Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398

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Food Research International

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Review

A review study on chemical composition and molecular structure of newly plant gum
exudates and seed gums
Hamed Mirhosseini ⁎, Bahareh Tabatabaee Amid
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A large number of plants can produce the complex polysaccharides commercially known as ‘plant-based gums’.
Received 1 June 2011 Several studies on various plant-based gums (mainly plant gum exudates and seed sums) have resulted in the
Accepted 29 November 2011 identification of valuable natural sources of complex carbohydrate polymers that promote the desired quality,
stability, texture and appearance. The plant gum exudates and seed gums are the complex polysaccharides/
Keywords:
carbohydrate polymers commonly used as a dietary fiber, thickening agent, foaming agent, film, emulsifier,
Polysaccharides
Plant gum exudates
stabilizer and drug delivery agent. The physical and functional properties of plant-based gums depend on their
Seed gum chemical compositions and molecular structures. Recently, there is a substantial interest to elucidate the rela-
Thickening agent tionship between the chemical composition, molecular structure and physical characteristics and functional
Foaming agent properties of plant gum exudates and seed gums. The present study also summarized the molecular structure,
Emulsifying agent chemical composition and functional properties of various types of plant gum exudates.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2. Gums sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
2.1. Plant-based gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
2.1.1. Chemical composition and molecular structure of plant-based gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
2.1.2. Classification of plant-based gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
3. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
397

1. Introduction
The polysaccharide gums represent one of the most abundant raw
materials. The researchers have mainly studied the polysaccharide
Abbreviations: BSG, Basil seed gum; CBG, Carob bean gum; CSG, Cassia seed gum;
cLBG, Crude locust bean gum; G/M, Galactose/mannose; DDS, De-hulled durian seed;
DSG, Durian seed gum; FG, Fenugreek gum; FSG, Flaxseed gum; GG, Guar gum; KG,
Karaya gum; LBG, Locust bean gum; MNG, Malva nut gum; M/G, Mannose/galactose;
MSG, Mesquite seed gum; OHC, Oil holding capacity; rLBG, Refined locust bean gum;
SDG, Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside; TKP, Tamarind kernel powder; TKSG, Tamarind
kernel seed gum; TSP, Tamarind seed polysaccharide; TG, Tara gum; WHC, Water holding
capacity; WDS, Whole durian seed.
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 89468390; fax: +60 3 89423552.
E-mail addresses: hamedmi@food.upm.edu.my (H. Mirhosseini),
bahareh.ta@gmail.com (B.T. Amid).
gums due to their sustainable, biodegradable and bio safe characteristics
(Rana et al., 2011). The term “gum” is used to describe a group of natural-
ly occurring polysaccharides that come across widespread industrial ap-
plications due to their ability either to form the gel or make the viscous
solution or stabilize the emulsion systems (Williams & Phillips, 2000).
Water-soluble gums — also known as ‘hydrocolloid’ are used for various
applications as dietary fiber, texture modifiers, gelling agents, thickeners,
stabilizers and emulsifiers, coating agents and packaging films
(Anderson & Andon, 1998; Williams & Phillips, 2000; Koocheki,
Kadkhodaee, Mortazavi, Shahidi, & Taherian, 2009; Mirhosseini & Tan,
2010 a, b; Mirhosseini, Tan, & Naghshineh, 2010). Various parts of plant
(e.g. plant cell walls, tree exudates, seeds, tuber/roots, seaweeds) have
surface cells containing gums, mucilage, and fiber and protein com-
pounds. Some of plant seeds have surface cells containing gums, muci-
lage, fiber and protein. Plant gum exudates are produced by several
plants as a result of the protection mechanisms against mechanical or mi-
crobial injury (Rana et al., 2011).

0963-9969/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.11.017
388 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398

A number of fruits are also known to contain notable amount of Table 1

miscellaneous compounds with respect to the level of structural and Main sources of natural gums.
Williams and Phillips (2000).
non-structural carbohydrates, depending on the fruit, its ripening
period and storage time. There are several examples such as mango Botanical • Trees
(Mangifera indica L., family Anacardiaceae), papaya (Carica papaya Cellulose
• Tree gum exudates
L., family Caricaceae), banana (Musa acuminata, family Musaceae),
Gum arabic, gum karaya, gum ghatti, gum tragacanth
carambola (Averrhoa carambola L., family Oxalidaceae), and guava • Plants
(Psidium guajava L., family Myrtaceae) (Chin, Ali, & Lazan, 1999). A Starch, pectin, cellulose
considerable number of the leguminous and convolvulus plant seeds • Seeds
• Tubers
are the valuable sources of seed gums. In addition, there is a distinct
Konjac manan
difference which applies to their structure and characteristics — from Algal • Red seaweeds
species to species (Pazur, 1986). The considerably growing interest in Agar, carrageenan
plant gum exudates is due to their diverse structural properties and • Brown seaweeds
metabolic functions in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, textile and Alginate
Microbial • Xanthan gum, curdlan,
biomedical products (Nishinari, Zhang, & Ikeda, 2000). Plant polysac-
• dextran, gellan gum, cellulose
charide gums can be used as dietary fiber, texture modifiers, gelling Animal • Gelatin, caseinate, whey protein, chitosan
agents, thickeners, emulsifiers, stabilizers, coating agents and packaging
films (McClements, 2005). In the recent years, the demand for plant-
based gums in food systems, medicines and drug delivery systems has 1991), Cassia brewsteri with 33.7 ± 0.4% gum (Cunningham & Walsh,
been considerably increased because they are the most notable ingredi- 2002) and mesquite with 24.9% gum (Estévez et al., 2004). Plant
ent in liquid and semisolid foods (Williams & Phillips, 2000). However, gums have more advantages than the other gum from animal and
the market still desires new sources of plant-based gum to meet the microbial sources, due to the friendly image toward consumers
demand for ingredients with more usefulness in food systems. (Glicksman, 1969).
Through the past years, a sensible increase in research interest is Previous researchers have studied the chemical structure of various
observed within the category of extractable seed components — e.g. plant gums such as Malva nut gum (MNG) (Chen, Cao, & Song, 1996;
carbohydrates and saponin (Sauvaire, Ribes, Baccou, & Loubatieres- Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006), mesquite seed gum (MSG) (Ibańez &
Mariani, 1991; Taylor et al., 1997). Recently, there has been increased Ferrero, 2003; Vernon-Carter, Beristain, & Pedroza-Islas, 2000), fenu-
interest in the physical and functional properties of plant gum greek gum (FG) (Stephen & Churns, 1995; Garti, Madar, Aserin &
exudates and seed gums from various sources (Chen, Xu, & Wang, Sternheim, 1997), flaxseed gum (FSG) (Chen et al., 2006; Cui & Mazza,
2006; Palanuvej, Hokputsa, Tunsaringkarn, & Ruangrungsi, 2009; 1996), and carob bean gum (CBG) (Dakia, Blecker, Roberta, Watheleta,
Somboonpanyakul, Wang, Cui, Barbut, & Jantawat, 2006). However, & Paquota, 2008; Kawamura, 2008). Table 2 also shows a list of muci-
there is limited information about the chemical structure, physico- lage polysaccharides and gum exudates from selected plants. From the
chemical and functional properties of the plant gum exudates and chemical point of view, these water-soluble gum exudates are either
seed gums. The present work summarized the relationship between polysaccharides (i.e. gum Arabic, guar gum, carboxymethylcellulose,
the chemical composition, molecular structure and physical character- carrageen, starch and pectin) or proteins (such as gelatin).
istics and functional properties of plant-based gums. The functional
properties of the plant gums significantly affect the scope of their appli- 2.1.1. Chemical composition and molecular structure of plant-based
cation. The gum functional properties are sensitive to the processing gums
conditions. Therefore, the main objective of the present study was Structural study is a basic requirement for understanding the rheo-
to study the chemical composition and molecular structure of plant- logical behaviors, gelling properties, and other physical behaviors of
based gums (mainly plant gum exudates and seed gums). gums, which are directly related to the structural features (Chaubey &
Kapoor, 2001). The physical and structural features of plant gum exu-
2. Gums sources dates are defined by molecular weight, monosaccharide composition,
sequence of monosaccharide, conformation, configuration and position
The natural gums are categorized based on their origins, behaviors of glycoside linkages, particle size, solubility and rheological properties
and chemical structures. Gums are known as complex polysaccharides (Cui, 2005; Zhang, Cui, Cheung, & Wang, 2007). The hydrocolloids are
from various sources e.g. endosperm of plant seeds (guar gum), plant made up of monosaccharide (sugar units) linked through glycoside
exudates (e.g. tragacanth), tree or shrub exudates (e.g. gum Arabic, linkage, by removing the water. The chemical composition and molecu-
karaya gum (KG) and tragacanth), sea weed extracts (e.g. agar), bacte- lar structure of hydrocolloids often depend on the source, extraction
ria (e.g. xanthan gum), and animal sources (chitin) (Table 1) (Laaman, methods and any further processing conditions. The chemical composi-
2011; Williams & Phillips, 2000). tion can be derived either from the same sugar monomers (cellulose
and starch), two different monomer units (alginate and hyaluronan)
2.1. Plant-based gums or different monosaccharide (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and
uronic acid) such as gum Arabic (Williams & Phillips, 2000). Many
Plant gums are the polysaccharides originated from various parts
of plant (e.g. plant cell walls, tree exudates, seeds, tuber/roots, sea- Table 2
weeds) (Hydrocolloids Cosmetics, 2011). There are a large number Mucilage polysaccharides from selected plants.
of plant species that are being “cultivated” that are capable of produc- Palanuvej et al. (2009).
ing gums which can be implemented in the food industry as additives.
Plants Used parts % Yield
Most of plant gums belong to the Leguminosae family such as Acacia
Basella alba Linn. Aerial parts 3.5
senegal as a source of gum acacia or gum Arabic; Astragalus spp., as a
Hibiscus esculentus L. Fruits 5.6
source of tragacanth; Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, as a source of guar Litsea glutinosa Lour. Leaves 12.0
gum; Ceratonia siliqua, as a source of locust bean gum (LBG) (Ibańez Ocimum canum Sims. Seeds 17.6
& Ferrero, 2003). Recently, many plants have been chemically Plantago ovata Forssk. Seeds 19.0
analyzed and introduced as a potential source of plant gum exudates. Scaphium scaphigerum G. Don. Fruits 23.0
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Seeds 15.0
These plant gums include guar with 19–43% gum (Undersander et al.,
 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398 389

scientists have reported the presence of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, Table 4

uronic acids, galactoronic acid, protein, Ca and Mg as the main structure Sources, basic properties and major specifications of commercial galactomannans
(FAO/WHO).
constituents of plant gums (Williams & Phillips, 2000). Fox (1992), Wielinga (1990).

2.1.2. Classification of plant-based gums Carob gum Guar gum Tara gum

Plant source Ceretonia Cyamopsis Caesalpinia

2.1.2.1. Galactomannan. Galactomannan is known as a linear polysac- siliqua tetragonolobus spinosa
Approx. seed size (mm) 10 4 10
charide. It is an energy reserve polysaccharide in all endosperm legu-
Seed components % 250 35 250
minous plant seeds (Meier & Reid, 1982). They are composed of “a Endosperm 42–46 38–45 20–22
linear β-(l → 4)-mannane backbone attached to single D-galactopyra- Cotyledon 23–35 40–46 38–40
nosyl residues via α-(l → 6) linkages” including ‘side chains of galac- Seed coat 30–33 14–16 38–40
tose remains’ (Da Silva & Gonçalves, 1990; Estévez et al., 2004). They M/G ratio 3.5–4 1.5–2 2.5–3
E-number E4 10 E4 12 E4 17
are highly water soluble hydrocolloids providing highly viscous and
Loss on drying (%) b 14 b15 b15
stable aqueous solutions (Neukom, 1988). They exhibit different Total ash (%) b 1.2 b1.5 b1.5
physicochemical and rheological properties depending on mannose/ Acid insoluble matter (%) b4 b7 b2
galactose (M/G) ratio, distribution of galactose residues along the Protein b7 b10 b3.5
Starch Not detectable
mannan backbone, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribu-
Arsenic Not more than
tion (Robinson, Ross-Murphy, & Morris, 1982). 3 mg/kg
Galactomannans have broad applications in different food, cosmetic Lead Not more than
and pharmaceutical products as matrix tablets (Baveja, Rao, & Arora, 10 mg/kg
1991; Pauly, Freis, & Pauly, 1999), coating material in tablets, and mi- Heavy metals Not more than
20 mg/kg
crocapsules in pharmaceutics. They have been also used as a thickener
and stabilizer in emulsion and suspension systems (Kapoor, Pandey,
Khanna, Dwiredi, & Singh, 1999) and emulsifier and gelling agent in
gel-based products (Asgharian, 2000). They have been also used as Water solubility of galactomannans is easily influenced by the
dietary fiber, low-energy fat replacers in low fat mayonnaise and gelling degree of galactose substitution and M/G ratio. As also stated by
agents in fruit-based water gels (Cruz Alcedo, 1999). They are also used Lazaridou, Biliaderis, and Izydorczyk (2000), the molecular size and
as food ingredients in bakery goods (icings and cake mixes), dietary structure (i.e. M/G ratio, galactose distribution in the mannose linear
products, coffee whiteners, baby milk formulations, dressings, sauces, chain) are the most notable factors affecting “solubility mechanism”
soups, frozen, and cured meat foods (Reid & Edwards, 1995). and “ability to self-associate” (i.e. intra-chain and inter-chain interac-
Galactomannans are mainly extracted from the endosperm of Legu- tions). In particular, a higher mannose to galactose (M/G) ratio leads
minosae seed for commercial purposes that bear a protective shelter to higher thickening properties (Lazaridou et al., 2000). In this respect,
made of seed coat (i.e. C. tetragonolobus L. (guar), C. siliqua (locust guar gum would be soluble in cold water; whereas LBG shows inconsid-
bean) and Caesalpinea spinosa (Tara)) (Table 3) (Azero & Andrade, erable solubility at room temperature.
2002; Üner & Altınkurt, 2004). In fact, galactomannans are the ground 2.1.2.1.1. Malva nut gum (MNG). Malva nut gum (MNG) is extracted
endosperm of the Leguminosae seeds in different particle sizes (Wade from a plant belongs to Sterculiaceae family including several species
& Weller, 1994). They contain xylose and arabinose and no starch and such as Scaphium macropodum Beumee and Sterculia lychnophora
reducing sugars. The galactomannan content of endosperm and seeds Hance. Malva nut fruit (Scaphium scaphigerum) grows in Vietnam,
ranged 68–85% (Manzi, Mazzini, & Cerezo, 1984) and 20–26% (Klyosov, China, Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. It is known as Pungtalay or
& Platt, 2003), respectively. Sumrong in Thailand (Yamada et al., 2000). Malva nut fruit contains a
The ratio of galactose/mannose (M/G) in galactomannans varies as large amount of mucilaginous substance used as a traditional medicine
the species differ from one to another (M/G: 1.6:1 to 4.5:1) in South-East Asia (Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006). The purified muci-
(Gonçalves, Torres, Andrade, Azero, & Lefebvre, 2004; Singh, Mishra, lage from Malva nut fruit (Sterculia lychnophora Hance) is known as a
Khare, & Gupta, 1997). There are two distinct galactomannans with complex carbohydrate polymer with the molecular weight of 162,200
quite well-known commercial significance: guar gum (GG) from (Da) (Chen et al., 1996). Somboonpanyakul et al. (2006) showed that
C. tetragonolobus, and LBG from C. siliqua. The average M/G ratio in the MNG obtained under alkaline extraction contained 62.0% carbohy-
LBG is approximately 3.5 compared to guar gum (average ratio of M/ drates, 8.3% ash and 8.4% protein. As shown in Table 5, the prime
G = ~1.8) and Tara gum (average ratio of M/G= ~3) (Table 4) (Batlle constituent monosaccharides of MNG included 31.9% arabinose, 29.2%
& Tous, 1997; Bourriot, Garnier, & Doublier, 1999; Cruz Alcedo, 1999; galactose, 29.5% rhamnose, 6.4% uronic acid and small content of
Fox, 1992; Morris, 1998). Carob galactomannan has the lowest galac- glucose, xylose and mannose (Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006). The
tose content (20%) among the substantial available galactomannans monosaccharide composition of MNG exudates contains galactose,
(i.e., carob bean gum (CBG), guar gum (GG) and Tara gum (TG)) arabinose and rhamnose with the molar ratio of 1.00:1.67:1.01, where
(Richarsdon, Willmer, & Foster, 1998). rhamnose is linked via α-(1/3) glycoside linkage in the backbone of

Table 3
Structural properties of main galactomannans.
Mahungu and Meyland (2008).

Substance Structure Mannose:galactose Molecular weight

Cassia gum 1,4-β-D-mannopyranose units with 1,6-α-D-galactopyranose 5:1 200,000–300,000

units attached to every fifth mannose.
Guar gum4 1,4-β-D-mannophyranose units with 1,6-α-D-galactopyranose 2:1 50,000–8,000,000
(CAS No. 9000-30-0) units attached to every alternate mannose.
Locust (Carob) bean gum5 1,4-β-D-mannopyranose units with 1,6-α-D-galactopyranose 4:1 50,000–3,000,000
(CAS No. 9000-40-2) units attached to every fourth fifth mannose.
Tara gum6 1,4-β-D-mannopyranose units with 1,6-α-D-galactopyranose Approximately 3:1 Not reported
(CAS No. 39300-88-4) units attached to approximately every third unit.
390 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398

Table 5
Chemical composition and deduced linkages of partially methylated alditol acetates (PMAA) of the alkaline extracted Malva nut gum.
Somboonpanyakul et al. (2006).

Chemical name Deduced linkage Molar ratioa (n) Molar ratioa (y)

4-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-1,2,3,5-tetra-O-methyl-arabinotol Terminal Araf 1.24 1.97

1,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-2,5-di-O-methyl-arabinotol 1,3-L-Araf 1.00 1.00
1,4,5-tri-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-2,3,6-tri-O-methyl galactol 1,4-D-Galp 0.21 1.56
1,2,4,5-tetra-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-3,6-tri-O-methyl galactol 1,2,4-D-Galp Nd 0.25
1,2,3,4,5-penta-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-rhamnitol 1,2,3,4-D-Rhamp Nd 0.36

Monosaccharide compositions (%, w/w)

Arabinose 31.9 ± 0.2

Galactose 29.2 ± 0.2
Rhamnose 29.4 ± 0.1
Glucose 2.7 ± 0.2
Xylose 2.1 ± 0.1
Mannose 4.8 ± 0.3

n, without uronic acid reduction; y, with uronic acid reduction; and Nd, not detectable.
a
Relative molar ratio calculated from the ratio of peak area.

gum (Chen et al., 1996). Methylation analysis revealed that alkaline Brummer et al. (2003) investigated the effect of different extrac-
extracted MNG was primarily composed of terminal L-Araf, 1,3-linked tion methods on the chemical composition of FG. They reported that
L-Araf, 1,4-linked D-Galp, 1,4-linked D-GalAp with little amounts of the cool water extraction yielded the gum with low protein content
branching units (Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006). (2.36%) as compared to the solvent extraction using boiling hexane.
In recent years, Malva nut seeds have been also used in sweetened The protein level was further decreased to 0.57% using the pronase
beverages and deserts. It was reported to provide health benefits such hydrolysis. The hydrolysis process did not influence the molecular
as the reduction of body weight (Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011). The weight of FG. They reported that the content of sucrose, raffinose
mucilaginous substance from Malva nut is a water soluble polysac- and stachyose present in the ethanol–soluble sugar mixture was
charide gum with beneficial effects for the human body (such as re- found to be 0.7, 0.5 and 2.84%, respectively (Table 6). Mansour and
ducing serum cholesterol levels and reducing the risk of heart El-Adawy (1994) also reported the presence of 0.49% raffinose and
disease) (Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006; US Food & Drug 2.01% stachyose in FG. Previous researchers (Garti, Madar, Aserin &
Administration, 1994). It has been used for laxative benefits in Thai- Sternheim, 1997; Huang, Kakuda, & Cui, 2001) reported that the
land. The principal application of MNG is in relief of canker sore and extracted FG contained 0.8% residual protein, thereby prohibiting
cough. It has been also used as a traditional drug for the prevention the function of surface activity to the hydrophilic gum alone. Huang
of pharyngitis, treatment of tussis and constipation in China (Wang et al. (2001) found that FG had the highest stabilizing capacity
et al., 2003). The health benefits of mucilage from Malva nut seed amongst other 11 commercial gums and 5 laboratory synthesized
are linked to its gelling property (Srichamroen & Chavasit, 2011). gums (i.e. Gellan, carrageenan, pectin, methylcellulose, gum Arabic,
MNG can be also used as a gelling agent in jelly sweetened dessert microcrystalline cellulose, locust bean gum, guar, xanthan, mustard,
(Somboonpanyakul et al., 2006). oat gums, flaxseed and oat gums).
2.1.2.1.2. Fenugreek gum (FG). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum 2.1.2.1.3. Mesquite seed gum (MSG). Algarrobo (Prosopis spp) trees
graecum) is an annual herb, which belongs to the legume family widely are leguminous plants wildly distributed in arid and semi-arid zones
grown in India, Egypt and Middle Eastern countries. Fenugreek gum over the world. Prosopis genus (mesquites and algarrobos) is legumi-
(FG) is extracted from the endosperm of the Fenugreek seeds. The nous plant, which belongs to the Mimosoideae family (Polhill, 1994).
main polysaccharide present in Fenugreek seed endosperm is a galacto- Prosopis species are known with the common name of mesquite in
mannan (galactose and mannose) which resembles the other galacto- North America and Algarrobo in Peru (Cruz Alcedo, 1999). Prosopis
mannans such as locust bean, guar gum and Tara gum (Stephen &
Churns, 1995; Youssef, Wang, Cui, & Barbut, 2009). FG was shown to
reduce the glucose level in blood and regulate the cholesterol content
in the liver (Srinivasan, 2006). It also revealed the hypoglycemic effects
on diabetes mellitus types 1 and 2 (Hannan et al., 2007). FG has been
used as a thickener, stabilizer and emulsifier in many food products
(Işikli & Karababa, 2005). However, the slow hydration rate, unpleasant
flavor and difficulty in producing a homogeneous dispersion containing
FG are the negative aspects of its applications in the industry (Chang,
Cui, Roberts, Ng, & Wang, 2011).
FG is composed of α (1/4)-β-D-mannan backbone attached to single
α-D-galactopyranosyl groups at the O-6 position of D-mannopyranosyl
residues (Brummer, Cui, & Wang, 2003; Dea & Morrison, 1975). Fig. 1
shows the primary structure of fenugreek gum. The mannan backbone
of FG is almost fully substituted with galactose side chains (Brummer
et al., 2003; Dea & Morrison, 1975). The hyper entanglement of unsub-
stituted mannan regions in FG becomes nearly impossible due to the
presence of disaccharide repeating sequence in its primary structure
(Fig. 1) (Doyle et al., 2009). As reported by Brummer et al. (2003), the
ratio of galactose to mannose in the extracted fenugreek galactoman-
nans varied from 1.00:1.02 to 1.00:1.14 (Table 6). Fig. 1. The primary structure of fenugreek gum (Doyle et al., 2009).
 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398 391

Table 6 cysteine and methionine are the main limiting amino acids in its
Composition of fenugreek seed and fenugreek seed galactomannan. chemical structure (Cruz et al., 1987).
Brummer et al. (2003).
The mesquite fruit can be used as a source of mucilage, chemically
Fenugreek seed (%, w/w) classified as a galactomannan (Cruz et al., 1987). Mucilaginous endo-
Lipid 7.24 ± 0.42 sperm is characteristic of the seeds of leguminous plants and contains
Protein 34.10 ± 0.84 the hydrocolloid classified as a galactomannan in Prosopis spp.
Galactomannan 22.57 ± 2.8 (Burkart, 1952). A fully water-soluble gum is extracted from the “en-
Total ethanol soluble sugars 8.06 ± 0.62
docarp capsule” of the seed coating of Prosopis africana (Achi & Okolo,
Individual ethanol soluble sugars
Galactose 0.25 ± 0.01 2004). The extracted gum from P. flexuosa DC seeds had a particular
Sucrose 0.70 ± 0.06 composition, which resembled other commercial gums from the le-
Raffinose 0.50 ± 0.08 guminous family, but it contained a high content (66.1–72.5%, w/w)
Stachyose 2.84 ± 0.51 of total polysaccharide. Two different types of polysaccharide muci-
Moisture 7.49 ± 0.53
Ash 3.38 ± 0.04
lage have been extracted from the seed endosperm of mesquite: a
bark-exuded gum and a galactomannan fraction (storage polysaccha-
Fenugreek seed galactomannan (%, w/w) ride), which accounts for almost 30% (w/w) of the seed (Estévez et al.,
Protein 2004; Goycoolea, Calderón de la Barca, Balderrama, & Valenzuela,
Fraction A 2.36 ± 0.04 1997; Goycoolea, Milas, & Rinaudo, 2001).
Fraction B 0.57 ± 0.03 Mesquite seed gum (MSG) appears to have a ‘core’ of ß-D-galactose
G/M Fraction A 1.00/1.02 units, comprising α (l-+3)-linked backbone chain with (l-6)-linked
Ratioa Fraction B 1.00/1.05
branching units, along with L-arabinose (pyranose and furanose ring
Chemical name Relative Deduced forms), L-rhamnose, ß-D-glucuronate and 4-0-methyl-/I-D-glucuronate
abundance (%) linkage (%) (Anderson & Farquhar, 1982; Churms, Merrifield, & Stephen, 1981;
1,5-di-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-2,3,4,6- 42 t-Galp Cruz Alcedo, 1999). As shown in Fig. 2, the major fragment of MSG is
tetra-O-methyl hexitol composed of galactose and mannose with the molar ratio of 1.00:2.78
1,4,5-tri-O-acetyl-(1-deuterio)-2,3,6- 12.7 4-Manp and molecular weight of 62,500 Da (Vernon-Carter et al., 2000). The
tetra-O-methyl hexitol
rhamnose in the backbone of MSG is linked through α-(1→ 3) glyco-
1,4,5,6-tetra-O-acetyl-(1deuterio)-2,3- 45.2 4,6-Manp
di-O-methyl hexitol
side linkage (Fig. 2). Ibańez and Ferrero (2003) showed that mannose
1,5,6-tri-O-acetyl-(deuterio)-2,3,4- Tα t-6-Manp (M) and galactose (G) were as the major monosaccharides of MSG
tri-O-methyl hexitol with M/G ratio of 2.1. They found that the percentage of protein
All measurements on a dry weight basis. remained to be high even after the extraction (between 10 and 20%
a
Trace. (w/w)) — “especially while the mucilage was being separated from
the flour and not from the whole seeds” (Ibańez & Ferrero, 2003). How-
ever, the purification process led to reduce the protein content. Ibańez
flexuosa or mesquite fruit is a drupaceous lomentum, (i.e.) a pod with and Ferrero (2003) reported that there was a difficulty to dissolve the
an articulated endocarp that forms indehiscent coriaceous segments. extracted mucilage in the cold water, showing a tendency to form
It contains the high content of sugars and proteins; therefore, it can dispersion system with pseudoplastic and non-thixotropic rheological
be considered as a valuable fodder (Ibańez & Ferrero, 2003). Further- behavior.
more, Prosopis pallida cotyledon contains 65% protein, which repre- Achi and Okolo (2004) extracted P. africana gum through the
sents 31% of the seed weight (Cruz, Del Re, & Amado, 1987). Table 7 dehulling Achi method. They found that the endocarp gum contained
shows the amino acid profile of Prosopis cotyledon proteins. As a high amount of galactose and mannose as well as a low amount of
shown in Table 7, the amount of essential amino acids is extremely protein and fat content. They reported that the purified gum from
high in the chemical structure of P. pallida seed cotyledon; while P. africana contained 2.4% fat, 1.04% protein, 21.5% crude fiber and
10% gelation content. The researcher also found that galactose and

Table 7
Amino acid profile of Prosopis pallida seed cotyledon.
Cruz Alcedo (1999) and Cruz et al. (1987).

Amono acids (g/100 g protein)

WHO/FAO pattern
Aspartic acid 8.30
Threonine 2.42 4
Serine 4.87
Glutamic acid 21.31
Proline 7.49
Glycine 4.59
Alanine 4.34
Cysteine 1.31
Methionine 0.88
Met + Cys 2.19 3.5
Valine 4.56
Isoleucine 3.09 4
Leucine 7.51 7
Tyrosine 1.84
Phenylalanine 4.29
Tyr + Phe 6.13 6
Lysine 4.09 5.5
Histidine 3.10
Arginine 14.63
Tryptophan 1.37 1
Fig. 2. Structural feature of mesquite gum (Vernon-Carter and Sherman, 1980).
392 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398
mannose were the major monosaccharides in P. africana gum. Mesquite
seed gum (MSG) or Prosopis gum has been reported to have similar
composition, properties and applications to gum Arabic (Anderson &
Weiping, 1989; Goycoolea et al., 1997). It has been widely used as a
wheat flour substitute in dough for bread making and confectionery
products. It is also used as a microencapsulating agent, flavor and
color emulsifier, colloid protector, emulsion coating agent, binder in
tablet dosage forms and suspending agent at par (Cruz Alcedo, 1999).
2.1.2.1.4. Carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG). Carob tree
(C. siliqua L.) is grown in Mediterranean regions. Carob bean gum
(CBG) (or locust bean gum, LBG) is a heteropolysaccharide galacto-
mannan extracted by mashing the seed endosperm of the fruit pod of
the carob tree (C. siliqua L.) (Dakia et al., 2008). The final powder has
a yellowish to whitish colour. The carob seed consists of the husk
(30–33%), endosperm (42–46%) and germ (23–25%) (Neukom, 1988).
LBG is a long chain polysaccharide made of monosaccharide units (i.e.
galactose and mannose) (Kawamura, 2008). As shown in Fig. 3, CBG
or LBG is a linear polysaccharide including the ß-(l-4)-mannane back-
bone chain associated with single D-galactopyranosyl residues (as side
chain) via α-(l-6) linkages (Da Silva & Gonçalves, 1990; Daas Piet,
Schols Henk, & De Jongh Harmen, 2000). The average M/G ratio of
LBG is approximately 3.5 which is higher than guar gum (GG) with
the average ratio of ~1.8 (Dea & Morrison, 1975). Samil (2007) studied
the chemical composition and molecular structure of high quality
refined locust bean gum (rLBG) and low quality crude locust bean
gum (cLBG). The researcher found that rheological properties of LBG
significantly depended on its chemical and molecular structure. As
reported by Samil (2007), M/G ratio of cLBG and rLBG varied from
3.1 to 3.9. Nevertheless, the cLBG contained a considerable amount of
arabinose (Samil, 2007). As reported by Samil (2007), cLBG also con-
tained higher amount of protein, fat and ash than those of rLBG,
which influenced its functional properties.
The molecular size and structure (M/G ratio, galactose distribution
in the mannose linear chain) of galactomannan influence the viscosity,
solubility mechanism and ability to self-associate (intra-chain and
inter-chain interactions). A higher M/G ratio leads to higher thickening
properties (Lazaridou et al., 2000). Dakia et al. (2008) also demonstrat-
ed that the degree of galactose substitution affected the water solubility
and rheological properties of LBG (Dakia et al., 2008). LBG shows
the low solubility at the ambient temperature; therefore, the heat is
required to achieve the maximum solubilisation and reach the highest
water holding capacity (WHC) (Gainsford, Harding, Mitchell, &
Bradley, 1986; Maier, Anderson, Karl, Magnuson, & Whistler, 1993).
CBG or LBG can be regarded as the first galactomannan biopolymer
which is applicable to food products. It has been mainly used as a thick-
ener and stabilizer in frozen desserts, ice cream, and cream cheese. It
can be also used in other industrial products such as paper, textile, phar-
maceutical and cosmetic products (Dakia et al., 2008).
2.1.2.1.5. Cassia seed gum (CSG). Cassia plants are considered as
“non-conventional” resources for plant seed gums. The non-
conventional Cassia seed gums (CSGs) have a specific molecular struc-
ture that resembles other industrial gums such as guar gum and LBG
(Fig. 4A, B). These biodegradable/biocompatible polymers are
Fig. 3. Structural feature of locust bean (carob bean) gum structure (Kawamura, 2008).
extensively used as a viscous enhancing agent and water binder in the
cosmetic, pharmaceutical and other industrial products such as paper,
textile, adhesive, inks, paint, explosive, and smoking products (Singh,
Srivastava, & Tiwari, 2009b; Whistler, 1973). CSGs are galactomannans
classified based on their M/G ratio and molecular weights varying from
species to species (Kirtikar & Basu, 1935; Saldanaha & Nicolson, 1976).
CSGs are extracted from the seed endosperm of Cassia tora and Cassia
obtusifolia, which belong to the leguminosae family (Mahungu &
Meyland, 2008). They can be also isolated from other Cassia species
such as Cassia occidentalis Linn. (Anonymous, 1992), Cassia javahikai
(Saldanaha & Nicolson, 1976; Singh et al., 2009b) and Cassia pleurocarpa
(Singh, Sethi, & Tiwari, 2009a).
C. tora and C. obtusifolia are the sources of CSGs which grow wildly
in subtropical regions of the world. They are annual ruderal plants
that ripen after approximately 100 days (Mahungu & Meyland,
2008). C. occidentalis Linn. (Kasondi) is also a common herbaceous
annual weed cultivated in India up to 1500 m in altitude (Anonymous,
1992). C. occidentalis Linn. seeds are a rich source of galactomannan
(~30% endosperm) (Kapoor, Khan & Farroqi, 1991). Another Cassia
variety is C. javahikai, which is a decorative plant initially grown in
India (Saldanaha & Nicolson, 1976; Singh et al., 2009b). C. javahikai
seed is a rich source of seed gum composing of galactose and mannose
in the molar ratio of 1.02:3.20 (Azero, Lopes, & Andrade, 1997).
The chemical structure of CSG is composed of a large content
(75%) of high molecular weight polysaccharide (~200,000–300,000).
The major monosaccharide compositions of CSG included mannose
(77.2–78.9%), galactose (14.7–15.7%), and glucose (6.3–7.1%)
(Mahungu & Meyland, 2008). CSG has a linear backbone of 1,4-ß-D-
mannopyranose units, and 1,6 linked D-galactopyranose units with
random distribution of α-(1/6) linked D-galactopyranose units as side
chain (M/G:3.1) (Mahungu & Meyland, 2008). The researchers reported
that CSG had the similar molecular and chemical structure to carob bean
gum (CBG), Tara gum (TG) and guar gum (GG) (Mahungu & Meyland,
2008). Fig. 4 (A, B) shows the molecular structure of plant seed gum
from C. javahikai and C. pleurocarpa (Singh, Singh, & Maurya, 2010;
Singh et al., 2009a). Singh et al. (2010) studied the effect of extraction
condition on the chemical structure of Cassia javanica seed gum. They
found that the C. javanica seed gum extracted under alkaline condition
contained 62.0% carbohydrates, 8.3% ash and 8.4% protein. Singh et al.
(2010) reported that arabinose (31.9%), galactose (29.2%) and rham-
nose (29.5%) were the major monosaccharide compositions of CSG.
The chemical structure of Cassia javanica seed gum also contained
6.4% uronic acid and little amounts of glucose, xylose and mannose
(Singh et al., 2010).
C. pleurocarpa is a bush-like plant including branched green leaves
and bright colored flowers, wildly grown in the northern Australia
(Dale, Gibbs, & Behncken, 1984). The seed endosperm of C. pleurocarpa
is also a source of non-ionic water soluble galactomannan composed
of D-galactose and D-mannose in the molar ratio of 1.00:2.01 (Singh et
al., 2009a). The galactomannan isolated from seed endosperm of
C. pleurocarpa is a heteropolysaccharide with a linear backbone chain
of β(1→ 4) linked D-mannopyranosyl units linked to D-galactopyrano-
syl side chains via α(1→ 6) linkages (Fig. 4B) (Singh et al., 2009a).
 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398
Fig. 4. Molecular structure of the repeating units of Cassia javahikai (A) and Cassia pleurocarpa (B) galactomannan (Singh et al., 2009a,b).
The galactomannan from C. pleurocarpa can be used for the drug deliv-
ery, tissue engineering fields and some other biomedical applications
due to the unique gelling ability, water retention capacity and
viscous-enhancing property (Singh et al., 2009a).
2.1.2.1.6. Basil seed gum (BSG). Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a
member of genus Ocimum, which encompasses a broad range of spe-
cies, herbs and shrubs – between 50 and 150 – globally distributed in
the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and Central and South America
(Paton, Harley, & Harley, 1999; Simon, Morales, Phippen, Vieira, &
Hao, 1999). The genus Ocimum is considered as a pharmaceutical
plant because it is widely used as a culinary herb for traditional med-
icine. It is also a well-known source of flavoring agent and essential
oil with antioxidative and antimicrobial activities (Javanmardi,
Stushnoff, Locke, & Vivanco, 2003; Naghibi, Mosaddegh, Motamed, &
Ghorbani, 2005). Basil seed (O. basilicum L.) has reasonable content
of gum with outstanding functional properties which is comparable
with some other commercial gums (Razavi et al., 2009).
Basil seed gum (BSG) is a polysaccharide extracted from basil
(O. basilicum L.) seed by using either cold water extraction or alcohol
precipitation (Anjaneyalu & Channe Gowda, 1979; Tharanathan &
Anjaneyalu, 1975). It is comprised of two major fractions: (i) an acid-
stable core glucomannan (43%) with G/M ratio of 10:2, and (ii) a
(Achi & Okolo, 2004; Amin, Ahmad, Yin Yin, Yahaya, & Ibrahim, 2007;
Amin & Arshad, 2009)-linked xylan (24.29%) including acidic side
chains at C-2 and C-3 of the xylosyl residues in the acid-soluble portion.
It also contains a minor fragment of glucan (2.31%) as a degraded cellu-
lose material with DP equal to 80 (Anjaneyalu & Channe Gowda, 1979;
Razavi et al., 2009; Tharanathan & Anjaneyalu, 1975).
Razavi et al. (2009) studied the physicochemical and mechanical
properties of Iranian basil seeds. They found that the extraction con-
ditions significantly influenced the apparent viscosity and protein
393
content of BSG. As reported by Razavi et al. (2009), the extraction
temperature and pH were the most important extraction variables
affecting the quantity and quality of BSG. As reported in Table 8, the
major difference between the chemical composition of Iranian Basil
seed and Indian basil seed was related to their protein, lipid and
carbohydrate contents (Mathews, Singhal, & Kulkarni, 1993; Razavi et
al., 2009). The researchers reported that Iranian Basil seed contained a
lower content of carbohydrate and moisture, but higher amount of
protein and lipid fractions as compared to Indian basil seed (Table 8).
As shown in Table 8, carbohydrate (~47–50%), lipid (~22–25%) and
protein (~18–20%) were the major consituents present in the Iranian
Basil seed. As reported by Razavi et al. (2009), Iranian basil seed had
higher amount of lipid and protein fractions as compared to Indian
basil seed; while it showed lower carbohydrate concentration than
Indian basil seed.
2.1.2.2. Non-galactomannan
2.1.2.2.1. Flaxseed gum (FSG). Flax is one the major Canadian crops
cultivated mainly for the extraction of industrial linseed oil. The flax-
seed (Linum usitatissimum) meal is the main waste material remain-
ing after the oil extraction. It is one of the main sources of the
plant-based lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG)
containing 75–800 times more than that of other foods (Mazur,
1998). The chemical structure of SDG is shown in Fig. 5. Lignans are
phenolic compounds formed by the union of monomeric units
hydroxyl- and hydroxy-methoxy derivatives of cinnamic and benzoic
acids (Budavari, 1996). Flaxseed has been mainly interested due to its
abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid (i.e. α-linolenic acid). In addi-
tion, it also contains dietary fiber and lignan constituents, which is
potentially used to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in
human (Dodin et al., 2008). Flaxseed also contains proteins
394 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398

Table 8
Chemical composition of Iranian and Indian basil seeds, crude and pure BSGa (%).
Mathews et al. (1993) and Razavi et al. (2009).

Component Iranian basil seeds Indian basil BSG (from Isfahan seeds)
seed
Qom Kerman Yazd Mashhad Isfahan Cude Pure

Moisture 5.07 ± 0.15 5.11 ± 0.16 5.02 ± 0.17 5.32 ± 0.16 5.51 ± 0.16 9.63 ± 0.14 7.39 ± 0.18 5.79 ± 0.12
Proteinb 20.16 ± 0.92 19.44 ± 0.67 17.94 ± 0.62 19.75 ± 0.76 18.37 ± 0.63 14.76 ± 1.52 2.01 ± 0.11 1.56 ± 0.08
Lipidb 23.12 ± 0.97 23.70 ± 1.01 24.45 ± 0.91 22.54 ± 0.74 21.97 ± 0.71 13.8 ± 0.29 11.55 ± 0.29 9.71 ± 0.25
Ashb 5.38 ± 0.10 5.54 ± 0.10 5.41 ± 0.11 5.34 ± 0.13 5.04 ± 0.11 7.7 ± 0.2 5.89 ± 0.14 3.32 ± 0.17
Carbohydrate (by difference)b 47.27 ± 0.64 47.21 ± 0.73 48.38 ± 0.81 48.05 ± 0.32 50.11 ± 0.86 63.8 ± 2.01 74.19 ± 0.61 79.62 ± 0.86
a
Values are mean ± SD of three determinations.
b
On a dry weight basis.

comprising of high amounts of arginine, lysine and branch-chain
amino acids (Hall, Tulbek, & Xu, 2006). Therefore, it can be potentially
used as value-added by products in the food industry.
Mucilaginous compounds can be isolated from flaxseed (L. usita-
tissimum L.) a substantial source of the plant gum (Mazza &
Biliaderis, 1989). Flaxseed gum (FSG) is comprised of two different
polysaccharide fractions: a neutral fraction (arabinoxylans) plus an
acidic fraction (Cui & Mazza, 1996). Cui and Mazza (1996) compared
the main monosaccharide composition of different varieties of FSG
with other commercial gums i.e. gum Arabic, guar and xanthan
gum. Table 9 shows the major difference between the chemical com-
position of various flaxseed gums and several commercial gums (i.e.
gum Arabic, guar and xanthan gum). As shown in Table 9, D-xylose,
L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, L-galactose, and D-galacturonic acid were
the major constituent monosaccharide and uronic acid present in
the chemical structure of FSG obtained by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis
(Cui & Mazza, 1996; Mazza & Biliaderis, 1989; Warrand et al., 2005).
FSG has an abundant water holding capacity (WHC) with similar
rheological properties as guar gum (Fedeniuk & Biliaderis, 1994).
Cui, Kenaschuk, and Mazza (1996) studied the effect of chemical
composition of various brown and yellow flaxseed cultivars on their
rheological behaviors. They indicated that those flaxseed gums con-
taining higher amounts of arabinoxylans (neutral polysaccharide)
showed more shear thinning (pseudoplastic) flow behavior and
‘weak gel’-like properties; while those flaxseed gums containing
higher content of acidic monosaccharides s(e.g. galacturonic acid)
exhibited weaker rheological properties (i.e. viscoelastic fluid). As
reported by Cui et al. (1996), FGs obtained from yellow Flaxseed
showed stronger rheological properties than those extracted from
the brown cultivars. They found that the yellow flaxseed cultivars
contained a significantly lower content of rhamnose (12.8–14.4%)
and galacturonic acid (13.8–16.2%), but much higher content of neu-
tral polysaccharide (e.g. xylose, 39.0–48.7%). This observation is con-
sistent with their ‘weak gel-like/rheological properties (Cui et al.,
Leguminosae family. It is the most important tree grown in South East
Asia and widely indigenous to India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, and Thailand (Anonymous, 1976; El-Siddig et al.,
2006). The chemical structure of TKP was reported to contain protein
(12.7–15.4%), oil (3–7.5%), crude fiber (7–8.4%), carbohydrates
(61–72.2%) and ash (2.45–3.3%) in the chemical structure of TKP
(Table 10) (Jones & Jordan, 1978). Tamarind kernel polysaccharide
(TKP) or Tamarind seed gum (TSG) is a galactoxyloglucan derivative
isolated from the seed kernel of Tamarindus indica. TSG has a back-
bone chain of β-D-1-glucopyrynosyl units linked to a side chain of
D-xylopyranosyl unit (Gerard, 1980). It is rich in a high molecular
weight polysaccharide (~65–72%) with the molecular weight of
720–880 kDa (Freitas et al., 2005; Kumar & Bhattacharya, 2008). How-
ever, different molecular weight ranging from 2.5 × 105 to 6.5 × 105 Da
was reported in the previous study (Zhang, Xu, Zhang, & Du, 2008).
TSG is an extremely branched carbohydrate polymer composed of
three monosaccharide units i.e. “glucose, galactose and xylose in the
molar ratio of ~ 3:2:1” (Freitas et al., 2005; Patel et al., 2008). An ap-
proximately 80% of glucose remains are replaced by xylose residues
(1–6 linked), which themselves replaced in part by p-1-2 galactose
residues (Fig. 6) (Goyal, Kumar, & Sharma, 2007; Zhang et al.,
2008). TSP is a promising polymer mainly used as stabilizer, thicken-
er, gelling agent, and binder in food and pharmaceutical industries.
TSP can simply swell in water and form the mucilaginous solution
after heating up. TSP solution has the proper resistance against acid
and thermal process. It can form a gel which is mainly used as a thick-
ening and stabilizing agent in the food industry (Zhang et al., 2008).
TSP is also known as a novel drug delivery system and bioadhesive
agent in pharmaceutical products with non-carcinogenicity,
Table 9
Comparison of flaxseed gum obtained from different varieties with various commercial
gums.
Cui and Mazza (1996).

1996). Flaxseed gums Commercial gums

2.1.2.2.2. Tamarind kernel seed gum (TKSG). Tamarind kernel
Norman Omega Foster 84495 Arabic Guar Xanthan
powder (TKP) is derived from Tamarindus seeds indica belonging to
Loss on drying 6.5 3.7 14.4 11.5 12.8 8.6 10.2
(105 °C; %)a
Total ash 7.4 8.2 8.4 3.3 1.2 11.9 1.5
(550 °C; %)
Nitrogen 1.50 2.69 2.95 2.42 0.34 1.31 0.86
(Kjeldahl, %)
Uronic acid (%) 21.0b 25.1 23.9 15.7 15.0c 0.0 21.5
Relative neutral sugar composition (%)
Rhamnose 21.2 27.2 25.6 12.8 34.0 0.0 0.0
Fucose 5.0 7.1 5.8 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Arabinose 13.5 9.2 11.0 18.1 24.0 0.0 0.0
Xylose 37.4 28.2 21.1 42.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
Galactose 20.0 24.4 28.4 18.4 45.0 33.0 0.0
Glucose 2.1 3.6 8.2 3.7 0.0 0.0 50.7
Mannose 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 67.0 49.3
a
On a dry weight bade.
b
Fig. 5. Structure of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG; 2,3-bis[(4-hydroxy-3- Galacturonic acid for flaxseed gum.
c
methoxyphenyl)methyl]-1,4-butane-diglucoside) (Budavari, 1996; Mazur, 1998). Content of glucuronic acid, from Anderson and Morrison (1990).
 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398
Table 10
Representative composition of crude tamarind kernel powder.
US patent, 4074043.
Non-polysaccharide components About 45–55%
Protein 17–19%
Moisture 8–10%
Fat 7–8%
Fiber 3–5%
Ash 2–4%
Tannin 2–3%
Free sugars 2–3%
Mechanical impurities
Impurities 0–5%
biocompatibility, high drug holding capacity, and high thermal stabil-
ity (Gupta, Puri, Gupta, Jain, & Rao, 2010).
2.1.2.2.3. Durian seed gum (DSG). Durian (Durio zibethinus Murray)
is the most popular seasonal fruit in South East Asia countries, partic-
ularly Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Philippines (Booncherm &
Siriphanich, 1991; Brown, 1997). Durian is a large, spiky fruit, native
to the tropical rain forests — known as “the king fruit”. It is a climac-
teric fruit of several tree species which belongs to the genus “Durio”
and “Malvaceae” family (Lim, 1990; United States Department of Ag-
riculture, USDA, 2008). Durian has very large seed, which relies upon
being discarded after consuming the fruit. It makes a huge volume of
waste in the food and beverage industry. As reported by Amiza, Aziz,
Ong, Wong, and Pang (2004), the durian seed flour is very nutritious
containing high fiber content. It is used by incorporating into various
traditional food products including cake, cookies, soup, tempura, tem-
poyak (fermented durian) and lempuk (durian cake). It has been also
used as a dietary fiber, thickening agent and replacer for wheat flour
(Tabatabaee Amid, & Mirhosseini (2011); Amiza et al., 2004; Che
Man, Irwandi, Yusof, Jinap, & Sugisawa, 1997). A large amount of
slime will come out after cutting a fresh durian seed. This might be
due to the presence of hydrocolloid and starch in the durian seed
(Amiza et al., 2004).
As reported by Amin et al. (2007), durian seed gum (DSG) contained
the monosaccharide such as rhamnose, glucose and D-galactose in the
Fig. 6. The molecular structure of Tamarind gum (Zhang et al., 2008).
395
ratio of 3:9:1. They also found that galactomannan was not available
in DSG. Amin et al. (2007) also demonstrated that the ash content of
DSG was higher compared to the other commercial gums. They
reported that the extraction yield of durian seed gum (DSG) was low
as compared to other seeds such as Ipomoea seed (2.8%), turpethum
seed (2.3%) and Abutilon indicum seed (3.0%). Amin and Arshad
(2009) reported that whole durian seed (WDS) flour was comprised
of carbohydrate (73.9%), crude fiber (10.1%), water (6.5%), and protein
(6.0%). It also contained the low amount of ash (3.1%) and fat (0.4%).
They found that the de-hulled durian seed (DDS) floor contained higher
amount of carbohydrate (76.8%), moisture (6.6%), protein (7.6%), ash
(3.8%), but lower content of crude fiber (4.8%) and a similar amount
of fat (0.4%) as compared to WDS. They also reported that the total
contents of dietary fiber of WDS and DDS were 52.9% and 7.7%,
respectively.
The ash content of DSG was higher than that of gum Arabic (1.2%)
and xanthan gum (1.5%), but lower than that of guar gum (11.9%)
(Amin et al., 2007; Cui & Mazza, 1996). As shown by previous
researchers (Amin et al., 2007; Cui & Mazza, 1996), DSG contained
higher calcium content than guar and xanthan gum; while it had a
lower amount of calcium than gum Arabic (Table 11). Moreover, the
researchers reported that DSG was rich with natrium content, which
was not comparable to other examined gums such as gum Arabic,
guar and xanthan gum. As reported in previous studies (Amin et al.,
2007; Cui & Mazza, 1996), DSG contained a high content of zinc and
manganese in comparison with gum Arabic, guar and xanthan gum;
while it showed incomparably lower quantity of lead and copper than
that of gum Arabic, guar and xanthan gum (Table 11).
2.1.2.2.4. Karaya gum (KG). Karaya gum (KG) is a commercially
extracted polysaccharide from Sterculia urens, which is notable tree
cultivated in India. S. urens belongs to the Sterculiaceae family, which
usually grows in dry and rocky forests regions (Galla & Dubasi, 2010;
The Wealth of India, 1952). The seed of S. urens is composed of 56%
kernels containing 35% protein, 26% oil and 28% carbohydrates (The
Wealth of India, 1952). KG is a partially acetylated complex polysaccha-
ride gum involving high molecular weight strcuture. The chemical
structure of KG is composed of 55–60% of neutral monosaccharide
residues (namely galactose and rhamnose), 8% acetyl groups and
396 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398

Table 11 Table 12
Mineral content of durian seed gum compared to other commercial gums. Chemical composition of gum from karaya seed meal.

Mineral Durian seed guma Arabic gumb Guar gumb Xanthan gumb Parameters, % Whole seed meal Dehulled–defatted seed meal

Calcium (ppm) 3169 7222 1258 1458 Moisture 7.32 ± 0.07a 5.16 ± 0.05b
Natrium (ppm) 221.3 nd nd nd Total ash 3.40 ± 0.03a 4.06 ± 0.05b
Zinc (ppm) 107.7 b4.0 12.1 9.0 Fat 29.02 ± 0.14 ND
Aluminum (ppm) 18.5 nd nd nd Protein (N × 6.25) 20.47 ± 0.14a 40.74 ± 0.18b
Manganese (ppm) 15.3 9.5 4.6 6.0 Crude fiber 8.24 ± 0.09a 3.58 ± 0.08b
Pottasium (ppm) 10.9 nd nd nd Carbohydrates (by difference) 31.55 ± 0.26a 46.46 ± 0.25
Ferum (ppm) 2.8 nd nd nd Energy kcal/100 g 469.00 ± 0.31a 348.00 ± 0.19b
Lead (ppm) 1.6 b4.0 b4.0 12.0
ND: not determined.
Copper (ppm) 1.5 b4.0 5.4 9
a, b different letters within the same row indicate significant differences at p b 0.05.
Cobalt (ppm) – nd nd nd
Values are means of triplicate with ± standard deviation.
Nickel (ppm) – nd nd nd
Cadmium nd b0.5 b0.5 0.7
Magnesium nd 2400 760 1340
reported that dehulled–defatted karaya seed meal was richer in pro-
nd—not determined.
a
Reported by Amin et al. (2007). tein and polyphenol content as compared to the whole seed meal. The
b
Reported by Cui and Mazza (1996). considerable concentration of minerals such as Ca 2 +, Fe 2 +, K + and
P 3 + were also available in dehulled–defatted seed meal (Galla &
Dubasi, 2010). Galla and Dubasi (2010) reported that the protein
solubility increased by increasing pH from the acidic pH to alkaline
pH. They also found that the increase of salt concentration level led
37–40% uronic acid residues (galacturonic and glucuronic acid) to enhance the protein solubility at isoelectric point.
(Davidson, 1980; Ibrahim, Abo-Shosha, Allam, & El-Zairy, 2010;
Stephen & Churns, 1995).
Vinod et al. (2010) also reported the presence of the aspartic acid 3. Summary
(64.2 ± 2.44 lg/g), proline (30.5± 1.86 lg/g), glutamic acid (34.2 ±
1.44 lg/g), threonine (25.2 ± 1.06 lg/g) and glycine (4.8± 0.45 lg/g) The present review study summarized the chemical composition
and leucine (3.9 ± 0.28 lg/g) in the chemical structure of KG. Vinod and molecular structure of plant-based gums. As mentioned earlier,
et al. (2010) also reported the presence of saturated and unsaturated natural plant-based gums are mainly extracted from the endosperm
fatty acids such as stearic acid (C18:0, 25.5 ± 1.64), palmitic acid of plant seeds (guar gum (GG)), plant exudates (e.g. tragacanth) and
(C16:0, 18.5 ± 0.95), palmitoleic acid (C16:1, 13.2 ± 0.95), lauric acid tree or shrub exudates (e.g. karaya gum (KG)). The present study indi-
(C16:0, 12.8 ± 0.62) and oleic acid (C18:1, 4.2 ± 0.21) in the chemical cates the presence of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, uronic acids,
structure of KG. They explained that the emulsifying property of KG galactoronic acid, protein, Ca and Mg as major structure constituents
might be due to the presence of fatty acids in the gum structure. KG as well as glucose, xylose, mannose, protein and fat as minor constitu-
has been used in pharmaceutical, leather, bakery and dairy products ents of plant gum exudates. The present work demonstrated the
due to specific functional characteristics such as suitable water holding major differences among plant-based gums in terms of M/G ratio, distri-
capacity (WHC), oil holding capacity (OHC), foam capacity and stability, bution of galactose residues along with the mannan backbone, molecu-
thickening properties, emulsification capacity and bulk density lar weight and molecular distribution. The future challenge is to expand
(Anderson, McNab, Anderson, Braown, & Pringuer, 1982; Ibrahim, the better understanding about the relationship between the molecular
Abo-Shosha, Allam, & El-Zairy, 2010; Galla & Dubasi, 2010). It can be structure, functionality and mechanical properties of seed gum. Since,
also utilized as a thickener in textile printing (Davidson, 1980) and plant-based gums are mainly used for various applications (as dietary
drug release controlling agent (Munday & Cox, 2000). The following fiber, hydrogels, films, bioadhesives, thickener, stabilizers, emulsifiers
structure belongs to the backbone structure of KG (Fig. 7). and drug delivery agents), a further study is required to investigate
Galla and Dubasi (2010) studied the chemical and functional char- the effect of extraction, purification, drying and further processing con-
acterization of KG from whole seed and dehulled–defatted S. urens L. ditions on the chemical composition, molecular structure and function-
seed meal (Table 12). They found that the karaya seed consisted of al properties of plant-based gums.
60.5% kernels and 39.5% hull. The researchers also reported that the
protein content of seed ranged from 20.4% in whole seed meal to
40.7% in dehulled–defatted seed meal. Galla and Dubasi (2010) also Acknowledgment
reported that the other components such as carbohydrate content
also increased in the dehulled defatted meal by removing the hull We would like to gratefully appreciate for financial support of this
and fat. However, the de-hulling process of seed led to reduce the work by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Malaysia
crude fiber and ash content as compared to whole seed meal. They through Science Fund (05-01-04-SF1059).

Fig. 7. The molecular structure of the karaya gum (Ibrahim et al., 2010).
 H. Mirhosseini, B.T. Amid / Food Research International 46 (2012) 387–398
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