Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY AND MODEL ESSAY 1

Instructional Theory and Model Essay

Laura Ray

Grand Canyon University: TEC 516

September 6, 2017
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There are many theories that help explain how we learn, but none that have been accepted

as complete in describing all the nuances of learning. Aldridge and Goldman state that “no one

theory has proved adequate to describe and explain learning or development” (2007). However,

many theories help to guide teachers on the arduous task of teaching to all learners, not as a

definitive guide, but more like puzzle pieces that fit together to help give a more complete

picture to the art of learning.

Instructional Theories

The mid-twentieth century gave rise to many educational theories and theorist. Many

notable theorists based their work on B.F. Skinner, a researcher who believed that learning was a

cause and effect relationship based on rewards and punishments (Roblyer, 2016). From this idea

stemmed the research and ideas of Robert Gagne, whose book The Conditions of Learning,

published in 1965, “identified the mental conditions that are necessary for effective learning”

(Mind Tools Ltd). His Cognitive-Behaviorist theories were the basis for his nine step process

which he called the “Events of Instruction” (Robyler, 2017) that he believed was essential for

learning. While he is best known for this nine step process, it is the theories of education that

provided the basis for these steps.

Gagne’s theory relies on the idea of a framework, where levels of knowledge are built

over time, with low levels of knowledge providing the basis for the higher levels (Robyler,

2017). In this method, students demonstrate knowledge of basic skills before moving on to more

complex skills. There is a logical sequence to the events of the instruction as teachers guide

students from task to task providing objectives, presenting new material, guiding in instruction,

assessing, and giving feedback. This sequence of events proved to be so effective that his nine
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steps were not only widely accepted into general teaching, but were employed in US military

training (Culatta, 2015).

While Behaviorist believe that learning is input and demonstration, other educational

theorist believe that learning is more personal than just repetition of skills. These thinkers, who

came to known as Constructivists, like John Dewey, tended to focus more the philosophical and

developmental stages of children and learners (Robyler, 2016). John Dewey believed, among

other things, that education should be based on one’s own interests, hands-on, integrated with

other ideas, and taught in context. Additionally he believed that learning should be thought of as

growth, not an acquisition of specific skills (Robyler, 2016).

These ideas show stark contrast to the Behaviorist ideas of Gagne. Both of these theorists

use a model where students and teachers work together in the learning environment, but the

execution of this teaching and learning would look very different. Gagne’s ideas give a method

to teaching specific skills, like how to multiple numbers, using algorithms and repetitive practice.

Dewey, on the other hand, would promote a project, like budgeting your income, which would

give students an opportunity to practice a skills in a contextual way, so learners can connect with

the information and see the use of learning it.

Though neither lived long enough to see the information age as we do now, they may

both agree that the use of computers in the classroom is beneficial, though for different reasons.

Gagne may support the use of computers for their ability to provide skill-and-drill practice for

students, where they can quickly access and demonstrate mastery of a skill, so as to move on to

the next. We use programs such as Dreambox for math, that tracks student skill and moves them

to more complex skills when they demonstrate mastery. Dewey, on the other hand, may be a fan
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of Google Apps for Education, where students can collaborate on projects and have choice in

how they demonstrate their knowledge.

Both methods have their place in education and in the classroom, and supporters of both

could tout their effectiveness. However, as we move from era that needs workers to be skilled in

one area, for example keeping a ledger of a client’s expenses, to one that needs workers to be

able to solve problems, for example, where I should invest based on my income and liquid

assets, students must also learn to be problems solvers. For that reason, Dewey’s ideals may

better serve our students. Rather than learn a specific set of skills, like multiplying, which they

could easily find an answer to online, students in Dewey’s setting would learn to problem solve,

and therefore be able to apply that learning to new challenges. If our goal really is to create

“college and career ready” students the way our state standards expect, then the “ability to

effectively communicate, collaborate, and adapt to situations will be critical to ensuring

competition in a global market ( Arizona Department of Education, 2017). Therefore, the need to

work collaboratively and be mentally flexible is vital. “Problem-solving is a universal job skill

that applies to any position and every industry” (Career Builder, 2017).

Instructional Models

Risen from the theories of these founding educational thinkers were instructional

strategies to use in the classroom. Educators developed models to help other teachers implement

these fundamental theories into the practice of their teaching. Once such instructional model is

backwards design. “Understanding by Design is a book written by Grant Wiggins and Jay

McTighe that offers a framework for designing courses and content units called “Backward

Design”.” (McDaniel, 2010). According to McDaniel, this backwards design methods invites

teachers to think of the end goals first, then carefully and thoughtfully plan activities and lessons
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that help students reach the goals. Learning goals are not meant to be specific data, but rather

large, over-arching themes that encompass a wide range of knowledge and skills (2010). In

practice, teachers would examine the themes in the standards identifying specific goals, develop

tests that assess those goals, and develop lessons and activities that help students learn the

knowledge and skills that comprise the goal. By beginning with the end in mind, teachers can do

away with activities just for the sake of doing them, and focus on the learning outcomes

(McDaniel, 2010). This model reflects the constructivist ideals of broader goals instead of finite

skills, cooperative learning rather than individual task completion.

Another instructional model is that of Benjamin Bloom. His research in education led to

the finding that students were most tested on basic recall of facts, and not higher levels of

knowledge (Instructional Design Central, LLC, 2017). This led to his identification of six levels

in learning, from recall to application to evaluation of knowledge. Like Behaviorists, Bloom

believed that knowledge was built upon knowledge, and so basics must be taught in order for

more complex skills to be utilized (Armstrong, 2017). But unlike the Behaviorists, his model

gave educators a framework for using a wider range of activities to deepen meaning for the

learner.

Both methods ask the teacher to thoughtfully plan out lessons, beginning with a broad

goal and working in a backward manner to develop meaningful activities, rather than provide an

opportunity for just basic skill practice. In Bloom’s method, the goal is the highest level of

cognition, that students evaluate and create new work. In Wiggins and McTighe’s Backwards

Design, the goal is identified by the teacher, but usually reflects the highest cognitions as well.

These two instructional models take a different approach, and separately are effective on their

own, but the value of each could be the combination of the two. A teacher planning out a unit of
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instruction could first look to the overarching goals for lasting knowledge that she seeks to

impart or guide the students to find. As she plans the unit, she would intentionally choose

activities at varying levels of knowledge, giving the students basic vocabulary and skills, then

building toward performance, synthesis, and creation. By bringing together these two methods,

the teacher can build deep and lasting knowledge.

In the plan to integrate technology into lesson planning, there are benefits no matter what

philosophies and methods you apply. According to Robyler (2016), there are a variety of

method that would suit either philosophical approach. Robyler asserts that teachers of at risk

kids report students’ attention and interest is the biggest challenge and the biggest key to success

in the classroom (2016). The visual and interactive nature of technology provides a motivating

environment, whether for skill practice or synthesis of information.

Technology is an option for teachers looking to provide small group learning

experiences, but who lack additional personnel such as an instructional aid. The teacher can use

computer programs that provide specific skill practice at the level of the learner while she works

directly with others in a small group on something like reading fluency. This can be a

management challenge for teachers, as students who are not working directly with the teacher

can tend to be off task, but technology, with its high interest motivation and direct monitoring of

progress, can keep students on task.

There are many philosophies that try to explain and direct the art of teaching and the

endeavor of learning. Methods from Constructivist theories and Behaviorist theories have

proven successful over years of practice in the classroom. The “best” methods may be the those

that show learning and growth in one’s own students.

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References

Aldridge, J., & Goldman, R. L. (2007). Current issues and trends in education. Boston, MA:

Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Arizona Department of Education. (2017). Standards. Retrieved September 06, 2017, from

http://www.azed.gov/ccr/standards/

Armstrong, P. (2017). Bloom's Taxonomy. Retrieved September 06, 2017, from

https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/

Career Builder. (2017, June 13). What are problem-solving skills and why are they important?

Retrieved September 06, 2017, from http://www.careerbuilder.com/advice/what-are-

problemsolving-skills-and-why-are-they-important

Culatta, R. (2015). Military. Retrieved September 05, 2017, from

http://www.instructionaldesign.org/domains/military.html

Instructional Design Central, LLC. (2017). Instructional Design Models. Retrieved September

02, 2017, from https://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/instructionaldesignmodels

McDaniel, R. (2010). Understanding by Design. Retrieved September 06, 2017, from

https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/understanding-by-design/

Mind Tools Ltd. (2017). Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning: Training Your Team Effectively.

Retrieved September 05, 2017, from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/gagne.htm

Roblyer, M. D. (2016). Integrating educational technology into teaching (7th ed.). Pearson.