motor slip
goes om reducing and hence
the rotor current also as it
depends on it. Thus
I2r decreases. At synchronous
speed, it completely vanishes.
Hence its opposite current
I2r' also vanished and the
resultant stator current is
nothing but the no load current
. The core losses are supplied
from line whereas friction and
windage losses are supplied
mechanically.
When the speed is
increased further the machines
enters in generating region. At
zero power factor no power is
interchanged between
machine and supply lines, But
the machine generates power
to meet its core losses. When
the speed is increased, the
current I2rincreases in
magnitude but it changes the
phase. The current supplied by
the generator will be then
vector sum of Io and I2r' which Fig. 2
is reversed in phase as
indicated in the phasor
diagram. The current I2r leads the
The rotor current is now voltage - E2r which is opposite
given by of E2r. The angle between
V1 and I1 is more than which
shows that electrical power of
... I2r = - A - jB the machine is negative i.e. it
It can be seen that the in is supplying the power. Thus
phase component reverses when the rotor is rotated
while the quadrature above synchronous speed
component remains in the with the rotating field
same direction. remaining in the same
The phasor diagram of direction, then the direction of
induction machine as cutting of rotor is in opposite
generator is shown in Fig. 2. direction which results in
reversal of rotor emf, current
and torque. The machine is
said to be operating in
generating mode.

55
 The induction generator is
not self excited as it can not
generates its own exciting
current. Thus it must be
always connected to an a.c.
supply. Generally it is operated
in parallel with synchronous
machines. It is shown in the
Fig.3.

Fig. 4
The load current IL can be
resolved into two components
one in phase component Im and
Fig. 3 the other quadrature
component Ie. The speed of the
Consider an example of a induction generator is
load which requires a lagging adjusted in such a way that it
current which can not be supplies current Ic which is
supplied by induction leading one. The induction
generator alone as it supplies generator current Is is nothing
leading current. but vector sum of Ic and Im.
But this current The synchronous
requirement is fulfilled with the generator which is in parallel
help of synchronous with the induction generator
generators operating in must supply the remaining
parallel with induction part of load current. For this
generator. Consider the the induction generator
following phasor diagram. current Is is subtracted
vectorially from IL (subtracting
vectorially means reversing
Is and adding it with IL ). This
current is nothing but
algebraic sum of currents
Ic and Ie. The synchronous
generator supplies no power.
The total current supplied by

56
synchronous generator is
lagging quadrature current.
If the load requires a
leading current then
theoretically the quadrature
component of current can be
supplied entirely by the
induction generator. But for
satisfactory operation it
should be run in parallel with
synchronous generator.
If the bank of delta
connected capacitors is
operated in parallel with
induction generator then the
reactive power requirement of
induction generator is met by
capacitors. This arrangements
is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5
The induction generator in
this case is said to be isolated
induction generator supplying
a load. The external voltage
source is not required in this
case.
Unlike in synchronous
generators, induction
generators are not rotating at a
definite speed at a given
frequency. The speed varies
with load as the load is
proportional to slip. The
57
frequency of the induction
generator is same as the
frequency of the line to which
it is connected.
Induction Generator : Part2
Using circle diagram, the
induction generators can also
be analysed.
Fig. 1
As the antiphase
component of current
reverses, direction of current
also changes. It will be below
horizontal shown by OE. E is
the operating point. As seen
from circle diagram.
AB = Rotor Cu loss.
BC = Stator Cu loss
CD = Constant losses.
DE = Generator output.
BE = Rotor input.
The slip is given by,
Similarly other required
quantities can be obtained
from the circle diagram.
1.2 Comparison of Induction
Generator and Synchronous
Generator
The distinct features of
induction generator compared
to synchronous generators are
as follows :
i) It will not require d.c.
excitation.
ii) It is not self excited but
external a.c. supply of fixed
frequency is required.
iii) The frequency of induction
generator is decided by the
frequency of the excitation
voltage which is supplying
current to it.
iv) Synchronization of
generator is not required as no
emf is generated until it is
connected to the line.
1.3 Advantages
The following are the
advantages of induction
generator.
i) Synchronization for
induction generator is
required.
ii) The construction is rugged
for rotating parts.
iii) Unlike in synchronous
machine, there is no danger of
hunting or drop out of
synchronism for induction
generators.
iv) When it short circuited, it
delivers small power as the
excitation quickly reduces to
zero.
v) Induction generators are
more suitable for high speeds.
vi) With the help of excitation
supply and frequency, the
voltage and frequency of
58
induction generator are
controlled.
1.4 Disadvantages
Although induction
generators are having above
mentioned advantages, it has
following advanatges.
i) It must be run in parallel with
the synchronous machine.
ii) The load is not deciding the
power factor of induction
generator but the power factor
depends on slip.
1.5 Applications
Because of distinct
superiority of the synchronous
generator, induction
generators are rarely used to
supply commercial power.
One application of
induction generator is in
railway for braking purposes.
When the train is moving down
a gradient, the induction
generators runs above
synchronism. As the torque in
this region is negative, the
braking action is achieved in
the train. In addition to this the
energy generated by induction
generator is given to the line
so that the load on main
generating station is
somewhat relieved. In this
case no complicated control
apparatus is required.
Single Phase Induction
Regulator
The single phase bipolar
regulator is diagramatically
represented in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
With the introduction of
induction regulators initially,
the primary winding was
placed in the slots on the inner
periphery of a stationary
cylindrical core. The
concentrically inside stator
core. But this arrangement
requires large slip rings to be
connected on the low voltage,
large current secondary
winding. But nowadays, the
primary winding is placed on
the movable core while the
secondary winding on the
stationary core as shown in
the Fig.1.
The primary winding
placed on movable member
excited by a.c. supply
produces alternating flux
which induces emf in the
secondary (stator). This emf
59
can be varied by changing the
relative positions of stator and
rotor axes. This emf in the
secondary is maximum when
the axes of two windings
coincide. The relative position
of stator and rotor axes and
emf induced is shown in the
Fig.2.
Fig. 2
From Fig. 2(a), it can be
seen that emf induced in
secondary is maximum. When
the rotor is moved in such a
way that the stator and rotor
axes are displaced from each
other by as shown in the Fig.
2(b), the emf induced in
secondary is zero as the
mutual inductance between
primary and secondary
winding reduces to zero. The
secondary winding in this case
has to carry the load current.
When the rotor moved
further by 90o, again there is
maximum emf E2 in the
secondary winding but with a
direction so as to reduce the
supply voltage as shown in the The compensating winding
Fig. 2(c). the current in the is placed in such a way that its
primary winding I1 is phasor axis is perpendicular to
sum of I2' and Io where Io is no primary, the compensating
load current which has winding provides maximum
magnetizing and core loss mutual inductance with the
component respectively . I2 is secondary winding which
the load current and its phase consequently reduces the
angle with respect to load effective reactance. The
voltage V2 is decided by the compensating winding will not
load connected on the output carry any current when
side. primary and secondary
The single phase windings are co-axial and
regulators are always provided displaced by 180o. In
with short circuited tertiary intermediate positions from 0
winding, called compensating to 180o the mutual inductance
winding, on an axis in between secondary and
quadrature with the primary compensating winding
winding. In the absence of this gradually changes from zero to
compensating winding, the maximum and back to zero
secondary winding wound on again.
the stator would be equivalent Due to compensating
to a high resistance choke coil winding, the variable losses
in series with the supply line. (I2R2 losses) remain constant
The secondary winding under for a given load current and for
this condition will be like a various angular positions of
transformer which has a rotor. The ampere turns for
primary winding but no primary and compensating
secondary winding so as to windings varies with angular
reduce its exciting impedance. displacement of rotor as
The leakage reactance of shown in the Fig. 3(a). The
secondary winding would be primary and short circuited
large so that for a given line compensating winding has
current, a large voltage would some effective resistance and
be required to overcome the I2R2 loss fairly remains
reactance drop and the core constant for variation in rotor
would then be saturated. angle. This is shown in the Fig.
3(a). The variation of ampere
60
turns of primary, secondary
and compensating winding
with angular displacement of
rotor is shown in the Fig. 3(b).

Fig. 4
The angular displacement
of rotor can also be achieved
with the help of a small motor
geared to the vertical shaft of
the rotor of the induction
regulator. The motor driving
Fig. 3(a)
the shaft of the regulator is
automatically controlled with
the help of a voltage relay
which can start, stop or
reverse the motor as per
change in line voltage. The
series coil provided with the
voltage relay is adjusted in
Fig. 3 (b) such a way that it
With uniformly distributed compensates for drop in
windings and sinusoidal flux, voltage which maintains
the degree of increase or constant voltage at the centre
decrease in voltage (boost or of distribution of load.
buck) is proportional to the Three Phase Induction
sine of the angle of Regulators
displacement. The regulation The polyphase (especially
versus the angular three phase) induction
displacement of rotor for a regulators are similarly in
single phase induction construction to that of three
regulator is shown in the Fig. phase slip ring induction
4. motors with wound primary
and secondary windings. The
primary is connected across

61
the lines while the secondary
is connected on the load side
in series with the lines. Here
compensating coils are not
required. Also slip rings are
not used as there is limited
movement of rotor. The
flexible connections are used
on rotor which acts as primary
winding. The connection
diagram is as shown in the Fig.
1.
Fig. 1
The electric and magnetic
circuits are almost similar to
that of slip ring induction
motor. The output voltage can
be varied by changing the
angular position of the rotor
which results in phase shift
but no change in magnitude of
secondary induced emfs. The
currents in the primary
windings produce rotating
magnetic field revolving at
synchronous speed around
the air gap. The emfs induced
62
in the secondary winding are
constant irrespective of
angular positions of stator and
rotor.
The phase of secondary
voltage changes with respect
to that of primary with the
movement of rotor.
Let V1 be the supply
voltage
V2 be the load side
voltage
E2 be the induced
emf in the regulator
The induced emf in the
induction regulator can be
uniformly changed from
V1+V2 to V1-V2 by changing the
rotor position through 180
electrical degrees. This is
shown in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
The above phasor diagram
for the three phases is shown
in the Fig. 3.
 Fig. 3
The limiting voltage
regulation which can be
obtained from the regulator is
as shown in the Fig. 4.
Fig. 4
The rotor can be turned
either in the direction of or
against the direction of
rotating magnetic field
produced by primary. The
output current I2 is displaced
from output voltage V2 by
phase angle or power factor
angle Φ2. Io is no load current
while I2' is current carried by
primary winding. If N1 and
N2 are number of turns on
primary and secondary
windings then,
I2'/I2 = N2/N1 = E2/V1
The total supply current
I1 remains same even after
rotating the rotor in the
direction or against the
dierction of rotating magnetic
field as shown in the Fig. 4.
The current taken by primary
winding changes as per the
63
rotor movement. The phasor
diagram for all the three
phases can be drawn in the
similar manner.
The supply voltage and
output voltage are in phase
when stator and rotor axes are
same and are displaced from
each other by 180o. For all
intermediate positions, angle δ
exist between these two
voltages (viz V1 and V2 ). Such
phase displacement may give
rise to large circulating
currents in certain cases
which can be avoided by using
either a twin regulator or a
bank of single phase units.
A twin regulator consists
of two coupled three phase
regulators each of rating equal
to half the total boost KVA
required. The secondary
windings are connected in
series and rotors of each are
always moved in opposite
directions. This arrangement
opposes the torques produced
due to induction motor action
and neutralizes to each other
considerably which would
otherwise required to be taken
up by the control devices in a
single unit of three phase
induction regulator.
This torque is dependent
on the rotor position, the
power factor of the load and
the load current. If power
factor is unity, the torque is
maximum for maximum buck
or boost position (i.e. stator
and rotor axes separated by
either 180o or 0o) while the
torque is zero for rotor
displacement of 90o at unity
power factor.
The expression for torque
is given by,
T = k V1 I2' cos (θ
± Φ2)
When two induction
regulators are coupled to form
a twin regulator, the effective
torque is proportional to cos(θ
+ Φ2)-cos(θ - Φ2). Thus for
unity power factor load, the
torque always cancel each
other compeletely.
The twin regulator is
diagramatically represented in
the Fig.5.
Fig. 5 Twin type three phase
induction regulator
64
Whenever line voltage is
11 kV or more, direct
connection of line with primary
winding is not possible. In
such case suitable transformer
is used to supply the regulator
primary and inject secondary
emf in main circuit.
The rating of regulator is
product of its full load current,
voltage boost and number of
phases. Consider a 3 ph, 11000
V system with full load line
current of 100 A. To get ±10%
variation, regulator rating is,
Rating of regulator in KVA
= √3x 11 x 10+3 x (10/100) x 100
x 10-3 = 190.52
The regulators are
normally immersed in oil tanks
provided with cooling tubes
closely resembling that of
transformer.
Induction Synchronous Motor
In the application where high
starting torque and constant
speed are desired then
synchronous induction motors
can be used. It has the
advantage of both
synchronous and induction
motors. The synchronous
motor gives constant speed
whereas induction motors can
be started against full load
torque.
Consider a normal slip
ring induction motor having
three phase winding on the
rotor as shown in the Fig..1
The motor is connected to
the exciter which gives d.c.
supply to the rotor through
slip rings. One phase carries
full d.c. current while the other
two carries half of the full load
d.c. current as they are in
parallel. Due to this d.c.
excitation, permanent poles (N
and S) are formed on the rotor.
Initially it is run as slip ring
induction motor with the help
of starting resistance. When
the resistance is cut out the
motor runs with a slip. Now the
connections are changed and
the exciter is connected in
series with the rotor windings
which will remain in the circuit
permanently.
As the motor is running as
induction motor initially high
starting torque (upto twice full
load value) can be developed.
When d.c. excitation is
provided it is pulled into
synchronism and starts
running at constant speed.
Thus synchronous induction
motor provides constant
speed, large starting torque,
low starting current and power
factor correction.
65
Fig. 1
It may be possible that the
a.c. winding is put on the rotor
and the d.c. excitation is
provided on the stator. This
simplifies control gear. It also
gives better facilities for
insulation which permits
higher voltages and lower d.c.
excitations.
The d.c. winding must be
designed in such a way as to
give high m.m.f. with moderate
d.c. excitation power. The
excitation loss must be
distributed evenly over the
winding. The mmf distribution
should be nearly sinusoidal. It
should also provide damping
against hunting and it should
be satisfactory started as an
induction motor.
When the machine is
running as an induction motor
there are induced alternating
currents in the rotor and it
runs below synchronous
speed. When the rotor carries
d.c. currents the rotor field and
hence the rotor must run at
synchronous speed. This
means that slip must be
reduced to zero. But if there is
any departure from this speed
during normal operation then
again induced currents are
there in the rotor. The rotor is
of low resistance so its
windings acts as damping
winding. Hence no separate
damping windings are
required.
When direct current
excitation is provided a switching d.c. excitation also
synchronous torque is quickly
set up. The magnitude of this
torque is Tm sinθ where is the
angle between stator and rotor
field. In addition to this
induction motor torque is also
present which is proportional
to the slip (dθ/dt), so long as
slip is small. There may also
be constant load torque if it is
started on load and finally it
requires torque J (d2 θ/dt2) to
accelerate the rotor.
It can be seen that as long
as θ <π the synchronous
torque acts in opposite
direction to that of load torque
which tends to reduce the
angular velocity dθ/dtof the
slip motion. When π< θ <2π
66
then synchronizing torque acts
in conjuction with load torque
increase the slip i.e. nothing
but angular vlocity dθ/dt and
the motor fails to synchronize.
As the slip motion is
irregular, the motor is
subjected to mechanical
strains. Also there may be
oscillations in current and
power factor. Hence it is
desired that the motor should
be synchronize torque should
be sufficiently larger than load
torque and it should be
opposite of load torque. The
angle obtained at the instant of
affects pulling into step.
Following figures show
oscillograms of rotor current
on application of excitation for
various values of θ. When the
excitation is delayed beyond
60o it is seen that the rotor fails
to synchronize as the
induction motor torque and the
synchronizing torque work in
conjuction and the torque will
be have pulsating value.
 pull out torque which
represents the running of
motor synchronously at peak
load. The first two torques are
closely related with each other
and are the characteristics of
the machine running as
induction motor. The pull out
torque is characteristics when
it is running synchronously.
The characteristics curves for
synchronous induction motor
operating at full load unity p.f.
and at 0.8 p.f. leading is shown
in Fig. 3.
Thus the motor can be
pulled into the synchronism if
excitation is applied at a
position that the rotor will be
occupy when both stator and
rotor fields are synchronized.
1.1 Performance
Characteristics of
synchronous Induction Motors Fig. 3
While studying the When the load exceeds the
performance characteristics of synchronous pull out torque,
synchronous induction motor, the machine losses
three different types of torques synchronism and runs as an
are to be considered. These induction motor which
are viz. the starting torque fluctuation in torque and slip
which indicates capacity of due to d.c. excitation. With
motor to start against load, reduction in load torque the
pull in torque which indicates motor is automatically
the ability of the motor to resynchronized.
maintain operation during 1.2 Advantages of
change over from induction Synchronous Induction Motor
motor to synchronous motor,

67
 Following are the
advantages of synchronous
induction motor over salient
pole synchronous motor.
i) The synchronous induction
motor can start and
synchronize against more than
full load torque which is not
possible with salient pole
synchronous motor which
must be started against light
load.
ii) The exciter required for
synchronous induction motor
is of a smaller capacity as the
gap is not long as compared to
normal salient pole motor.
iii) The rotor winding in
synchronous induction motor
can function as providing
excitation and required
damping. So no separate
damper winding is required.
iv) No separate starting and
control equipments are
required.
1.3 Disadvantages of
Synchronous Induction Motor
i) As the gap is small as
compared to normal salient
pole synchronous motor it will
not give large overload
capacity.
ii) The variation of power
factor is large as compared to
normal synchronous motor.
iii) The speed variation is not
possible for synchronous
68
induction motor as it runs at
constant motor.
1.4 Application of
Synchronous Induction Motor
The application where
mechanical load is to be driven
alongwith phase advancing
properties of synchronous
motors are to be used then use
of synchronous induction
motor is better option. Also the
application where in load
torque is remaining nearly
constant, this motor can be
used.
Circle Diagram : Introduction
In a particular circuit, if one of
the circuit elements is variable,
then depending upon its value,
the circuit characteristics
varies. As the value of the
variable element is changed,
the circuit parameters like
current, power factor, power
losses etc. also change. The
locus of the extremity of the
current phasor, obtained for
various values of a variable
element is called a locus
diagram.
From the equivalent circuit
of an induction motor, the
motor can be treated as series
R-L circuit where the element
resistance of the circuit is
variable which varies as slip s.
Thus for variable load
conditions, the resistance
changes and hence the current
drawn by the motor also
changes. The locus diagram of
such a current phasor is
circular in nature and hence
called circle diagram of a three
Fig. 1
phase induction motor. Using
this diagram, all the
Let I = Current
performance characteristics of
flowing through the circuit
an induction motor like power
Z = Impedance of
factor, efficiency, stator
the circuit
losses, rotor losses, maximum
Z = R + j XL
output, maximum torque etc.
where XL = 2 fL
can be predicted. Thus, a
Now R is variable while
circle diagram is a graphical
XL is fixed.
approach of predetermining
the operation characteristics
of an induction motor.
Let us prove that the locus
diagram obtained for a current
phasor is a circle, for a series The phasor diagram is
R-L circuit with an element R shown in the Fig. 2(a). The
as variable. current I lags voltage V by
Related articles : angle as the circuit is
Circle Diagram for a Series R-L inductive. The impedance
Circuit triangle is shown in the Fig.
Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase 2(b).
Induction Motor
Circle Diagram for a Series R-L
Circuit
Consider a series R-L circuit
with a variable R as shown in Fig. 2
the Fig. 1. It is excited by an
alternating source of V volts. From the impedance
The frequency of the source is triangle we can write,
f Hz. sin Φ = XL/Z
Substituting in the
expression for I,
69
 I = (V/XL) sinΦ
............(1)
This is the equation of a
circle in polar co-ordinates
with a diameter equal to (V/XL).
When the resistance R =0,
then Φ = 90o hence sin Φ = 1.
... I = Im = (V/XL)
This is the maximum value
of current.
As R resistance, the phase
angle decreases thus
decreasing sin. Effectively
current I also decrease. When
R→ ∞ the Φ→0o and current
becomes zero.
The locus obtained of
extremities of a current phasor
plotted for various values of R
is a semicircle. The semicircle
is shown in the Fig. 3. The
voltage axis is taken as
vertical axis as a reference,
with respect to which the
various current phasors are
plotted.
Fig. 3 Circle diagram
The power factors at
various conditions are cosΦ1,
70
cosΦ2 etc. As Φ varies only
from 0oto 90o, the diagram is
semicircle, infact it is a half
part of a circle hence it is
known as circle diagram.
This theory of series R-L
circuit can be easily extended
to a three phase induction
motor.
Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase
Induction Motor
The equivalent circuit of a 3
phase induction motor is
shown in the Fig.1.
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit of a 3
phase induction motor
All the values shown are
per phase values. The circuit is
similar to series R-L circuit.
The reactance X1e is fixed
while the total resistance R1e +
(R2'(1-s)/s) is variable. This is
because the slip s varies as
load varies. The voltage across
the parallel exciting branch is
V1. Hence we can write the
expression for the rotor
current referred to stator as,
I2r' =
V1/√((R1e + RL ) + X1e )
2 2
 Where RL' = R2' (1- Fig. 2 Circle diagram of I2r'
s)/s = Variable equivalent load But the total stator current
resistance I1 per phase is a vector
R1e = R1 + R2' = addition of current Io and I2r'.
Equivalent resistance of motor I1 = Io + I2r'
referred to stator ....... Vector addition
X1e = X1 + X2' = For and induction motor,
Equivalent reactance of motor Io has a fixed value and phase
referred to stator angle Φo which is decided by
Dividing and multiplying its active component and
by, magnetising component Im.
Īo = Ī c + Ī m
As Io has fixed magnitude
... I2r' = and phase, the locus of
Imax sin extremities of I1, which is Io +
....................(1) I2r' is also a circle with a
where sinΦ = X/Z = diameter still as V1/X1e. The
X1e/√((R1e + RL' ) + X1e2)
2
only charge will be that the
and Imax = V1/X1e diameter V1/X1ewill no longer
The I2r' will be at its be along X-axis i.e. current
maximum when R1e + RL' = 0 axis but will get shifted at the
i.e., there exists an ideal short tip of the Io phasor. All the
circuit. Hence current Imax is I2r' phasors are to be drawn
called ideal short circuit from Io phasor to get I1, as has
current of an induction motor. fixed magnitude and phase
The equation (1) angle Φo.
represents equation of a circle Key Point : Thus the current
with as its diameter. Thus locus for a stator current is
locus of extremely of I2r' is a also a semicircle which is truly
circle, as shown in the Fig.2. called circle diagram of a three
phase induction motor. This
diagram once obtained can be
used to predict the
performance of an induction
motor under variable load
conditions.
The circle diagram is
shown in the Fig. 3.
71

Fig. 3 Circle diagram of a three
phase induction motor
Let us see, how to obtain
the data for plotting the circle
diagram.
Obtaining Data to Plot Circle
Diagram
The data required to draw the
circle diagram is obtained by
conducting two testes which
are,
1. No load test or open circuit
test
2. Blocked rotor test or short
circuit test
Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase
Induction Motor
The equivalent circuit of a 3
phase induction motor is
shown in the Fig.1.
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit of a 3
phase induction motor
All the values shown are
per phase values. The circuit is
similar to series R-L circuit.
The reactance X1e is fixed
72
while the total resistance R1e +
(R2'(1-s)/s) is variable. This is
because the slip s varies as
load varies. The voltage across
the parallel exciting branch is
V1. Hence we can write the
expression for the rotor
current referred to stator as,
I2r' =
V1/√((R1e + RL ) + X1e )
2 2
Where RL' = R2' (1-
s)/s = Variable equivalent load
resistance
R1e = R1 + R2' =
Equivalent resistance of motor
referred to stator
X1e = X1 + X2' =
Equivalent reactance of motor
referred to stator
Dividing and multiplying
by,
... I2r' =
Imax sin
....................(1)
where sinΦ = X/Z =
X1e/√((R1e + RL' ) + X1e2)
2
and Imax = V1/X1e
The I2r' will be at its
maximum when R1e + RL' = 0
i.e., there exists an ideal short
circuit. Hence current Imax is
called ideal short circuit
current of an induction motor.
The equation (1)
represents equation of a circle
with as its diameter. Thus
locus of extremely of I2r' is a called circle diagram of a three
circle, as shown in the Fig.2. phase induction motor. This
diagram once obtained can be
used to predict the
performance of an induction
motor under variable load
conditions.
The circle diagram is
shown in the Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 Circle diagram of I2r'
But the total stator current
I1 per phase is a vector
addition of current Io and I2r'.
I1 = Io + I2r'
....... Vector addition
For and induction motor,
Fig. 3 Circle diagram of a three
Io has a fixed value and phase
phase induction motor
angle Φo which is decided by
Let us see, how to obtain
its active component and
the data for plotting the circle
magnetising component Im.
diagram.
Īo = Ī c + Ī m
Obtaining Data to Plot Circle
As Io has fixed magnitude
Diagram
and phase, the locus of
The data required to draw the
extremities of I1, which is Io +
circle diagram is obtained by
I2r' is also a circle with a
conducting two testes which
diameter still as V1/X1e. The
are,
only charge will be that the
1. No load test or open circuit
diameter V1/X1ewill no longer
test
be along X-axis i.e. current
2. Blocked rotor test or short
axis but will get shifted at the
circuit test
tip of the Io phasor. All the
I2r' phasors are to be drawn
from Io phasor to get I1, as has
No Load Test
fixed magnitude and phase
In this test, the motor is made
angle Φo.
to run without any load i.e. no
Key Point : Thus the current
load condition. The speed of
locus for a stator current is
the motor is very close to the
also a semicircle which is truly
synchronous speed but less
73
than the synchronous speed.
The rated voltage is applied to
the stator. The input line
current and total in put power
is measured. The two
wattmeter method is used to
measure the total input power.
The circuit diagram for the test
is shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 No load test
As the motor is on no load,
the power factor is very low
which is less than 0.5 and one
of the two wattmeters reads
negative. It is necessary to
reverse the current coil or
pressure coil connections of
such a wattmeter to get the
positive reading. This reading
must be taken negative for the
further calculations.
The total power input Wo is
the algebraic sum of the two
wattmeter readings. The
observation table is,
The calculations are,
Wo = √3Vo Io cosΦo
This is no load power factor.
74
Thus we are now in a
position to obtain magnitude
and phase angle of no load
current Io, which is required for
the circle diagram.
From the knowledge of
Io and Φo, the parameters of the
equivalent circuit can be
obtained as,
Ic = Io cosΦo = Active
component of no load current
Im = Io sinΦo =
Magnetising component of no
load current
Ro = Vo (per phase) /
Ic (per phase) = No load branch
resistance
Xo = Vo (per phase)/
Im (per phase) = No load branch
resistance
The power input Wo consists of
following losses,
1. Stator copper loss i.e. 3
Io2 R12where Io is no load per
phase current and R1 is stator
resistance per phase.
2. Stator core loss i.e. iron
loss.
3. Friction and windage loss.
The no load rotor current
is very small and hence rotor
copper loss is negligibly small.
The rotor frequency is s times
supply frequency and on no
load it is very small. Rotor iron
losses are proportional to this
frequency and hence are
negligibly small.
Key Point : Under no load
condition, Io is also very small
and in many practical cases it
is also neglected.
Thus Wo consists of stator iron
loss and friction and windage
loss which are consists for all
load condictions. Hence Wo is
said to give fixed losses of the
motor.
... Wo = No load
power input
1.1 Separation No Load Losses
The no load losses are the
constant losses which include
core loss and friction and
windage loss. The separation
between the two can be carried
out by the no load test
conducted from variable
voltage, rated frequency
supply.
When the voltage is
decreased below the rated
value, The core loss reduces
as nearly square of voltage.
The slip does not increase
significantly the friction and
windage loss almost remains
constant.
The voltage is
continuously decreased till the
machine slip suddenly begins
to increase and the motor
tends to stall. At no load, this
75
takes place at a sufficiently
reduced voltage. The graph
showing no load
losses PN.L. versus as shown in
the Fig. is extrapolated to V = 0
which gives friction and
windage loss as iron or core
loss is zero at zero voltage.
Fig. 3
Related articles :
Blocked Rotor Tests
In this test, the rotor is locked
and it is not allowed to rotate.
Thus the slip s = 1 and RL'=
R2' (1-s)/s is zero. If the motor
is slip ring induction motor
then the windings are short
circuited at the slip rings.
The situation is exactly
similar to the short circuit test
on transformer. If under short
circuit condition, if primary is
excited with rated voltage, a
large shot circuit current can
flow which is dangerous from
the windings point of view. So
similar to the transformer
short circuit test, the reduced
voltage (about 10 to 15 % of
rated voltage) just enough
such that stator carries rated
current is applied. Now the
applied voltage Vsc, the input
power Wsc and a short circuit
current Isc are measured.
As RL' = 0, the equivalent
circuit is exactly similar to that
of a transformer and hence the
calculations are similar to that
of short circuit test on a
transformer.
Vsc = Short circuit
reduced voltage (line value)
Isc = Short circuit
current (line value)
Wsc = Short circuit input
power
Now Wsc =
√3Vsc Isc cosΦsc
….Line values
This gives us short circuit
power factor of a motor.
Fig. 1
Now the equivalent circuit
is as shown in the Fig. 1.
76
where Isc = Per phase
value
This is equivalent
resistance referred to stator.
Z1e = Vsc (per
phase)/ Isc (per phase) =
Equivalent impedance referred
to stator.
During this test, the stator
carries rated current hence the
stator copper loss is also
dominant. Similarly the rotor
also carries short circuit
current to produce dominant
rotor copper loss. As the
voltage is reduced, the iron
loss which is proportional to
voltage is negligibly small. The
motor is at standstill hence
mechanical loss i.e. friction
and windage loss is absent.
Hence we can write,
Wsc = Stator
copper loss + Rotor copper
loss
But it is necessary to
obtain short circuit current
when normal voltage is applied
to the motor. This is practically
not possible. But the reduced
voltage test results can be
used to find current ISN which
is short circuit current if
normal voltage is applied.
If VL = Normal rated
voltage (line value)
Vsc = Reduced
short circuit voltage (line
voltage)
where Isc = Short circuit
current at reduced voltage
Thus, ISN = Short
circuit current at normal
voltage
Now power input is
proportional to square of the
current.
So WSN = Short circuit
input power at normal voltage
This cab be obtained as,
But at normal voltage core
loss can not be negligible
hence,
WSN = Core loss + Stator
and rotor copper loss
Construction of Circle Diagram
By using the data obtained
from the no load test and the
blocked rotor test, the circle
diagram can be drawn using
the following steps :
77
Step 1 : Take reference phasor
V as vertical (Y-axis).
Step 2 : Select suitable current
scale such that diameter of
circle is about 20 to 30 cm.
Step3 : From no load test,
Io and are Φo obtained. Draw
vector Io, lagging V by angle
Φo. This is the line OO' as
shown in the Fig. 1.
Step 4 : Draw horizontal line
through extremity of Io i.e. O',
parallel to horizontal axis.
Step 5 : Draw the current
ISN calculated from Isc with the
same scale, lagging V by angle
Φsc, from the origin O. This is
phasor OA as shown in the
Fig. 1.
Step 6 : Join O'A is called
output line.
Step 7 : Draw a perpendicular
bisector of O'A. Extend it to
meet line O'B at point C. This
is the centre of the circle.
Step 8 : Draw the circle, with C
as a center and radius equal to
O'C. This meets the horizontal
line drawn from O' at B as
shown in the Fig. 1.
Step 9: Draw the
perpendicular from point A on
the horizontal axis, to meet
O'B line at F and meet
horizontal axis at D.
Step 10 : Torque line.
The torque line separates
stator and rotor copper losses.
 Note that as voltage axis is
vertical, all the vertical
distances are proportional to
active components of currents
or power inputs, if measured at
appropriate scale.
Thus the vertical distance
AD represents power input at
short circuit i.e. WSN, now
which consists of core loss
and stator, rotor copper
losses.
Now FD = O'G
= Fixed loss
Where O'G is drawn
perpendicular from O' on
horizontal axis. This
represents power input on no
load i.e. fixed loss. Fig. 1
Hence AF α Sum of Power scale : As AD
stator and rotor copper losses represents WSN i.e. power input
Then point E can be on short circuit at normal
located as, voltage, the power scale can
AE/EF = Rotor copper loss / be obtained as,
Stator copper loss Power scale = WSN/l(AD)
The line O'E under this W/cm
condition is called torque line. where l(AD) = Distance AD
in cm
Location of Point E : In a slip
ring induction motor, the
stator resistance per phase
R1 and rotor resistance per
phase R2 can be easily
measured. Similarly by
introducing ammeters in stator
and rotor circuit, the currents
I1 and I2 also can be measured.

78
... K = I1/I2 =
Transformation ratio
Now AF/EF = Rotor copper
loss / Stator copper loss =
(I22R2)/(I12R1) = (R2/R2)(I22/I12) =
(R2/R2).(1/K2)
But R2'= R2/K2 = Rotor
resistance referred to stator
... AE/EF = R2'/R1
Thus point E can be
obtained by dividing line AF in
the ratio R2' to R1.
In a squirrel cage motor, the
stator resistance can be
measured by conducting
resistance tset.
... Stator copper loss =
2
3ISN R1 where ISN is phase
value.
Neglecting core loss,
WSN = Stator Cu loss + Rotor
Cu loss
... Rotor copper loss = WSN -
3ISN2 R1
... AE/EF = (WSN -
3ISN R1)/(3ISN2 R1)
2 Slip s = Rotor Cu loss =
Dividing line AF in this
ratio, the point E can be
obtained and hence O'E
represents torque line.
1.1 Predicting Performance
Form Circle Diagram
Let motor is running by
taking a current OP as shown
in the Fig. 1. The various
performance parameters can
be obtained from the circle
diagram at that load condition.
79
Draw perpendicular from
point P to meet output line at
Q, torque line at R, the base
line at S and horizontal axis at
T.
We know the power scale
as obtained earlier.
Using the power scale and
various distances, the values
of the performance parameters
can be obtained as,
Total motor input = PT x
Power scale
Fixed loss = ST x power
scale
Stator copper loss = SR x
power scale
Rotor copper loss = QR x
power scale
Total loss = QT x power
scale
Rotor output = PQ x power
scale
Rotor input = PQ + QR = PR
x power scale
QR/PR
Power factor cos = PT/OP
Motor efficiency = Output /
Input = PQ/PT
Rotor efficiency = Rotor
output / Rotor input = PQ/PR
Rotor output / Rotor input =
1 - s = N/Ns = PQ/PR
The torque is the rotor
input in synchronous watts.
1.2 Maximum Quantities
 The maximum values of
various parameters can also
be obtained by using circle
diagram.
1. Maximum Output : Draw a
line parallel to O'A and is also
tangent to the circle at point M.
The point M can also be
obtained by extending the
perpendicular drawn from C on
O'A to meet the circle at M.
Then the maximum output is
given by l(MN) at the power
scale. This is shown in the Fig.
1.
2. Maximum Input : It occurs at
the highest point on the circle
i.e. at point L. At this point,
tangent to the circle is
horizontal. The maximum input
given l(LL') at the power scale.
3. Maximum Torque : Draw a
line parallel to the torque line
and is also tangent to the
circle at point J. The point J
can also be obtained by
drawing perpendicular from C
on torque line and extending it
to meet circle at point J.
The l(JK) represents maximum
torque in synchronous watts at
the power scale. This torque is
also called stalling torque or
pull out torque.
4. Maximum Power Factor :
Draw a line tangent to the
circle from the origin O,
meeting circle at point H. Draw
80
a perpendicular from H on
horizontal axis till it meets it at
point I. Then angle OHI gives
angle corresponding to
maximum power factor angle.
... Maximum p.f. = cos ∟{OHI}
= HI/OH
5. Starting Torque : The torque
is proportional to the rotor
input. At s = 1, rotor input is
equal to rotor copper loss
i.e. l(AE).
... Tstart = l(AE) x Power
scale
....in
synchronous watts
1.3 Full load Condition
The full load motor output
is given on the name plates in
watts or h.p. Calculates the
distance corresponding to the
full load output using the
power scale.
Then extend AD upwards
from A onwards, equal to the
distance corresponding to full
load output, say A'. Draw
parallel to the output line O'A
from A' to meet the circle at
point P'. This is the point
corresponding to the full load
condition, as shown in the Fig.
2.

Fig. 2 Locating full load point
Once point P' is known,
the other performance
parameters can be obtained
easily as discussed above.
Load Test on Three Phase
Induction Motor
By conducting the load test on
three phase induction motor,
the performance of the motor
viz. slip, power factor, input,
efficiency etc. at various loads
can be studied.
The induction motor is
located by any of the following
methods :
1. Brake test
2. By connecting a d.c.
generator
In case of loading by
connecting a d.c. generator,
the induction motor is
connected to a d.c. generator.
The generator is loaded by a
lamp bank. Thus inturn an
induction motor is loaded. The
Fig. 1 shows the experimental
set up for conducting load test
81
on three phase induction
motor using a d.c. generator.
Fig. 1 Load test on three phase
induction motor
On induction motor side,
ammeter reads line current
and voltmeter reads line
voltage VL. The two wattmeters
are connected as per the two
wattmeter method hence,
Pin = Power input =
W1 + W 2
On generator side, the
ammeter reads load current
and voltmeter reads terminal
voltage Vt.
By varying the lamp bank,
load on generator i.e. load on
induction motor can be varied.
The induction motor can be
star or delta connected and
can be squirrel cage or slip
ring type. The speed readings
are taken using tachometer.
The load is increased till
induction motor carries rated
line current. The following
observation table is prepared,

Calculations : The output
of induction motor is input to a
d.c. generator.
Output of d.c. generator =
Vt x IL W
Assume ηgen = 80 %
.
. . Pout of induction motor
= Pin of d.c. generator
= Pout of d.c. generator / ηgen =
(Vt IL )/ηgen W
Pin of induction motor =
W1 + W 2 W
cos Φ = Pin/(√3VL IL )= (W1 +
W2)/(√3VL IL) = power factor
where Ns = 120f / P
for a given motor
For various loads above
parameters are obtained.
As the load on the
induction motor increases,
1. The output of motor
increases.
2. The power factor increases.
3. The efficiency increase upto
certain load and then
decreases.
82
4. The speed decreases
marginally.
5. The slip increases.
6. The input current increases.
The various performance
characteristics can be
obtained as shown in the Fig.
2.
Fig. 2
The graphs indicate the
behaviour of various
performance parameters
against output of the induction
motor and not shown to the
scale.
Necessity of Starter
In a three phase induction
motor, the magnitude of an
induced e.m.f. in the rotor
circuit depends on the slip of
the induction motor. This
induced e.m.f. effectively
decides the magnitude of the
rotor current. The rotor current
in the running condition is
given by,

But at start, the speed of
the motor is zero and slip is at
its maximum i.e. unity. So
magnitude of rotor induced
e.m.f. is very large at start. As
rotor conductors are short
circuited, the large induced
e.m.f. circulates very high
current through rotor at start.
The condition is exactly
similar to a transformer with
short circuited secondary.
Such a transformer when
excited by a rated voltage,
circulates very high current
through short circuited
secondary. As secondary
current is large, the primary
also draws very high current
from the supply.
Similarly in a three phase
induction motor, when rotor
current is high, consequently
the stator draws a very high
current from the supply.
Similarly in a three phase
induction motor, when rotor
current is high, consequently
the stator draws a very high
current from the supply. This
current can be of the order of 5
to 8 times the full load current,
at start.
Due to such heavy inrush
current at start there is
possibility of damage of the
motor winding. Similarly such
83
sudden inrush of current
causes large line voltage drop.
Thus other appliances
connected to the same line
may be subjected to voltage
spikes which may affect their
working. To avoid such
effects, it is necessary to limit
the current drawn by the motor
at start. The starter is a device
which is basically used to limit
high starting current by
supplying reduced voltage to
the motor at the limit of
starting. Such a reduced
voltage is applied only for
short period and once rotor
gets accelerated, full normal
rated voltage is applied.
Not only the starter limits
the starting current but also
provides the protection to the
induction motor against
overloading loading and low
voltage situations. The
protection against single
phasing is also provided by
the starter. The induction
motor having rating below 5
h.p. can withstand starting
currents hence such motors
can be started directly on line.
But such motors also need
overload, single phasing and
low voltage protection which is
provided by a starter.
 Thus all the three phase
induction motors need some
or the other type of starter.
1.1 Types of Starters
From the expression of
rotor current it can be seen
that the current at start can be
controlled by reducing
E2 which is possible by
supplying reduced voltage at
start or by increasing the rotor
resistance R2 at start. The
second method is possible
only on case of slip ring
induction motors. The various
types of starters based on the
above two methods of
reducing the starting current
are,
1. Stator resistance starter
2. Autotransfomer starter
3. Star-delta starter
4. Rotor resistance starter
5. Direct on line starter
Stator Resistance Starter
In order to apply the reduced
voltage to the stator of the
induction motor, three
resistances are are added in
series with each phase of the
stator winding. Initially the
resistances are kept maximum
in the circuit. Due to its large
voltage gets dropped across
the resistances. Hence a
reduced voltage gets applied
to the stator which reduces the
high starting current. The
84
schematic diagram showing
stator resistances is shown in
the Fig..1.
Fig. 1 Stator Resistance starter
When the motor starts
running, the resistances are
gradually cut-off from the
stator circuit. When the
resistances are entirely
removed from the stator circuit
i.e. rheostats in RUN position
then rated voltage gets applied
to the stator. Motor runs with
normal speed.
The starter is simple in
construction and cheap. It can
be used for both star and delta
connected stator. But there are
large power losses due to
resistances. Also the starting
torque of the motor reduces
due to reduced voltage applied
to the stator.
1.1 Relation between Tst and
TF.L.
We know, P2 = T x ωs
where T is torque
produced and P2 is the rotor
input at Ns.
... T α P2
But P2 = Pc/s where
Pc = Total copper loss
= (3I2r2R2)/s Note : As x < 1, it can be
... T α I2r2/s seen that the starting torque
But rotor current I2r and reduces by the fraction x2 due
stator current are related to to the stator resistance starter.
each other through Autotransformer Starter
transformer action. A three phase star connected
autotransformer can be used
... T α I12 /s to reduce the voltage applied
where I1 = Stator current to the stator. Such a starter is
At start, s = 1, T = called an autotransformer
Tst and I1 = Ist starter. The schematic diagram
... Tst α
Ist2 of autotransformer starter. The
........(1) schematic diagram of
When stator resistance autotransformer starter is
starter is used, the factory by shown in the Fig..1.
which stator voltage reduces
is say x < 1. The starting
current is proportional to to
this factor x. So if Isc is the
normal current drawn under
full rated voltage condition at
start then,
Ist = x
Isc
............(2)
... Tst α Fig. 1 Autotransformer starter
(xIsc)2
..........(3) It consists of a suitable
But TF.L. α change over switch.
(IF.L.)2/sf where sf = Full load When the switch is in the
slip ........(4) start position, the stator
Taking ratio of (3) and (4), winding is supplied with
reduced voltage. This can be

85
controlled by tappings Let x be the fractional
provided with autotransformer. percentage tappings used for
The reduction in applied an autotransformer to apply
voltage by the fractional reduced voltage to the stator.
percentage tappings x, used So if, Isc = Starting
for an autotransformer is motor current at rated voltage
shown in the Fig. 2. and Ist = Starting
motor current with starter
then Ist = x Isc
.....Motor side
............(1)
But there is exists a fixed
ratio between starting current
drawn from supply Ist (supply)
and starting moor current
Ist (motor) due to
autotransformer, as shown in
the Fig.3.
Fig.2 Use of auotransformer to
reduce voltage at start

When motor gathers 80%

of the normal speed, the
change over switch is thrown
into run position. Fig. 3
Due to this, rated voltage Autotransformer ratio x =
gets applied to stator winding. Ist (supply)/ Ist (motor)
The motor starts rotating with Ist (supply) = x
normal speed. Changing of Ist (motor)
switch is done automatically .............(2)
by using relays. The power Substituting Ist (motor)
loss is much less in this type from equation (1),
of starting. It can be used for ... Ist (supply) = x . x Isc =
both star and delta connected x2 Isc
motors. But it is expensive ............(3)
than stator resistance starter. Now
1.1 Relation between Tst and
Tst α Ist2 (motor) α x2 Isc2
TF.L.

86
and TF.L. α (IF.L.)2/sf
Note : Thus starting
torque reduces by x2 where x
is the transformer ratio.
Example : A squirrel cage
induction motor has a full load
slip of 5%. The motor starting
current at rated voltage is 6
times its full load current. Find
the tapping on the
autotransformer starter which
would give full load torque at
start. Whet would then be the
supply starting current ?
Solution : Starting current at
rated voltage = Isc
... Isc = 6 IF.L. and sf = 5%
= 0.05
Let x = Tapping on
autotransformer
TF.L. = Tst
1 = x2 (6/1)2 x 0.05
x = 0.7453
Thus 74.53% tapping is
required
Now Ist (supply) = x
Ist (motor) = x (xIsc) = x2 Isc
= x2 x 6 =
3.33 IF.L.
Thus supply starting
87
current is 3.33 times the full
load current.
Star - Delta Starter
This is the cheapest starter of
all and hence used very
commonly for the induction
motors. It uses tripple pole
double throw (TPDT) switch.
The switch connects the stator
winding in star at start. Hence
per phase voltage gets
reduced by the factor 1/√3. Due
to this reduced voltage, the
starting current is limited.
When the switch is thrown
on other side, the winding gets
connected in delta, across the
supply. So it gets normal rated
voltage. The windings are
connected in delta when motor
gathers sufficient speed.
The arrangement of star-
delta starter is shown in the
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Star-delta starter
The operation of the
switch can be automatic by
using relays which ensures
that motor will not start with
the switch in Run position. The
cheapest of all and
maintenance free operation are
the two important advantages
of this starter. While its
limitations are, it is suitable for
normal delta connected
motors and the factor by which
voltage changes is 1/√3 which
can not be changed.
1.1 Ratio of Tst to TF.L.
We have seen in case of
autotransformer that if x is the
factor by which the voltage is
reduced then,
Now the factor x in this
type of starter is 1/√3.
88
where Isc = Starting phase
current when delta connection
with rated voltage
IF.L. = Full load phase
current when delta connection
Example : A three phase
induction motor has a ratio of
maximum torque to full load
torque as 2.5 : 1. Determine the
ratio of starting torque to full
load torque if star-delta starter
is used. The rotor resistance
and standstill reactance per
phase are 0.4 and 4
respectively.
Solution : The given ratio is,
Tm /TF.L. = 2.5
The rotor values are,
R2 = 0.4Ω X2 = 4Ω
Now
Tm = (kE22)/(2X2)
... TF.L. = Tm/2.5 = (kE22)/(5X2)
= (kE22)/20
...........(1)
Now Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 +
X 22)
With star-delta starter
E2 = E2/√3
Taking ratio of (2) and (1),
Rotor Resistance Starter
To limit the rotor current which
consequently reduces the
current drawn by the motor
from the supply, the resistance
can be inserted in the rotor
circuit at start. This addition of
the resistance in rotor in the
form of 3 phase star connected
rheostat. The arrangement is
shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Rotor resistance starter
The external resistance is
inserted in each phase of the
rotor winding through slip ring
and brush assembly. Initially
maximum resistance is in the
circuit. As motor gather speed,
the resistance is gradually cut-
off. The operation may be
manual or automatic.
We have seen that the
starting torque is proportional
to the rotor resistance. Hence
important advantage of this
method is not only the starting
current is limited but starting
torque of the motor also gets
improved.
89
Note : The only limitation
of the starter that it can be
used only for slip ring
induction motors as in squirrel
cage motors, the rotor is
permanently short circuited.
1.1 Calculation of Steps of
Rotor Resistance Starter
The calculation of steps of
rotor resistance starter is
based on the assumptions
that,
1. The motor starts against a
constant torque
2. The rotor current fluctuates
between two fixed values, a
maximum and a minimum,
denoted as I2max and I2min.
The Fig. 2, shows a single
phase of a three phase of a
three phase rheostat to be
inserted in the rotor. The
starter has n steps, equally
divided into the section AB.
The contact point after each
step is called stud. The total
resistances upto each stud
from the star point of star
connected rotor as denoted as
R1, R2, ....Rn-1.

Fig. 2 Steps of rotor resistance
starter
It consists of rotor
resistance r2 and the external
resistances Rx1, Rx2...etc. At
the time of reaching to the next
step, current is maximum .
Then motor gathers speed, slip
reduces and hence while
leaving a stud, the current is
I2min.
Let E2 = Standstill rotor
e.m.f. per phase
When handle is moved to
stud 1, the current is maximum
given by,
90
where s1 = Slip at start = 1
while moving to stud 2, the
current reduces to I2min given
by,
Just reaching to stud 2,
the current again increases to
I2min as the part of external
resistance Rx1 gets cut-off.
While leaving stud 2, the
slip changes to s3 and current
again reduces to,
While just reaching to stud
3, Rx2 gets cut off completely
and current again increases to,
Hence at the last nth stud,
the maximum current is,
where sn = Slip under
normal running condition
At nth stud no external
resistance is in series with
rotor.
 In this way the various
steps of rotor resistance
starter can be calculated.
Direct on Load Line Starter
(D.O.L.)
In case of small capacity
motors having rating less than
5 h.p., the starting current is
not very high and such motors
From (1) and (2) we can can withstand such starting
write, current without any starter.
Thus there is no need to
reduce applied voltage, to
where K = Constant control the starting current.
From (1), R1 = s1r2/sn but Such motors use a type of
s1 = 1 at start starter which is used to
connect stator directly to the
Once R1 is known, other supply lines without any
resistances can be calculated. reduction in voltage. Hence the
R2 = KR1, R3 = K R2 = starter is known as direct on
2
KKR1 = K R1 line starter.
R4 = K3 R1, .... .... r2 = Kn- Though this starter does
1 R
1
not reduce the applied voltage,
From last expression of r2, it is used because it protects
the motor motor from various
severe abnormal conditions
like over loading, low voltage,
where n = Number of single phasing etc.
starter studs The Fig. 2 shows the
Thus the resistances of arrangement of various
various sections can be components in direct on line
obtained as, starter.

91

Fig.1 D.O.L. starter
The NO contact is
normally open and NC is
normally closed. At start, NO is
pushed for fraction of second
due to which coil gets
energized and attracts the
contactor. So stator directly
gets supply. The additional
contact provided, ensures that
as long as supply is ON, the
coil gets supply and keeps
contactor in ON position.
When NC is pressed, the coil
circuit gets opened due to
which coil gets de-energized
and motor gets switched OFF
from the supply.
Under over load condition,
current drawn by the motor
increases due to which is an
excessive heat produced,
which increases temperature
beyond limit. Thermal relays
get opened due to high
temperature, protecting the
motor from overload
conditions.
92
Soft Starters
In some applications it is
necessary to control starting
torque and speed steplessly
i.e. smoothly. In textile
machines such type of control
is necessary to avoid breaking
of threads. Such a starting
arrangement is called soft
starter.
The thyristor voltage
controller method is
commonly used in the soft
starter. The Fig. 1 shows such
a thyristor voltage controller
scheme used to obtain the soft
starter.
Fig. 1 Thyristors voltage
controller used for soft start
T1, T1', T2, T2' and T3, T3' are
the thyristors. Two thyristors
are connected in antiparallel in
each line. The thyristors are
the triacs. To control the
voltage applied to the stator,
the firing angle of the triac is
controlled. For the scheme
shown, the firing sequence is
T1, T3', T2, T1', T3 and T2'. The
interval between the
o
successive firing is 60 while
the firing frequency is six
times the input frequency.
When T3' is fired, T1 and
T3' conduct for. Then T2 is fired
and T3' and T2 conduct for next
60o. The cycle is repeated.
Each triac conducts for 120o,
once fired. As long as
thyristors is fired, it conducts
and correspondingly voltage is
variable to the stator. Thus by
controlling the firing angle, the
voltage applied to the motor
can be controlled steplessly.
The rotor induced e.m.f.
E2 depends on the stator
voltage while torque depends
on E22. Thus by controlling
stator voltage smoothly, the
torque can be controlled
smoothly while speed also
gets controlled smoothly from
zero to the synchronous
speed. Due to reduced voltage
applied the starting current is
small and need of the starter is
eliminated. Hence the
arrangement is called soft
starter.
A three phase saturable
reactor in series with a stator
also can be used for soft start.
The saturable reactor has d.c.
93
control winding. The reactance
of the saturable reactor
depends on the current
through the d.c. control
winding. Thus by smoothly
controlling the current through
the d.c. control winding, the
reactance of saturable reactor
can be controlled smoothly.
When the reactance is very
high at start, starting torque is
almost zero. Increasing the
control winding current, the
reactance decreases and the
torque increases. Thus the
motor starts without any jerk
and soft stepless starting of
motor is achieved.
1.1 Advantage of soft start
The various advantages of
soft start are,
1. Absence of torque pulsation
hence no jerks while starting.
2. Motor accelerates smoothly.
3. Due to use of electronic
devices like thyristors the
weight, size and cost is low.
4. The simpler control is
possible.
5. he efficient operation is
possible.
Speed Control of Three Phase
Induction Motor
A three phase induction motor
is practically a constant speed
motor like a d.c. shunt motor.
But the speed of d.c. shunt
motor can be varied smoothly
just by using simple rheostats.
This maintains the speed
regulation and efficiency of
d.c. shunt motor. But in case
of three phase induction
motors it is very difficult to
achieve smooth speed control.
And if the speed control is
achieved by some means, the
performance of the induction
motor in terms of its power
factor, efficiency etc. gets
adversely affected.
For the induction motor
we know that,
From this expression it
can be seen that the speed of
induction motor can be
changed either by changing its
synchronous speed or by
changing the slip s.
Similarly torque produced
in case of three phase
induction motor is given by,
N = Ns (1 -
s)
So as the parameters like
R2, E2 are changed then to
keep the torque constant for
constant load condition, motor
reacts by change in its slip.
Effectively its speed changes.
Thus speed of the
induction motor can be
94
controlled by basically two
methods :
1. From stator side and
2. From rotor side
From stator side, it
includes following methods :
a. Supply frequency control to
control Ns, called V / f control.
b. Supply voltage control.
c. Controlling number of stator
poles to control Ns.
d. Adding rheostats in stator
circuit.
From rotor side, it includes
following methods :
a. Adding external resistance
in the rotor circuit.
b. Cascade control.
c. Injecting slip frequency
voltage into the rotor circuit.
Supply Frequency Control or V
/ f Control
The synchronous speed is
given by,
Ns = 120f / P
Thus by controlling the
supply frequency smoothly,
the synchronous speed can be
controlled over a wide range.
This gives smooth speed
control of an induction motor.
But the expression for the
air gap flux is given by,
This is according to the
e.m.f. equation of a
transformer where,
 K1 = Stator winding can be achieved by an
constant electronic scheme using
Tph1 = Stator turns per converter and inverter
phase circuitry. The scheme is shown
V = Supply voltage in the Fig. 1.
f = Supply frequency The normal supply
It can be seen from this available is constant voltage
expression that if the supply constant frequency a.c.
frequency f is changed, the supply. The converter converts
value of air gap flux also gets this supply into a d.c. supply.
affected. This may result into This d.c. supply is then given
saturation of stator and rotor to the inverter. The inverter is
cores. Such a saturation leads a device which converts d.c.
to the sharp increase in the supply, to variable voltage
(magnetisation) no load variable frequency a.c. supply
current of the motor. Hence it which is required to keep V / f
is necessary to maintain air ratio constant. By selecting the
gap flux constant when supply proper frequency and
frequency f is changed. maintaining V / f constant,
To achieve this, it can be smooth speed control of the
seen from the above induction motor is possible.
expression that along with f, V If f is the normal working
also must be changed so as to frequency then the Fig. 2
keep (V/f) ratio constant. This shows the torque-slip
ensures constant air gap flux characteristics for the
giving speed control without frequency f1 > f and f2 < f i.e. for
affecting the performance of frequencies above and below
the motor. Hence this method the normal frequency.
is called V / f control.

Fig. 1 Electronic scheme for

V/f control
Hence in this method, the
supply to the induction motor
required is variable voltage
variable frequency supply and
Fig. 2 Torque-slip
95
 characteristics with variable f
and constant (V/f)
Another disadvantages of
this method is that the supply
obtained can not be used to
supply other devices which
require constant voltage.
Hence an individual scheme
for a separate motor is
required which makes it costly.
Supply Voltage Control
We know that, T α (k s
E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
Now E2, the rotor induced
e.m.f. at standstill depends on
the supply voltage V.
... E2 α V
Also for low slip region,
which is operating region of
the induction motor, (s
2
X2) <<R2and hence can be
neglected.
... T α ( s
E22 R2)/R22) α sV2 for
constant R2
Now if supply voltage is
reduced below rated value, as
per above equation torque
produced also decreases. But
to supply the same load it is
necessary to develope same
torque hence value of slip
increases so that torque
produced remains same. Slip
increases means motor reacts
96
by running at lower speed, to
decrease in supply voltage. So
motor produces the required
load torque at a lower speed.
The speed-torque
characteristics for the motor
using supply voltage control
are shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Speed-torque curves for
motor with voltage control
But in this method, due to
reduction in voltage, current
drawn by the motor increases.
Large change in voltage for
small change in speed is
required is the biggest
disadvantage. Due to
increased current, the motor
may get overheated. Additional
voltage changing equipment is
necessary. Hence this method
is rarely used in practice.
Motors driving fan type of
loads use this method of
speed control. Due to reduced
voltage, E2 decreases,
decreasing the value of
maximum torque too.
Controlling Number of Poles
 The method is called pole
changing method of
controlling the speed. In this
method, it is possible to have
one, two or four speeds in
steps, by the changing the
number of stator poles. A
continuous smooth speed
control is not possible by this
method.
The stator poles can be
changed by following methods
: flowing in one direction only.
1. Consequent poles method
2. Multiple stator winding
method
3. Pole amplitude modulation
method.
1.1 Consequent Poles Method
In this method,
connections of the stator
winding are changes with the
help of simple switching. Due
to this, the number of stator
poles get changed in the ratio
2 : 1. Hence either of the two
97
synchronous speed can be
selected.
Consider the pole
formation due to single phase
of a three phase winding, as
shown in the Fig.1. There are
three tapping points to the
stator winding. The supply is
given to two of them and third
is kept open.
It can be seen that current
in all the parts of stator coil is
Due to this, 8 poles get formed
as shown in the Fig. 1. So
synchronous speed possible
with this arrangement with 50
Hz frequency is Ns = 750 r.p.m.
Fig.1 Pole winding
If now the two terminals to
which supply was given either
are joined together and supply
is given between this common
point and the open third
terminal, the poles are formed
as shown in the Fig. 2.
4 pole winding
It can be seen that the
direction of current through
remaining two. Thus upward So in all four different speeds
direction is forming say S pole can be obtained.
and downward say N. it can be The various limitations of
observed that in this case only this method are,
4 poles are formed. So the 1. Can be applied to only
synchronous speed possible squirrel cage motor.
is 1500 r.p.m. for 50 Hz 2. Smooth speed control is not
frequency. possible. Only step changes in
Thus series/parallel speed are possible.
arrangements of coils can 3. Two different stator
produce the poles in the ratio 2 windings are required to be
: 1. But the speed change is in wound which increases the
step and smooth speed control cost of the motor.
is not possible. Similarly the 4. Complicated from the
method can be used only for design point of view.
the squirrel cage type motors Typical speed-torque
as squirrel rotor adjusts itself characteristics of pole
to same number of poles as changing induction motor are
stator which is not the case in shown in the Fig. 3.
slip ring induction motor.
1.1 Multiple Stator Winding
Method
In this method instead of
one winding, two separate
stator winding are placed in
the stator core. he windings
are placed in the stator slots
Fig. 3
only but are electrically
isolated from each other. Each
1.2 Pole Amplitude Modulation
winding is divided into coils to
Method
which, pole changing with
The basic disadvantage of
consequent poles, facility is
other methods which is
provided.
nonavailability of smooth
Thus giving supply to one
speed control, is eliminated by
of the two windings and using
this method. The ratio of two
switching arrangement, two
speeds in this method, need
speeds can be achieved. Same
not be necessarily 2 : 1.
is true for other stator winding.
98
 The basic principle of this
method is the modulation of
two sinusoidally varying m.m.f.
waves, with different number
of poles.
Consider sinusoidally
distributed m.m.f. wave one
phase of the stator as,
where P = Number of
poles
and θ = Mechanical
angle
This wave is modulated by
another sinusoidal m.m.f. wave
having PM number of poles,
expressed as,
The resultant m.m.f. wave
after modulation is,
Thus the resultant wave is
equivalent to two m.m.f. waves
having two separate number of
poles as,
P1 = P - PM
and P2 = P + PM
This is called suppressed
carrier modulation.
If we succeed in
suppressing one of the two
poles then there exists rotating
99
magnetic field with number of
poles as P1 or P2. And while
suppressing, the method can
be used such that the resultant
number of poles retained is as
required from the speed point
of view.
Now if the three stator
windings are placed such that
angle between their phase
axes is (2π/3)r radians where r
is an integer which is not
divisible by 3 then the phase
axes angle for modulated
poles is given by,
Now to suppress one of
the two poles, the angle
between its phases axes must
be multiple of 2π.
So if r and n are selected
so as to satisfy one of the
above relations, then either
P1 or P2 get suppressed and
field corresponding to other
pole exists. So speeds
corresponding to P poles
without modulation and
corresponding to either P1 or
P2 with modulation, can be
achieved. The negative sign in
equation (1), gives
suppression of P2 and
existence of P2 = P + PM while
positive sign in equation (1),
gives suppression P2 of and
existence of P1 = P - PM poles.
For example, stator has 8
poles while values of n and r
are selected as 1 and 4
respectively. r is not divisible
by 3.
Let poles of modulation
function PM are 2.
From equation (1) we can
see that,
Thus P1 gets suppressed
and we get poles P2 = P + PM =
10.
So two speeds
corresponding to P and P2 can
be obtained.
Similarly if the poles of
modulation function PM are 4
and n and r are selected as 1
and 2 then,
In this case gets
suppressed and we get poles
P1 = P - PM = 4.
This method is advantages
100
as it reduced the size to a
great extent and hence cost of
the machine.
The limitation that it can
be used only for squirrel cage
motors still continues.
Practically the rectangular
wave is used for modulation.
This is achieved by dividing
stator coil into groups and
then by dropping alternate
group, other groups are
connected in series
opposition.
Adding Rheostats in Stator
Circuit
We have seen that the reduced
voltage can be applied to the
stator by adding the rheostats
in the stator circuit. The
arrangement is shown in the
Fig. 1. The part of the voltage
gets dropped across the
resistances and reduced
voltage gets applied across
the stator.
The reduction in stator
voltage causes reduction in
the speed. The rheostats can
be varied as per the required
change in speed. But the entire
line current flows through the
rheostats and hence there are
large power losses. The
method is not efficient from
speed control point of view
hence used as a starter rather
than as a speed control increases i.e. the speed of the
method. motor decreases. Thus by
increasing the rotor resistance
R2, speeds below normal value
can be achieved. Another
advantage of this method is
that the starting torque of the
motor increases proportional
to rotor resistance.
The Fig. 1 shows the
torque-speed curves for rotor
resistance control.
But this method has
Fig. 1 Stator resistance control following disadvantages :
Adding External Resistance in 1. The large speed changes are
Rotor Circuit not possible. This is because
We know, T α (s for large speed change, large
E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2) resistance is required to be
For low slip region (s introduced in rotor which
2
X2) << R2 and can be causes large rotor copper loss
neglected and for constant due to reduce the efficiency.
supply voltage is also 2. The method can not be used
constant. for the squirrel cage induction
motors.
... T α ( s R2)/R22 α 3. The speeds above the
s/R22 normal values can not be
Thus if the rotor resistance obtained.
is increased, the torque 4. Large power losses occur
produced decreases. But when due to large loss.
the load on the motor is same, 5. Sufficient cooling
motor has to supply same arrangements are required
torque as load demands. So which make the external
motor reacts by increasing its rheostats bulky be expensive.
slip to compensate decreases 6. Due to large power losses,
in T due to R2 and maintains efficiency is low.
the load torque constant. So Thus the method is rarely
due tot additional rotor used in the practice.
resistance R2, motor slip

101

Fig. 1
Cacade Control
This method is also called
concatenation or tandom
operation of the induction
motors.
In this method, two
induction motors are mounted
on the same shaft. One of the
two motors must be of slip
ring type which is called main
motor. The second motor is
called auxiliary motor. The
arrangement is shown in the
Fig. 1. The auxiliary motor can
be slip ring type or squirrel
cage type.
Fig. 1 Cascade control pf two
induction motor
The stator of the main
motor is connected to the
three phase supply. While the
supply of the auxiliary motor is
102
derived at a slip frequency
from the slip rings of the main
motor. This is called cascading
of the motors. If the torque
produced by both act in the
same direction, cascading is
called cumulative cascading. If
torques produced are in
opposite direction, cascading
is called differential cascading.
Now let, PA = Number of
poles of main motor
PB = Number of
poles of auxiliary motor
f = Supply
frequency
NSA = 120f / PA
N = Speed of the
set
The speed N is same for
both the motors as motors are
mounted on the same shaft.
sA = ( NSA -
N)/NSA
Now fA = Frequency
of rotor induced e.m.f. of
motor A
fA = sA f .... as
fr = s f
The supply to motor B is at
frequency fA, i.e. fB = fA
Now on no load, the speed
of the rotor B i.e. N is almost
equal to its synchronous
speed NSB.

Key Point : Thus the speed
N of the set is decided by the
total number of poles equal to
PA- PB. This is possible for
cumulatively cascaded motors.
If by interchanging any
two terminals of motor B, the
reversal of direction of rotating
magnetic field of B is achieved
then the set runs as
differentially cascaded set.
And in such a case effective
number of poles are PA- PB.
Thus in cascade control,
four different speeds are
possible as,
a. With respect to
synchronous speed of A
independently,
Ns = 120f/PA
b. With respect to
synchronous speed of B
independently with main motor
is disconnected and B is
directly connected to supply,
Ns = 120f/PB
103
c. Running set as cumulatively
cascaded with,
N = 120f / (PA + PB)
d. Running set as differentially
cascaded with,
N = 120f / (PA - PB )
This method is also rarely
used due to following
disadvantages :
1. It requires two motors which
makes the set expensive.
2. Smooth speed control is not
possible.
3. Operation is complicated.
4. The starting torque is not
sufficient to start the set.
5. Set can not be operated if
P A = P B.
Injecting Slip-Frequency
E.M.F. into Rotor Circuit
In this method, a voltage is
injected in the rotor circuit.
The frequency of rotor circuit
is a slip frequency and hence
the voltage to be injected must
be at a slip frequency.
It is possible that the
injected voltage may oppose
the rotor induced e.m.f. or may
assist the rotor induced e.m.f.
If it is in the phase opposition,
effective rotor resistance
increases. If it is in the phase
of rotor induced e.m.f.,
effective rotor resistance
decreases. Thus by controlling
the magnitude of the injected
e.m.f., rotor resistance and
effectively speed can be
controlled.
Practically two methods
are available which use this
principle. These methods are,
1. Kramer system 2.
Scherbius system
1.1 Kramer System
The Fig.1 shows the
scheme of a kramer system.
It consists of main
induction motor M, the speed
of which is to be controlled.
The two additional equipments
are, d.c. motor and rotary
converter. The d.c. side of
rotary converter feeds a d.c.
shunt motor commutator,
which is directly connected to
the shaft of the main motor. A
separate d.c. supply is
required to excite the field
winding of d.c. motor and
exciting winding of a rotary
converter. The variable
resistance is introduced in the
field circuit of a d.c. motor
which acts as s field regulator.
Fig.1 Kramer system
The speed of the set is
controlled by varying the field
of the d.c. motor with the
rheostat R. When the field
104
resistance is changed, the
back e.m.f. of motor changes.
Thus the d.c. voltage at the
commutator changes. This
changes the d.c. voltage on
the d.c. side of a rotary
converter. Now rotary
converter has a fixed ratio
between its a.c. side and d.c.
side voltages. Thus voltage on
its a.c. side also changes. This
a.c. voltage is given to the slip
rings of the main motor. So the
voltage injected in the rotor of
main motor changes which
produces the required speed
control.
Very large motors above
4000 kW such as steel rolling
mills use such type of speed
control. The main advantage of
this method is that a smooth
speed control is possible.
Similarly wide range of speed
control is possible. Another
advantage of the system is
that the design of a rotary
converter is practically
independent of the speed
control required. Similarly if
rotary converter is
overexcited, it draws leading
current and thus power factor
improvement is also possible
alongwith the necessary speed
control.
1.2 Scherbius System
 The Fig. 2 shows the
scheme of a Scherbius
system.
Fig. 2 Scherbius system
This method requires an
auxiliary 3 phase or 6 phase
a.c. commutator machine
which is called Scherbius
machine. The difference
between Kramer system and
this system is that the
Scherbius machine is not
directly connected to the main
motor, whose speed is to be
controlled.
The Scherbius machine is
is excited at a slip frequency
from the rotor of a main motor
through a regulation
transformer. The taps on the
regulating transformer can be
varied, this changes the
voltage developed in the rotor
Scherbius machine, which is
injected into the rotor of main
motor. This control the speed
of the main motor.
The scherbius machine is
connected directly to the
induction motor supplied from
main line so that its speed
105
deviates from a fixed value
only to the extent of the slip of
the auxiliary induction motor.
For any given setting of
regulating transformer, the
speed of the main motor
remains substantially constant
irrespective of the load
variations.
Similar to the Kramer
system, this method is also
used to control speed of large
induction motors.
The only disadvantage is
that these methods can be
used only for slip ring
induction motors.
Electrical Braking of an
Induction Motor : (Part1)
The mechanical brakes or
electric brakes can be used to
bring an electric motor to rest,
quickly. But with the
mechanical brakes, smooth
stop is not possible. Similarly
the linings, levers and other
mechanical arrangements are
necessary to apply mechanical
brakes. Mechanical brakes
also depends on the skill of
the operator. As against this,
an electric braking is easy and
reliable hence it is used to
stop the induction motors very
quickly. Though the motor is
brought to rest electrically, to
maintain its state of rest a rotor resistance, the net torque
mechanical brake is must. produced becomes negative
1.1 Dynamic or Rheostatic and the braking operation is
Braking obtained.
In rheostatic braking, one
supply line out of R, Y or B is
disconnected from the supply.
Depending upon the condition
of this disconnected line, two
types of rheostatic braking can
be achieved.
1. Two lead connections : In
this method, the disconnected
line is kept open. This is
shown in the Fig. 1(a) and is
called two lead connections.
2. Three lead connections : In Fig.1 Dynamic braking of
this method, the disconnected induction motor
line is connected directly to
In two lead connections,
the other line of the machine. the braking torque is small
This is shown in the Fig. 1(b). while in three lead
In both cases, a high
connections, The braking
resistance is inserted in the torque is high at high speeds.
rotor circuit, with the help of But in three lead connections
rheostat.
there is possibility of
Note : Thus this method is inequality between the contact
effective only for slip ring or resistances in connections of
wound rotor induction motors.
two paralleled lines. This might
As one of the motor reduce the braking torque and
terminal is not connected to even may produce the
the supply, the motor
motoring torque again. Hence
continues to run as single inspite of low braking torque,
phase motor. In this case the two lead connections is
breakdown torque i.e.
preferred over three lead
maximum toque decreases to connections.
40% of its original value and The torque-slip
motor develops no starting
characteristics for motoring
torque at all. And due to high
106
and braking operation is
shown in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Torque-slip characteristics
Note : Such a dynamic or
rheostat braking is used
mainly in crane hoist.
1.2 Plugging
The reversal of direction of
rotation of motor is the main
principle in plugging of motor.
In case of an induction motor,
it can be quickly stopped by
interchanging any two stator
leads. Due to this, the direction
of rotating magnetic field gets
reversed suddenly. This
produces a torque in the
reverse direction and the
motor tries to rotate in
opposite direction. Effectively
the brakes are applied to the
motor. Thus during the
plugging, the motor acts as a
brake.
Note : The method can be
applied to both squirrel cage
as well as wound rotor
induction motors.
One important aspect
about plugging is production
107
of very high heat in the rotor.
While plugging, the load keeps
on revolving and rotor absorbs
kinetic energy from the
revolving load, causing speed
to reduce. The corresponding
gross mechanical power is
entirely dissipated as heat in
the rotor. Similarly as stator is
connected to supply, rotor
continues to receive power
from stator which also gets
dissipated as heat in the rotor.
This is shown in the Fig. 3(a)
Fig. 3(a) High rotor losses in
plugging
Note : The plugging
produces very high I2R losses
in the rotor which are more
than those produced when
rotor is locked.
The plugging should not be
done frequently as due to high
heat produced rotor may attain
high temperature which can
melt the rotor bars and even
may over heat the stator as
well.
 Note : In some industrial
applications where quick stop
of motor and its load is
necessary, the plugging
method is used.
Electrical Braking of an
Induction Motor : (Part2)
1.3. D.C. Dynamic Braking
A quick stopping of an
induction motor and its high
inertia load can be achieved by
connecting stator terminals to
a d.c. supply. Any two stator
terminals can be connected to
a d.c. supply and third terminal
may be kept open or may be
connected directly to other
stator terminal. This is called
d.c. dynamic braking. If third
terminal is kept open it is
called two lead connections
while if it is shorted directly
with other stator terminal it is
called three lead connections.
A diode bridge can be used to
get d.c. supply. The Fig. 3(b)
shows two lead connections
with a diode bridge for a d.c.
dynamic breaking of an
induction motor.
108
Fig. 3(b) D.C. dynamic braking
When d.c. is supplied to
the stator, stationary poles N,
S are produced in stator. The
number of stationary poles is
P for which stator winding is
wound. As rotor is rotating,
rotor cuts the flux produced by
the stationary poles. Thus the
a.c. voltage gets induced in the
rotor. This voltage produces
an a.c. current in the rotor. The
motor works as a generator
and the R losses are
dissipated at the expenditure
of kinetic energy stored in the
rotating parts. Thus dynamic
braking is achieved. When all
the kinetic energy gets
dissipated as heat in the rotor,
the induction motor comes to
rest.
The advantages of d.c.
dynamic braking are,
1. The heat produced is less
compared to the plugging.
2. The energy dissipated in the energy is given back to the
rotor is not dependent on the lines while braking, it is called
magnitude of the d.c. current. regenerative braking. The
3. The braking torque is arrangement for regenerative
proportional to the square of braking is shown in the Fig. 4.
the d.c. current.
4. Quick stopping of the motor
is possible.
5. The method can be used for
wound rotor or squirrel cage
rotor induction motors.
1.4. Regenerative Braking
The input power to a three
phase induction motor is given
by, Fig. 4 Regenerative braking
Pin = 3
Vph Iph cos Note : The active power
where Φ = Angle delivered back is proportional
between stator phase voltage to the slip above the
and phase current synchronous speed. The slip
This Φ is less than 90o for the is negative for such operation.
motoring action. The torque-slip
If the rotor speed is characteristics for motoring
increased greater than the and generating action is
synchronous speed with the shown in the Fig. 5.
help of external device, it acts
as an induction generator. It
converts the input mechanical
energy which is given back to
supply. It delivers active power
to the 3 phase line. The Φ
becomes greater than 90o. the
power flow reverses hence
rotor induced e.m.f. and rotor
current also reverse. So rotor
produces torque in opposite
direction to achieve the
braking. As the electrical
109

Fig. 5 Torque-slip
characteristics for
regenerative braking
The main advantage is that
the generated power can be
used for useful purposes.
While the disadvantage is that
for fixed frequency supply it
can be used only for speeds
above synchronous speed.
Induction Motor Protection
1.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker
In all the domestic, commercial
and industrial applications
miniature circuit breakers are
widely used. Conventional
fuses are replaced by these
circuit breakers. It combines
the features of good HRC fuse
and a good switch.
Under normal operation
conditions, it can be operated
as a switch to make the circuit
110
ON or OFF. In case of
induction motor it will be used
to give 3 phase supply to the
motor. During overload or any
other type of fault, it is
operated, it is operated
automatically and isolate the
faulty circuit from the supply.
The tripping mechanism is
actuated by magnetic and
thermal sensing devices
provided within the MCB.
In case of induction motor
protection circuit the functions
of thermal overload relay and
contactors are done solely
with the help of MCB. Thus two
separate elements are not
required. Various current
ratings (Typically include 5, 10,
15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 A etc) at
voltage ratings of 240 V / 415 V
are commercially available.
The tripping mechanism
and the terminal contacts are
assembled in a moulded case,
moulded out of thermosetting
powders. They ensure high
mechanical strength, high
dielectric strength and virtually
no ageing. The current
carrying parts are made out of
electrolytic copper or silver
alloy depending upon rating of
breaker. The breaker has unit
construction from which
multiple pole breakers can be
made by assembly of single
pole breakers.
THE END

111