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CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

M. J. Cuenco cor. R. Palma St., Cebu City

EQUIPMENT FOR MEASURING HYDROLOGIC


AND ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS

Aglipa, Davy
Alpas, Jon Vincent Claude VI
Delica, Juliven
Dabon, Jasmin
Hisola, Divine Grace
Servano, Charie Ann
October 2017

Instructor:
Liezl Anne R. Sumagaysay

CE 516 – HYDROLOGY
OUTLINE

1. Temperature
1.1 Thermometers
1.2 Probes
1.2.1 Resistance Elements
1.2.2 Thermopiles
1.2.3. Semiconductor Probes
1.3 Non-Contact Devices
2. Pressure
2.1. Manometers
2.2. Mechanical Pressure Measurement Gauges
3. Precipitation
3.1. Ordinary / Standard Rain Gauge
3.2. The Weighing Rain Gauge
3.3. Optical Rain Gauge
3.4. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
4. Evaporation
4.1. SWB Class A Evaporation Pan
4.2. ISI Standard Pan
4.3. Colorado Sunken Pan
4.4. USGS Floating Pan
5. Stream flow
5.1. Bucket Method
5.2. Float Method
5.3. Weirs
5.4. Meters
5.4.1. Pygmy Meter
5.4.2. Vortex Meter
5.4.3. Flow Probe
5.4.4. Current Meter

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1. Temperature

There are a wide variety of temperature measurement probes in use today depending
on what you are trying to measure, how accurately you need to measure it, if you need
to use it for control or just man monitoring, or if you can even touch what you are trying
to monitor.

Temperature measurement can be classified into a few general categories:

1. Thermometers
2. Probes
3. Non-contact Devices

1.1 Thermometers

➢ Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer

The liquid-in-glass thermometer is one of the most common instruments used today
to measure temperature. As the name suggests, the instrument consists of a glass bulb
containing a special liquid. The bulb is connected to a stem that has a scale for
measuring the temperature. The liquid must expand and contract significantly in
response to a temperature increase or decrease. Changes in temperature therefore
lead to changes in the liquid level on the stem. The most commonly used liquid in these
types of thermometers is mercury.

Figure 1.1.1 Mercury Glass Thermometer

➢ Bimetal Thermometers

Bimetallic devices take advantage of the expansion of metals when they are
heated. In these devices, two metals are bonded together and mechanically linked to a
pointer. When heated, one side of the bimetallic strip will expand more than the other.
And when geared properly to a pointer, the temperature is indicated.

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FIGURE 1.1.2 Bimetallic Thermometer

If two materials with different linear coefficients are bonded together, as the
temperature changes their rate of expansion will be different. This will cause the entire
assembly to bend in an arc as shown in figure 1.1.3.

When the temperature is raised, an arc is formed around the material with the
smaller expansion coefficient. Since this assembly is formed by joining two dissimilar
materials, it is known as a bimetallic element.

A modification of this bimetallic strip serves as the basis for one of the simplest and
most commonly encountered temperature-measuring instruments, the bimetallic
thermometer. Figure 1.1.2 shows a bimetallic thermometer. In it, a bimetallic strip is
wound in the form of a long helix. One end of the helix is held rigid. As the temperature
varies, the helix tries to wind or unwind. This causes the free end to rotate.

The free end is connected to a pointer. The pointer actually indicates angular
rotation of the helix; however, since the rotation is linear and a function of temperature,
the scale is marked in units of temperature.

Figure 1.1.3 Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip

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1.2 Probes
Following the development of the thermometer, the next step in the evolution of
temperature measurement was the development of the temperature probe.
Probes can be classified into a few general categories:

1. Resistance elements
2. Thermopiles
3. Semiconductor Probes

1.2.1 Resistance Elements

➢ Thermistors

The thermistor is a device that changes its electrical resistance with


temperature. In particular materials with predictable values of change are
most desirable

Figure 1.2.1.1 Thermistors

➢ Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)


The Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) technically includes
thermistor devices, however the term ‘RTD’ has come to stand for the
specialized pure metal detector rather than the more generic semiconductor
resistance element. These pure metal devices are highly accurate and
stable over long periods of time. Unlike the thermistor, the Platinum RTD is
a linear device. Its resistance changes linearly proportionally to
temperature.

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Figure 1.2.1.2 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)

1.2.2. Thermopiles

➢ Thermocouples

Thermocouples are voltage devices that indicate temperature measuring


with a change in voltage. As temperature goes up, the output voltage of the
thermocouple rises - not necessarily linearly.

Often the thermocouple is located inside a metal or ceramic shield that


protects it from exposure to a variety of environments. Metal-sheathed
thermocouples also are available with many types of outer coatings, such as
Teflon, for trouble-free use in acids and strong caustic solutions.

Figure 1.2.2.1 Themocouples

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1.2.3. Semiconductor Probes

Semiconductor probes are the third main category of probe. Like a resistance
probe, they require a current (or voltage) supply to create a reading. This is where
the similarity ends. Semiconductor probes are created from a semiconductor wafer
that contains a number of active circuits. Probably the most common of these are
the Analog Devices AD590 Device. The actual circuit that the device consists of is
shown in figure 1.3.2.

Figure 1.2.3.1 Semiconductor Probes

Figure 1.2.3.2

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1.3 Non-Contact Devices

The non-contact temperature sensor category includes a wide variety of primarily optical
devices. These all operate on some form of radiative heat transfer measurement. In
general, all things radiate heat. This heat can be detected as a radiation from the
device.
By measuring this radiation, you can determine the temperature of the device, not only
from a distance of a few millimeters, but also from millions of light years distant.

➢ Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices

Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices consist of a series of


optics that gather and focus infrared radiation onto a special detector. The
detector is normally a semiconductor such as silicon, which outputs an
electrical current proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. The
temperature is then calculated using internal electronics, based upon known
material parameters. A key advantage of Radiation thermometers is the
potential to measure an object's temperature at a distance. The
thermometers are often equipped with a laser sight, in order to aim
accurately at specific objects.

Figure 1.3 Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices

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2. Pressure

Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many
techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.

Types of Pressure Measuring Devices:

1. Manometers
2. Mechanical Pressure Measurement Gauges

2.1. Manometers

Manometer is a device used to measure pressure at a single or multiple point in a


single or multiple pipeline, by balancing the fluid column by the same or another column
of fluid.

➢ U-Tube Manometer

U-tube manometer is a simple manometric device used to measure


pressure at a point in a fluid, by balancing the fluid column by the same or
another column of fluid. It has a glass tube bent in “U” shape with some
amount of same or other type of fluid, called manometric fluid like mercury.

Figure 2.1.1 U-Tube Manometer

➢ Inclined or Sloping U-tube Manometer

It is basically the same U-tube manometer just the tube is inclined at


certain angle this time. This results in more deflection in the liquid level in the
tube for the same change in pressure. This enables the measurement of
small pressure changes with increased accuracy.

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Figure 2.1.2 Inclined or Sloping U-tube Manometer

➢ Differential Manometer

It is used to measure the pressure difference between two points or


between two systems. It is again a U-tube manometer with the two ends of
the U-tube connected to the two systems between which pressure
difference is to be measured. Depending on the range of pressure
difference to be measured, a suitable liquid or combination of liquids can be
filled in the two arms of the U-tube.

Figure 2.1.3 Differential Manometer

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2.2. Mechanical Pressure Measurement Gauges

Mechanical Pressure Measurement Devices do not read pressure of any system


by deflection of liquid level in some sort of tube. Instead they use some solid object,
such as, tube, plate, or diaphragm to measure pressure. The system whose pressure is
to be measured is connected to the deflecting object. Any change in pressure causes
the object to deflect and this deflection is mechanically amplified, by using a suitable
gear and linkage mechanism, and indicated on the calibrated dial.

➢ Bourdon Gauge

The Bourdon Gauge has a coiled tube whose one end is connected to
the system under consideration and other end is sealed. With the application
of the pressure in the tube it straightens up causing deflection of the sealed
end. The sealed end is connected to the indicating needle through a gear
and linkage mechanism. The deflection of the sealed end results in
movement of the needle which moves on a calibrated dial.

Figure 2.2.1 Bourdon Gauge

➢ Diaphragm Gauge

Similar to the Bourdon Gauge, but has


a Diaphragm which deflects on
pressure changes and the deflection is
indicated on the calibrated scale.

Figure 2.2.2 Diaphragm Gauge

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➢ Bellows Gauge

In such gauges indicating needle is driven by the deflection of bellows


chamber. This gauge is suitable for measurement of very low pressures.

Figure 2.2.3 Bellows Gauge

➢ Pressure Transducers

Pressure Transducers use an electrical system in conjunction with


mechanical gauges to convert the deflection due to pressure changes into
electrical signals. Pressure Transducers are useful to measure pressures
continuously such that the electrical signal supplied to some control system
can be used to monitor the pressure variations.

Figure 2.2.4 Pressure Transducers

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3. Precipitation

A rain gauge (also known as an udometer, pluviometer, or an ombrometer) is an


instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount
of liquid precipitation over a set period of time.

Types of Rain Gauges

1. Ordinary / Standard Rain Gauge


2. The Weighing Rain Gauge
3. Optical Rain Gauge
4. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

3.1. Ordinary / Standard Rain Gauge

The most common rain gauge is the ordinary rain gauge, which simply consists
of a collector place above a funnel that leads into measuring cylinder, where the
rainwater is stored between observations. The measuring cylinder is specially graded to
give the rainfall measurement in mm. Alternatively, where rainfall can be particularly
heavy, a large container is used to collect the rainwater. Readings are made by pouring
the rainwater out of the container into measuring cylinder so that the rainfall could be
measured.

Figure 3.1 Standard Rain Gauge

3.2. The Weighing Rain Gauge

Another way of determining how much rainwater has been collected is to weigh
the water inside the container. In these instruments, the container sits on top of a scale
and this weighs the container together with the rainwater inside continuously.

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Figure 3.2 Weighing Rain Gauge

3.3. Optical Rain Gauge

These have a row of collection funnels. In an enclosed space below each is a


laser diode and a phototransistor detector. When enough water is collected to make a
single drop, it drips from the bottom, falling into the laser beam path. The sensor is set
at right angles to the laser so that enough light is scattered to be detected as a sudden
flash of light. The flashes from these photodetectors are then read and transmitted or
recorded.

Figure 3.3 Optical Rain Gauge

3.4. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

A known volume of water collects in a calibrated bucket, which tips on its pivot
whenever it becomes full. Each tipping motion of the bucket closes a switch. The
number of times the switch is closed in a given period provides a measure of rainfall
rate.

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Figure 3.4 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

4. Evaporation

An atmometer or evaporimeter is a scientific instrument used for measuring the rate of


water evaporation from a wet surface to the atmosphere. These are pans containing
water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by evaporation from these
pans are measured at regular intervals (daily). Meteorological data such as humidity,
wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and
noted along with evaporation.

Figure 4.1 Evaporimeters

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Types of Evaporimeters

1. SWB Class A Evaporation Pan


2. ISI Standard Pan
3. Colorado Sunken Pan
4. USGS Floating Pan

4.1. SWB Class A Evaporation Pan

• A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm


• Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm
• The pan is made of unpainted GI shee
• The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15cm above ground level to
allow free air circulation below the pan
• Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with
a hook gauge

4.2. ISI Standard Pan

• Specified by IS:5973 and known as the modified Class A Pan


• A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm
• The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white
outside
• The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and height
100mm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan
• A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water
• Water is added to or removed from the pan to maintain the water level at a
fixed mark using a calibrated cylindrical measure
• The top of the pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of GI to protect water
in the pan from birds
• Presence of the wire mesh makes the temperature of water more uniform
during the day and night
• Evaporation from this pan is about 14% lower as compared to that from an
unscreened pan

4.3. Colorado Sunken Pan

• 920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried
into the ground within 100mm of the top
• Main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are
similar to that of a lake
• Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is
needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust etc

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4.4. USGS Floating Pan

• A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep


• Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set
afloat in a lake with a view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of
water
• Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake,
leaving a rim of 75mm
• Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce surging in the pan due to
wave action
• Disadvantages – High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making
measurements

5. Stream Flow

Flow is the total volume of a fluid that flows past a fixed point in a river or stream over
time. It is comparable to the speed at which a volume of fluid travels as seen in Figure 5

Volumetric flow rates can be measured in various units such as:

• liters/sec (lit/s)
• cubic feet/sec (cu.f/s)
• gallons/min (gpm)
• cubic meters/sec (cu.m/s)

There are numerous ways to measure flow rate, such as:

1. Bucket Method
2. Float Method
3. Weirs
4. Meters

Figure 5 A Flowing Mountain Stream

5.1. Bucket Method

The Bucket method is a simple way to measure the flow rate using household items. It
requires a stopwatch, a large bucket, and preferably two to three people. To measure
the flow rate using the bucket method:

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1. Measure the volume of the bucket or container. Keep in mind that a typical 5-
gallon bucket is often actually less than 5 gallons.
2. Find a location along the stream that has a waterfall. If none can be found, a
waterfall can be constructed using a weir (see Figure Four).
3. With a stopwatch, time how long it takes the waterfall to fill the bucket with water.
Start the stopwatch simultaneously with the start of the bucket being filled and
stop the stopwatch when the bucket fills. The bucket should not be filled by
holding it below the surface of the stream because it is not the true flow rate.
4. Record the time it takes to fill the bucket.
5. Repeat steps two and three about six or seven times and take the average. It is a
good idea to do a few trials runs before recording any data so that one can get a
feel for the timing and measurements required.
6. Only eliminate data if major problems arise such as debris from the stream
interfering with the flow.
7. The flow rate is the volume of the bucket divided by the average time it took to fill
the bucket.

Figure 5.1 An example of the Bucket Method

5.2. Float Method

The float method (also known as the cross-sectional method) is used to measure the
flow rate for larger streams and rivers. It is found by multiplying a cross sectional area of
the stream by the velocity of the water. To measure the flow rate using the float method:

1. Locate a spot in the stream that will act as the cross section of the stream.
2. Using a meter stick, or some other means of measurement, measure the depth
of the stream at equal intervals along the width of the stream (see Figure 5.2).
This method is like hand calculating a Riemann sum for the width of the river.

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3. Once this data is gathered, multiply each depth by the interval it was taken in and
add all the amounts together. This calculation is the area of a cross section of
the stream.
4. Decide on a length of the stream, typically longer than the width of the river, to
send a floating object down (oranges work great). (L. Grafman, personal
communication, November 2, 2009.)
5. Using a stopwatch, measure the time it takes the float to travel down the length
of stream from step 4.
6. Repeat step five 5-10 times and determine the average time taken for the float to
travel the stream. Throw the float into the water at different distances from the
shoreline in order to gain a more accurate average.
7. Divide the stream length found in step 4 by the average time in step 6 to
determine the average velocity of the stream.
8. The velocity found in step 7 must be multiplied by a friction correction factor.
Since the top of a stream flows faster than the bottom due to friction against the
stream bed, the friction correction factor evens out the flow. For rough or rocky
bottoms, multiply the velocity by 0.85. For smooth, muddy, sandy, or smooth
bedrock conditions, multiply the velocity by a correction factor of 0.9.
9. The corrected velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area yields the flow rate
in volume/time. (Be sure to keep consistent units of length/distance when
measuring the cross section and the velocity e.g. meters, feet)

Figure 5.2 Finding the flow rate using a float and a meter stick.

5.3. Weirs

Weirs are small dams that can be used in measuring flow rate for small to medium sized
streams (a few meters or wider). They allow overflow of the stream to pour over the top
of the weir, creating a waterfall, as seen in Figure 5.3. Weirs increase the change in
elevation making the streamflow more consistent which makes flow rate measurements
more precise. However, it is very important that all the water in the stream be directed
into the weir for it to accurately represent the stream flow. It is also important to keep

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sediment from building up behind the weir. Sharp crested weirs work best.There are
many different types of weirs which include broad crested weirs, sharp crested weirs,
combination weirs, V-notch weirs and minimum energy loss weirs.

Figure 5.3 V-notch weir

5.4. Meters

Meters are devices that measure the stream flow by directly measuring the current.

Types Of Meters

1. Pygmy Meter
2. Vortex Meter
3. Flow Probe
4. Current Meter

5.4.1. Pygmy Meter

A wheel is rotated by water flow and the rate of the rotation signifies the water velocity.
It is primarily used in measuring discharge.

Figure 5.4.1 Pygmy Meter

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5.4.2. Vortex Meter

Velocity is proportional to the downstream frequency of the vortex flow and is read on a
digital readout. It is used for measuring flow in pipes.

Figure 5.4.2 Vortex Meter

5.4.3. Flow Probe

The flow turns a propeller that sends the water velocity data to a digital readout display
in ft/s or m/s.

Figure 5.4.3 Flow Probe

5.4.4. Current Meter

Electronic pulses determine water velocity. Can be used in large bodies of water like
oceans to measure the current.

Figure 5.4.4 Current Meter

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References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_measurement
https://www.wwdmag.com/water/7-basic-types-temperature-measuring-sensors
https://sea.omega.com/ph/prodinfo/temperaturemeasurement.html
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/43777-pressure-measurement-
pressure-measurement-devices/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_measurement
http://www courses.nres.uiuc.edu/nres401/rainfall_measurements.ppt
http://www.africaguide.com/country/egypt/info.htm
http://ccc.atmos.colostate.edu/~hail/index.php
http://www en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainfall
http://www.landwirtschaft.sachsen.de/de/wu/Landwirtschaft/lfl/inhalt/10182_10194.htm
https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/evaporation-and-its-measurement/4575/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmometer
http://www.appropedia.org/How_to_measure_stream_flow_rate

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