CHAPTER II

Literature Review

2.0 introduction

Literature review was conducted to provide a context for the exploration of the impact of government
sponsorship on student enrolment. There are a number publications on research of government
sponsorship and student retention most of which try to explain why there is a decline in the number
of student enrolment into varsities in recent years. The study will discuss key variables of the research
objectives including; factors that influence student enrollment in Botswana, explain why the is a
fluctuation in the number of students in the university, state the policy regarding government
sponsorship in Botswana and lastly to outline some of the strategies the government can adopt in
order to increase access and participation to varsities in Botswana.

2.0.1 Overview of Tertiary Education in Botswana

Educational policy is an important aspect to social and economic growth in all countries. At
independence, Botswana experienced critical skills shortage with 40 Batswana who were university
graduates and about 100 people with a senior secondary certificate in a total population of slightly
more than half a million, (Pilly, 2010). According to Harvey and Lewis (1990) stated that given the low
level of human capital inherited from the colonial government, the newly independent Botswana
government had to invest heavily in education, but the skills shortage persisted for a long time mainly
due to time lags inherent in education and rapid economic growth which in turn, increased the
demand for educated people. Therefore it was this scarcity of human capital that informed the
government’s training policy since independence and has shaped the nature of education and training
in Botswana, (Harvey & Lewis, 1990).

On the other hand Pillay (2010) stated that access to higher education is increasing but is still relatively
low. He also highlighted that Botswana has made tremendous efforts in terms of increasing access to
high education through establishing the Grant-loan sponsorship to a wider magnitude and allowing
more private institutions in Botswana to provide tertiary education programs. Statistics Botswana
(2016) shows that Botswana’s tertiary education system was able to increase the enrolment from
20,011 in 2003 to 56,447 in 2015/2016 period. This percentage increase of 182% signifies the country’s
progress towards being a knowledge based society and the ability to produce competitive human
resource by 2026. Below is a summary of institute of higher education in Botswana accredited by BQA
(Statistics Botswana, 2016).

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2.0.2 TABLE 2.0.2 A. List of tertiary institutions in Botswana (BQA accredited)
TYPE OF INSTITUTION
Private institutions
1. Ba Isago University
2. Limkokwing University of Creative Technology
3. Gaborone University College of Law and Professional Studies( GUC)
4. Gaborone Institute of Professional Studies (GIPS)
5. Imperial School of Business and Science
6. Botswana Institute of Bankers
7. Botho University
8. Boitekanelo college
9. New Era College
10. Mega Size College
11. kgolagano College of Theological Education
12. DDT School of Medicine
13. Gaborone Academy of Education
14. ABM University College
15. Bosa Bosele Training Institute
16. Management College of Southern Africa (MANCOSA)
17. AFDA College
18. Assembly Bible
19. Flying Mission School
20. Auther Portland

Public institutions
1. Botswana Accountancy College (BAC)
2. Botswana Open University (BOU)
3. Botswana College of Engineering and Technology (BCET)
4. Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Science (BUAN)
5. Francistown College Technical and Vocational Education (FCTVE)
6. Gaborone Technical College (GTC)
7. Institute of Development and Management (IDM)
8. Jwaneng Technical College
9. Maun Technical College
10. Oodi College of Applied Arts and Technology
11. Palapye Technical College
12. Selibe-Phikwe Technical College
13. Bamalete Lutheran School of Nursing
14. Deborah Relief Memorial School of Nursing
15. Institute of Health Science Francistown (IHS)
16 Institute of Health Science Molepolole
17. Institute of Health Science Gaborone
18. Institute of Health Science Serowe
19. Institute of Health Science Lobatse
20. Kanye Seventh Day
21. Serowe College of Education
22. Francistown College of Education
23. Molepolole College of Education

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 24. Tonota College of Education
25. Tlokweng College of Education
26. Botswana Wildlife Training Institute
27. Defence Command
28. University of Botswana (UB)
29. Botswana Institute University of Science and Technology (BIUST)

2.0.3 SUMMARY

The above information (table 2.0.2) shows that there are 20 private institutions and 29 public
institutions, an aggregate of 49 higher education institutions accredited by BQA recorded in 2015/16
and 2017 respectively (Botswana, 2015).

2.0.4 The Government sponsorship Process

The government sponsorship process is that at the beginning of the year firstly, the Human Resource
Development Council (HRDC) writes to The Department of Tertiary Education Financing (HRDC)
advising on the priority programmes and provide the indicative skill information booklet, which spells
out requisite skills areas and relevant programs (Botswana youth magazine, 2016).

There after the release of the BGCSE results, HRDC lists the priority programmes for that year, drafting
quota allocation across programmes and institutions, consultative meetings with stakeholders
including tertiary institutions and those responsible for identifying and assessing the OVCs, RAC and
SEN.

The Ministry of Education Skills and Development (MoESD) then meets with its regulatory parastatals
that is, Botswana Qualification Authority (BQA) and HRDC to discuss the budget allocation and its
implications on quotas and programs as well as consultations with institutions (Botswana youth
magazine, 2016).

Then after quota allocation are finalized, institutions however adverse programs with a conviction that
the government is not the sole sponsor and thus they were at liberty to admit and enrol self-sponsored
students (Botswana youth magazine, 2016).

Not all public and private tertiary institutions advice their potential applicants of the programs
qualifying for government sponsorship in their adverts thus leading to applicants assuming that all
programs at this institutions are government sponsored. Therefore the student’s choice of career will
be affected to enrol for unaccredited courses and they end-up not pursing their application because
of lack of finances (Botswana youth magazine, 2016).

2.2 Factors that influence student enrolment in Botswana

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The government of Botswana stated some of the most critical factors which includes, poor secondary
school results. Failure to produce a significant pool of tertiary eligible students. Inadequate facilities
of some institutions, poor conditions of some facilities and lack of requisite resources and facilities in
teacher training institutions (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2013). Many other
studies have been done in order to explore the various factors that have significant influence on
student enrolment decisions in Botswana. Tirumalai. A. And Kumuri. B. (2017) found that in the year
2009 there were around 276 tertiary institutions in Botswana (Authority, 2009) and increasing,
competing for the same market of students in a country with a population around 2 million people
(Statistics Botswana, 2016). Such a state of affairs calls for management in these higher education
institutions to have some strong knowledge of factors that influence how students choose universities
to study at (Tirumalai & Kumari , 2017).

A review of studies of students choice of university that were common but not all across nations
includes, interest in field or personal aspirations, academic ability or aptitude, personality, influential
people or role models, availability of financial aid, family nosiness, economic stability, gender, race,
outside factors, mass media, political environment, cost of education etc. Agrey and Lampadan, (2014)
stated that students do not make this life-changing decision in isolation (Agrey & Lampadan, 2014).

It is also worth-noting that the choice process has changed significantly during the past half-century
as a result of changes in student demographics as well as the development of institutional admissions
and marketing practices (Kinzie, et al., 2004).

2.2.1 Availability of financial aid

Availability of financial aid has a persuasive power on student college attendance (Litten, 1982);
(Mankis & Wise, 1983). They analysed that financial aid will likely to induce more enrolments in
universities and colleges than other factors. World Bank (2010) advocates for decentralising financial
aids so as to benefit all universities in African countries. Accordingly, higher education reform
introduced cost sharing in the form of tuition fees and user charges which will enhance student
enrolment into universities (Bank, 2010).

2.2.2 Availability of required programmes

A study by Yusof et al (2008) found that availability of the required programmes and financial
assistance such as scholarships were some of the influential factors in the way students decide to
choose a particular university (Yusof, et al., 2008).

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2.2.3 Reputation of higher institutions

Ciriaci and Muscio (2011) agree with this last factor as they argue that “good” universities may act as
a magnet for good brains (Ciriaci & Muscio, 2011). Kusumwati et al. (2010) further suggests that the
reputation of the institution was the most significant factor in a student’s decision for further study
(Kusumawati, et al., 2010).

2.2.4 Educational aspirations

In another study student educational aspirations found positively related with college attendance
choice (Carpenter & Freishman, 1987); (Ariffin, et al., 2008). Students often strive to choose majors
that “match with their interest”, rated over job characteristics, major attributes and psychological and
social benefits (Beggs, et al., 2008).

2.2.5 Influential people or role models

Family, friends, relatives as well as teachers are considered to be an influential part of student choice
of career path (Fizer, 2013). He also stated that family member with an agricultural background most
often have an impact in where student go to universities or college. Aguado, et al (2015) also showed
parents as financiers of their children’s education, they have a major influence on where their children
go for higher education (Aguado, et al., 2015).

2.2.6 Personality

Mashing & Oduntan (2011) states that enthusiasm, motivation to help others and the ability to define
one’s own personal goals are also of the factors that enhances the process of career choice (Mashing
& Oduntan , 2011).

2.2.7 Economic stability

Students want to make sure they are secure for the rest of their lives, and may look into careers that
have benefits to help them in the long (Wildman & Torres, 2002).

2.2.8 Other factors

According to the Statistics Botswana (2015) a total of 60,583 students were enrolled during 2014/2015
and 57.5% of students were females, dominating across all programs except in science and science
related programmes during the period of 2009/10 to 2014/15. Other factors also includes the mass
media or marketing mix, marketing efforts and channels which are also found to be significant
contributors of student enrolment (Botswana, 2015). Cost associated with college also termed as an

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Literature Review
important factor to be discussed by various researchers (Webb, 1993); (Joseph & Joseph, 1998) as cost
has a strong influence in college choice decisions.

2.3 Causes of fluctuation in the number of students enrolled in the Universities of Botswana

According to Statistics Botswana (2016), over the past 13 years, Botswana’s tertiary education system
was able to increase the enrolment from 20,011 in 2003/04 to 56,447 in 2015/16. This can be
illustrated in a chat below and also to assess the causes of such fluctuation in the number of students
enrolled in the universities of Botswana (Statistics Botswana, 2016).

2.3.1 Chart 2.31: Tertiary Enrolment trends (2003/04-2015/16)

This graph depicts the student enrolment trends in the local private and public
tertiary education providers from 2003/04 academic year to 2015/16

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
2003/ 2004/ 2005/ 2006/ 2007/ 2008/ 2009/ 2010/ 2011/ 2012/ 2013/ 2014/ 2015/
04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
no. of students enrolled 20011 19655 21738 22257 31129 47889 42859 37859 46613 57447 60439 60583 56447

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As illustrated above during a period between 2006/07 and 2008/09 experience a sharp increase in
enrolment, then followed by a two year decline between 2008/09 and 2010/11 and a clear recovery
between 2010/11 and 2013/14 respectively. HRDC (2016 & 2015) states that a depressed trend
expenditure between 2003/04 and 2006/07 was due to a lack of overall policy of the tertiary education
sector. Also an emergence of a global financial crisis towards a twilight of 2008 triggered a downfall in
the overall performance of Botswana’s economy, in the process effectively impairing the
government’s ability to service major developmental issues such as the funding of tertiary education.
One of the factors that lead to this fluctuations was an increase in the number of institutions registered
to provide tertiary education programs. In 2007 a total of 29 institutions were registered and a number
increased to 38 in 2014/2015. During 2015/16 institutions census recorded 49, comprising of 29 public
and 20 private institutions as illustrated above in table 2.0.2 above (Botswana, 2015); (Statistics
Botswana, 2016).

Bishau and Samkange (2015) concluded that one of the contributing factors to low enrolment levels
at Zimbabwe open university- Chitungwiza region, is a policy change on payments of fees which an
non user-friendly (Bishau & Samkange, 2015).

Kariwo (2010) stated that the crisis in African universities is that over the years there has been a
gradual decline in the funding from government in real terms, due to the declining economies.
Economic recession in 2008 resulted a decrease of student enrolment from 47,889 to 42,366 and
37,849 in 2008/09 and 2009/10 respectively (Kariwo, 2010). This global financial crisis also persisted
in 2014/15 and 2015/16 respectively with a decrease of almost 4000 students registered in
universities of Botswana, in accordance with the tertiary education statistics (2016) results. Therefore
this effectively impaired the government’s ability to serve major developmental issues such as the
funding of tertiary education.

In addition the strategic prioritization by government, with a deep focus on encouraging greater
private participation has led the major impact in gradual high levels of student enrolment recorded at
private institutions to date.

Blair (1997) observes that most first generation universities in Africa have been characterized by
considerable internal inefficiencies such as low staff to student ratios, high student drop-out and
repeat rates and low graduation rates (Blair, 1997). Furthermore in a world bank report (2000) it states
that during a period of rapid enrolments African universities turn to waste resources on irrelevant

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Literature Review
activities which results in a decline in quality of education provided to students hence students turn
to move from one university to the other or even prefer universities outside the country for better
and quality education (Bank, 2000).

In a report by statistics Botswana (2015) it stated that majority of students at private tertiary
education institutions enrolled for bachelor’s degree programmes (13 135) followed by diploma (9
971), then professional courses (1 429), certificate (1 067), post graduate diploma (117) and lastly
master’s degree (111). From all the private institutions neither PhD nor MPhil programmes were
offered for the academic year 2014/15. Therefore this contributes to one of the factors that leads to
a flux in enrolments into universities of Botswana (Botswana, 2015)

(Newberry, 2012) Outlines some of the factors that’s that contributes to a flux in enrolment levels,
this includes firstly leadership; Bennis and Nanus, leadership gurus, believes that “leadership is the
pivotal force behind successful organisations”. The vision, drive and personality of the leadership will
affect the enrolment. Secondly quality school experience, where parents are investing significant
resources to provide the very best education for their child and because of this, they expect the best.
A high quality experience must be integrated throughout your school in order to grow enrolment
levels.

Also the vision and school improvement, this are strategic areas that can have an impact on enrolment
growth. In addition faculty and staff should be the primary connection that a family makes with a
school. These education will be the ones to teach and mentor students. When they deliver a high
quality educational experience and personally connect with the students in a positive way, this
experience will impact enrolment (Newberry, 2012).

Parents’ satisfaction affect enrolment levels in such a way that satisfied parents will lead to strong
retention. A strong retention rate obviously leads to increased enrolment. Secondly, satisfied parents
will tell their friends about the school. This is positive word-of-mouth working in one’s favour.
Therefore will lead to growth of school enrolment when parent are satisfaction and a positive word-
of-mouth. The experiences of parents, students, graduates, faculty, staff and donor will fuel word-of-
mouth, whether positive or negative, in a community. In turn, this will create the reputation and word
out on the street, about the school. This general buzz and reputation in the community will affect
enrolment (Newberry, 2012).

The local community demographics, the location of the universities and tuition fees price will have a
significant impact on enrolment. Because of concerns with the economy and increased tuition rates

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in private schools, it is critical to examine the pricing strategy in light of future sustainability. One of
the issues facing private universities today is the increased competition from both governmental and
other private institutions of higher learning. Private institutions face a very competitive market
(Newberry, 2012).

Lastly the marketing and enrolment plans or strategies, it makes sense that every school desiring
enrolment growth should have a marketing and enrolment plan. However many schools do not have
a plan. With an international marketing and enrolment plan, universities will be able to implement
specific strategies that will impact the growth of institutions of higher learning (Newberry, 2012).

Ministry of finance and development planning (2013) mid-term review of NDP 10 states that the
problems in the tertiary education programme sector include poor secondary school results which
failed to produce a significant pool of tertiary eligible students. Inadequate facilities for some
institutions (BCA, BAC, and IDM) and poor conditions of some facilities are also some of the primary
factors that leads to flux enrolment levels (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2013).

2.4 The government sponsorship policy or scheme

According to the ministry of education and skills development (2008) driving towards a knowledge
based economy states that, tertiary education institutions around the world are now being given a
key responsibility for meeting the needs of an increasingly market-driven, knowledge based economy
and this is where the pressures of growth and change are being experienced. A combination of
increased demand to accommodate large numbers of students, the necessity to offer a curriculum
that equips those students with a broad general education, specialist knowledge, critical skills, and
within an environment of rising costs and shrinking resources, is proving to be a challenge of enormous
proportion. The key response to this challenge requires the tertiary education system to develop a
holistic approach to developing the nation’s human resource capacity which balances the needs of the
economy, with the demands and expectations of society and the individual (Ministry of eduation and
skills development, 2008).

According to a world bank report (2009-13) with the support from the ministry of education and skills
development (MoESD) embarked on analytical study entitled “skills for economic growth and
diversification in Botswana” in which it outlined some of the policies in the government grant-loan
sponsorship. It stated that in Botswana all students enrolled in government-run higher education
institutions are sponsored by the government through the grant-loan sponsorship program (Bank,
2009-2013).

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Grant-loan sponsorship was created in 1995 and was originally designed to attract students to fields
in high demand. The scheme had five categories of classification, the first being for education in skills
in highest demand. This category offered students the incentive of a 100 percent grant both for tuition
and living expenses. Category 2 fields were supported by a 100 percent grant for tuition and 50–50
grant loan as a maintenance allowance. At category 5, both tuition fees and living expense support
were offered on a 100 percent loan basis (BEST, 2009).

The World Bank report (2009) concluded that the grand-loan sponsorship had loop-hoops in terms of
an effectively managed beneficiary database and lack of follow-up on individual cases that is, the result
of limited staff numbers and poor recovery capacity, as well as the limited information provided to
beneficiaries on their roles and responsibilities, all led to the limited recovery (Bank, 2009).

Based on their field of study, tertiary students can be enrolled within or outside of Botswana. In 2007,
approximately 7.5 percent of all such students were enrolled in South Africa, another 7.5 percent in
universities across the world, with the rest enrolled in Botswana. In terms of the distribution of
enrolment in various priority areas, the lowest percentage enrols in category 1 programs, despite the
fact that the government offers the best financial incentives for these programs. Rather, the highest
concentration of students has consistently been in category 3 fields (Bank, 2009).

A detailed review of the grant-loan sponsorship system conducted for the department of student
placement and welfare of MoESD in 2009 (Botswana Evaluation Service Team 2009) points out several
key weaknesses with the program. The report suggests that the reason why enrolment in category 1
skills is low is that these courses require a strong basic education in mathematics and science. By the
time students reach the tertiary level, it is hard to remedy weak or poor-quality learning in these
subjects, thus enrolment in science and engineering remains low. Additionally, there is a lack of career
education in basic and secondary school that would highlight the potentials of these courses at the
tertiary level (Bank, 2009).

Second, specialization in engineering and the sciences require students to be enrolled outside of
Botswana because specific fields of tertiary study are not offered in the country. Such external
placements are much more expensive than placements in Botswana, hence budgetary constraints
sometimes hinder enrolment. And even though the government has declared certain fields of study
to be a priority, programs in lower-priority categories offer good job opportunities and a good return
on the labour market. For example, a law degree is a category 3 program in the GLS framework, but
the government offers hardly any incentive for this course of study (Bank, 2009).

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In order for tertiary education to produce high-level research and innovation, emphasis must be
placed on teaching research skills at existing tertiary institutions. However, grant-loan sponsorship
finances students only at the undergraduate level. At present, employers finance the studies of
students pursuing masters and doctoral degrees, based on employer requirements.

Moreover, it is not economically viable for the relatively small private sector to cover the cost of
postgraduate training. As a result, employers are more likely to hire expatriates with the skills acquired
in tertiary education (Bank, 2009).

2.4 Strategies to be implemented to increase enrolment levels into varsities in Botswana

According to the organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD) (2005) observed
that e-learning element begins to replace some of the classroom time. Online discussions, assessment
and project or collaborative work tend to replace some of the face-to-face teaching and learning.
However campus attendance remains an important part of the deliver method. With this method the
government can ensure that students are enrolled in large numbers to give opportunity to all students
eligible for tertiary education at the same time increasing access and participation into universities of
Botswana (OECD, 2005).

In addition the (University of Pretoria, 2000) stated that an introduction of open distance learning
(ODL) strategy helps to deal with increased and diverse demands in tertiary education institutions.
There are online dual universities in southern African countries which has adopted this strategy
including university of Botswana (UB), university of Namibia (UNAM), and university of Zambia (UNZA)
also in other countries the university of Nairobi in Kenya, Makerere university in Uganda and some
universities in developed countries like the university of southern Queensland (USQ) in Australia, the
university of London and the university of Leicester in the united kingdom (UK), all have decided to
add open distant learning to their usual face-to-face teaching and learning mode of delivery.

With this strategy or system of delivery it had expanded opportunities, especially for working adults
and youth who for various reasons, were not able to access higher education through the face-to-face
mode.

The University of Pretoria (2000) also defined open distant learning as a dual mode institution that
utilise both the tradition on-campus and ODL strategies to deliver education and training. A dual mode
institution offers both regular programmes on campus and also makes available a proportion of its
courses in a distant format. Therefor for an effective implementation, a specialised department or

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Literature Review
organ within the universities should be established to oversee the development and delivery of the
ODL mode in a dual mode university set up (University of Pretoria, 2000).

In a world bank report accelerating catch-up (Bank, 2009) the authors argue that a diversified system
of enrolment provides increased access to students with different educational backgrounds and
abilities by providing a wider range of choices and pedagogical orientations and that is, it facilitates
social mobility by offering multiple entry points to tertiary education and various options for successful
students to advance to higher levels of study (Bank, 2009). For example the Botswana target 20 000
initiative which was developed to equip unemployed youth with industrial skills at tertiary level.

Furthermore BFTU (2007) also stated that for enrolment levels to rise an introduction of a sponsorship
and a loan recovery function should be introduced. It will administer recovery of loan funds and ensure
that there is an increase in the size of funds in terms of allowances, tuition funds and other costs. Also
it will ensure an increase number of students to access and participate in universities of Botswana.
For example the department of tertiary education funding (BFTU, 2007).

According to hangover research (2010) the integration of advising with first year transition programs
has the strongest effect on retention rates at private institutions, as the three practices with the
highest mean contributions to retention are related to academic advising. For example the yearly
tertiary education fair, where all tertiary education providers gather at fairgrounds Gaborone to
market their programmes and also advice students on the best career path (Handover Research,
2010).

(Handover Research, 2010) In additions it also states some other strategies that institutions of higher
learning can adopt to increase enrolment rates in their institutions. It includes, the first year studies
program to ease the transition into college and allow first year students to develop a sense of
belonging and community. The initiative is strongly academic in nature, providing students with
resources to acclimate to the academic environment at any institution of study. Programs include
small group dinners with professors, course registration workshops, and a variety of services provided
through the academic resources centre. The majority of first year students are also required to enrol
in a first year seminar, designed to help students understand university expectations, transition to
college-level academic work, and meet their peers. It also stated that the first year studies program
further sponsor’s social events to encourage community building, including pre-orientation and
orientation programs, as well as frequent gatherings on campus. The various services and programs
provided through the first year studies initiative encourages student retention from the first year to

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Literature Review
the second year by creating communities and helping students understand the expectations and
processes of academic life at any institution of study.

In other repots hangover research (2015) concluded that emerging trends related to higher education
marketing suggest that there are numerous methods of recruiting and engaging with students,
including institutional websites, mobile marketing, and social media, among others. As such, it is a
crucial time to create an integrated branding and marketing approach that ties together these various
approaches.

Today’s marketing automation tools work to integrate a variety of effective higher education
communications, email, content marketing, social media marketing, landing pages, and
comprehensive analytics, in order to perform a wide range of functions. Through marketing
automation, institutions are able to capture and leverage a wide range of student data in order to
develop more personalized communications throughout the entire student lifecycle (Hangover
research, 2015).

2.5 IMPIRICAL REVIEW

The objective carried out by Steiner and Wrohlich (2008) was to find out the impact of student aid on
enrolment into tertiary education. From a policy point of view, the conclusion that he made on the
approximation of a relatively small enrolment elasticity with respect to the amount of government
sponsorship implies that financial incentives alone will not achieve the policy goal of extensively
increasing the share of students in University education within age cohorts at feasible fiscal costs.

However, the enrolment elasticity estimated in most other studies is conditional on having obtained
a high school diploma which currently is a pre-requisite for entering university education in Germany.
Implementing policies aimed at increasing the share of potential student within age group could thus
be more effective in achieving the mentioned policy goal than increasing the amount of financial aid,
(Steiner & Wrohlich, 2008).

Sarakikya (2014) was to find out some of the corporate strategies used to expand the student intake
by the University of Dar Es Salaam. Some of the strategies he found include, the enrolment of privately
sponsored students into regular and evening programmes, a change in the residential model that had
restricted the student intake base on the university accommodation facilities available, the use of
marketable technologies and the efficient and effective utilization of the institution’s resources. In
particular the conclusion was that these strategies had both social and economic benefit.

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From a social point of view, these strategies had created additional opportunities for accessing
university education and thus, they met the increased social demand for higher education. In addition
from an economic perspective, the increased student numbers enabled the university to reap
economies of scale as the increased numbers reduced unit costs while the admission of privately
sponsored students in regular and evening programmes gave generated additional source of income
for the university, (Sarakikya , 2014).

Sarakikya (2014) observations in relation to policy framework stated that with respect to the issues of
access to and equity in higher education in Tanzania. Firstly, the state-controlled model which was
used in the provision of education determined the rate of admission because it restricted the student
intake based on the government’s financial ability and also manpower requirements. Secondly, the
admission to higher education institutions, including (UDSM) is competitive as it is based primarily on
academic criteria (Sarakikya , 2014).

The other findings of this study also revealed the causes of low enrolment including, limited resources
such as the teaching and learning facilities, working conditions and infrastructure development of the
academic were unfavourable of the university were to inadequate to accommodate increasing access
and equity (Sarakikya , 2014).

Bishau and Samkange (2015) objective of the research was to assess the causes of low student
enrolment at the Zimbabwe Open University. They found out that Policy changes and co-ordination
between administration and academic staff also had a bearing on the student growth. (Bishau &
Samkange, 2015).

2.6 Summary

In reference to the information provided in the literature above it is clear that policies that the
government has put in place on the tertiary education sector largely affect student enrolment into
universities of Botswana. This policies however needs to be reformed to foster practicality and better
implementation structures. The next chapter will be on research methodology.

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Literature Review
References
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unversity,. American institute for policy development, 3 No. 2(ISSN: 2334-296X (Print), 2334-2978
(Online)), pp. 391-404.

Aguado, C. L., Laguado, J. M. & Deligero, J. C. L., 2015. Factors affecting the choice of school and
students' level of interest towards Martime programmes.. Asian Journal of science, Volume 11(21),
pp. 231-239.

Ariffin, A. A., Ahmad, A. H., Ahman, M. S. & Ibrahim, M. A., 2008. Determining decision-making style
and demographic differences in selecting higher education services among Malaysian..
"International Journal of Business and Society, Volume 9(1), pp. 1-18.

Authority, B. T., 2009. Registration of private higher education institution. [Online]

Available at: http://www.bota.org.bw.
[Accessed 27 February 2018].

Bank, W., 2000. Higher education in developing countries: Peril and Promise., Washingto, DC.: World
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