Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

In the strictly mathematical definition of a vector, the only operations that vectors are
required to possess are those of addition and scalar multiplication. (Compare this with the
operations allowed on ordinary real numbers, or scalars, in which we are given addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division). For instance, in a raw vector space there is no
obvious way to multiply two vectors together to get a third vector--even though we will
define a couple of ways of performing vector multiplication in Vector Multiplication.

It makes sense, then, to begin studying vectors with an investigation of the operations of
vector addition and scalar multiplication. This section will be entirely devoted to
explaining addition and scalar multiplication of two- and three-dimensional vectors. This
explanation will involve two different, yet equivalent, methods: the component method
and the graphical method.

The Component Method for Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

When we mentioned in the introduction that a vector is either an ordered pair or a triplet
of numbers we implicitly defined vectors in terms of components.

Each entry in the 2-dimensional ordered pair (a, b) or 3-dimensional triplet (a, b, c) is
called a component of the vector. Unless otherwise specified, it is normally understood
that the entries correspond to the number of units the vector has in the x , y , and (for the
3D case) z directions of a plane or space. In other words, you can think of the
components as simply the coordinates of the point associated with the vector. (In some
sense, the vector is the point, although when we draw vectors we normally draw an arrow
from the origin to the point.)

Figure %: The vector (a, b) in the Euclidean plane.

Vector Addition Using Components

Given two vectors u = (u 1, u 2) and v = (v 1, v 2) in the Euclidean plane, the sum is given
by:

u + v = (u 1 + v 1, u 2 + v 2)

For three-dimensional vectors u = (u 1, u 2, u 3) and v = (v 1, v 2, v 3) , the formula is almost

identical:

u + v = (u 1 + v 1, u 2 + v 2, u 3 + v 3)

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

In other words, vector addition is just like ordinary addition: component by component.

Notice that if you add together two 2-dimensional vectors you must get another 2-
dimensional vector as your answer. Addition of 3-dimensional vectors will yield 3-
dimensional answers. 2- and 3-dimensional vectors belong to different vector spaces and
cannot be added. These same rules apply when we are dealing with scalar multiplication.

Scalar Multiplication of Vectors Using Components

Given a single vector v = (v 1, v 2) in the Euclidean plane, and a scalar a (which is a real
number), the multiplication of the vector by the scalar is defined as:

av = (av 1, av 2)

Similarly, for a 3-dimensional vector v = (v 1, v 2, v 3) and a scalar a , the formula for

scalar multiplication is:

av = (av 1, av 2, av 3)

So what we are doing when we multiply a vector by a scalar a is obtaining a new vector
(of the same dimension) by multiplying each component of the original vector by a .

Unit Vectors

For 3-dimensional vectors, it is often customary to define unit vectors pointing in the x , y
, and z directions. These vectors are usually denoted by the letters i , j , and k ,
respectively, and all have length 1 . Thus, i = (1, 0, 0) , j = (0, 1, 0) , and k = (0, 0, 1) .
This enables us to write a vector as a sum in the following way:

(a, b, c)=a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1)

=a i + b j + c k

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Vector Subtraction

Subtraction for vectors (as with ordinary numbers) is not a new operation. If you want to
perform the vector subtraction u - v , you simply use the rules for vector addition and
scalar multiplication: u - v = u + (- 1)v .

In the next section, we will see how these rules for addition and scalar multiplication of
vectors can be understood in a geometric way. We will find, for instance, that vector
addition can be done graphically (i.e. without even knowing the components of the
vectors involved), and that scalar multiplication of a vector amounts to a change in the
vector's magnitude, but does not alter its direction.

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Problems for Component Method of Vector Addition and Scalar

Multiplication

Problem : What is (1, 4, - 3) + 2(0, 1, 5) ?

Solution for Problem 1 >>

Problem : If a creature was initially sitting at the point (3,4) in the plane, and then moved
to the point (-2,5), what is the vector which describes the creature's displacement?

Solution for Problem 2 >>

Problem : Express the vector (2, 2, 5) in terms of unit vectors.

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Graphical Addition

Consider the vectors u = (3, 4) and v = (4, 1) in the plane. From the component method of
vector addition we know that the sum of these two vectors is u + v = (7, 5) . Graphically,
we see that this is the same as the result we would get by "picking up" one of the vectors
(without changing either its direction or its magnitude), placing its end at the other
(unmoved) vector's tip, and drawing an arrow from the origin to the new tip location for
the displaced vector.

Figure %: The sum of the vectors u = (3, 4) and v = (4, 1) in the plane.

This geometric procedure for adding vectors works in general. For any two vectors u and
v in the plane, the sum of the vectors is graphically given as in the following figure:

Figure %: The sum of the vectors u and v in the plane.

The geometric procedure is valid for 3-dimensional vectors as well. Notice that in the
same way that any two lines lie in a plane, any two vectors in 3-dimensional space will
also lie in the same plane. This recognition allows us to see that the sum of two vectors
will always lie in the plane defined by the original two vectors.

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

As we noted in Vector Subtraction, in order to subtract one vector from another, you
simply add its negative partner: u - v = u + (- 1)v . Thus, vectors can be subtracted
graphically in the same manner used for adding them, by simply taking care to reverse
the direction of the vector being subtracted:

Figure %: The difference of the vectors u and v in the plane.

If you graphically add back in the subtracted vector to your result from the subtraction
and you recover the initial vector you subtracted from. In other words, (u - v) + v = u in
our graphical methods, as we should expect!

Scalar Multiplication

What happens graphically when we multiply a vector by a scalar? The vector changes in
length, while its direction remains the same. If the vector's magnitude was previously | v| ,
once it is multiplied by a scalar we have | av| = a| v| . Note that if | a| > 1 the new vector
will be longer. If | a| < 1 the new vector will be shorter. And if a < 0 , the new vector will
point in the opposite direction as the original one.

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 Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Problems for the Graphical Method for Vector

Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Problem : Consider two vectors u and v in the plane which comprise two sides of a
triangle. What vector corresponds to the third side?

Solution for Problem 1 >>

Either u - v or v - u are acceptable answers. (The difference will be whether the arrow for
the third side points towards u or towards v ).

Problem : Find the sum of the vectors which make up the vertices of a regular pentagon
centered at the origin.

Solution for Problem 2 >>

The sum of the vectors, which you can find using the geometric method for vector
addition, should turn out to be zero. An easy way to see this is by noticing that if you
rotate the pentagon by an angle of 2Π/5 , you will recover exactly the same same
pentagon, with exactly the same vectors defining its vertices. Thus, whatever vector you
obtain by adding up the five vectors, it should remain unchanged under such a rotation.
Only the zero-vector (the origin itself) doesn't move when you rotate the plane, hence this
is the only possible candidate for the result of the sum.

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Introduction to Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

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