Asian Institute of Computer Studies

Logic
Finals Term

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Lesson no. 1
Simple Sentences

We use sentences every day when we speak and when we write but today we are going to pull them
apart and see how they are made. A sentence is a set of words which contain a complete thought or
idea. A simple sentence contains just one thought or idea.

Every complete sentence has a subject called a noun phrase, and a predicate, called a verb
phrase. The subject is usually at the beginning of the sentence and it tells us what or who the
sentence is about, the predicate tells us what the subject is doing or what state it is in. A simple
sentence only has one verb. When the verb is about an action it is often followed by an object and
when it is about a state it is followed by a complement.

That all sounds very complicated for something which is called simple so lets look at some examples:

Subject (Noun Phrase) Predicate (Verb Phrase)

Tommy runs.

Subject (Noun Phrase) Predicate (Verb Phrase)

The boy Verb Object
kicked the ball.

Subject (Noun Phrase) Predicate (Verb Phrase)

Jane Verb Compliment
felt sad.

A simple sentence isn’t always a short sentence. You can add adjectives, adverbs and
prepositional phrases without changing it into a complex sentence, as long as you still have only
one verb phrase.

Here is an example with an adverb:

Subject (Noun Phrase) Predicate (Verb Phrase)

Tommy Verb adverb
runs fast.

and here is an example with a prepositional phrase and an adjective:

Subject (Noun Phrase) Predicate (Verb Phrase)

The boy with black hair Verb object
kicked the orange ball.

Activity 1: Write 2 statements in each simple sentence pattern above. Write in cursive!

1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
 Asian Institute of Computer Studies
Logic
Finals Term

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5.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 2
Quantification or Generalization

In this final lesson on symbolic logic, we'll take a very brief look at modern methods of
representing the internal structure of propositions in first-order predicate calculus (or quantification
theory). Incorporating all of the propositional calculus along with a few new symbols and rules of
inference, the predicate calculus provides another way of handling the same logical forms we
examined in our study of categorical logic.

Individuals, Predicates, and Quantifiers

In addition to the familiar symbols of the propositional calculus, quantification theory also
employs special symbols of four special sorts:

• individual constants ( a, b, c, etc. ) represent particular individual things—Allison, Bill, or this

car, for example.
• predicate constants ( F, G, H, etc. ) represent specific predicates—free, greedy, or heavy, for
example.

Writing an individual symbol directly after a predicate symbol signifies that this thing has that
property. Thus, using the above examples, Fa, Gb, and Hc would signify "Allison is free," "Bill is
greedy," and "This car is heavy" respectively.

Activity 2: Transform the following sentences in their symbolic form:

1. I love to paint. __________________________________________

2. The administrator is angry. __________________________________________
3. The global economy is trying to surge. __________________________________________
4. Stephen is the only person that I adore. __________________________________________
5. God is good. __________________________________________

Since these are complete statements, they can be combined using the statement connectives to form
such compound statements.
As follows:
Statement Form Symbolic Form
Allison is free and Bill is greedy. Fa • Gb

Activity 3. Write some compound statements out of the sentences in Act. 2 using the connectors and,
or, if and then and a negated compound statement. Write in cursive!

(And)._________________________________________________________________________________________________
__ (Or).
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(if and then)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
(negation)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4. Transform the statements in Act. 3 into symbolic form. Using the principles above.

1. ________________________________
 Asian Institute of Computer Studies
Logic
Finals Term

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2. ________________________________
3. ________________________________
4. ________________________________

Your notes here:

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 Asian Institute of Computer Studies
Logic
Finals Term

Name: _________________________________________ Section: __________ Campus:

_____________

Remarks and Scores

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Lesson 3
General and Particular
The Traditional Subject Predicate Propositions
I. Universal Quantifiers
1. Universal Affirmative
- also known as A proposition.
- applies to ALL the individual of the same kind
-symbolized by (x)
Statement Form Symbolic Form
All humans are mortal. (x) (Ma)

2. Universal Negative
-Also known as the E proposition
-applies to ALL the individual of the same kind (negatively)
-symbolized by (x)

No animals are human. (x)(〜Ha)

II. Existential Quantifiers

3. Particular Affirmative
-Also known as the I proposition
-applies to SOME the individual of the same kind
-symbolized by (∃ x)

Some animals think . (∃ x)(Ts)

3. Particular Negative
-Also known as the O proposition
-applies to SOME the individual of the same kind (negatively)
-symbolized by (∃ x)

Some animals do not think (∃ x) (〜Ts)

Activity 5: Write three (3) sentences patterned to the four (4) basic types of proposition. Write in
cursive!
A. Universal Affirmative:
1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Universal Negative
1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Particular Affirmative
1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
D. Particular Negative
1.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 6: Transform your statements in Activity 5 into logical notation.

A 1. 2. 3.
E 1. 2. 3.
I 1. 2. 3.
O 1. 2. 3.
 Asian Institute of Computer Studies
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Lesson 4
The Logical Equivalence

Nothing is perfect!
≡
Everything is imperfect!

Universal and Existential quantifiers exhibit a unique relationship. In this principle the following and
logical equivalent and can substitute each other whenever it occurs.

Note: The Greek Phi (⍬) represents and simple predicate.

[(x) ⍬x] ≡ [〜(∃ x)〜⍬x]
[(∃ x)⍬x] ≡ [〜(x) 〜⍬x]
[(x) 〜⍬x] ≡ [〜(∃ x)⍬x]
[(∃ x)〜⍬x] ≡ [〜(x) ⍬x]

CONTRARIES
[(x) ⍬ x] [(x) 〜 ⍬ x]
Assumptions:

1. The two top propositions cannot be both true.

2. The two bottom proposition cannot be both false.

3. The contradictory propositions should be the other is true and the remaining is false.

4. The truth of the lower proposition is implied by the truth above it.
CONTRADICTORIES

Activity 7: Provide the Equivalent of the following logical [(∃ x)⍬x]

notations: SUBCONTRARIES
[(∃ x) 〜〜 x]

1. (x)(Ax) ≡ ________________

2. 〜(x)(Nx) ≡ ________________

3. [〜(∃ x)〜Hx] ≡ ________________

4. [〜(∃ x)〜Dx] ≡ ________________

5. [(x) 〜Lx] ≡ ________________

Lesson 5
General and Particular
The Traditional Subject Predicate Propositions
Complex Form

I. Universal Quantifiers
1. Universal Affirmative
 Asian Institute of Computer Studies
Logic
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All humans are mortal. If it is human then it is mortal.
(x) (Ma) Hx⊃Mx
And to express this into logical A proposition notation:
(x) (Hx ⊃ Mx)

2. Universal Negative
No animals are human. If it is an animal then it is not human.
(x)(〜Ha) Ax ⊃ 〜Hx
And to express this into a logical E proposition notation
(x)(Ax ⊃ 〜Hx)
II. Existential Quantifiers
3. Particular Affirmative
-Also known as the I proposition
-applies to SOME the individual of the same kind
-symbolized by (∃ x)
Some animals think . There is at least one animal that can think.
There is at least an x that is an animal and can think.
There is at least an x that is an animal • can think
(∃ x)(Ts) Ax • Tx
And to express this into a logical E proposition notation
(∃ x) (Ax • Tx)
3. Particular Negative
-Also known as the O proposition
-applies to SOME the individual of the same kind (negatively)
-symbolized by (∃ x)
Some animals do not think There is at least one animal that does not
thinks.
There is at least an x that is an animal but does not
thinks.
There is at least an x that is an animal • does not
thinks.
(∃ x) (〜Ts) Ax • 〜Tx
And to express this into a logical E proposition notation
(∃ x) (Ax • 〜Tx)

Activity 8: Transform the following statements into a complex proposition notation:

1. All Filipinos are hardworking.

________________________________________________________

2. Sparrows are not animals.

________________________________________________________

3. Reporters are present.

________________________________________________________

4. Diplomats are not always rich.

________________________________________________________

5. Snake bites are sometimes fatal.

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