Directing

 Leading in achieving the day-to-day tasks necessary to implement the management plan and
ensure a smooth-running facility
 Human factor stage, in which both leadership and managerial skills come to the forefront
 Need to address the faults that were overlooked in the planning and organizing phases

Leadership
 Process of influencing the efforts of others to achieve designated organizational goals
 Leadership systems/ Management styles:
a. Exploitative and authoritative
- Managers view workers only as tools and means of production and feel no further
obligation to them
b. Benevolent and authoritative
- “Paternalistic approach”
- Managers feel they know what is best for their employees and need only inform and
direct their actions, without seeking any feedback
c. Consultative
- Manager feels the opinions and advice of staff are useful, but all decisions remain the
exclusive purview of the manager
d. Participative
- Input and responsibility for decision-making and performance are placed directly on the
staff, or as close as possible, with only general guidance and oversight from management.
- Inclusion team approach, in which the worth of all the members are recognized

Leadership Models

I. Based on Leadership Behavior

1. Employee-oriented versus Production-oriented leadership styles

When it comes to level of productivity, employee-oriented managers tend to surprisingly outperform

production-oriented managers
a. Employee-oriented managers
- Basic features:
a. Has strong ties with their employees
b. Spends more of their time in actual supervision rather than in production work
c. Supervises less closely while allowing workers more latitude in performing their
duties
d. Demonstrates concern for their people both on and off the job

b. Production-oriented managers
- Tends to emphasize high productivity at the expense of all other factors
- Spends majority of their time on production-related problems
- Views their workers as only tools for use by the company in the manufacturing process

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 2. Structure versus Consideration Leadership styles

a. Leadership behaviour associated with initiating structures

- Marked by emphasis on actively directing the staff toward getting the work done:
a. Paying attention to assigning particular tasks
b. Specifying and clarifying what is expected of subordinates and uniformity of the
procedures to be followed
c. Personally deciding what and how work will be done.

b. Consideration behaviour
- Typified by managers’ efforts to:
a. Explain their action
b. Treat workers as equals
c. Listen to subordinates’ concerns
d. Look out for their personal welfare
e. Give advance notice of changes
f. Be generally friendly and approachable

Ohio State Leadership Quadrants Matrix

High High
Consideration Structure
High

and Low and High

Structure Consideration
Consideration

Low High
Structure Structure
and Low and Low
Consideration Consideration
Low

Initiating Structure
Low High

**Studies have shown that groups with leaders who score high in both dimensions usually
demonstrate the best overall performance
3. The Managerial Grid
- Devised by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton
- Based on the assumption that management style is influenced by five factors:
a. Attitudes and assumptions of the manager
b. Policies and procedures of the organization
c. Day-to-day operational situation
d. Social and personal values of the manager
e. Chance
- Shows the relationship between concern for people (consideration orientation) and
production (structure orientation)

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 The Managerial Grid

Country Club Management Team Management

Thoughtful attention to the needs of
people for satisfying relationships
leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere & work
tempo
Work accomplishment is from
committed people; interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.

Middle-of-the-Road Management

Adequate organization performance is possible

through balancing the necessity to carry out the
work with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.

Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance

Exertion of minimum effort to get Efficiency in operations results from

required work done is appropriate to arranging conditions of work in such
sustain organization membership a way that human elements interfere
to a minimum degree

1,1 Impoverished management

- Aka ”laissez faire” leadership
- Leaders in this position have little concern for people or productivity, avoid taking sides , and
stay out of conflicts
- Leaders just do enough to get by

1,9 Country Club Management

- Managers in this position have great concern for people and little concern for production
- They try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on being well-liked
- To them, the task is less important than good interpersonal relations
- Main goal is to make people happy

9,1 Authority-obedience management

- Managers in this position have great concern for production and little concern for people.
- They desire tight control in order to get tasks done efficiently.
- They consider creativity and human relations to be unnecessary.

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5,5 Organization man management
- “Middle-of-the road management”
- Leaders in this position have medium concern for people and production
- Attempt to balance their concern for both people and production but are not committed to either

9+9 (1,9 + 9,1) Paternalistic, “Father Knows Best” Management

- Reward is promised for compliance and punishment threatened for noncompliance

Opp Opportunistic, “what’s in it for me? Management

- Management depends on which style the leader feels will bring the greatest self-benefit

9,9 Team Management

- Considered to be ideal
- Such managers have great concern for both people and production
- Managers work to motivate employees to reach their highest levels of accomplishment
- Managers are flexible and responsive to change, and they understand the need to change

4. Theory X and Theory Y

- Proposed by Douglas McGregor
- Based from the Pygmalion effect
a. Students tend to learn and perform in the manner anticipated by their teachers
b. If students perceive that their teachers expect them to do well, they do. If they
pick up signals that they are expected to perform badly, the prophecy becomes
self-fulfilling

Theory X managers
- Tend to be autocratic and dictatorial
- Allow for little input from their staff
- Believe that people:
a. Are inherently lazy and dislike work
b. Must be coerced into performing their duties by constant supervision and
maintenance of tight operational control
c. Have no ambition and little interest in improving their efficiency on their own
and must be prodded to produce

Theory Y managers
- Participatory in their leadership style, seek advice and counsel from coworkers, and
allow employees to share in the decision-making processes
- Believe that:
a. Work is a natural part of life
b. People have a high degree of ingenuity and creativity that they are eager to apply
to the job
c. Worker potential is only partially tapped by the company
d. Workers are self-learners and seek responsibility for their performance
e. Workers exercise self-control and self-discipline if they are committed to a goal,
and the strength of this commitment depends on the reward associated with the
achievement.

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 **Theory Z managers
- Believe that the self-controlled and self-regulated characteristic of workers contained in
Theory Y is cultural, and as a result changing societal goals must be included in today’s
workplace.
- For example, according to Theory Z, productivity and rewards are not the only objectives
of people; issues such as quality of their work lives is also crucial to their motivation.

II. Situational Leadership Models

1. Contingency Model
- An effective leader must be able to analyse the situation and develop a satisfactory
strategy for intervention
- The success of a manager as a leader is dependent on two factors:
a. Leadership style of the manager
 Relationship-oriented managers: Emphasize good interpersonal
relationships as an important means of accomplishing work-related goals
 Task-oriented managers: Focus on completing a job first and taking care
of people as secondary to accomplishing their primary mission
b. Favorableness
- The amount of power, control, and influence wielded by a manager in a
particular set of circumstances
- Three components that establish favorableness:
 Leader-member relations: level of confidence and trust between the
leader and members of the staff
 Task structure: Amount of formal structure imposed on work
assignments
* Highly structured jobs present the manager with the most
control
* Unstructured task settings, such as the work in the medical
laboratory, and other technical positions in which the employees
may be as knowledgeable as the supervisor, provide the leader
with considerably less control
 Position power: degree of influence that the manager exerts on the
reward and punishment system of the institution
Note: Very favorable or very unfavourable conditions are usually best handled by a task-
oriented leader while moderately favorable or moderately unfavourable conditions are most
effectively handled by relationship-oriented leaders.

2. Continuum of Leadership model

- Managers can move along a continuum ranging from completely autocratic to democratic
- Recognizes seven degrees of leadership
a. Boss-centered leadership : 1 to 3 range
1. Total use of authority by the supervisor: supervisor makes all the decisions
and merely announces the decision to the workers
2. The manager makes all decisions but attempts to sell and persuade the staff
of the validity of his or her viewpoint

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 3. The boss makes all decisions but invites input, suggestions, and questions
from the staff

b. Equilibrium/ Shared boss-subordinate leadership: 4

4. Manager makes all decisions but seeks support and approval from the
subordinates

c. Subordinate-centered leadership: 5 to 7 range

5. Supervisor gathers the data and defines the problems, then sees suggestions
and recommendations for solutions before making a decision
6. Manager provides information, supervision and guidance but requests that
the staff make the decisions.
7. Manager focuses on setting general policies and procedures for the
department but allows total freedom and responsibility to the employees to
function and make decisions with these broadly defined boundaries
3. Normative Theory
- Also referred to as the Vroom-Yetton decision model
- Provides normative guidelines and recommendations for the way a leader should make
decisions in a specific set of workplace conditions.
- Classifies decision-making method as autocratic, consultative, or group-oriented
- Five possible behaviour styles:
**Legend: A: Autocratic, C: Consultative; G: Group-oriented

A-I: Manager makes decision based on the current information available

A-II: Manager seeks necessary information from subordinates before making a decision
C-I: Manager shares the problem with selected individuals before making a decision
C-II: Manager shares the problem with all the members of the group but makes the final
decision
G: Manager shares the problem with the group and a decision is reached by consensus

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