Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HARDWOOD CYPRESS
&
TECHNICAL & DETAILING GUIDE
T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 Section One
Using Hardwoods & Cypress
What do the Terms Hardwood & Cypress Include? . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Parts of the Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Processing the Tree into Timber Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Managing Moisture, Seasoning & Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Section Two
Designing for Appearance
Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Grain & Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Natural Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sawing Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sizes and Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Internal Timber Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Checking Your Appearance Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Section Three
Designing for Structural Strength
Structural Properties & Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sizes & Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Span Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Timber Joints & Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Adding Timber Size to Insulate Against Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Checking Your Structural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Section Four
Designing for Durability
Performance Criteria for Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Natural Timber Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Using Preservative Treatments to Increase Durability . . . . . . . . 24
Coatings to Protect Timber and Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Detailing Construction to Protect Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Maintenance Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bushfire Prone Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Checking Your Durability Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5 Section Five
Formalising the Specification (and Reference Material)
Writing the Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Bibliography and Regulatory Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Linked Guides Supporting this Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Acknowledged Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E Introduction
Wood begins as a natural resource and passes handrails, piles and poles, cladding, fit-out and
along the production chain until it is converted furniture. It also links to information on different
into end user products. This guide describes hardwood and Cypress species, and related
common principles for specifiers to use in timber producers.
converting hardwoods and Cypress into The guide starts with basic principles of timber
appropriate end products. The content conveys usage, then breaks into three streams. One
themes that can be applied to building dealing with using timber for its appearance,
construction, interior design, fit-out, civil another dealing with structural applications,
structures and landscaping. It will also benefit while the third deals with durability issues. The
those who simply wish to learn more about the guide ends by detailing how to prepare a timber
correct use of timber. specification, and also contains regulatory
This guide acts as an over arching document references, a glossary of terms and a list of the
which is to be read in conjunction with a series previously mentioned link documents. The overall
of linked technical guides for specific document structure is shown in Figure 1.
applications, such as flooring, decks, stairs and
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
1 Section One
Using Hardwoods & Cypress
Since timber is a natural material it is best to work with it, rather than against it.
This section looks at a few basic principles when using hardwoods and Cypress.
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
certain types of cladding only require a ‘sawn Figure 5:
finish’ (off the saw), and are generally unseasoned Nail plated kiln dried, dressed products
and nominally sized. Exceptions occasionally
occur. Some unseasoned hardwoods and Cypress
may be dressed when only partly seasoned. It is
best to enquire with suppliers for specific
products for intended applications.
Back cut
Quarter cut
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MANAGING MOISTURE,
SEASONING AND SHRINKAGE
Moisture management is used to minimise
shrinkage and movement in the timber. For
instance, when wood comes from a newly felled
tree it is virtually saturated with water. As moisture
leaves the wood it influences strength,
dimensional stability, stiffness, hardness, abrasion
resistance, machineability, insulation value,
resistance to decay and nail holding ability.
Measuring Moisture
In managing moisture it is necessary to be able
to measure moisture levels. Moisture content is
described in terms of the weight of water
contained in the wood expressed as a percentage
of oven-dried wood weight. Key levels of Timber species with high shrinkage (e.g. New
moisture content are linked to simplified terms England Blackbutt, Messmate, Mountain Ash,
such as ‘seasoned’ and ‘unseasoned’ timber. Silvertop Ash and Turpentine) require greater care
Seasoned timber relates to low levels of moisture if being used in an unseasoned state. Applications
content, less than or equal to 15%. This where any radial and tangential shrinkage may
approximates the equilibrium moisture content have significant impact such as flooring,
(EMC) of most timber. EMC is the moisture level panelling, some cladding, mouldings, furniture
that the timber wants to stay at once it has dried and joinery, require timber to be seasoned prior
out and acclimatised to its environment. Timber to use. Unseasoned timbers can be used in other
with a moisture content higher than 15% is applications but this involves a value judgement
regarded as unseasoned or green. and creates the need for careful detailing and
attention to expected shrinkage rates.
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Detailing Unseasoned Timber Seasoning Issues
Show care where: The seasoning process also requires care to
• materials with different shrinkage manage the effects of shrinkage. The surface dries
characteristics are combined, e.g. unseasoned first while the interior remains wet and above
timber next to seasoned timber or non-timber fibre saturation point. As a result, the interior
products, end grain next to cross grain; remains in its expanded shape while the surface
shrinks – causing checks and cracks. Large
• large timber sections are involved; sections are most affected. In addition, ends offer
• multiple stacked timber members e.g. joists on the highest risk as water can enter and leave the
top of bearers; timber more readily, which may result in large
amounts of differential shrinkage. The problem
• large timber areas are involved e.g. flooring,
is increased where the addition of some water
cladding;
borne preservative treatments create the need for
• clearance needs to be provided relative to brick secondary seasoning. The problem can be
veneer walls i.e. at lintels, eaves lining, window remedied or minimised by good seasoning
sills and floor framing; practices, however there is a concurrent need for
• multi-storey construction causes combined designers to acquaint themselves with what is
shrinkage i.e. where each floor may add to the realistic – especially where large, treated sections
overall effect; are concerned.
• shrinkage affects fire resistant construction e.g. Statutory and Regulatory Seasoning
at gaps in walls. Requirements
Further perspective of the effects of shrinkage on Timber producers are obliged to meet standards
unseasoned timber is shown by the figures in and statutory seasoning requirements. If nothing
Table 2. is specified, then statutory requirements take
precedence e.g. the ‘NSW Timber Marketing Act’
and the ‘Queensland Timber and Utilisation
Marketing Act’. In the absence of a specified
moisture content, these acts require seasoned
timber to fall within a moisture content range of
10 – 15%. If building standards or architectural
requirements are written into specifications, then
less rigid requirements may prevail (i.e. as per
provisions in respective Acts). For instance
AS2082 calls for 90% of a parcel of timber to be
15% moisture content or less, but no individual
piece can be more than 18%. In addition,
moisture content is specified for specific
applications, as detailed in Table 3.
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Seasoning Requirements for Specific Service for floor fixers to leave timber appropriately
Environment stacked on-site for three or more weeks prior to
Seasoning requirements only approximate the fixing.
equilibrium moisture content on-site. Each Another approach, although rare, is to predict
environment is different and so some adjustment the EMC prior to taking the timber to site (e.g.
may be necessary to get the best result – condition it at the timber manufacturer’s
especially where appearance is important. In such premises). To assist, Table 4 provides the average
instances conditioning of the timber before moisture content for coastal, inland and air-
installation to limit the chances of movement may conditioned environments. In order to determine
be necessary. Different service environments which applies to your situation refer to Figure 8
should also be considered – especially air which shows three climate zones. ‘Inland’ refers
humidity. Humidity changes for coastal and arid to Zones 1 and 2, while ‘coastal’ refers to Zone 3.
environments, interior and exterior environments, Specifiers must be mindful that the figures derived
air conditioned or heated environments. Each of from Table 4 are still approximate because
these will change the stability of moisture in the humidity is constantly changing in the distinct
timber. micro-climate of each service environment. Some
Generally the moisture content of timber products degree of moisture induced shrinkage (or
such as flooring should be approximately suited swelling) is hard to avoid – even if only due to
to ‘normal’ environments. If they are not suited seasonal climate change. The only tool for dealing
to normal conditions or the conditions on-site with such movement is to limit restraint of the
are unusual, then they should be acclimatised to timber in-situ – thus allowing freer movement.
the expected in-service equilibrium moisture Movement joints or specialist connectors can be
content level before installation. This may mean integrated into the construction to achieve this
that timber products are conditioned on-site result.
before fixing. For instance, it is not uncommon
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
Figure 8: Climate Zones based on relative humidity
Darwin
Cairns
Townsville
Onslow
Bundaberg
Roma
Brisbane
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
2 Section Two
Designing for Appearance
Timber has natural appeal that makes it a sought after material – especially for joinery, furniture and
interior design purposes. Australian hardwood and Cypress offer a truly unique, interesting and
beautiful appearance. This section of the guide helps designers utilise colour, grain, texture, knots,
sawing patterns, natural features and decorative finishes.
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
NATURAL FEATURES High Feature Grade – (HF)
Natural features come from branches and • permissible features: knots, holes, tight and
irregularities in the tree, and affect the finished loose gum veins, limited gum pocket and
appearance of timber. They include things like checks,
knots, gum veins, checks and pin holes. If there • not permitted: enclosed termite galleries,
is a desire to limit or control natural features, then shakes, splits, decay, want, wane or
the appropriate grade of timber should be mechanical damage and non natural stains or
specified. For hardwoods, this includes options sticker marks.
such as: select, medium feature and high feature
Before selecting a grade it is useful to compare
grades – as defined by AS2796.2. For Cypress this
the relative features expected in each species.
includes Grade 1 and 2 – as defined in AS1810.
Some are more prone to knots, holes, gum veins
These grades objectively define the number, type
and insect attack, than others. This can be
and spacing of knots and imperfections. As an
explored by referring to the Species Guide
example, variation in grades for hardwoods are
referenced in Section 5.
shown in Figure 9 and summarised below:
Select Grade – (SEL)
• permissible features: small holes and small
tight knots,
• not permitted: enclosed termite galleries,
shakes, splits, decay, loose knots, gum pocket,
narrow gum veins, want, wane or mechanical
damage and non natural stains or sticker marks.
Medium Feature Grade – Standard (MF)
• permissible features: tight knots, small holes,
tight and loose gum veins, limited gum pocket
and checks,
• not permitted: enclosed termite galleries,
shakes, splits, decay, want, wane or
mechanical damage and non natural stains or
sticker marks,
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CHECKING YOUR APPEARANCE SELECTION
Checking the previously discussed timber selection factors
is perhaps best summarised in the flow chart shown in
Figure 11. Its aims is to ensure all appropriate factors are
taken into account for different specification scenarios.
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
3 Section Three
Designing for Structural Strength
Hardwoods and Cypress have been used since early settlement in Australia for all types of structures.
They have proven to be sustainable and readily available resources. Design principles have now
developed to deliver highly adapted products. Hardwoods and Cypress offer strength, fire resistance
and natural durability. Careful design and detailing can optimise these properties in structures as
discussed in this section of the guide.
Visual grading
Visual grading involves a trained ‘grader’ who
first identifies the timber strength group, then
looks for characteristics that influence structural
grade, then assigns a stress grade. The two main
guiding documents for this are: AS2082 (for
hardwood) and AS2858 (for Cypress).
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Table 6: Stress grades for hardwoods and Cypress
Seasoned Unseasoned Cypress
Hardwoods Hardwoods
Common stress grades F17 and F27 F14 and F17 F4 and F5
Occasional achievable stress grades F34 F8, F11 and F22 F7
Common grading method Visual Visual and Proof Visual and Proof
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Figure 12: Typical structural connections
Minimum contact
Pole notched to between beam and pole
provide bearing
for beam
Corbel supports
beam
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Table 13: Washer selection guide
Washer Size
Bolt Round Washer Square Washer
Thickness (mm) Minimum Dia. (mm) Min. Side Length (mm)
M8 2.0 36 36
M10 2.5 45 45
M12 3.0 55 55
M16 4.0 65 65
M20 5.0 75 75
Note: Source: AS1720.1
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E Sample: Calculation to determine the size of a 60/–/– FRL Blackbutt post
Step 1: Determine the size of the post required to support the floor using timber design methods in
AS1720.1. Reference to AS1720.4 (Clause 2.8) may also be useful as it defines ‘fire limit
state’ load conditions. This state may allow lower load conditions than when a fire is absent.
As a result, the increase in timber size for charring may go part/full way to meeting sizes
requirements for normal load conditions. Say a 55 x 55mm post is required for the example.
= 0.4 + (280)2
(900 )
= 0.5mm/min
Step 3:
Charring depth for 60 minutes. = Ct + 7.5
= 0.4 + (280)2
= 30 + 7.5
Step 4:
Size of column required = 55 + 37.5 + 37.5
= 130 x 130mm
Thus for a Blackbutt post with an FRL of 60/ – / –, the most practical size is probably 150 x
150mm unseasoned timber which will season in-situ (i.e. this is being selected as a substitute
for seasoned Blackbutt, which is hard to obtain). Another option is a glue-laminated Blackbutt
post at least 130 x 130mm.
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CHECKING YOUR STRUCTURAL SELECTION
As with appearance needs, it is a good idea to check your
structural selection by using the decision flow chart shown
in Figure 13. Its aims is to ensure all appropriate factors are
taken into account for different specification scenarios.
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
4 Section Four
Designing for Durability
Irrespective of structural or appearance requirements, durability has overriding importance. This
section systematically deals with durability issues. It starts by setting-up performance criteria for
durability and then suggests ways of addressing these criteria. This includes the use of naturally
durable timber, preservative treatments, detailing construction to protect timber, protective coatings
and maintenance strategies
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Table 15: Service life of naturally durable timbers in different hazard classes
Durability Class Species H5 H3 Above H1
heartwood only In ground ground Protected
Exposed
Class 1 – Highly Bloodwood, Cypress, Grey Box,
Durable Grey Gum, Ironbark, White 25+ 45+ 50+
Mahogany, Tallowwood,
Turpentine,
Class 2 – Durable Blackbutt, Jarrah, New England
Blackbutt, Red Mahogany, River 15 to 25 30 50+
Red Gum, Spotted gum, Yellow
Stringybark
Class 3 – Moderately Brushbox, Flooded Gum, Karri, 8 to 25 15 50+
Durable Messmate
Class 4 – Non-durable Brown barrel, Mountain and Alpine less than 8 5 50+
Ash, Manna Gum
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If necessary further detail on these issues should • Semi transparent stains – these provide a high
be sought as required. degree of protection while enhancing the
natural beauty of the timber. Pigments provide
a UV screen and light colours are best as they
absorb less heat. Stains utilising an oil base are
also useful in giving good moisture protection.
Prior to applying stains all surfaces including
ends should be given a coat of water repellent
preservative. Ideally, the first coat of stain
should be applied prior to installation, with
final coat(s) upon completion. A service life of
3–5 years can be expected depending upon
degree of exposure to the weather. Re-
application is relatively easy e.g. surfaces
generally only require cleaning before
additional coats are applied.
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
• Opaque Stains and Paints – when properly Protective Coatings for Connectors
applied and maintained, these provide the best Preventing chemical breakdown and corrosion
protection against weathering. Water borne at connections is another important component
(acrylic) and solvent borne (oil) paints can of dealing with durability. The key issue is to
provide a film which is substantially prevent the interaction of moisture, chemicals
impervious to water and gives maximum and metal, from causing corrosion or a
protection against ultra-violet light. These breakdown of the wood fibres around metal
finishes offer a different appearance to the fasteners. Most use protective coatings to
former options – they hide the timbers natural connectors, though some of the more expensive
colour and grain. Getting the most out of them options use a core corrosion resistant material
is reliant on applying the recommended such as stainless steel. Options are shown in
number of sealing, priming and finishing coats Table 16.
– as recommended by the manufacturer. If
done correctly a service life of between 5 and
10 years can be expected from most opaque
finishes.
The above options can be used for most
applications except decks. They occupy a special
category due to the amount of foot traffic,
abrasion and exposure to the weather. As a result
products specifically manufactured for this
purpose should be used. Semi-transparent oil
stains are generally the main option because the
oil penetrates into the surface, providing moisture
protection. The pigments also filter the sun’s ultra-
violet rays, thus reducing checking and fading.
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CHECKING YOUR DURABILITY SELECTION
It is appropriate to check your durability decisions before
committing to a specification as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Process for selecting timber when designing for durability
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
5 Section Five
Formalising the Specification
This section gives guidance on writing a timber specification in drawings or documents. It also
provides references to underlying regulatory documents, technical application guides and technical
terms.
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Figure 15: Typical specification on drawings
45
75 x 50mm F14 HWD support framing
400 secured with 10mm Ø HDG cup head bolts
10mm Ø HDG cup
head bolts 100 x 100mm F14 HWD supports
skew nailed to decking
400
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
air-dried timber: Timber dried by exposure to air in a yard or shed, without artificial heat
(also see seasoning).
arris: The sharp intersection of two surfaces, e.g.. face and edge of a piece of
timber.
backcut: Cut so that the wide face of the piece is a tangential plane to the growth
rings. Trade practice in Australia is to class timber as backcut when the
average inclination of the growth rings to the wide face is less than 45
degrees, and to class veneer as backcut when the growth rings are nominally
parallel to the face of the veneer.
boxed heart: The pith and the adjacent wood contained within the four surfaces of a
piece of timber anywhere in its length
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T E C H N I C A L & D E TA I L I N G G U I D E
milled products, Part 1: Product specification.
DOCUMENTS
10. AS2796.2 Timber – Hardwood – Sawn and
1. AS1214 Hot-dip galvanised coatings on
milled products, Part 2: Grade description.
threaded fasteners.
11. AS2858 Timber – Softwood – Visually graded
2. AS1604 Timber – Preservative treated – Sawn
for structural purposes.
and round.
12. AS3519 Timber – Machine proof-grading.
3. AS1684 Part 2 Residential timber frame
construction – Non-cyclonic (including span 13. AS3959 – Construction of buildings in
table supplements). bushfire prone areas.
4. AS1684 Part 3 Residential timber frame 14. Building Code of Australia – BCA 1996.
construction – Cyclonic (including span table 15. Timber Technology – Wood Properties –
supplements). Department of Employment, Education and
5. AS1720 Part 1 Timber structures – Design Training.
methods. 16. Wood in Australia KR Bootle – McGraw Hill.
6. AS1720 Part 4 Timber structures – Fire- 17. Wood Handbook – United States Department
resistance of structural timber members. of Agriculture.
7. AS1748 Timber stress grade – Product 18. Warrington Fire Research, The suitability of
requirements for mechanical stress graded the use of various untreated timbers for
timber. building construction in bushfire-prone areas,
8. AS2082 Timber – Hardwood – Visually stress- Dandenong
graded for structural purposes.
Sponsored by the NSW Native Timber Industry Marketing and Development Fund
T E C H N I C A L & D E T A I L I N G G U I D E