Power Engineering EPO460

Chapter 1 – Magnetic Circuit

Magnets
 Objects which produce their own magnetic field are called magnets.
 Magnetism is a force of attraction or repulsion that produced by magnets to the other
materials.
 The orientation of electrons is the reason behind the production of magnetic field and
magnetism.
o In a natural state of an object, the electrons are scattered.
o If the orientation of electrons is aligned in one direction, it becomes a magnet.
Magnets have 2 poles: North and South.
 There are 3 major groups of magnets:
Permanent magnets Temporary magnets Electromagnets
o Objects that o Become o Magnets made by wire loops around a
retain their magnetized when core material  when electricity pass
magnetism once they come within through a wire, it produces magnetic
magnetized range of magnet field
o The magnetic o The magnetism o Magnetic property become strong if:
properties last lasts for a short
i. The core is made of ferromagnetic
for a long period period
material
o Example: fridge, o Example: nail,
ii. A coil is used instead of straight wire
cabinet door, etc. needle, paper
clips, etc. iii. Current is high
o Example: transformers, motors,
generators, floating bullet train, etc.

 Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and retain their magnetic
properties after the external field has been removed.
 Iron, nickel, manganese and cobalt are the example of ferromagnetic materials.
 It is used as a core of transformers and stator of motors.

Electromagnets
 Magnetic field (or flux) is the region around a magnet where magnetic effects can be
experienced. (magnetic flux  symbol: Φ, unit: Weber (Wb))
 A magnetic line of force (or flux line) is a continuous line whose direction at any point is the
direction of the magnetic field at that point.

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Fig. 1: Magnetic field

 The magnetic flux through a region is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing
through the region.
 The strength of magnetic flux is measured using magnetic field intensity. (magnetic flux
intensity symbol: H, unit: ampere turn per meter, At/m)
 The direction of magnetic field intensity can be determined by the right-hand grip rule.

Figure 2: Right hand grip rule

 Magnetic flux intensity produces magnetic flux density everywhere it exists. (magnetic flux
density  symbol: B, unit: Tesla (T). 1Wb/m2 = 1T)
 Magnetic flux density indicates the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field of an area. (how
to increase the magnetic flux density?)
 The ease with which a material will conduct magnetic lines force is called permeability.
 The concept of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction are applied in many electrical
appliances such as motors, transformers and generators.

o Electromagnetism is a process of making magnetism using electrical current. A

current carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

o Electromagnetic induction is a process of creating an electrical current using

magnetism.

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Laws related to electromagnetic induction (*refer to video at I-learn)

 Faraday’s law:
o First law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an electromotive-
force (EMF) is always induced in it OR whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an
EMF is induced in that conductor (*when EMF is induced, the current is also induced)
o Second law: The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages
 The direction of motion or direction of induced current can be determined using Fleming’s right
and left hand rules
o Right hand rule: applicable for generator
o Left hand rule: applicable for motor

 Fore finger: direction of magnetic field

 Middle finger: direction of current
 Thumb: direction of force

Fig. 3: Fleming’s right hand rule

 Lenz’s law states that when EMF is induced as in Faraday's law, the polarity (direction) of
that induced EMF is such that it opposes the cause of its production.
 Three basic principles that describe how magnetic fields are used in transformers, motors and
generators are as follows:
1. A time-changing magnetic field induces EMF/voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through
that coil. (This is the basis of transformer)
2. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it (This is
the basis of motor action)
3. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it (This is the
basis of generator action)
 In most electrical machines (except permanent magnet machines), magnetic flux is produced
by passing an electrical current through coils looped on ferromagnetic materials.

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Magnetic Field
 The relation between current, i and magnetic flux intensity, H (i-H relation) can be obtained
using Ampere’s law. This law stated that the line integral of the magnetic flux intensity, H,
around a closed path is equal to the total current linked by the contour.
 It is given by:

Hlc  Ni
Where H – the magnetic field intensity produced by total current Ni
lc – the mean path length of the core (in meter)

Cross-sectional area, A

Mean path length lc

Fig. 4: Simple magnetic core

 The magnitude of the magnetic field intensity, H in the core due to the applied current is

Ni
H
lc
 The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the resulting magnetic flux density
B produced within a material is given by

B  H or B  0  r H

Where H – magnetic field intensity (ampere-turn per meter)

µ – magnetic permeability of material (henrys per meter)
B – resulting magnetic flux density produced (Weber per square meter or Tesla)
µr – relative permeability
µo – permeability of free space (4 x 10-7H/m)

 The permeability of any material compared to the permeability of free space is called relative
permeability given by:

r 
o

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 The magnetic flux density for magnetic core in Fig. 2 is, therefore, given by:

Ni
B  H 
lc
 Now the total flux in a given area is given by

  BA
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the core (in meter square-m2)
 Thus, the total flux in the core in Fig. 2 due to the current i, in the winding is

NiA
  BA 
lc
 The core shapes can be of rectangular, toroid, solenoid and shell type (**how to determine the
length and area of each core shapes?)

Relationship between B and H

 The relationship between B and H of any magnetic materials is generally shown by Fig. 4. This
curve is also known as magnetization curve
 In the core, magnetic intensity, H is increased proportionally by the increasing current
 The flux density, B in the core changes in the way shown below:

Fig. 4: General magnetization curve

 From Fig. 4, the flux density, B increases almost linearly with the increase of flux intensity, H, at
initial condition
 However, at higher value of H, the change of B is nonlinear and shows the effect of saturation

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Fig. 5: Sample of magnetization curve of a few magnetic materials

 From magnetization curve, information of B and/or H of magnetic core can be obtained.

Magnetic Circuits
 Magnetic flux circulated in a closed area or path of ferromagnetic materials is called as
magnetic circuit.
 If the flux is divided into 2 or more path of magnetic flux, it is called as parallel magnetic circuit.
Otherwise, it has series magnetic circuit.
 A circulating force called Magneto Motive Force (MMF) or magnetic potential is responsible for
establishing magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. Unit of MMF is Ampere-turn (At)
 The magnetic circuit can be drawn analogous to an electric circuit as shown below:

Fig. 6 a) A simple electric circuit (b) The magnetic circuit

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 The electrical terms used in electric and magnetic circuits

Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

The voltage or electromotive force The magnetomotive force (mmf) causes

(emf) causes current I, to flow. flux  to be produced.

V  IR F  
V = voltage or electromotive force F = magnetomotive force (mmf) of circuit
I = current  = Flux of circuit
R = resistance  = Reluctance of circuit
1 1
G (conductance) =  (permeance) =
R 

Core Reluctance
 Each core (ferromagnetic material) has its own reluctance. Reluctance is the opposite of
permeability.
 Magnetic property of the core can be improved by using material that has very low reluctance.
 The resulting flux in a core (as shown in Fig. 4) is given by:

NiA A A
  Ni F
lc lc lc
 We can see that the reluctance of the core is

lc

A
 Reluctance in a magnetic circuit obeys the same rules as resistance in an electric circuit.
 The equivalent reluctance of several reluctances in series is just the sum of the individual
reluctances:

 eq  1   2   3  .......
 Similarly, reluctances in parallel combine according to the equation

1 1 1 1
    .........
 eq 1  2  3

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Magnetic circuit with air gap

 In electric machines, the rotor is isolated from the stator by the air gap to reduce the saturation
effect at the core (or poles)
 A magnetic circuit having 2 or more medium (magnetic core and air gap) is known as a
composite structure. Magnetic equivalent circuit for magnetic core with air gap is shown below:

Figure 7: Composite structure. (a) Magnetic core with air gap (b) magnetic equivalent circuit

 In Fig. 7(a)

lc lg
c  g 
c A and
0 A

 Thus, the resulting flux for magnetic circuit with air gap is:

F Ni
 
 c   g

Ni  H c lc  H g l g
 The flux densities are:

c g
Bc  and Bg 
Ac Ag
 At the air gap, magnetic fluxes flowing in a magnetic core spreads out (or fringes out) into the
surrounding medium. This is called fringing of the flux as shown below:

Figure 7: Fringing effect at the air gap

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 Fringing is directly proportional to the length of the air gap. If the length increases, the fringing
effect will increase and vice versa
 Leakage flux is defined as the magnetic flux which does not follow the intended path in a
magnetic circuit

 Useful flux is the flux that passes through the core and is utilized in the magnetic circuit

Ferromagnetic Materials

 All substances are affected by magnetic fields.

 They are classified into 3 according to the way they are affected:
o Diamagnetic materials
 Show very weak magnetic effects
 μr is very slightly less than one (typically 0.99999)
o Paramagnetic materials
 Show very weak magnetic effects
 μr is very slightly greater than one (typically 1.001)
o Ferromagnetic materials
 Exhibit very strong magnetic effects
 Have very large values of μr (typically 104)
 Examples are iron, nickel and cobalt

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Losses in Ferromagnetic Core

 There are 2 types of losses occur in the magnetic core; one is Eddy Current Loss (ECL) and
the other is hysteresis loss.
 ECL takes place when a coil is wrapped around a core and alternating ac supply is applied to it
 As the supply to the coil is alternating, the flux produced in the coil is also alternating
 By Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the change in flux through the core causes EMF
induction inside the core
 Due to induction of EMF, eddy current starts to flow in the core and exist as loss in the form of
heat energy
 Eddy current losses can be reduced by laminations in the core
 Thin sheet steels must be used which are insulated from each other
 Due to insulated sheets the amount of current which flows get reduced and hence the eddy
current losses

Lamination of core to reduce ECL

 Hysteresis loss occurs when the amount of energy absorbed by magnetic material does not
returned to its original path (refer to hysteresis curve)

Hysteresis curve

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 When the magnetic field strength or the current is increased the flux density increase
proportionally until it (flux) gets saturated
 When we reduce the current from saturation to zero side the flux density starts to decrease
 But when the current value reaches zero the flux density should also be zero but it is not
 For zero current there is still some flux density present in the material, this is known as residual
magnetic flux
 Hence the amount of power is never recovered
 The power which gets trapped in the core of the material is lost in the form of heat
 The area of the B-H curve determines the amount of hysteresis loss
 The larger the area greater is the loss and vice versa
 Since hysteresis loss depends on the material of the core, then to reduce such loss, it is
recommended to use high permeability material for the core

 Since both losses (hysteresis and ECL) occur within the metal of the core, they are usually
lumped together and called as core losses.

Example 1
A ferromagnetic core is shown in Fig. 8. Three sides of this core are of uniform width, while the
fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth of the core (in to page) is 10cm, and the other
dimensions are shown in the figure. There is a 200-turn coil wrapped around the left side of the
core. Assuming relative permeability µr of 2500, how much flux will be produced by a 1A input
current?

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Fig. 8: The Ferromagnetic Core

Example 2
Fig. 9 shows a ferromagnetic core whose mean path length is 40cm. There is a small gap of
0.05cm in the structure of the otherwise whole core. The cross-sectional area of the core is 12cm2,
the relative permeability of the core is 4000, and the coil of wire on the core has 400 turns. Assume
that fringing (border) in the air gap increases the effective cross-sectional area of the air gap by 5
percent. Given this information, find:
a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air gap) and
b) the current required to produce a flux density of 0.5T in the air gap

Fig. 9: The Ferromagnetic Core

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Example 3
Fig. 10 shows a simplified rotor and stator for a DC motor. The mean path length of the stator is
50cm, and its cross-sectional area is 12 cm2. The mean path length of the rotor is 5cm, and its
cross-sectional area also may be assumed to be 12cm2. Each air gap between the rotor and the
stator is 0.05cm wide, and the cross-sectional area of each air gap (including fringing) is 14 cm2.
The iron of the core has a relative permeability of 2000, and there are 200 turns of wire in the core.
If the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1 A, what will the resulting flux density in the air gaps be?

Fig. 10: A simplified diagram of a rotor and stator for a dc motor.

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