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2 Forms of Government
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms
Different forms of 1. What are the classic forms of government? monarchy TAKING NOTES
governments are 2. How is national power organized differently in dictatorship Use the graphic
categorized based on unitary, federal, and confederal systems? oligarchy organizer online
who exercises authority direct democracy to take notes on
3. In what ways do presidential and parliamentary
and how power is republic different types
systems differ?
organized. unitary system of ­government
federal system ­systems.
confederal system
presidential system

One
Two
parliamentary system

People
Koreas
The Power of Government  More than
50 years ago, during the Korean War (1950–
1953), the border between North Korea and
South Korea was shut down. In the years since, the two countries
have followed dramatically different paths.
In the 1980s South Korea developed into a vibrant multi-
party democracy and an economic powerhouse. Today South
Korea is the world’s fourteenth-largest economy and a lead-
ing exporter of cars and personal electronics. It is also one of
the most digitally connected countries in the world. Wireless
Internet, cell phones, and online gaming dominate the nation’s
popular culture.
Meanwhile, North Korea turned to totalitarianism and com-
munism and sank into poverty. Backed by nuclear capabilities
and the world’s fifth-largest army, the nation’s dictator Kim Jong
Il tightly controls all aspects of life in North Korea. Although
information about life in North Korea is closely guarded, reports
of mass famine, torture, slave labor, prison camps, and public
executions have reached the outside world.
The divide between the two Koreas shows just how deeply
forms of government affect people’s lives. Put simply, it matters
a great deal who rules a nation and what form of government
is in place. 

Despite their differences, South Korean

president Roh Moo-hyun (above, with his
wife) and North Korean dictator Kim Jong
Il (right) signed a wide-ranging peace and
prosperity pact on October 4, 2007.

14 Chapter 1
The Classic Forms Classic Forms of Government
“Democracy is the worst form of govern­-
ment,” British politician Winston Churchill Form characteristics
once commented, “except all others that
have been tried.” One might expect a Monarchy • Ruled by a monarch, usually a king or
democratic leader like Churchill to vigorously Example: a queen, who belongs to a royal family
Jordan • Power is inherited
defend democracy. Instead, he suggests that
• Absolute monarchs have unlimited power
all forms of government have their problems,
and all have the power to do great harm or
good to those under their rule. One way to Constitutional • Based on the idea that there are limits
understand how different forms of Monarchy to the rightful power of a government over
Example: its citizens
government affect people’s lives is to ask:
United Kingdom • Power of the monarch is limited by law;
Who has the authority to rule? the real power lies in another branch of
government
Monarchy  In a monarchy the government
• May coexist with other forms of govern-
is headed by one person, such as a king or a ment, such as representative democracy
queen, who exercises supreme authority.
Monarchs inherit their position and their
Dictatorship • Single dictator or a small group holds
power by virtue of being born into a royal
Example: absolute authority and makes all decisions
family. In an absolute monarchy, their powers Cuba • Violence and force used to maintain rule
are unlimited and unchecked.
Monarchies have been the most common
form of rule in world history. Today though, Totalitarian • Dictator holds ultimate authority
Regimes • Government tightly controls all aspects
monarchies are rare. In some nations, such
Example: of life—political, social, and economic
as Saudi Arabia, the royal family still exer- • No formal or informal limits on
North Korea
cises ultimate authority. Most present-day government
kings and queens, however, are ceremonial
heads of state for constitutional monarchies.
Oligarchy/ • Small group of powerful people make
The real power lies in another part of
Aristocracy most government decisions for their
government, such as a legislative body. Spain, own benefit
Example:
Great Britain, and Japan are just a few of the ancient Greece • Membership in the ruling group may be
world’s 30 constitutional monarchies. (Sparta) based on wealth, family, or military power
Monarchy is an example of autocracy,
any form of government in which a single
Theocracy • Rulers claim to represent and be directed
individual—an autocrat—controls most
Example: by a set of religious ideas
governing decisions. Placing the bulk of Iran • Laws are rooted in a particular religion or
government power in the hands of one religious doctrine
person is risky business. As the British • Government power is unlimited
historian Lord Acton once commented,
“Power tends to corrupt and absolute power
Direct Democracy • Government by the people; citizens are the
tends to corrupt absolutely.” In the modern Example: ultimate source of government authority
world, Acton’s maxim is most clear in nations ancient Greece • Citizens come together to discuss and
under the rule of autocrats called dictators. (Athens) pass laws and select leaders
• Works best in small communities
Dictatorship  A dictatorship is a system of
rule in which one person, a dictator, or a
small group of people can hold unlimited Republic/ • Government by the people; citizens are the
Representative ultimate source of government authority
power over government. Dictators often
Democracy • Indirect form of democracy; citizens elect
achieve power by violently overthrowing a representatives to make government
Example:
government. They maintain power by force, decisions on their behalf
ancient Rome,
stifling even peaceful opposition with varying United States • Representatives elected for set terms
degrees of repression and brutality.

RESEARCH WEB LINKS

Foundations of government 15
 The Roman Republic
In 509 BC the Romans established a new form of government—the republic.
The essence of the Roman Republic was the Senate, a body of 300 members
who advised elected officials, controlled public finances, reviewed proposed
laws, and handled all foreign relations.

Dictators may claim that they respond to
the will of the people or even that they head
democratic states. In reality, most dictators
head authoritarian regimes, under which
people are subject to various forms of state
control. At its most extreme, authoritarian-
ism becomes totalitarianism. Totalitarian
governments seek to dominate all aspects of
society—the government, the economy, and
even people’s personal beliefs and actions.
Nazi Germany under Hitler, the Soviet Union
under Joseph Stalin, China under Mao
Zedong, and North Korea under Kim Jong Il
are examples of totalitarian regimes.
Some dictatorships may be led by small
groups of people, usually members of the
military or the economic elite. This state of
affairs is sometimes called an oligarchy,
meaning rule by a few, or an aristocracy.
Many dictatorships are secular govern-
ments, meaning that their laws and political
institutions are independent of religion.
Others, however, are theocracies, or
governments under the rule of a small group
of religious leaders.
Democracy  The term democracy means
“rule by the people.” Strictly speaking, in a
pure democracy, the people make major
government decisions through a process of
majority rule. Whatever the majority of
voters wants becomes law.
Such was the state of affairs in Athens
and other ancient Greek city-states. Athenian
democracy was a direct democracy. Citizens
met regularly in a popular assembly to
discuss issues and vote for leaders. Athenians
liked to boast that in their government
everyone had equal say. In truth, Athenian
democracy was an elite-based system. Only
a small fraction of the male population was
eligible to participate in political life. Neither
women nor slaves, who formed the majority
of the population, could participate.
Direct democracy works best in small
communities, where people are able to meet
face to face. For large, industrialized nations,
however, direct democracy is an impractical
option. For this reason, most of the world’s
democracies—the United States included—
are republics. A republic is an indirect form
of democracy that places political decision
making at least one step away from the
people. In a republic, the people elect repre-
sentatives to make decisions on their behalf.
Still, forms of direct democracy persist
within republics. In the United States, for
example, a handful of New England towns
govern by holding town meetings, in which
all townspeople have a say in setting policy.
People often use the terms republic and
representative democracy interchangeably to
describe the U.S. political system. The main
point about a representative democracy is

16 Chapter 1
 that people are the ultimate source of
government authority. In such a system,
elected representatives closely follow the
wishes of the people, elections are free and
fair, and everyone has equal opportunity to
participate in the political process.
Identifying the Main Idea  Who
holds political power in a representative democracy?
In unitary systems, local levels of
government may be active and important
agencies of rule, but the national government
has ultimate authority. It also has the power
to change or abolish local governments as it
sees fit. In the United Kingdom, for example,
the British Parliament still has authority to
override and even dismantle the parliaments
of Northern Ireland and Scotland.

Federal Systems  A federal system of

Organizing National Power
Most national governments consist of a
number of smaller administrative units—
states, cities, or provinces. The power to
govern these units can be spread across
gv10se_bascht010a
different geographic regions or it can be
7th pass
centralized. In addition to understanding
9-18-07
who governs, it is important to ask: How is
national power organized across regions?
Unitary Systems  The vast majority of the
world’s nations have unitary systems of
government. In a unitary system, sovereignty,
or ultimate authority, rests in a single,
national government. The United Kingdom,
France, and Japan are leading examples of
unitary governments.
government divides power over people and
territory between a national government and
smaller, regional levels of government. As it
exists today, the federal system is largely an
American invention—the product of
compromises made by the Framers of the
U.S. Constitution over balancing national
power and states’ rights.
The U.S. federal system consists of two
levels—an overarching national government
and 50 state governments. Both levels have
the power to make their own laws, elect
officials, and create agencies. A significant
feature of American federalism is that
each level has the power to act inde­pendently
of the other level, and neither level can
abolish or reorganize the other level at will.

POWER IN THREE SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT

Central government States and regions Flow of power

Unitary Federal Confederal

Power is concentrated in the
central government. Regional
governments carry out decisions
made by the central government.
Examples: United Kingdom,
Japan
Skills
FOCUS Interpreting Charts
In which system of government do states and regions
exercise the most power?
National, state, and regional
governments share power. All
levels have the power to make
their own laws, elect officials,
and create agencies.
Examples: United States, India
Independent states join together
in a confederation and delegate
limited powers to a central
government. The central
government only has powers given
to it by the states.
Examples: United States under
the Articles of Confederation,
European Union

Foundations of government 17
 For example, Congress cannot redraw the
boundaries of California to give more land
to Oregon and Nevada.
While it is no longer uniquely American,
the federal system is still a comparatively
uncommon form of government. Only 25 of
the world’s 190 or so nations have federal
systems. Among these are Canada, India,
Germany, Mexico, Nigeria, and Brazil.
Confederal Systems  In a confederal system
independent states join forces by forming a
central government, called a confederation.
The states keep full control over their own
territories and people. However, the states
delegate limited powers to a central
government to pursue areas of common
interests, such as providing for national
defense and regulating trade.
In its earliest days under the Articles of
Confederation, the United States operated as
a confederal system. With the exception of
the United Arab Emirates and the European
Union, present-day confederations are rare.
Comparing How is power divided
in federal, unitary, and confederal systems?
Presidents and Parliaments
People often believe that their government is
the only or even the best way of doing things.
But, as the discussion of unitary, federal, and
confederal systems shows, there is no one
way for a nation to organize power. All
governments are born out of unique
historical circumstances, developing their
own special features and institutions. This is
true, too, for democracy. Today most
countries have adopted some form of
democratic government. Even as they follow
their own particular paths, the world’s
democracies fall into two types of political
systems—presidential and parliamentary.
Presidential Systems  Many of the world’s
governments are modeled after the
presidential system of the United States. In
general, a presidential system is distinguished
by having a president that is elected by the
people for a limited term of office.
In addition to performing the symbolic
duties of a head of state, the president is in
charge of the executive branch of government.

Presidential and Parliamentary Systems

Many of the world’s presidential systems
have been modeled on the U.S. system,
while the world’s parliamentary systems
have taken the British system as a model. In
July 2007, President George Bush welcomed
a newly elected British Prime Minister,
Gordon Brown, on his first official visit to the
United States.
18
Presidential
ADVANTAGES
• President is elected by the people for
a fixed term and cannot be dismissed
• Separation of powers prevents
abuses of authority
• Independent of other branches
of government
• President is able to make decisions
quickly and independently
DISADVANTAGES
• Difficult to remove an unsuitable
president from office
• Separation of powers may lead
to gridlock
• Branches of government may have
different agendas
• Presidents may become too strong
• Many presidential systems have
become authoritarian
Parliamentary
ADVANTAGES
• The legislative and executive
branches are often united in purpose
• Prime minister directly accountable
to parliament
• Easier to pass legislation
DISADVANTAGES
• Few checks and balances
• Prime minister selected by the
legislative branch, not by the people
• Prime minister lacks independence
Skills
FOCUS Interpreting Charts
Which of the advantages and disad-
vantages listed in the chart might
explain why more of the world’s
democracies follow a parliamentary
system of government?
He or she appoints cabinet members to
oversee major state bureaucracies, executes
policy, serves as the head of the armed forces,
and is responsible for setting foreign policy
and initiating domestic legislation.
A key feature—and an important
strength—of presidential systems is that the
president’s powers are balanced by a
legislature, which is both popularly elected
and independent of the president. This has
important implications for how a president
exercises power. Because the president and
the legislature are independent of one
another, they must work together to get
things done. For example, in the United
States, the president may be commander in
chief of the armed forces, but only Congress
can declare war. Similarly, Congress relies on
the president to approve and carry out the
laws that it passes.
Divided government can also be a
drawback to presidential systems. In the
United States, if the president and members
of Congress hold opposing political views,
they may refuse to cooperate. The result is
political stalemate. In the worst of such
situations, little gets accomplished—
Congress is unable to pass laws without the
president’s support. Without Congress’s
support, an otherwise powerful president
becomes immobilized.
Section 2 Assessment
Reviewing Ideas and Terms
1. a. Define  What is the meaning of the following terms: direct
democracy, republic, monarchy, dictatorship?
b. Compare and Contrast How are democracies and republics
similar to and different from one another?
c. Predict  What circumstances might lead to people’s rights
being denied in a direct democracy?
2. a. Identify How is power organized in a unitary system?
b. Draw Conclusions  Why do you think a federal system
replaced the confederal form of government that was first
tried in the United States?
3. a. Describe  What are the potential disadvantages of a
presidential system?
b. Design  If you were designing a plan of government for a
new democracy, would you plan for a presidential or parliamen-
tary system? Explain.
Parliamentary Systems  Most of the
world’s democracies, by contrast, are
modeled after Great Britain’s parliamentary
system. In a parliamentary system , the
executive and legislative branches of
government are combined. In place of a
popularly elected president, parliamentary
systems have a prime minister. An elected
legislature called parliament chooses the
prime minister.
The prime minister is not only a member
of parliament; he or she is also the leader of
parliament’s majority party. Once selected, What might
the prime minister appoints cabinet members happen in a
from the ranks of the majority party. Should government in
the prime minister ever lose support of the which there was
no agreed on or
majority party, he or she must resign peaceful means for
immediately, as do the cabinet members. removing officials?
Members of parliament then choose another Give a recent
prime minister, or else a new election is called example to support
your answer.
in which voters choose a new parliament.
Combining the executive and legislative
branches is both an advantage and a dis-
advantage for parliamentary systems. Some
observers argue that it is easier to pass laws
in a parliamentary system. Others take issue
with the fact that prime ministers are neither
directly elected by the people nor able to
effectively take a stand against parliament.
Contrasting How does electing a
president differ from electing a prime minister?
ONLINE QUIZ
Critical Thinking
4. Compare and Contrast  Copy the graphic organizer below, and
compare and contrast how power is shared and limited in presi-
dential and parliamentary systems.
Presidential Parliamentary
Focus On Writing
5. Persuasive  Write a speech arguing in favor of a particular
form of government for a newly founded nation. Be sure to
address the question of who should hold power and how power
should be organized.
Foundations of government 19