Reflections on Communication and Culture

Author(s): Robert E. Park

Source: The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1938), pp. 187-205
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768727
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 THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

XLIV
VOLUME SEPTEMBER 1938 NUMBER 2

REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

ROBERT E. PARK

ABSTRACT
Communicationlike languageis symbolicand impersonal,as is, forexample,mathe-
matics. It is, on the other hand, expressiveand personallike music. Both formsof
communicationfunctionin bringingabout those understandingsbetweenindividuals
and peopleswhichare the substance-the warp and woof-of culture.The social func-
tion of communicationseems to be to bringabout and maintainunderstandingand
cultural solidarityamong individuals and societies. It may be contrastedwith the
social functionof competitionwhichis to bringabout an orderlydistributionand a
divisionof labor betweenindividualsand societies. This divisionof labor, so far as it
is broughtabout by competition,involvesthe individuationof the competingunits.
Competitionand communicationmay thus be said to supplementeach other,since
communicationoperatesas an integratingand socializingprinciple,while competition
is the principleof individuation.More specifically,communicationmay be said to
operatein two dimensions. On the one hand, it serves to bringabout a diffusionof
culturaltraitsand so widen the culturalarea withinwhichsocial relationsmay exist.
On the otherhand,communication, in so faras it bringsdiverseculturalinfluencesinto
focusat some centerofcommunication, like the ruralvillageor metropolitancity,tends
to bringinto the commonunderstandingnew ideas-ideas that inevitablyarise in the
ferment, confusion,and conflictofthe acculturationprocess. The processesofdiffusion
and acculturationseem to take place in the mannerand underthe conditionsin which
newsis collectedand diffused.It is characteristicof newsthat it circulatesas faras its
messageis understoodand seemsimportant.It is probable,however,that the cinema,
whichcirculatesnot news,but pictures,is moredevastatingin its effects uponlocal cul-
turesand in bringingthe widelydispersedpeople of the worldwithinthe influenceof a
singlecultureor civilizationthanis the newsproper.

I. COMMUNICATION IN THE CULTURAL PROCESS

Communication is so obviousand pervasivea factorin sociallife
thatI have oftenwonderedwhyso littlehad beensaid or written
aboutit. Now thatI haveattempted towritesomething on thesub-
ject,I nolongerwonder, I know.
I87
 i88 OF SOCIOLOGY
THE AMERICANJOURNAL

One reasonthattherehas beenso littlewritten on thissubjectis

becausetherehasbeenso muchto write,andbecausemuchthathas
beenwritten hasbeenconcerned withcommunication as it functions
in somespecialwayin somespecific regionofsociallife.
In any case, thispaperhas turnedout to be littlemorethana
recordofmyexplorations and mentalprospecting, seekingto define
the limitsof a subjectof whichI believedbeforeI startedthatI
alreadyhadsomegeneralknowledge.
There is, to be sure,an extensiveliteratureon the subjectof
speechand language,including technicaldevicesas different as the
ideographsof the StoneAge and the newspaperand radioof the
modernworld,by whichman has soughtto perfecthis meansof
communication and expandthe effective limitsof his world.The
radioand newspaper, however, havebeenmereinstrumental exten-
sionsofspeech.Less has beenwrittenaboutthemanifold typesof
symbolism, including theso-calledfinearts,bywhichsentiments and
attitudesas wellas ideasarecommunicated.
Thereis also an extensivepsychological and sociologicallitera-
turewhichapproachesthesubjectof communication obliquelyand
fromthepointofviewofsomeulteriorinterest.In thewritings of
the Scottishmoralphilosophers, fromBishopButlerto Hume and
Adam Smith,one notesan insistentreference to the factsof sym-
pathyand of imitationas offering at once an evidenceand an ex-
planationof that understanding and solidaritywhichis the basis
of the moralorder.A littlelater,in I872, WalterBagehot,in a
volume,Physicsand Politics,whichhas becomea sociologicalclas-
sic, emphasizesthe importance of imitationand indicatesits role
in theculturalprocessand in sociallife.Eighteenyearslaterwhen
GabrielTarde publishedhis Laws ofImitation, he identifiedimita-
tion,whichhe describedas "actionofone minduponanotherat a
distance,"withthe fundamental social and culturalprocess.The
formsin whichcommunication takesplace are obviouslyprotean.
They include not merelysympathyand imitation,which are
generallyrecognized as suchin theliterature ofthesubject,butdis-
cussion,dialectic,andsuggestion.
The natureand function ofcommunication appearsin a newlight
in thestudiesofpersonality and self-consciousness and in thewrit-
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONAND CULTURE I89

ingsof menas widelydivergent in theirseveralpointsof view as

J. Mark Baldwin,CharlesH. Cooley,and GeorgeH. Mead. Com-
munication and thenatureoftheprocessbywhichonemindknows
anotherturnsup againas a cardinalproblemoftheso-called"under-
standingsociology"(verstehende Soziologie)of Max Weberand in
thewritings ofWilhelmDilthey,whoprecededand influenced him.
Finallythereare the Semanticists, of whomC. K. Ogdenand
I. A. Richards,authorsof TheMeaningofMeaning,seemto be the
mosteminentrepresentatives. Theyare interested notprimarily in
communication butin intelligibility,
whichas faras I am concerned,
theyhavenotalwaysachieved.Andfinally as I writethesewords,I
notetheappearanceofa newvolumeby StuartChase,TheTyranny
of Words,in whichhe undertakesto tell us in simplelanguage
whatOgdenand RichardsmeantwhentheywroteThe Meaningof
Meaning.
Implicitin all thisdiscussion-andthat,it seemsto me is the
importantthing-is the notionthat communication is a formof
interaction or a processthattakesplace betweenpersons-thatis
to say, individualswithan ego,individualswitha pointof view,
consciousofthemselves and moreor lessorientedin a moralworld.
Communication is,therefore,nota formofinterstimulation merely.
The termwouldnotproperlyapplyto twoindividualswhoby oc-
cupyingthe same bed kept one anotherwarm.Communication
whencompletedinvolvesan interpretation by A of the stimulus
comingfromB, and a reference of thatinterpretation back to the
personofwhosesentiment orattitudeit assumestobe an expression.
Let me illustrate.If innocently, as is my wont,I am walking
alongthe streetand a brickfallson my head or close enoughat
least to interrupt mymeditations, thatin itselfis a merephysical
fact. If, however,lookingup I see a face grinning down on me
maliciously fromthe wall fromwhichthe brickcame,the fallof
thatbrickceasesto be a merephysicalphenomenon and becomesa
socialfact. It changesits characteras soon as I interpret it as an
expression of attitude or intentrather than an act of God-that
beingthesecularlanguagein whichwe describea happening thatis
whollywithoutintention of any sort,and one,therefore, forwhich
noonecanbe maderesponsible.
 190 THE AMERICANJOURNAL
OF SOCIOLOGY

Communication is thena formof interaction that takesplace,

typically at least,betweenindividuals withan ego. I amleavingout
of thereckoning, forthepresent,thekindand qualityof thecom-
munication whichobviouslytakesplace amongless articulatecrea-
turesthanourselves.
You have no doubtobservedtheceremonious way in whichtwo
strangedogs approacheach other.This is not mereinterstimula-
tion;it is communication. Thesedogsunderstand oneanother, even
whentheydo notspeak. So it is withthehenclucking to herchicks.
Thisis notconversation, butit is communication. Whatthenatural
history oftheprocessis I shallnotundertake to discuss.The origin
oflanguageis one oftheclassicproblemsofthestudentsoflinguis-
tics. The case of henand chickswas one of thefavoritethemesof
GeorgeMead's lectureson socialpsychology.
The mostinteresting thingI havebeenable to findin thebooks
on the subject of communication is Edward Sapir's articleon
"Language"in theEncyclopedia oftheSocialSciences;that,and two
briefer articlesby the same author,one on "Communication" and
the otheron "Symbolism."Sapir, followingin this Ogden and
Richards,distinguishes betweenlanguage that is symbolicand
impersonal-likea mathematical formulaor the numbersystem-
and languagethatis expressiveand personal,like a gestureor an
expletive, or evena voicecryingin thewilderness. In thefirstcase
the functionof languageis purely"referential," as in scientific
discourse.It pointsoutitsobject,identifies, and describes
classifies,
it. In thesecondcase,language,modulatedby accent,intonation,
and inflection, tendsto be expressivemerely.In thatcase thefunc-
tionofwordsseemsto be to revealthemoodand thesentiments of
the personwho uttersthem,ratherthanto defineand expressan
idea.
The same distinction applies,in varyingdegrees,to formsof
communication as different
as thesignlanguageusedby deaf-mutes
and whatI may call the "expressivearts,"particularly musicand
dancing.In everyformwhichthe processof communication as-
sumesand in all thevariationsinvolveddue to thedifferent means
employed,the distinction betweenthe referential or didacticfunc-
tion-whereideas are communicated-and theexpressive function,
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE I9I

-where sentiments and attitudesare manifested-persists. In the

one case ideas,andin theothersentiments, attitudes,and emotions
are communicated, partlythroughthe mediumof conventional
symbolsand partlythroughgestureand expressivebehavior,by
whichI meanbehaviorthat can be interpreted Music
intuitively.
anddancingareexpressions ofthissort.Theyseemto be expressions
of what Schopenhauer calls pure will. In the same sensemathe-
maticsand logicmay be describedas expressions of pureformor
idea.
To pursuethesedivergent linesofinquiryfarther, however, would
lead intoa discussionof themannerin whichlogicand scienceon
theone hand,and theexpressive artson theother,have developed
out oftheimpulseand theefforts ofhumanbeingsto communicate
theirideas and expresstheirsentiments. My purposeis ratherto
emphasizethe fact that communication as I understandit is, if
not identicalwith,at least indispensable to, the culturalprocess.
Culturemayassumeamongdifferent peoplesat differenttimesand
places many and varied forms,material,and nonmaterial-lan-
guage,marriagecustoms,and artifacts, likethe hoe and theplow,
all alike are culturaltraits.It is, however,the factthattheyare
understood by a particularpeople,by a culturalgroup,thatgives
themthe characterwe describeas cultural.Cultureincludesthen
all thatis communicable, and its fundamental components, what-
everthe formsand symbolsin whichtheymay be anywhereem-
bodied,are,in thesensein whichSchopenhauer seemsto have used
thoseterms, Willand Idea. Attitudes and sentiments, folkways and
mores,are thewarpand woofofthatwebofunderstanding we call
"culture."I followSapir in the assumptionthat the essenceof
cultureis understanding.
II. COMMUNICATION AND COMPETITION
What does communication do and how does it function in the
culturalprocess?It seemsto do severaldifferent
things.Communi-
cationcreates,ormakespossibleat least,thatconcensus and under-
standingamongtheindividualcomponents of a socialgroupwhich
eventuallygivesit and themthe characternot merelyof society
butofa culturalunit.It spinsa webofcustomandmutualexpecta-
I92 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

tionwhichbindstogethersocial entitiesas diverseas the family

group,a labororganization, or thehaggling participants in a village
market.Communication maintainstheconcertnecessaryto enable
themto function, eachinitsseveralways.
Familygroupor labororganization, everyformofsocietyexcept
themosttransient has a life-historyand a tradition.It is by com-
munication thatthistradition is transmitted.It is in thiswaythat
thecontinuity ofcommonenterprises and socialinstitutions is main-
tained,notmerelyfromday to day,butfromgeneration to genera-
tion. Thus thefunction of communication seemsto be to maintain
theunityand integrity ofthesocialgroupin its twodimensions-
space and time.It is in recognition of thisfactthatJohnDewey
has said: "Societynot onlycontinuesto existby transmission, by
communication, but may fairlybe said to existin transmission,
in communication."
Implicitin Dewey's statement,however,is a conceptionof
societythatis notgenerally noreverywhere accepted,sinceit seems
to identify thesocialwiththe moralorder. By so doingit limits
theterm"social" to thoserelations ofindividuals thatarepersonal,
customary, andmoral.
"Whenindividualsuse one anotherto get results,withoutrefer-
enceto theiremotional orintellectual dispositionand consent,"says
in
Dewey,theyare involved relationsthatare notsocial. To make
the matterclear,he adds, "So faras the relationsof parentand
child,teacherand pupilremainuponthislevel,theyformno true
socialgroup,no matterhowcloselytheirrespective activitiestouch
oneanother."
It is obvious,however,that communication, if it is the typical
socialprocess,is nottheonlyformofinteraction thatgoeson among
theindividualunitsofa socialgroup."We are compelledto recog-
nize,"he admits,"thatevenwithinthemostsocialgroupthereare
manyrelationswhichare not yet social"-not social,at any rate
in the sensein whichhe uses the term.Competition, forexample,
performs a socialfunctionofa somewhat differentsort,butonethat
is at least comparableto that of communication. The economic
orderinsocietyseemstobe verylargelya by-product ofcompetition.
In any case, competition is, as Cooleyobserves,"theveryheartof
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE I93

the economicprocess."Whatwe ordinarily designateas economic

competition, however,is not competition in the Malthusiansense
ofthattermin whichit is identicalwiththestruggle forexistence.
Economiccompetition is alwayscompetition thatis controlled and
regulatedto some extentby convention, understanding, and law.
The investigations ofplantand animalecologists havediscovered
thatevenwherecompetition is freeand unrestricted, as it is in the
so-calledplant and animalcommunities, thereexistsamongcrea-
tureslivingin the same habitata kindofnaturaleconomy.What
characterizes thiseconomyis a divisionoflaborand an unconscious
co-operation of competingorganisms.Wherever in naturecompe-
titionorthestruggle forexistence bringsabouta stableorganization
amongcompeting individuals, it is becausetheyhave achievedin
or
someform anothera division oflaborand someformofconscious
or unconscious co-operation. In suchcase thecompeting speciesor
individual, each occupying theparticular nichein whichit fits,will
have createdan environment in whichall can live together under
conditions where each could not live separately. This natural
economy ofplantand animalsis calledsymbiosis.
Man's relationto othermenis,to a verymuchlargerextentthan
has hitherto been recognized, symbiotic ratherthansocial,in the
in
sense whichDewey uses that term. Competition amongplants
and animalstendsto bringaboutan orderly distribution as wellas a
mutualadaptationofthespecieslivingtogether in a commonhabi-
tat. Competition amonghumanbeingshas broughtabout,or at
any rate helped bringabout, not merelya territorial,
to but an
occupationaldistribution of racesand peoples.Incidentally, it has
brought aboutthatinevitabledivisionoflaborwhichis fundamental
to everypermanent formofsocietyfromthefamilyto thenation.
If the struggleforexistence,as Darwinconceivedit, was a de-
termining factorin producingthat diversityof livingtypesde-
scribedin theOriginoftheSpecies,theneconomiccompetition, the
strugglefora livelihood,seemsto have been a decisivefactorin
bringingabout amonghumanbeingsa comparableoccupational
diversity. But this divisionof labor whereverit existsin human
societyis limitedbycustom;and customis a productofcommunica-
tion.
I94 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

As a matterof fact,competition and communication operate

everywhere withinthesamelocalhabitatand withinthesamecom-
munity,but in relativeindependence of each other.The area of
competition and of the symbiotic relationship is, however,invari-
ably widerand moreinclusivethan the area of thoseintimate,
personal,and moralrelationsinitiatedby communication. Com-
merceinvariablyexpandsmorewidelyand rapidlythanlinguistic
or culturalunderstanding. It is, it seems,this culturallag that
makesmostof our politicaland culturalproblems.But the main
pointis thatcommunication, whereit exists,invariably modifiesand
qualifiescompetition, and theculturalorderimposeslimitations on
thesymbiotic.
Most ofyouwillperhapsrecallSumner'sdescription ofprimitive
society,a territoryoccupiedby littlescatteredethnocentric groups,
each thefocusand centerofa littleworldin whichall members are
boundtogether in tiesofmutualunderstanding andloyalty.
Outsideoftheselittletribaland familialunits,on theotherhand,
menlivein relationwithoneanothernotunlikethosein whichthey
live withtheplantsand animals,thatis to say,in a kindof sym-
biosis,verylittlemodified by mutualunderstanding or agreements
of anysort.Underthesecircumstances thefundamental socialand
economicorderis enforcedand maintainedby competition, but
competition modified and controlled to an everincreasingdegreeby
custom,convention, andlaw.
As a matteroffact,societyeverywhere exhibitstwofundamental
formsof organization-thefamilialand the communal.Familial
societyseemsto have had its sourcein theinterestand in theurge
of individuals, not merelyto live as individualsbut to perpetuate
the race. Thus the familyseemsto rest,finally, on an instinctive
basis. Communalsociety,on theotherhand,has arisenout of the
needoftheindividualsto surviveas individuals.Underthesecon-
ditionsmenhave cometogether, notin responseto somegregarious
impulsecomparablewith the sexual instinct,but for the more
pragmatic andintelligiblereasonthattheyareusefultooneanother.
In spiteof thechangeswhichtimeand civilization have wrought
in the existingsocial order,man lives as he alwayshas, in two
worlds-thelittleworldof thefamilyand thegreatworldof com-
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE 195

merceandpolitics.In thelittleworldtheorderwhichpredominates
is intimate,personal,and moral.In the largerworldman is free
to pursuehis individualinterests in his ownindividualway,rela-
tivelyuninhibited by theexpectations and claimswhich,in a more
intimatesocialorder,theinterests ofothersmightimposeuponhim.
In thefamilyit is communication and thepersonalinfluences which
communication mediatesthatare thesourceand principle oforder.
In theworldofcommerce, and to a lessdegreein politics,it is com-
petition,and competition in the moresublimatedformof conflict
and rivalry, whichimposessuchorderas exists.
What all this suggests,thoughnot perhapsso obviouslyas I
shouldlike,is thatcompetition and communication, althoughthey
perform divergent and unco-ordinated socialfunctions,nevertheless
intheactuallifeofsocietytheysupplement andcomplete eachother.
Competition seemsto be theprinciple ofindividuation in thelife
of thepersonand of society.Underthe influence of thisprinciple
the individualadapts and accommodateshimself,not merelyto
the humanhabitatbut to the occupationalorganizationof the
societyofwhichhe is a member.He followsthevocationand does
thethinghe can, ratherthanthe thinghe mightliketo do. Com-
munication, on theotherhand,operatesprimarily as an integrating
andsocializing principle.
It is true,ofcourse,thatwhennewforms ofcommunication have
broughtabout more intimateassociationsamongindividualsor
peopleswhohavebeenculturally isolated,thefirstconsequence may
be to intensify competition.Furthermore, under the influence of
communication, competitiontendsto assumea new character.It
becomesconflict.In that case the struggleforexistenceis likely
to be intensified by fears,animosities, and jealousies,whichthe
presenceof the competitorand the knowledgeof his purposes
arouse.Undersuchcircumstances a competitor becomesan enemy.
On the otherhand,it is alwayspossibleto cometo termswith
an enemywhomone knowsand withwhomone can communicate,
and, in the long run,greaterintimacyinevitablybringswithit a
moreprofoundunderstanding, the resultof whichis to humanize
social relationsand to substitutea moral orderforone that is
i96 OF SOCIOLOGY
THE AMERICANJOURNAL

fundamentally ratherthansocial,alwaysin therestricted

symbiotic
senseofthatterm.
III. DIFFUSION
Communication, whetherit takesplace throughthe mediumof
gesture,articulatespeech,or conventionalsymbolsof any sort
whatever, alwaysinvolves,it seemsto me,an interpretation ofthe
attitudeor intentofthepersonwhosewordor gesturesuppliedthe
stimulus.What anythingmeans to anyoneat any time is sub-
stantially whatit means,has meant,or willmean,to someoneelse.
Communication is a processor formof interaction that is inter-
personal,i.e., socialin thenarrower sense. The processis complete
onlywhenit resultsin somesortofunderstanding. In otherwords,
communication is nevermerelya case of stimulusand responsein
the sensein whichthosetermsare used in individualpsychology.
It is ratherexpression,interpretation,andresponse.
In somecases,in mostcasesperhaps,and particularly wherethe
personsinvolvedare en rapport, theresponseofindividualA to an
expressive actionofindividualB is likelyto be immediate and well-
nighautomatic.This is obviouslyso in the case of hypnoticsug-
gestion,and particularly so underthe conditionof what is called
"isolatedrapport,"wherethesubjectrespondsto thesuggestions of
thehypnotizer andto thoseofnooneelse.
We mustconceiveindividualsin societyas livingconstantly en-
veloped in an atmosphere ofsubconscious suggestion. In this atmos-
pheretheyare constantly responsive, notmerelyto the overtacts
butto themoodsandthepresenceofotherpersons, in somewhat the
sameway thattheyare to theweather.What we call thefluctua-
tionsofpublicopinion,publicsentiment, and fashion,are,in fact,
a kindofsocialweather.Thesechanges thesocialweatherevoke
in
changesin internaltensionsofpersonswhoare en rapport:changes
so subtlethattheyamountto a kindof clairvoyance. It is onlyin
moments ofabstraction thatthiscondition of clairvoyance is inter-
A
ruptedandthenonlypartially. suggestion is,ofcourse,nota mere
stimulus,but a stimulusthatis interpreted as an expression of a
wish or an attitude.The literatureof hypnotism indicateshow
subtlesuggestions may be and how responsiveundercertaincon-
ditionsindividuals maybe to them.
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE I97

Sometimes, to be sure,thesenseandmeaningofthebehaviorand
languageof thoseabout us are obscure;thissetsus thinking, and
leaves us sometimes witha senseof frustrationand confusion. At
othertimesit arousesus, not to definite action,but to vagueemo-
tionalprotestor inarticulate opposition.This emotionalexpression
ofunrest,multiplied by thereflex
and intensified influenceofmind
on mind,maytaketheformfinallyof a socialbrainstormlikethe
dancingmaniaof theMiddleAgesorthecommercial panicof 1929.
Undermorenormalconditionsunrestmay expressitselfin social
agitationorin thelessviolentformofdiscussion and debate.
These are some of the manifoldways in whichcommunication
operatingwithinthe limitsof an existingculturegroupchanges,
directly and indirectly, thepatternofculturallife.If I merelyrefer
to thesemanifestations herein passingit is because a fullerdis-
cussionofthemwouldinvolveproblems ofcollectivebehaviorwhich
are so diverseand manifold thattheyhavebecomethesubjectofa
specialdiscipline ofthesocialsciences.
The culturalprocessordinarily presentsitselfin twodimensions
or aspectswhichare intimately boundup withand determined by
the conditionunderwhichcommunication inevitablytakesplace.
Theyare: diffusion andacculturation.
As communication takesplace betweenpersons,it is necessarily
involvedin all the complexities incidentto the transmission of a
stimulusfromthesourcea quo to a terminus ad quem-i.e.,froma
personofwhosemindit is an expression to thepersoninwhosemind
it findsa response.The obviousconditions whichfacilitateor ob-
structtheseprocessesaremainlyphysicaland in moderntimesthey
have been progressively overcomeby meansof technicaldevices
likethealphabet,printing-press, radio,etc.
The less obviousobstaclesto effective communication are the
difficultiesthat growout of differences of language,tradition, ex-
perience,and interest.By interestin thisinstanceI mean what
Thomasrefers to as the"runofattention."Everywhere andalways,
certaininterests,persons, oreventsarein thefocusofattention; cer-
tainthingsarein fashion.Whateverhas importance andprestige at
the momenthas powerto directfora timethe currents of public
opinion,even if it does not change,in the long run,the trendof
i98 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

events.All thesethingsare factorsin communication and either

facilitateormakedifficult thetransmission ofnewsfromonecountry
to another.The mannerin whichnewscirculatesis typicalof one
wayinwhichculturaldiffusion takesplace.
Discussionsof the deficiencies of thepressoftenproceedon the
implicitassumptionthat the communication of news fromone
culturalarea to another-from the Orientto the Occident,forex-
ample,or fromBerlinto New York-is an operationas simpleas
the transportation of a commodity likebricks.One can,of course,
transportwordsacross culturalmarches,but the interpretations
whichtheyreceiveon twosidesof a politicalor culturalboundary
will depend upon the contextwhichtheirdifferent interpreters
bringto them.That context, in turn,willdependrathermoreupon
thepast experience and presenttemperof thepeopleto whomthe
wordsare addressedthanupon eitherthe art or the good will of
thepersonswhoreportthem.
Foreigncorrespondents know,as no one whohas nothad theex-
perience,how difficult it is underordinarycircumstances to make
the public read foreignnews.They know,also, how muchmore
difficult it is to make eventshappeningbeyondhis horizonintel-
ligibleto theaveragemanin thestreet.In general,newscirculates
widelyin everydirection in proportion as it is interesting and in-
telligible.In thatrespectit is not unlikeany otherculturalitem,
the oil cans of the StandardOil Companyor the Singersewing-
machineforexample,whichare nowpossiblythemostwidelydis-
persedofall ourmodernculturalartifacts.
Each and everyartifact oritemofnewsinevitably tendsto reach
finally theplaceswhereit willbe appreciatedand understood.Cul-
turaltraitsare assimilatedonlyas theyare understood, and they
are understood onlyas theyare assimilated.This does not mean
thata culturalartifact or an itemofnewswillhave everywhere the
samemeaning;quitethecontrary.But thedifferent meaningsthey
do havein different placeswilltendto converge, as diffusion is suc-
ceededby acculturation.
It is extraordinary to whatextentand withwhatrapiditynews
tendsto reachthemindsofthoseto whomitsmessage,ifintelligible,
is important.On theotherhand,just as important, ifless remark-
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE i99

able, is the difficulty of communicating a messagethatis neither

important norintelligible to the personsto whomit is addressed.
Thislatteris a problemof the schools,particularly theproblemof
rotelearning.
Thirty-three yearsago the conclusionof the Russian-Japanese
War madenewsthatI suspectcirculatedfarther and morerapidly
thananyotherreportofeventshad evertraveledbefore.Oneheard
echoesof it in regionsas farapart as the mountainfastnesses of
Tibet and the forestsof CentralAfrica.It was the news that a
nationof coloredpeoplehad defeatedand conquereda nationof
whitepeople. The sameitemofnewsmighttravelfarther and with
greaterspeed today,but it wouldnot have the same importance.
The questionofhowand whyand underwhatcircumstances news
circulates is an important oneand deservesmoreattention thanhas
yetbeengiventoit.
It is a familiar observation ofstudents oftheculturalprocessthat
artifacts, thetraitsofa materialculture, aremoreeasilydiffused and
morerapidlyassimilatedthansimilaritemsof a nonmaterial cul-
ture-politicalinstitutionsand religiouspractices,for example.
That is no morethanto say thattradeexpands,on thewhole,more
rapidlythanreligion.But that,too,dependsupon circumstances.
Consider,forexample,the suddenrapid diffusion in the modern
worldofcommunism.
One reasonthetermsofa materialcultureare so widelydiffused
and easilyassimilatedis because theiruses are obviousand their
values,whatevertheybe, are rationaland secular.One needsno
riteor ceremony to initiatehimintomysteries involvedin theuse
of a wheelbarrow or rifle.Whenthefirstplowwas introduced into
SouthAfrica,an old chiefwhowas invitedto be presentand see the
demonstration recognizedits value at once. He said, "This is a
greatthingthe whiteman has broughtus." Then aftersome re-
filection he added: "It is worthas muchas tenwives."
What we call civilization,as distinguished fromculture,is
largelycomposedof suchartifacts and technicaldevicesas can be
diffused withoutundermining the existingsocial institutions
and
withoutimpairing theabilityofa peopleto act collectively,thatis
to say, consistently and in concert.Institutions seemto existpri-
200 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

marilyto facilitatecollectiveaction,and anything thatinvolvesa

societyratherthantheindividuals ofwhichthatsocietyis composed
is hardto export.Diffusion takesplace moreeasilywhenthesocial
unityis relaxed.
It is no secret,I suppose,thatthereis invariablyan intimateand
indissoluble relationbetweencommerce and thenews.The centers
oftradeareinvariably thecentersofnews;thecentersto whichthe
newsinevitablycomesand fromwhenceit is diffused, firstto the
localcommunity andthen,according to itsinterests
andimportance,
to theendsoftheearth.
Duringthisdiffusion a processofselectionnecessarily takesplace.
Somenewsitemstravelfarther and morerapidlythanothers.This
is trueevenwhenall ormostofthephysicalobstaclesto communica-
tionhave been overcome.The reasonof courseis simpleenough.
It is boundup withthe inevitablyegocentric characterof human
beingsand theethnocentric characterofhumanrelationsgenerally.
An eventis importantonly as we believewe can do something
aboutit. It losesimportance inproportion as thepossibility
ofdoing
that something seemsmoreremote.An earthquakein China as-
sumes,in view of our incorrigible provincialism, less importance
thana funeral inourvillage.Thisis an exampleofwhatis meantby
socialdistance,whichis thetermin whichsociologists seekto con-
ceptualizeand, in somesense,measurepersonalrelationsand per-
sonal intimacies.Importanceis ultimatelya personalmatter;a
matterofsocialdistance.
The principleinvolvedin the circulation of newsis not different
fromthat involvedin the culturalprocessof diffusion, wherever
it takesplace. Individualsand societiesassimilatemostreadily,as I
havesaid,whatis at onceinteresting andintelligible.
IV. ACCULTURATION
If themarketplaceis thecenterfromwhichnewsis disseminated
and culturalinfluences itis,likewise,
arediffused, thecenterinwhich
old ideas go into the crucibleand new ideas emerge.The market
place,wheremengatherto dickerand chaffer, is in theverynature
ofthingsa kindofforum wheremenofdiverseinterests anddifferent
mindsare engagedin peacefulcontroversy, trying to cometo terms
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE 20I

about values and prices;trying,also, by a processthat is funda-

mentallydialectical,to explorethe different meaningsthingshave
formenofdifferent interests;seekingto reachunderstandings based
rathermoreon reasonand ratherlesson tradition andtheprejudices
whichcustomhas sanctioned, ifnotsanctified. It is forthisreason
that the great metropolitancities-Rome,London,and Paris-
citiesto whichpeoplescomeand go fromthefourendsoftheearth,
are in a perpetualferment of enlightenment; are continually in-
volved-to use a Germanexpression, in an Aufkldrung. Under such
conditions thehistoricalprocessis quickened, and acculturation, the
mutualinterpenetration of mindsand cultures,goes forward at a
rapidpace.
Whenpeoplesof different races and divergentculturesseek to
live together withinthelimitsof thesamelocal economy, theyare
likelyto livefora timein relationswhichI have describedas sym-
bioticratherthansocial,usingthatterminthisconnection as Dewey
and othershave used it, namely, as identicalwith cultural.They
live,in short,in physicalcontiguity, but in moreor less complete
moralisolation,a situationwhichcorresponds in effectifnotin fact,
to Sumner'sdescription ofprimitive society.
This has been and stillis the situationof some of thoselittle
religioussectslike the Mennonites, whichhave fromtimeto time
soughtrefugein the UnitedStates and elsewhere, settlingon the
frontiers ofEuropeancivilization, wheretheymighthopeto livein
something like tribalisolation-untrammeled and uncorrupted by
intercourse witha Gentileworld.
It was to preservethis isolationthat some of Pennsylvania's
"plainpeople,"theAmish,protested a fewmonthsago againsta gift
of $II2,000 of P.W.A. funds which the government was pressing
upon themfornew schoolhouses. New schools,in this case, in-
volvedtheuse ofbusses,to whichthe"plainpeople"wereopposed.
They believed,also, and no doubt quite correctly, that intimate
associationof Amishchildrenwiththemixedpopulationof a con-
solidatedschoolto whomAmishfolkwayswould certainlyseem
quaint,wouldundermine thediscipline and thesacredsolidarity of
Amishsociety.
This situation, inwhichpeoplesoccupyingthesameterritory live
 202 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

in a moralisolationmoreor less complete, was historically,so long

as theylivedin the seclusion of theirreligiouscommunity, thesitua-
tionof a moresophisticated people than the Amish,namely,the
Jews.It has been,to a lessextent,thesituationofeveryimmigrant
peoplewhichhas forany reasonsoughtto finda place in the eco-
nomicorderofan established societyand at thesametimemaintain
a culturaltradition thatwasalientoit.
Inevitably,however, in thenaturalcourse,undermoderncondi-
tionsof life,boththe immigrant and the sectarianseek to escape
fromthis isolationin order that theymayparticipate moreactively
in thesociallifeofthepeopleaboutthem.It is then,ifnotearlier,
thattheybecomeawareof thesocialdistancethatsetsthemapart
fromthe membersof the dominantculturalgroup.Underthese
circumstances acculturation becomesinvolvedin and part of the
struggle of immigrants and sectariansalikeforstatus.Everything
thatmarksthemas strangers-manners, accent,habitsof speech
and thought-makesthis struggledifficult. The culturalconflict
whichthen ensues-whether openly manifested or merelysensed-
tends,as conflict invariablydoes,to heightenself-consciousness in
members ofbothculturalgroups,in thosewhoare classedas aliens
and in thosewhocountthemselves native.
However,anything thatintensifies self-consciousness and stimu-
lates introspection inevitablybringsto the surfaceand into clear
consciousness sentiments and attitudesthatotherwise wouldescape
rationalcriticism and interpretation. Otherwisetheywouldprob-
ably,as thepsychoanalysts tellus,continue activein thedarkback-
groundsofconsciousness. Theywouldstillfunction as partofthat
"vitalsecret"to whichWilliamJamesrefers in hisessayA Certain
Blindnessin HumanBeings-a secretof whicheach of us is pro-
foundlyconsciousbecause it is the substanceof one's own self-
consciousness and ofone's individualpointofview-but forwhich
we look in vain to othersforsympathyand understanding. But
conflict, and particularly culturalconflict, in so faras it bringsinto
thelightofunderstanding impulsesand attitudesofwhichwe would
otherwise remainunconscious, inevitablyincreasesour knowledge
not merelyof ourselvesbut of our fellows,sincethe attitudesand
sentiments whichwe findin ourselveswe are able to appreciateand
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONAND CULTURE 203

understand, no matterhowindirectly whenwe findthem

expressed,
in themindsofothers.
Acculturation ifwe conceiveit in radicalfashion, maybe said to
beginwiththeintimateassociationsand understandings thatgrow
up in thefamily betweenmotherand childandsomewhat laterwith
othermembers ofthefamily.But whilemothers arenecessarily,and
underall ordinarycircumstances, profoundly interestedand re-
sponsiveto theirchildren, it is notoriousthattheydo not always
understand them.
The situationdiffers,but notgreatly, withothermembers ofthe
family-notablywith the relationsbetweenhusbandand wife.
Men are naturallyand instinctively interestedin and attractedby
women,particularly strangewomen,but theyoftenfindthemdiffi-
cultto understand.In factmenhave feltin thepast and stillfeel
in someobscureway,I suspect,thatwomen,nomatterhowinterest-
ing,are notquitehumanin thesenseand to thedegreethatthisis
trueofthemselves.
If thisis not trueto the same extenttodaythatit oncewas,it
is becausemenand women,in thefamilyand outsideofit,live in
moreintimateassociationwithone anotherthantheyformerly did.
Theystillhave theirseparateworlds,but theygettogether as they
formerly did not. They speak the samelanguage.But thisis true
also of parentsand children'Both understandeach otherbetter
thantheyoncedid.
Men andwomenhavelearneda greatdealaboutoneanotherfrom
experience, buttheyhavelearnedmore-inthesenseofunderstand-
ingone anotherand in theabilityto communicate-from literature
and thearts. In factit is just thefunction ofliteratureand thearts
and ofwhatare describedin academiccirclesas thehumanities to
giveus thisintimatepersonaland insideknowledgeof each other
whichmakessociallifemoreamiableand collectiveactionpossible.
I am,perhaps,wrongindescribing theintimate associationswhich
familylifepermitsand enforces as if theywerepart and parcelof
the culturalprocess.That may seemto be employing a termin a
contextwhichis so foreign to it as to destroyitsoriginalmeaning.I
am not sure,however,thatthisis quite true.At any rate,in the
familyin whichhusbandand wifeareofdifferent racialstocks,with
204 THE AMERICANJOURNAL
OF SOCIOLOGY

different culturalheritages, the processof acculturation-andac-

culturation in the sensein whichit is familiarto students-takes
place moreobviouslyand moreeffectively thanit does elsewhere.
It is thisfactand notitsbiologicalconsequences whichgivesrecent
studiesof racemixtureand interracial marriage,likethestudiesof
RomanzoAdamsin Hawaii,a significance theywouldnototherwise
have. It is in the life-histories
of mixedbloodswhoseoriginordi-
narilyimposesupon themthe taskof assimilating the heritages of
two divergentcultures,that the processand consequencesof ac-
culturation aremostobviousand opento investigation. The reason
is thatthemanofmixedbloodis a "marginalman,"so called,that
is,themanwholivesin twoworldsbutis notquiteat homein either.
In discussingthe culturaldiffusion I have takennews and its
circulation as an illustrationoftheprocessofdiffusion. In doingso
I have had in mindthe wide distribution of newsthat has taken
placewiththeextension ofthemeansofcommunication through the
mediumof the printing-press, telegraphy, and the radio. I should
add,perhaps,thatnoteverything printedin thenewspaper is news.
Muchthatis printedas newsis read,at least,as ifit wereliterature;
read,thatis to say,becauseit is thrilling and stirstheimagination
and not becauseits messageis urgentand demandsaction. Such,
forexample,arethe"humaninterest"stories,so called,whichhave
been so influential in expandingand maintaining newspapercircu-
lation.But human-interest storiesarenotnews.Theyareliterature.
Time and place are theessenceofnews,but timeand place impose
no limitations on thecirculation ofliteratureand art. It is artand
literature, and particularly the art of the movingpicturerather
than the newspaperwhichexercise,I suspect,the mostprofound
and subversive culturalinfluencesin theworldtoday.
If thenewspaper and thecirculationofnewsseemto be themost
obviousillustration ofdiffusion,thecinemaand themotionpicture
seemto be themostobviousexampleofacculturation. The cinema
deals withthemesthat are closerto the interestsand the under-
standingoftheordinary manthanare thoseofthenewspaper.Be-
sidesnewsis verylargelyconcerned withbusinessand politics,and
theordinary man,as Mr. Menckenand othernewspaper menhave
discovered, is notprofoundly interestedin either.Furthermore, the
 REFLECTIONS ON COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE 205

movingpicturetouchesand enlivensmenon a lowerlevelofculture

thanit is possibleto do through themediumoftheprintedpage.
I haveobservedNegroaudiencesin someoftheremoteislandsof
theWestIndies,wherethelevelof literacyis verylow,convulsed
withlaughterand mad withdelightin watching theanticsofFatty
Arbuckle;and I have seen the startled,cynicallaughterof native
audiencesin the PedangHighlandsin Sumatrawitnessing forthe
first
timesomeofthe,to them,incredibly intimate scenesofa Holly-
woodwooing.Anyonewhohas had an opportunity to observethe
influence ofthemovingpicturein anyoftheoutlying regionsofthe
worldand upon peoplesto whomits vividtranscripts of contem-
poraryAmericanlifehave comeas a suddenand astonishing reve-
lation,can have no doubt about theprofoundand revolutionary
changestheyhave alreadywrought in theattitudesand culturesof
peoples,evenin themostremotepartsoftheworld.
It is not possible,on the basis of my limitedobservation, to
determine whetherthe influence of the newspaper, the cinema,or
the radiohas been moreeffective in the culturalprocessor more
decisivein bringing about culturalchanges.The influence of each
hasat leastbeendiAerent.
In conclusion,I shallrevertto thedistinction withwhichI started
the distinction betweenlanguageand formsof communication
whichare referential, as in scientificdescription, and languageand
formsof communication whichare symbolicand expressive, as in
literatureand thefinearts. It seemsclearthatthefunction ofnews
is definitelyreferential.If it doesnothavethestatusin scienceofa
classifiedfact,it is at least indispensable to government and to
business.On theotherhand,thefunction ofart and ofthecinema
is, on the whole,in spiteof the use thathas been made of it for
educationalpurposes,definitely symbolic, and as suchit profoundly
influences sentiment and attitudesevenwhenit doesnotmakeany
realcontribution toknowledge.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO