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CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING DEARTMENT

ChE 526
Biochemical Engineering

CHAPTER 7
FLUID FLOW

Geron, Mark William A.

Hernandez, Marianne D.
Kalaw, Krizzel Q.
Makalintal, Thaddeus M.
ChE-5201

February 13, 2017

 CHAPTER 7

FLUID FLOW

Introduction

Fluid flow is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids (liquids
and gases). It has several sub disciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other
gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide
range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining
the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns,
understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modeling fission weapon detonation.

Classifications of fluids

When a fluid flows past a point or through a path different parameters associated with
the flow of the fluid vary in different patterns. In this article we will study classification of fluid
flow in different types according to the conditional variations of the flow parameters with space
and time.

When a fluid flows past a point or through path different parameters associated with the
flow of the fluid, certain parameters vary and others may remain constant.

The two basic parameters of any fluid flow are velocity of the fluid particle or element
and the pressure of the fluid at the point under consideration. The flow of fluids can be classified
in different patterns based on the variation of the flow parameters with time and distance. The
benefit of characterizing the fluid flow as certain patterns helps in analyzing it under the
appropriate solution paradigm.

Classification Based on Variation with Time

The classification of the fluid flow based on the variation of the fluid flow parameters with
time characterizes the flow in two categories, steady and unsteady flow. If the flow parameters,
such as velocity, pressure, density and discharge do not vary with time or are independent of
time then the flow is steady. If the flow parameters vary with time then the flow is categorized as
unsteady.

In real conditions it is very rare to have such flows with parameters exactly constant with
time. The parameters usually vary with time but variation is within a small range such as the
average of particular parameter is constant for certain duration of time.

Classification Based on Variation with Space

The other classification criterion for the fluid flow is based on the variation of the flow
parameters with distance or space. It characterizes the flow as uniform or non-uniform. The fluid
flow is a uniform flow if the flow parameters remain constant with distance along the flow path.
And the fluid flow is non-uniform if the flow parameters vary and are different at different points
on the flow path.
 For a uniform flow, by its definition, the area of the cross section of the flow should
remain constant. So a fitting example of the uniform flow is the flow of a liquid thorough a
pipeline of constant diameter. And contrary to this the flow through a pipeline of variable
diameter would be necessarily non-uniform.

Fluids in motion

Streamline the path of a particle in a fluid relative to a solid body past which the fluid is
moving in smooth flow without turbulence

Shear stress

Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving along solid boundary will incur a
shear stress on that boundary. The no-slip condition dictates that the speed of the fluid at the
boundary (relative to the boundary) is zero, but at some height from the boundary the flow
speed must equal that of the fluid. The region between these two points is aptly named
the boundary layer. For all Newtonian fluids in laminar flow the shear stress is proportional to
the strain rate in the fluid where the viscosity is the constant of proportionality. However,
for non-Newtonian fluids, this is no longer the case as for these fluids the viscosity is not
constant. The shear stress is imparted onto the boundary as a result of this loss of velocity.
Reynolds number

The Reynolds number (Re) is an important dimensionless quantity in fluid

mechanics that is used to help predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. It is widely
used in many applications ranging from liquid flow in a pipe to the passage of air over an aircraft
wing. The Reynolds Number is valuable as a guide to the laminar-turbulent transition in a
particular flow situation, and for the scaling of similar but different-sized flow situations, such as
between an aircraft model in a wind tunnel and the full size version. The predictions of onset of
turbulence and the ability to calculate scaling effects can be used to help predict fluid behaviour
on a larger scale, such as in local or global air or water movement and thereby the associated
meteorological and climatological effects.

The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid which
is subject to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities, in what is known as
a boundary layer in the case of a bounding surface such as the interior of a pipe. A similar effect
is created by the introduction of a stream of higher velocity fluid, such as the hot gases from a
flame in air. This relative movement generates fluid friction, which is a factor in developing
turbulent flow. Counteracting this effect is the viscosity of the fluid, which as it increases,
progressively inhibits turbulence, as more kinetic energy is absorbed by a more viscous fluid.
The Reynolds number quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given
flow conditions, and is a guide to when turbulent flow will occur in a particular situation.

Hydrodynamic boundary layer

When fluid flows along a wall, the fluid right next to the wall sticks to the wall. That fluid
shears the fluid next to it and slows it down. As you move farther out in the flow, you go through
a region (called a boundary layer) in which the fluid farther out is moving faster than the fluid
closer to the wall. By the time you have gotten out to the place where the speed is essentially
equal to the wind speed away from the wall, then you are outside the boundary layer. Typically
the boundary layer is quite thin. This is the hydrodynamic boundary layer,
Boundary layer separation

Boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from the surface into a
broader wake. Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion of the boundary layer closest
to the wall or leading edge reverses in flow direction. The separation point is defined as the
point between the forward and backward flow, where the shear stress is zero. The overall
boundary layer initially thickens suddenly at the separation point and is then forced off the
surface by the reversed flow at its bottom.

Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear

stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness"; for
example, honey has a much higher viscosity than water.

Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the two
surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. When the fluid is forced
through a tube, the particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the
tube's axis and more slowly near its walls; therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to
keep the fluid moving. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the
fluid's viscosity.
 Viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers
move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the idealized
situation known as a Couette flow, where a layer of fluid is trapped between two horizontal
plates, one fixed and one moving horizontally at constant speed {\displaystyle u}This fluid has to
be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses.

Kinematic Viscosity
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

Newton's law of viscosity is a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law, Ohm's
law): it is not a fundamental law of nature but an approximation that holds in some materials and
fails in others.

A fluid that behaves according to Newton's law, with a viscosity μ that is independent of
the stress, is said to be Newtonian. Gases, water, and many common liquids can be considered
Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. There are many non-Newtonian fluids that
significantly deviate from that law in some way or other. For example:

 Shear-thickening liquids, whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain.
 Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear strain.
 Thixotropic liquids, that become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or
otherwise stressed.
 Rheopectic liquids, that become more viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or
otherwise stressed.
 Bingham plastics that behave as a solid at low stresses but flow as a viscous fluid at
high stresses.
 Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic.

Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity usually depends on its composition and
temperature. For gases and other compressible fluids, it depends on temperature and varies
very slowly with pressure.

The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A magnetorheological fluid,
for example, becomes thicker when subjected to a magnetic field, possibly to the point of
behaving like a solid.
MOMENTUM TRANSFER

Viscous drag forces responsible for the velocity gradient are the instrument of
momentum transfer. Momentum transfer in fluid is represented by,

dv
  
dy

 The shear stress τ is considered to be the flux of x-momentum in the y direction

where dv/dy acts as the driving force

According the equation given, the flux of momentum is directly proportional to the
velocity gradient dv/dy. The negative sign means that momentum is transferred from
regions of high velocity to regions of low velocity, thus slope is also negative.
  Non-Newotnian Fluid

In contrast to Newtonian fluids, the flow curves are not straight lines in this kind
of fluid. Apparent viscosity (  a ) can be used to define non-Newtonian fluids. Samples of
Bingham plastic, Bingham pseudoplastic, dilatants and pseudoplastics.


a 


Types of Non-Newtonian Fluid

 Two-Parameter Models

  K n
 Where: τ = shear stress

K = consistency index

Γ = shear rate

n = flow behavior index

n<1 pseudoplastic fluids

n>1 dilatant
  Time-Dependent Viscosity
o Rheopectic –apparent viscosity increases with time
o Thixotropic – apparent viscosity decreases with time. It is common in
cultures containing fungal mycelia or extracellular microbial
polysaccharides . It appears to be related to reversible structure effects
associated with the orientation of cells and macromolecules in the fluid

 Viscoelasticity

Viscoelastic fluid exhibit and elastic response to changes in sear stress.

The direction of flow may be reversed due to elastic forces developed during
flow. Example of viscoelastic fluid is a polymer solution.

Viscosity Measurement

 The objective of any viscosity measurement system is to create a controlled flow

situation where easily measured parameters can be related to shear stress and
shear rate

 Three types of viscometer used in bioprocessing

 Cone-and-plate

- The cone is rotated in the fluid and the

angular velocity Ω and torque M are
measured.

- Temperature can be controlled by

circulation water from a constant
temperature bath beneath the plate.

 Coaxial cylinder

- Used form easuring

rheological properties

- Designed to shear
fluid located in the
annulus between two
concentric cylinders.
  Impeller

- A small impeller on a stirring shaft is used to shear the fluid sample.

As the impeller rotated slowly, accurate measurements of torque
and rotational speed are made.

 where k is a constant that dependes on the geometry of the

impeller

Use of Viscometers with Fermentation Broths

 The fermentation broths often appears time-dependent due to artefacts

associated with the measuring device

 Common problems encountered with viscometers

1. The suspension is effectively centrifuged in the viscometer, so that a

region with lower cell density is formed near the rotating surface

2. Solids settle out of suspension during measurement

3. Cell clumps of about the same size as the gap in the coaxial cyclinder
viscometer or cone angle in the cone-and-plate device, interfere with
accurate measurement

4. The measurement depends somewhat on the orientation of cells and cell

clumps in the flow fields

5. Some types of cell begin to flocculate or deflocculate when the shear field
is applied

6. Cells can be destroyed during measurement.

Rheological Properties of Fermentation Broths
7.8 FACTORS AFFECTING FERMENTATION BROTH VISCOSITY

Changes in the rheology of fermentation are caused by variation in one or more of the
following properties:

 Cell Concentration
 Cell Morphology, including size, shape, mass and vacuolation
 Flexibility and deformability of cells
 Osmotic Pressure of the suspending fluid
 Concentration of polymeric substrate
 Concentration of polymeric product
 Rate of shear

1. Cell Concentration
VAND EQUATION: 𝝁 = 𝝁𝑳 (𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟓𝝋 + 𝟕. 𝟐𝟓𝝋𝟐 )
where:
𝜇𝐿 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜑 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

This equation has been found to hold for yeast and spore suspensions at
concentrations up to 14% solids. Many other cell suspensions do not obey this
equation; cell concentrations can have a much stronger influence on rheological
properties than is predicted by the Vand equation.

Note: When the viscosity is so strongly dependent on cell concentration, a sleep

drop in viscosity can be achieved by diluting the broth with water or medium.
Periodic removal of the culture and refilling with fresh medium can thus be used
to reduce the viscosity and improve fluid flow in viscous fermentations.

2. Cell Morphology
Small mono-dispersed cells such as bacteria and yeast do not significantly
affect the properties of fermentation broths. However, the morphological
characteristics of other cell types, particularly filamentous organisms and plant
cells, can exert a profound influence on broth rheology. Filamentous fungi and
actinomycetes produce a variety of morphologies depending on the culture
conditions.
Factors influencing the morphology of filamentous organism and their
tendency to clump include pH, growth rate, medium composition and ionic
strength, dissolved oxygen tension, and agitation intensity.

3. Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure of the culture medium affects cell turgor pressure.
This in turn affects the hyphal flexibility of filamentous cells; increased osmotic
pressure gives a lower turgor pressure, making the hyphae more flexible.
Improved hyphal flexibility reduces broth viscosity and can also have a marked
effect on yield stress.
 4. Product and Substrate Concentrations
When the product of fermentation is a polymer, continued excretion of the
product in batch culture raises broth viscosity. Cell concentration usually has a
negligible effect on the overall viscosity in these fermentations; the rheological
properties of the fluid are dominated by the dissolved polymer.
In contrast, when the fermentation medium contains a polymeric substrate
such as starch, the apparent viscosity will decrease as the fermentation
progresses and the polymer is broken down. In mycelial fermentations this
change is usually short-lived; as the cells grow and develop a structures
filamentous network, the broth becomes increasingly pseudoplastic and viscous
even though the polymeric substrate is being consumed.

7.9 TURBULENCE
1. Nature of Turbulent Flow
As the Reynolds Number increases , inertial forces dominate viscous forces in
the fluid, thus overcoming the tendency of viscous effects to dampen flow
instabilities. Turbulence can be regarded as highly disordered fluid motion
resulting from the growth of instabilities in an initially laminar flow field.

Mean and Fluctuating Velocities

Turbulent flow is characterized by random, erratic, and unsteady movements of
the fluid particles in different directions.

TURBULENT FLOW
An important property of turbulent flow is its velocity and the way in which
local velocities fluctuate with time.
Instantaneous velocity components are comprised of two parts: a time-averaged
value reflecting the overall or gross characteristics of the flow, and a fluctuating element
representing the irregular, secondary motion. Therefore:

Where; 𝑣=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 ′ 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

For a collection of n values of 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 , measured at a fixed position under identical

conditions, the time- averaged value can be calculated as the ensemble mean:
 Where n is a large number and
∑𝑛 𝑣 is the sum of the values of v.
The fluctuating elements take
positive or negative values as the
velocity components deviate from
their respective means. It follows that the definition of the mean is that:
Therefore, the sums of the positive and negative
fluctuating elements of the velocity components tend to
be zero.

The extent to which the turbulent velocity in the x,y, or z direction deviates from the
mean flow velocity is usually reported as the root mean square of the fluctuating velocity
component, commonly known as rms fluctuating velocity. For n values of 𝑣′𝑥 , 𝑣′𝑦 , 𝑣′𝑧

measured at a fixed position under identical conditions;

Turbulent flow can become steady or stationary if external conditions and other
properties of the system are maintained constant. Sensory means that the statistical
properties of the flow are independent of time, even though the instantaneous
properties continue to fluctuate. If turbulence is steady, the mean properties of the flow
field are also considered to be independent of the initial conditions applied to generate
the flow.
Eddies and Scales of Turbulence
Turbulent flows develop spinning or twirling fluid structures called eddies.
Turbulent flow is therefore relational and vorticity. Eddies are capable of stretching,
coalescing and dividing; such eddying motion is a characteristic feature of turbulence.
Very steep gradients of velocity are associated with eaddies; in other words, in eddies,
fluid velocities undergo great changes in magnitude and direction within relatively short
distances.
The size of the largest eddies is limited by the boundaries of the flow
system.
 The range of eddy sizes becomes wider as the Reynolds number
increases because the smallest eddies reduce in size with increasing fluid
velocity or decreasing viscosity.
Transition to Turbulence
In flows that are originally laminar, turbulence arises from the development of
instabilities at high Reynold’s number. Experiments have shown that the transition is
commonly initiated by primary instabilities that produce isolated, two-dimensional,
secondary vortex motions. These vortices grow, merge and become unstable, thus
generating intense, localised, three-dimensional disturbances or turbulent spots’ that
arise at random times and positions.

2. Turbulence Properties
Turbulence Intensity
The intensity of turbulence depends on the magnitude of the fluctuating
components of the velocity. Because this property is incorporated into the definition of
rms fluctuating velocity, the rms velocities are direct indicators of turbulence intensity. It
can also be reported as dimensionless quantity relative to some characteristic or
reference velocity;

Where 𝑣 ′ is the uniform time-averaged velocity in

the men direction of flow.

Alternatively, in stirred systems, turbulence intensity is often

reported relative to the tip speed of the impeller 𝑣𝑡𝑖𝑝 .

𝑣𝑡𝑖𝑝 is calculated from the impeller size and speed:

𝑣𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 𝜋𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑖
where Ni is the speed of impeller rotation and Di is the impeller diameter.

Typically, turbulence intensities range from 0.01 t0 0.2 of the average flow
velocity. However, in stirred tanks, the turbulence intensity can be as high as 1
close to the impeller, blades, dropping rapidly to a maximum of about 0.1 in the
rest of the vessel.

Turbulence Kinetic Energy

The turbulence kinetic energy per unit mass of
fluid, which is usually given the symbol k, related to the
fluctuating velocity component as follows:

Turbulence kinetic energy is one of the most important parameters used to characterize
flow fields in stirred bioreactors.

Reynolds Stresses
 Shear stress 𝜏 for laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid was given by Newton’s law of
viscosity.
 In Laminar flow, shear stresses exist in fluids because of molecule interchange
between adjacent fluid layers and cohesive forces between liquid molecules.
 The much higher shear stresses are generated for a given velocity gradient in
turbulent flow
𝝉 = 𝝉𝒍𝒂𝒎 + 𝝉′
where ; 𝝉 is the total shear stress in the turbulent flow field, 𝝉𝒍𝒂𝒎 is the
contribution from the mechanisms of momentum transfer in laminar flow, and 𝝉′
in the turbulence shear stress due to the fluctuating velocities and eddy motion in
turbulent flow.

In the bulk fluid away from the walls and boundary layers:
𝝉′ ≫ 𝝉𝒍𝒂𝒎

Homogeneous Turbulence
In homogeneous turbulence, the time averaged properties of the flow are
uniform and independent of position.
Although such a state of motion is not realised readily in experiments,
homogeneous turbulence has been given much attention because it greatly
simplifies the theoretical treatment of turbulent flow.