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PRELIMINARIES
1
Learning Objectives: At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. discuss and illustrate the idea of a set;
2. describe a set using the roster and rule methods;
3. perform operations on sets;
4. classify the different subsets of the set of real numbers;
5. state the axioms of equality;
6. illustrate the properties of real numbers with respect to addition and
multiplication; and
7. establish important theorems about the real numbers.

SETS

The concept of a set is fundamental in the study of mathematics. It is one of the

undefined terms in mathematics. For our purpose, we shall agree that a set is a well-
defined collection of objects. The word “well-defined” means that we can identify
whether an object belongs to a given set or not. Below are some examples of sets.

1. the counting numbers from 1 to 20

2. the first five letters in the English alphabet
3. all prime numbers
4. the positive divisors of 12
5. all even integers

On the other hand, the collection of “all happy people” does not define a set.
This collection is not well-defined in the sense that we cannot tell whether a particular
person belongs to the set or not. The same is true of the collection of “all students”.
Can you explain why this is so?

The objects that belong to a set are called elements. The notations  (read: is an
element of) and  (read: is not and element of) are used to denote set membership and
non-membership, respectively. We use capital letters in the English alphabet to denote
a set.

Example 1.1 Let A denote the set of counting numbers from 1 to 20. Then

2A 21  A
5A but ½ A
19  A -4  A .

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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If it is possible to list down all the members or elements of a given set, then the
set is said to be finite, otherwise, the set is infinite. In Example 1.1 for instance, the set
of all counting numbers from 1 to 20 and the set of the first five letters in the English
alphabet are both finite sets. On the hand, the set of prime numbers and the set of all
even integers are examples of infinite sets. Can you tell why?

There exists a set with no elements. We call this set a null or empty set and we
denote this by the symbol  or { }. Thus, for instance, the set of counting numbers
between 1 and 2 is an empty set. Note that this set is well-defined but there is no
counting number between 1 and 2.

METHODS OF DESCRIBING SETS

A set may be described by enclosing within braces the list of all elements of the
set. This method is called the roster or tabulation method. Another way of describing a
set is by enclosing within braces a description of the elements of the set. We call this
method the rule or defining property method.

Example 1.2 Let M denote the set of all counting numbers less than 10. This set can be
described as follows:

Tabulation or Roster Method: M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Rule or Defining Property Method: M = {counting numbers less than 10}

Note that the elements of a set may be written in any order. Set M
above may also be described as follows:

M = { x | x  C, x < 10} (read: the set of all x’s such that x is an

element of C and x is less than 10) where C is the set of counting numbers.
This method of describing a set is called the set-builder notation.

Example 1.3 Describe the set N of all positive divisors of 12 using the roster and set-
builder notation methods.

Solution: The positive divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Hence, using the roster
or tabulation method, we have

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}

and using the set-builder notation, we have

N = { x | x is a divisor of 12}

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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SET RELATIONS

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have precisely the same elements.
We denote this idea using the notation A = B. If it is the case that A and B do not have
precisely the same elements, we say that the sets are not equal and we denote this by
the notation A  B.

For instance, if A = {letters of the word “veil”} and B = {letters of the word “evil”},
then A and B are equal since A = {v, e, i, l} and B = {e, v, i, l} and these sets have precisely
the same elements. Similarly, the set P = {x | x divides 6, 0 < x < 4} and the set Q = {the
first three counting numbers} are equal since P = {1, 2, 3} and Q = {1,2, 3}. If R is the set
of all positive divisors of 6, then P  R (Why?).

If the elements of two sets can be put into one-to-one correspondence, the sets
are said to be equivalent sets. In general two finite sets with the same number of
elements are equivalent sets. The notations  and are used to denote set
equivalence and non-equivalence of sets, respectively.

Example 1.4 Let R = { x | x divides 6}, S = {a, b, c, d}, and T = {even prime numbers}.
Then R  S but R T and S T.

If A is a set and B is another set such that all elements of A are found in B, then
we say that “A is a subset of B”. In symbols we write A  B. If all elements of A are
found in B but there is an element in B that is not found in A, we say that “A is a proper
subset of B”. We write this in symbols as A  B. If there is at least one element of A
that is not in B, then we say that A is not a subset of B and we write A  B.

As an illustration, If A = {prime numbers less than 5} and B = {counting numbers

less than 5}, then A  B. On the other hand, if C = {factors of 6}, then C  B (Why?)

The empty set  is considered a subset of any set. Consider for instance the set
B of all counting numbers less than 5. When we say that   B, it means that all
elements in  are in B. This statement is correct since  has no elements and therefore
“there is no element in  that IS NOT found in B”.

Example 1.5 Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, list down all possible subsets of A.

Solution: Subsets with

no element : 
one element : {1}, {2}, {3}, and {4}
two elements : {1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,3}, {2,4}, and {3,4}
three elements : {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}, and {1, 3, 4}
four elements : {1, 2, 3, 4} = A

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Therefore, set A has a total of 16 subsets.

CARDINALITY OF A SET

Definition: Given a finite set A, the cardinality of A denoted by n(A) is the smallest
counting number n such that the set {1, 2, 3,  n} is equivalent to set A.

For instance, consider the set A = {vowels of the English alphabet}. We form the
set of counting numbers consisting of the numbers from 1 up to n so that the set

{1, 2, 3,  n}

is in one-to-one correspondence with A. Since A ={a, e, i, o, u}, it follows that n = 5

since A and the set {1, 2 , 3, 4, 5} are equivalent. Note that the number of elements of
set A is five. Thus, the cardinality of a finite is just the number of elements in the set.

Thus, the cardinality of the set C = {factors of 6} is 4 while the cardinality of the
null set  is 0 (why?).

Remark: If A is a set with cardinality n, then the total number of subsets of A is given by
2n. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, the total number of subsets of A is 24 = 16. If A ={a, e, i,
o, u}, check that this set has 25 = 32 subsets!

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Exercise 1.1

Use both the roster and the rule method to describe the following sets:
1. A = The set of integers between -5 and 4.
2. B = The set of counting numbers less than 8.
3. C = The set of even counting numbers.
4. D = The set of counting numbers between 5 and 12.
5. E = The set of positive divisors of 32.
6. F = The set of all counting odd numbers.

Use the set-builder notation to describe the following sets:

7. A = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20}
8. B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11…}
9. C = {1, 8, 27, 64, 125}
10. D = {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, …}
11. E = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …}

Tell which set is finite and which is infinite.

12. The set of all counting numbers less than one million.
13. The set of all composite numbers greater than 20.
14. The set of points on a line. [Hint: Recall the Ruler Postulate in Geometry].
15. The set of all even prime numbers.
16. The set of all counting numbers between 10 and 11.

17. For the sets listed below, tell which are equal and which are equivalent.
A = The set of counting numbers less than 6.
B = The set of all positive divisors of 6.
C = {x | x is a counting number between 1 and 5 inclusive}
D = The set of all counting numbers less than 7 and can divide 6.
E = The set of all factors of 6.

Tell which one is true and which one is false given that A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}; B = {0, 1, 2};
C = {3, 4}, and D = {3, 4, 5}.
18. B  A 23. {3}  C
19. C  A 24. {3}  A
20. 0   25. {}  C
21. 3  C 26. 0  A
22. D  A 27. {0, 1}  A

If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; B = {2, 3, 4}; and C = {4, 5, 6}, which of the following are true?
28. A  B 33. C  C
29. B  A 34.   A
30. B  A 35. B = C
31. A  C 36. C  A
32. B  A 37. B  C

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Consider the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Construct a subset of P in which every

element is
38. even
39. divisible by 3
40. multiple of 4
41. a divisor of 10
42. a prime number
43. a composite number

OPERATIONS ON SETS

Let us introduce another special set which is called the universal set. This set
which is denoted by the capital letter U is defined as the totality of all the objects or
entities defined in the set.

If A is a set such that A  U, we define the set A as the “complement of set A.”
The elements of this set “are all the elements in the universal set U which do not belong
to A itself.”

Example 1.6. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {x | x is odd, and x < 10}, and
B  { x | x isa multipleof 2 andx  10} . Find A and B.

Solution: By definition A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Thus A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Also,

B = {2, 4, 6, 8} is also a subset of U. Thus, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10} (why?).

Set complementation is a unary operation since it involves only one set. Set
operations involving two sets are called binary operations. The union and intersection
of two sets denoted by the symbols  and , respectively are examples of binary
operations of sets.

Definition: The union of two sets A and B denoted by A  B is the set defined by
A  B = {x | x  A or x  B}.

Definition: The intersection of two sets A and B denoted by A  B is the set defined by
A  B = {x | x  A and x  B}.

Example 1.7 Let A = {1, 2, 4, 6, 10} and B = {3, 5, 6, 7, 10}. Find A  B and A  B.

Solution: A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10} while

A  B = {6, 10}.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Example 1.8 Let M = {x | x is a prime number less than 10} and

N = {positive divisors of 14 less than 10}, find M  N and M  N.

Solution: Note that M = {2, 3, 5, 7} and N = {1, 2, 7}. Therefore

M  N = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 7} while
M  N = {2, 7}.

Another important binary operation involving two sets A and B is the cross
product between A and B, denoted by A  B.

Definition: The cross product between two sets A and B denoted by A  B is the set
defined by A  B = {(x, y) | x  A and y  B}

Example 1.9 Find the cross product of the sets given in Example 1.8.

Solution: Since M = {2, 3, 5, 7} and N = {1, 2, 7}, we have

M  N = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 7), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 7), (5,1), (5, 2), (5, 7),
(7, 1), (7, 2), (7, 7)}

VENN DIAGRAMS

Relationships between sets can be illustrated using geometric figures called

Venn Diagrams introduced by the English Mathematician, John Venn. The geometric
figures used are rectangles and circles or any other closed figures.

Below are examples of Venn Diagrams.

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Using Venn diagrams, we will be using the idea of disjoint and joint sets. If two
sets do not have a common element, we say that the sets are disjoint, otherwise they
are said to be joint sets.

In Figure 1.1, set A is a subset of the universal set U. In Figure 1.2, sets A and B
have elements in common which is the shaded portion. Thus, set A and set B are joint

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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sets. Note that neither one is a subset of the other. Figure 1.3 illustrates disjoint sets
since sets A and B do not have a common element.

We can employ Venn diagrams in solving some counting problems.

Example 1.10 A group of 45 Filipino tourists went on summer vacation to Europe last
summer. Of this number 23 went to Germany, 20 went to Spain, 16 went
to Italy, 9 went to Germany and Spain, 7 went to Spain and Italy, 5 went
to Germany and Italy, and 3 went to these three places.
a) How many of them visited Germany only?
b) How many of them visited Spain and Italy but not Germany?
c) How many of them Visited Italy but not Spain?
d) How many of them did not go to any of these places?

Solution:
From the information given, we can construct a Venn diagram to show
the relationship of the sets of persons involved in the problem. If we let U be
the set of all 45 Filipino tourists, we can have three subsets corresponding to
the set of tourists who went to the three different places.

Let these sets be denoted by G (for those who went to Germany), S (for
those who went to Spain), and I (for those who went to Italy). From the
information given, these sets must have a common intersection corresponding
to the tourists who went to the three places. The resulting Venn diagram with
cardinalities indicated is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4

From this Venn Diagram, we see that only 12 tourists went to Germany,
4 visited Spain and Italy but not Germany; 9 visited Italy but not Spain; and 4
did not go to any of the three places.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Exercise 1.2

1. Given U = {x | x is a counting number less than 10}

A = {x | x is a composite number less than 10}
B = {x | x is a positive divisor of 8}
a) Find the following sets
i) A v) A  B
ii) B vi) A  B
iii) A  B viii) (A  B) 
iv) A  B ix) (A  B) 
b) The number of elements in a given set A denoted by n(A) is called the
cardinality of A. Find the cardinality of each set defined in a).

2. Let U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; B = {2, 3, 4, 5};

C = {4, 5, 6, 7}; and D = {6, 7, 8, 9}. Find and tabulate the following sets.
a) A  B f) A  B
b) D  A g) (C  U)
c) D  U h) U
d) B  C i) 
e) B   j) (A  B)  C

3. Using set notations, describe the shaded portion of the following Venn diagrams.

a) b) c) d)

4. In a class of 50 students, it is found that 21 are taking English, 14 are taking

Mathematics, 28 are taking History, 7 are taking Math and English, 10 are taking
Math and History, 11 are taking History and English, while 3 are taking all the three
courses. How many students are taking
a) Mathematics only? d) Mathematics but not English?
b) English only? e) English but not History?
c) History Only f) Not taking any of the courses?

5. In a recent survey of 300 Communication students regarding their most preferred FM

station in Tacloban City, the following information was gathered: 160 students tune
in to 94.3 FM station, 150 students tune in to 99.1 FM station, and 150 tune in to
95.10 FM station. Ninety students tune in to both 94.3 and 99.1 FM stations, 70 to
both 99.1 and 95.10 FM stations, 100 to both 94.3 and 95.10 FM stations while forty
students tune in to all the three FM stations.
a) How many students tune in to 94.3 or 99.12 FM stations only?
b) How many students listen to one FM station?
c) How many students did not listen to any of the three FM stations?
d) Of those who tune in to FM stations, how many did not tune in to 95.10 FM
station?

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

In order to understand basic algebraic operations and processes, let us

familiarize ourselves with the structure of the real number system since it is actually the
algebra of numbers that will concern us most in the succeeding units.

We first consider the different sets of numbers that form the set of real
numbers.
N = {natural numbers (counting numbers) } = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}
W = {whole numbers} = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}
Z = {integers} = {…-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
a 
 
Q = {rational numbers} =  a and b areintegers, b  0

b 

Q = {irrational numbers} = {numbers which cannot be written as a
quotient of two integers}

If we combine all rational and irrational numbers, we have the set R which we
will call the set of real numbers. Figure 1.5 shows the relations of these sets of
numbers.

R=Real Numbers

Q=Rational Numbers Q=Irrational Numbers

  4  3 , 1 , 2 , 3 ,
1 4 3 5 1
   π,- 3 2 , 
2 , π , π ,
2

Z=Integers Non-integers (Fractions)

  2  1, 0, 1, 2,   43 , 13 , 25 ,

W=Whole Numbers Negative Integers

 0, 1, 2, 3   3,2  1

C=Counting Numbers Zero

1, 2, 3 0 

Figure 1.5

From the diagram, it is easily seen that all counting numbers are integers; all
integers are rational numbers; and all rational numbers are real numbers. The integers
that are not counting numbers include the number zero and the negative integers. Real

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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numbers that do not belong to the set of rational numbers are called irrational
numbers. Note that Q  Q = R and that Q  Q = .

THE REAL NUMBER LINE

Recall from the Ruler Postulate that there is a one-to-one correspondence

between the set of real numbers and the set of points on a given line. By choosing an
arbitrary point to correspond to the real number 0 which is called the origin, we can
plot the real numbers on the number line as shown in Figure 1.6.

1
-4.5 2 2
x
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 1.6

The real number that corresponds to a point P on the line is called the
coordinate of P. The line containing all the points P is called the real number line. The
real number line is partitioned into three sets of numbers. These are the set of negative
real numbers, the set whose element is zero, and the set of positive real numbers. Note
that the negative real numbers are the coordinates of the points on the real line to the
left of the origin. The real number 0 is the coordinate of the origin while the positive
real numbers are the coordinates of the points on the real line to the right of the origin.

Given any two real numbers r and s, one and only one of the following
statements holds:
“r is less than s” or r < s;
“r equals s” or r = s;
“r is greater than s” or r > s.

If r < s, this means that the r lies to the left of s. If r = s, this means that r and s
represent the same point on the number line. If r > s, then r lies to the right of s.

Definition: Suppose and r and s are two real numbers. We say that r < s (or
equivalently s > r) if the difference s – r is positive.

Thus, -2 < 0 since 0 – (-2) = 2 and 2 is positive. Note that -2 < 0 is equivalent to
the inequality 0 > -2. Also, -4 > -8 since this -4 – (-8) = 4 and 4 is positive.

Based on the given definition, we have the following special relations:

a) x > 0 if and only if x is positive; and

b) x < 0 if and only if x is negative.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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INTERVAL NOTATIONS

Let a, b, c  R. We define the following inequalities:

a) a  b means that either a < b or a = b

b) a  b means that either a > b or a = b
c) a < b < c means that a < b and b < c
d) a  b < c means that a  b and b < c.

If b is any number between a and c, then either a < b < c or c < b < a.

Definition: Let a, b  R, with a < b.

a. The open interval (a, b) is defined by (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}.
b. The closed interval [a, b] is defined by [a, b] = {x | a  x  b}.
c. The half-open or semi-open interval [a, b) is defined by [a, b) = {x | a  b < c}.

The set {x | x  R, -5  x < 7} can be written more briefly as [-5, 7).

Similarly, the set {x | x  R, 2 < x  10} can be written as (2, 10].

Geometrically, the different intervals can be represented by the sets of points on

the number line as shown in the figures below.

Open interval Closed interval Half-open interval

( ) [ ] [ )
a b a b a b

The inequality x  a defines the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to
a. The corresponding interval notation is given by [a, +) where the symbol  denotes
the idea of infinity. The half-line shown in Figure 1.7 the corresponding graph of this
inequality.
[
a
Figure 1.7

Likewise, in interval notation, the inequality x < a is equivalent to the interval notation
(-, a). Figure 1.8 shows the graph of this inequality

]
a

Figure 1.8

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Exercise 1.3

1. Insert  or  in the blank to make the statement correct.

a) 11 ____ N f) - 12 ____ Q
b) 2.171717 ____ Q g) 2,014 ____ Z
c) -3____ Z h) 23 ____ R
d) π
2
____ Q i) -5____ Q
e) 0____ Q j) 0____ Z

2. Insert  or  in the blank to make the statement correct.

a. N ____ Q
b. R ____ Q
c. N ____ Z
d. Z ____ R
e. R ____ N
f. Z ____ Q
g. Q ____ R
h. {0} ____ Q

3. In each of the following, determine which one of the sets N, Z, Q, Q, R and  is
equal to the given set.
a. Z  Q f. N  Z
b. Z  Q g. Q  N
c. N  Q h. R  N
d. Q  R i. Z  Q
e. Q  Z j. Q  R

4. Rewrite the following sets using interval notations then draw the corresponding
graph on the real number line.
a. {x | -3 < x < 1 } f. {x | x < -2 }
b. {x | 7 < x  9 } g. {x | x > 4 }
c. {x | 4  x < 10 } h. {x | x  -3 }
d. {x | 6  x } i. { x | 1  x }
e. {x | x  0 } j. { x | -4  x  2 }

5. Write the following using the set and interval notations.

.a. ( ] d. [ ]
-1 8 0 4

b. [ ) e. (
2 9 -5

c. ( ) f. )
-3 3 6

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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6. Identify the following intervals.

a. [-2, 4)  (4, 5] f. (-, -5]  (-2, )
b. [5, 7)  ( 4, 10] g. (-, 3)  (-2, )
c. (-2, 5]  [3, 6) h. (-, 1]  (-2, 5]
d. [-2, 4)  (4, 5] i. (1½ , 3)  (-5, 1¼]
e. [5, 7)  ( 4, 10] j. (5, 10]  (7, )

7. The interval notation (-, ) is used to name the set of real numbers. Explain why it
is not correct to use the interval notation [-, ]?

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

Another important symbol that we will often use in the study of algebra is the
equality symbol. The equality symbol is used to join two expressions that are identical.
We list down below the five important properties of equality.

1. Reflexive Property If a  R, then a = a.

2. Symmetric Property. Let a, b  R. If a = b, then b = a.
3. Transitive Property. Let a, b, c  R. If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
4. Addition Property for Equality. Let a, b, c  R. If a = b, then a + c = b + c.
5. Multiplication Property for Equality. Let a, b, c  R. If a = b, then a c = b c.

PROPERTIES OF THE REAL NUMBERS WITH RESPECT TO ADDITION AND

MULTIPLICATION

The structure of the set of real numbers is called a field, that is, under the
operations addition (+) and Multiplication (), real numbers have the following
properties.

1. Closure Property
Addition: If a and b are real numbers, then a + b is also a real number.
Multiplication: If a and b are real numbers, then a b is also a real number.

2. Associative Property (Grouping Property)

Addition: If a, b, c  R, then (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). [A.P.A.]
Multiplication: If a, b, c  R, then (ab)c = a(bc). [A.P.M.]

3. Commutative Property (Order Property)

Addition: If a, b  R, then a + b = b + a. [C.P.A.]
Multiplication: If a, b  R, then ab = ba. [C.P.M.]

4. Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition [D.P.M.A.]

If a, b, c be real numbers, then
(1) a(b + c) = ab + ac and [Left Distributive Property]
(2) (a + b)c = ac + bc [Right Distributive Property]

5. Identity Property
Addition: If a  R, then a + 0 = 0 + a = a. [I.P.A.]
Multiplication: If a  R, then a 1 = a  1 = a. [I.P.M.]

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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The numbers 0 and 1 are therefore special real numbers since no

other real number will satisfy these identity properties. We call 0 the identity
element for addition while 1 is called the identity element for multiplication.

6. Existence of Additive Inverse and Multiplicative Inverse & Property of

Additive inverse / Multiplicative Inverse

Additive Inverse: For every real number a, there exists a unique real number
–a, called the “additive inverse of a” or simply the “negative
of a” with the property that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0.

Multiplicative Inverse: For every real number a, a  0, there exists a unique

real number a-1= 1/a, called the “multiplicative inverse
of a” or simply the “reciprocal of a” with the property
that aa-1 = a-1a = 1.

We now consider important definitions and theorems about the real numbers.
These definitions and theorems will justify the basic operations or processes that will be
carried out in dealing with algebraic expressions. The proofs of some of these theorems
are left as an exercise.

Definition of Subtraction: a – b = a + (-b)

Thus, 4 – 5 = 4 + (-5) = -1 and -3 – 7 = -3 + (-7) = -10.

a 1 1 a
Definition of Division:  a  or a   .
b b b b

7 1 1 20
Thus, 7 and 20  = 5.
8 8 4 4

Theorem 1.1. Cancellation Laws for Addition and Multiplication

(a) Addition : Let a, b, c  R. If a + c = b + c, then a = b.
(b) Multiplication: Let a, b, c  R, c  0. If ac = bc, then a = b.

Proof: (Exercise)

The first law tells us that we can cancel out identical terms that appear on both
sides of the equation. The second law tells us that we can also cancel out equal non-zero
factors that appear on both sides of the equation.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Theorem 1.2. a) If a + b = 0, then a = -b or b = -a.

b) If ab = 1, then a = b-1 or b = a-1.

Theorem 1.2 states that if the sum of two numbers is zero, then the numbers
must be additive inverses of each other. Similarly, if the product of two non-zero real
numbers is 1, then the numbers must be reciprocal of each other. The proof is left as an
exercise.

Theorem 1.3. If a, b  R, then

a. -(-a) = a.
b. -(a + b) = (-a) + (-b)
1
c. (a-1)-1 = a or 1  a (The reciprocal of the reciprocal of a is a).
a
d. (ab)-1 = a-1b-1

Proof: a) We know from the Additive Inverse Property that a + (-a) = 0. Now, -(-a) is the
additive inverse of -a so that -a + [-(-a)] = 0. Since the additive inverse of a
real number is unique, it follows that -(-a) must be the same as a.

d) From the Multiplicative Inverse Property, (ab)-1 is the multiplicative inverse

of ab. The product (ab)(a-1b-1) = a[b(a-1b-1)] = a[a-1 (bb-1)]
= (aa-1)(bb-1)
= 1.

Hence, a-1b-1 is also the multiplicative inverse of ab. The result follows.

Theorem 1.4. If a, b  R, then

a. a  0 = 0 [ZERO PROPERTY]
b. If a b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

Proof of a):

Statement Reason

1. 0 + 0 = 0 1. Identity Property of Addition

2. a(0 + 0) = a 0 2. Multiplication Property of Equality
3. a 0 + a 0 = a 0 3. Distributive Property
4. a 0 + a 0 = a 0 + 0 4. Identity Property of Addition
5.  a 0 = 0 5. Cancellation Law for Addition

Thus any number multiplied by 0 is zero and if the product of two numbers is
zero, the only logical conclusion is that either the first factor is 0 or the second factor is
zero or both are zero. The proof of b) is left as an exercise.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Theorem 1.5. If a, b  R, then

a. (-a)b = a(-b) = - ab
b. (-a)(-b) = ab.

Proof :

a) The additive inverse of ab is -ab. Now, ab + (-a)b = [a + (-a)]b = 0b = 0.

Hence (-a)b is also the additive inverse of ab. Since the additive inverse of a
real number is unique, we must have (-a)b = - ab. We can use the same
argument to show that a(-b) = - ab.

b) The expression (-a)(-b) is the same as (a)[-(-b)] from a). And since -(-b) = b,
the result follows.

Theorem 1.5 justifies the rules for multiplication of real numbers which says that
the product of two real numbers with unlike signs is negative while the product of two
real numbers with like signs is positive.

Theorem 1.6. If a, b, c, d  R, then

a a c
a)  1 , a  0 c) If  , then ad = bc, b & d  0.
a b d
a k a a
b) a d)  ,b0
1 k b b

Statement a) says that any nonzero number divided by itself always yields the
quotient 1. In b), it says that any number divided by 1 is the number itself.

The third statement is the property of ratio and proportion wherein the product
of the means (b and c) is equal to the product of the extremes (a and d). Thus, if any of
the three terms in a given proportion are given, the fourth term can always be
determined.

The fourth statement is useful in reducing a fraction to lowest terms. Thus, equal
nonzero factors that appear in the numerator and denominator of the fraction may be
cancelled out without affecting the value of the fraction.

The proofs of these statements are left as an exercise.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

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Theorem 1.7 (Operations of Fractions) If a, b, c, d  R, then

a b ab
a)   , c  0.
c c c
a c ad  bc
b)   , b, d  0.
b d bd
a c ac
c)   , b, d  0.
b d bd
a c a d
d)    , b, c, d  0
b d b c

Proof of c)
Statement Reason
a c  1 1
1.    a  . c   1. Definition of Division
b d  b d 
 1  1 
2. = a   c   2. Associative Property of Multiplication
 b  d 
 1  1 
3. = a   c    3. Associative Property of Multiplication
 b  d 
 1  1 
4. = a  c     4. Commutative Property of Multiplication
 b  d 
  1 1 
5. = a c     5. Associative Property of Multiplication
  b d 
1 1
6. = (ac)    6. Associative Property of Multiplication
b d
7. = (ac)(b-1d-1) 7. Definition of reciprocal

8. = (ac)(bd)-1 8. Since (bd)-1 = b-1d-1 (By Theorem 1.3 d)

1
9. = (ac) 9. Definition of reciprocal
bd
ac
10. = 10. Definition of Division
bd
a c ac
11. Therefore,   . 11. By Transitivity.
b d bd

Theorem 1.8 If a, b  R, then

a a a
a)  
b b b

a a
b)  , b  0.
b b

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

 20
CM #1

Proof :

-a a
(a) Suppose = k . Then (-a) = bk or a = -(bk) = (-b)(k) or =k.
b -b
-a a a a
Hence = . Similarly, if - = k then, = -k or a = b(-k) = (-b)k.
b -b b b
a a a
Therefore, = k . It follows that - = .
-b b -b

-a
(b) Suppose = k . Then, (-a) = (-b)k or -a = -(bk). Multiplying both
-b
a -a a
sides by -1 yields a = bk or = k . Therefore, = .
b -b b

This theorem justifies the rules for dividing signed numbers. Hence, the quotient
is negative if the terms have unlike signs, but positive if the terms have like signs.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

 21
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Exercise 1.4

1. Evaluate each of the following

A. a. 17 - (-1) f. (-16 – 9) – (-3)

b. -18 – 2 g. –10 – (-10)
c. 14 - [-6 + (-1)] h. –13 + 14 + (-7)
d. -19 – [-3 – (-2)] i. 5 + (-1) + (-4) + (-3)
e. –12 – (-5 – 8) j. –7 – [-2 + (-1) + (-3)]

B. a. (-4)(-5) f. 4[3 + (-6)] - 5

b. (-4)(-6)(-1) g. 15 – [(3)(2) – 1]
c. 4(-5)(-2) h. [-7 + (6)(-4)] + 32
d. (-2)(-2)(-2)(-2) i. 8 – 5 + [6(-3)]
e. 7(-3)(-3)(-2) j. 7[(3 - 15)  (-6)]

C. a. 5 + (-8 – (-3) + 8 f. [20 (-10)][(-40) (-8)]

b. (-2)[3 + (-8)] g. [8(-10)]  [(-2)(-20)]
c. [8 – (-10)]  [(-3) – 6] h. (-5) – (-3) + (-1) - 3
d. (-12)(-4) i. {(-7) + [13 + (-12)]} + {21 – (-3) – 10}
e. (-90)  (-10) j. (-9) + 10 – (-17) – 23 + (-12)

2. Perform the indicated operations.

4 1 7 3
A. a.  d. 
5 6 8 4

8 2 4 2
b.  e. 
9 3 5 7

9 1 8 3
c.  f. 
11 3 33 16

4 2 2 1 1 5 
g.  k.       
5 7  3 2   4 12 

12 4 4 1 3 3
h.  l.       
33 11 5 8 5 8

3 1 5   2  4
i.    m.  2     3  
4  4 12   3  5

3 5  1  1
j.     n.  4  2   4
 4 12  6  2

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

 22
CM #1

3. Tell which property/definition/theorem of real numbers justifies each statement.

a. 45 + 47 = 4(5 + 7) k. 5 + 2 is a real number
b. 7 + 0 = 7 l. x + 9 = 20 implies x = 11
c. (-8)  1 = -8 m. 9 + (-9) = 0
1 1
d. (5  23)  34 = 5  (23  34) n. (1)  =
9 9
e. 2 + 6 is a real number o. 9 + (7 + ) = (9 + 7) + 
f. -9 + 2/3 = 2/3 + (-9) p. 5  is a real number
g. -10 + [-(-10)] = 0 q. 20 – 3 = 20 + (-3)
7 8 x 1
h.   1 r. x
8 7 3 3
i. 12  (5  9) = (5  9)  12 s. (17)(0) = 0
j. 10 + (4 + 10) = 10 + (10 + 4) t. 2x = 8 implies x = 4.

4. For each statement below, a proof has been constructed. You are to supply the
missing statement or reason that are omitted.

a. To prove that if a + c = b + c, then a = b. [Cancellation Law for Addition]

Statement Reason
1. a + c = b + c 1. Given
2. (a + c) + (-c) = (b + c) + (-c) 2. _________________________________
3. a + [c + (-c)] = b + [c + (-c)] 3. _________________________________
4. a + ___ = b + ___ 4. Property of Additive Inverse
5.  a = b 5. _________________________________

b. To Prove that if a b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

Statement Reason
1. a b = 0 1. Given
2. If a  0, then a-1 exists. 2. Existence of Multiplicative Inverse
3. a (a b) = a  0
-1 -1
3. ________________________________
4. a (a b) = ______
-1
4. Zero Property
5. (a  a)  b = ______
-1
5. ________________________________
6. 1 b = ______ 6. ________________________________
7. b = _____ 7. ________________________________
8. Repeating the same argument with the assumption that b  0, we will also arrive at
the conclusion that a = 0. Hence the result.

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

 23
CM #1

c. To prove that if ax + b = c, then x = (c-b)/a, a  0.

Statement Reason
1. ax + b = c 1. Given
2. Since –b exists,
(ax + b) + (-b) = c + (-b) 2. ________________________________
3. ax + (b + (-b)) = c - b 3. ____________ and ________________
4. ax + 0 = c – b. 4. ________________________________
5. ax = c – b 5. ________________________________
6. Since a  0, a exists.
-1
6. Existence of Multiplicative Inverse
7. Thus, a-1(ax) = a-1(c – b) 7. ________________________________
8. or (a  a) x = ______
-1
8. _________ and definition of division.
9. or 1.x = _____ 9. ________________________________
10.  x = ______ 10. _______________________________

a b ab
d. To prove that   , c  0.
c c c

a b 1 1
1.  = a  b 1. ________________________________
c c c c

1
2. = (a  b) 2. ________________________________
c

ab
3. = 3. ________________________________
c

a c a d
e. To prove that    , b, c, d  0.
b d b c

Statement Reason
a c a 1
1.  =  1. Definition of Division
b d b c
d
1 1
2. = a  2. ________________________________
b c 1
d
1
3. = a b-1 3. Definition of Reciprocal
c  d 1
4. = (ab-1)(cd-1)-1 4. ________________________________

5. = (ab-1){(c-1)[(d-1)-1]} 5. By Theorem 1.3 d

6. = (ab-1)[(c-1)d] 6. By Theorem 1.3 c

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.

 24
CM #1

7. = (ad)(b-1c-1) 7. By _____________ & _____________

8. = (ad)(bc)-1 8. ________________________________
ad
9. = 9. ________________________________
bc
a c a d
10.     10. _______________________________
b d b c

a  a  1 
f. Prove that     , b  0 and c  0.
bc  b  c 
Statement Reason
a 1
1. a 1. ________________________________
bc bc
 1  1 
2. = a    2. Theorem 1.7 c)
 b  c 
  1  1 
3. = a     3. ________________________________
  b  c 
 a  1 
4. =    4. ________________________________
 b  c 

g. Following the format of the proofs discussed above, construct the proof of the
following statements:

1. If a + b = 0, then a = -b or b = -a.
2. Prove that -(a + b) = (-a) + (-b) for any real numbers a and b.
3. Prove that -(a - b) = -a + b for any real numbers a and b.
4. Prove that (a-1)-1 = a for all real numbers a  0.
b
5. Prove that a   b , a  0.
a
ab  a 
6. Prove that     b , c  0.
c c
a -a
7. Prove that  , c  0.
b(-c) bc
a
a
8. b  , then ad = bc, b 0and c  0.
c bc
a c
9. If  , then ad = bc, b 0and c  0.
b d
a c ad  bc
10. Prove that   , b, d  0.
b d bd

Gabino P. Petilos , Ph.D.