From the Editor’s Desk

Dear Readers

Wishing you a very happy and prosperous NEW YEAR 2015

As an effort in furtherance to the ultimate objective of IRC to promote and encourage the
excel in highway profession and related activities in particular “Road Safety” and promotion
of indigenous innovative and environment friendly road and bridge construction technologies,
some of the important topics in this edition has been covered namely “Simplified Method of
Calculation of Dynamic Increment Component of Earth Pressure and Live Load Surcharge for Bridge Abutments &
Retaining Walls” and “Estimation of Capacity for Multilane Divided National Highways in India” I hope this will
benefit the highway profession to a large extent.

I would like to share with you the alarming rate of road accidents in India. It is revealed that about 70%
of the fatal road accidents in India occurred in the eight States only namely Uttar Pradesh (12%); Tamil
Nadu (11%); Andhra Pradesh (10%); Maharashtra (10%); Karnataka (8%); Rajasthan & Madhya Pradesh
(7% each state) and Gujarat (5%).

Over 80 percent vulnerable road users (pedestrians, bicyclists, users of two wheeler/autorickshaw) are killed
in road accidents in India. Nearly 90% of the road accidents are attributed to the drivers (human) fault leaving only
10% due to other factors like poor road geometry, lack of safety elements, poor conditions of the vehicles and bad
weather etc.

It is stunning to share serious and dubious distinction that about 50% road accident victims are of the age
group of less than 40 years. This is severe stigma not only to the society as a whole but irreparable loss to the
nation economy as well. Perhaps, none of us has realised to the desired degree, the result of our usual casual
approach towards the warranted precautionary road safety provisions to avert the avoidable loss of lives, a
heinous mishap at our part.

I sincerely appeal to all readers, let us make a conscious self commitment to be equally sensitive for the road safety
and play a constructive role to ensure the mandatory inclusion of the warranted road safety provisions like ensuring
minimum setback distance on curves, rectification of black spots, proper sign boards (preferably solar based)/retro-
reflective road marking (including solar studs) at the vulnerable locations like inter-sections/junctions etc. while
preparing/ implementing the road maintenance and development projects.

I would like to further appeal to all our engineering fraternity to join in this event and endeavour and to share their
experience and wisdom in this noble cause of saving avoidable loss of lives and injury due to road accidents.

(S.S. Nahar)
Secretary General
Email: secgen.rs@gmail.com
Place: New Delhi
Dated: 24th December, 2014

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

The Indian Roads Congress Founded : December 1934
E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/journal@irc.org.in IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
Volume 75-3 OCTOBER-DECEMber 2014 ISSN 0258-0500
ContentS
Page Page
263 Paper No. 626 "Simplified Method of Calculation
259 From the Editor's Desk of Dynamic Increment Component of Earth Pressure
& Live Load Surcharge for Bridge Abutments &
Advertisements Retaining Walls"

Inside Front Cover-JCB India Ltd.

Inside Back Cover-BASF India Ltd. by Alok Bhowmick

Outside Back Cover-Unisteel Engineering Works 271 Paper No. 627 "Estimation of Capacity for Multi-
Lane Divided National Highways In India"
260 SA Infrastructure Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
262 National Projects Construction Corporation Ltd.
270 Tinna Rubber Infrastructure Ltd. by Naveen Sharma P.K. Sarkar

270 Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd.

278 GR Infraprojects Ltd.
279 Spectrum Chemicals
Ankit Kathuria S. Velmurugan
280 Tech Feb India Industries Ltd.
281 Metal Engineering & Treatment Co. Pvt. Ltd.

Cover Page- Cable Stayed Bridge, kr Puram, Bangalore

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi – 110 011 New Delhi – 110 022
Tel: Secretary General: +91(11) 2338 6486 Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
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No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri S.S. Nahar on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. Printed by Aravali Printers
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Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014
 Paper No. 626

SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF CALCULATION OF DYNAMIC

INCREMENT COMPONENT OF EARTH PRESSURE
& LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE FOR BRIDGE
ABUTMENTS & RETAINING WALLS
Alok Bhowmick*

ABSTRACT
The paper briefly explains the method of calculation of dynamic increment component of earth pressure &
uniform live load surcharge, which has been introduced in the revised IRC:6-2014. Theory behind the formulae
given in IS:1893 – 1984 pertaining to dynamic increment and the revisions required in the formulas to account
for the revision in seismic codal provisions subsequent to 1984 code is explained in this paper. Solved examples
given to demonstrate the simplified method. Practicing bridge engineers will find these equations and the method
of calculation extremely useful.
1. INTRODUCTION provisions of IS:1893-1984. Designers h = Height of earth under submerged
are finding it difficult to implement this condition (from the bottom of
Past case histories of damage or failure clause properly due to (a) non-familiarity wedge failure surface)
of bridges induced by abutment failure with the subject matter and (b) lack of
or displacement during seismic event clarity in the codal provision. f = Angle of internal friction of soil
have clearly demonstrated the need for d = Angle of friction between the wall
careful attention to abutment design The objective of this paper is to briefly and earth fill
and detailing in seismic prone areas. explain the background and theory behind
a = Angle which earth face of the
While research papers on estimation of the formulas given in IS: 1893 for dynamic
wall makes with the vertical
active and passive earth pressure under increment of earth pressure and live load
normal condition is plenty, the same surcharge, demonstrate the application b = Slope of Earth fill
under seismic condition is still lacking. of the same through illustrative example
Ah = Horizontal seismic coefficient
The problem of increase in lateral earth & to give a comparative results for better
pressure during earthquake has been understanding of the impact of this clause = Z *I Sa
recognized by the Indian Roads Congress to the designers. 2 R G*
and the code IRC:6 pertaining to Loads Z = Seismic Zone Factor
and Stresses, in its 5 revision, included 2. NOTATIONS USED
th
I = Importance Factor
the dynamic increment of earth pressure
for bridges located in seismic zones gd = Unit weight of soil (Dry) R = Response reduction factor
IV and V (Clause no. 219.5.4). Prior g = Effective unit weight of soil Sa/g = Average response acceleration
to introduction of this clause, highway sub (Submerged) coefficient
bridges were not designed for earth
Av = Associated vertical seismic
pressure with any dynamic amplification gsat = Saturated unit weight of soil
coefficient = 30% of 2/3 x Ah
for seismic load combination. For g = Effective unit weight of water
values of these dynamic incremental w (hydrostatic) = 0.2 x Ah
loads, reference is made to IS:1893-
(As per IS:1893 (Part-4), the associated
1984 in the code. It is only in October H = Total height of soil face at the tip
2014, the dynamic increment formulas of heel slab (from the bottom of Av is 0.5 Ah. However revised IS:1893-
wedge failure surface) 2002 and IRC:6-2010 considers
are introduced in IRC:6, in line with
* Managing Director, B & S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd., NOIDA, e-mail: bsecmail@yahoo.com

Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received by the 10th January, 2015

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

264 Bhowmick on
associated vertical seismic coefficient as 30% of 2/3Ah) the wall is directed toward the
backfill). The minimum soil thrust
l = tan (Ah/(1±Av) [for dry backfill]
-1
occurs when the wall has translated
ls = tan-1[(gsat/( gsat -1) x (Ah/(1±Av)] [for submerged backfill] or rotated away from the backfill.
Ka = Coefficient of active earth pressure (dry backfill) 4. The shape of the earthquake
pressure distribution on the back of
the wall changes as the wall moves.
The point of application of the soil
thrust moves up and down along
the back of the wall. The position
of the soil thrust is highest when
Kah = Horizontal Coefficient of active earth pressure (dry backfill) = Ka x Cos(d) the wall has moved toward the soil
& lowest when the wall moves
Kah = Horizontal Coefficient of active earth pressure (submerged backfill) = Ka’ outward.
x Cos(d)
5. Dynamic wall pressures are
Ka = Ka with value of d as half the value of d for dry backfill influenced by the dynamic
Ca = Coefficient of dynamic active earth pressure (dry backfill) response of the wall & backfill
and can increase significantly near
the natural frequency of the wall-
backfill system.

6. Increased residual pressure can

remain on the wall after an episode
Cah = Horizontal Coeff. of dynamic active earth pressure (dry backfill) = Ca x Cos(d) of strong ground shaking has ended
Cav = VerticalCoeff.of dynamic active earth pressure (dry backfill) = Ca x Cos(d) (Whitman 1990).

Cah’ = Hor. Coeff.ofdyn. active earth pressure (submerged backfill) = Ca’ x Cos(d) Due to the complex soil-structure
interaction during the earthquake, the
Cav’ = Hor. Coeff.ofdyn. active earth pressure (submerged backfill) = Ca’ x Cos(d)
most commonly used method for the
Ca’ = Ca with value of d as half the value of d for dry backfill &l replaced by ls. design of Abutment / retaining walls is
the force-based analysis based on pseudo
3. THEORY & ASSUMPTIONS static method, which ignores the cyclic
nature of the earthquake and treats it as an
The performance of Retaining walls/Abutments during earthquakes is very additional static force upon the Abutment
complex. Due to repetitive nature of the dynamic load of earthquake, there is a need / retaining wall. Other refined method
to determine the displacement of the wall due to earthquake forces and their damage of analysis includes (a) force-based
potential. This becomes more imperative when the frequency of the dynamic load is pseudo-dynamic method (Steedman &
close to the natural frequency of the wall-backfill-foundation-base soil system. This Zeng [1990], Chaudhury and Nimbalkar
in turn requires the information on the distribution of backfill soil mass and base [2005, 2006]) and displacement based
soil mass participating in the vibrations. It is often difficult to assess & model these analysis (Richards & Elms [1979],
parameters. Laboratory tests and Analysis of such walls by Kramer (1996) indicated Chaudhury and Nimbalkar [2006]).
the following:
In case of pseudo static method,to derive
1. Abutment/retaining walls can move by translation and/or rotation. The relative the lateral force, it can be assumed that
amounts of translation and rotation depends on the geometry, type of abutment/ the force acts through the centroid of
retaining wall as well as the sub-soil condition. the active wedge. The advantage of this
method is that it is easy to understand
2. The magnitude and distribution of dynamic wall pressures are influenced by
and apply.
the mode of wall movement, e.g., translation, rotation about the base.

3. The maximum soil thrust acting on a wall generally occurs when the wall Following the great Kanto Earthquake of
has translated or rotated towards the backfill (i,e. when the inertial force on 1923, Okabe (1924) and Mononobe and

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Simplified Method of Calculation of Dynamic Increment Component of Earth Pressure & Live
Load Surcharge For Bridge Abutments & Retaining Walls 265

Matsuo (1929) developed an equation
that can be used to determine the
horizontal pseudo-static force acting on
the retaining wall. This method is often
referred to as the Mononobe-Okabe
(M-O) method and is applicable for
“yielding” type of walls. The equation
is an extension of Coulomb’s approach
and is
PAE = PA + PE =1/2 Ca. H2g Eq......1
Where PAE = the sum of the static (PA) and
the pseudo static earthquake force (PE).
‘g’ is the total unit weight of backfill.
The equation for Ca is given in clause 2.0
above.
Equilibrium considerations of the soil
wedge behind the abutment / retaining
wall under seismic action are as shown in
Fig.1 below, for cantilever type abutment
/ retaining walls. It can be seen from the
figure that the additional component
Despite the limitations, the M-O
method is still widely used globally.
The deficiency of the M-O method of
analysis is the following:
1. It cannot handle backfill with
mixed soil (C-f) conditions. The
entire failure wedge under seismic
condition behind the wall shall
be cohesion less. In hilly terrain,
this is often difficult to achieve,
as firm natural soil is likely to be
encountered behind the backfill of
the abutment within the wedge.

2. This type of analysis does not

permit the evaluation of system
response in terms of displacement.

3. Formulas of M-O cannot be used

for sloping ground behind the wall
(Which is not uncommon in hilly
areas), where an unrealistically
large seismic active earth pressure
can result. The method therefore
cannot be reliably applied in case
of return walls, breast walls or toe
walls with steep backfill slopes.

4. The M-O solution increases seismic

active pressure significantly
Fig. 1 : Active Wedge Force Diagram
with the increase in peak ground
acceleration due to reduced angle
of force ‘Kh.Ws’ acting towards the fill 1. The abutment / retaining wall is of failure surface with horizontal.
and ‘Kv.Ws’ acting vertically either in In practice, this can be realized
free to yield sufficiently to enable
the downward or upward direction is only if the failure wedge formed
full soil strength or active pressure
added in the computation to account for can be realized on ground without
conditions to be mobilized. If
dynamic increment in earth pressure and any problem. In practical situations
the abutment / retaining wall is
this leads to a total value of ‘PAE’ of the cohesionless soil is unlikely to be
rigidly fixed and unable to move,
active force exerted by the soil mass to present for a great distance behind
the soil forces will be higher than
the abutment / retaining wall at the time a wall and encompass the entire
those predicted by Monobe-Okabe
of failure, where :PAE = 0.5 x gx H2 x Ca. critical failure wedge under seismic
analysis.
conditions.
The BIS code IS:1893–1984 gives 2. The effect of abutment / retaining
direct formulas for treatment of dynamic wall inertia is not taken into account 4. FORMULATION FOR THE
increment of earth pressure and dynamic in the Mononobe-Okabe analysis. DYNAMIC EARTH PRESSURE
increment on uniform surcharge due to 3. The backfill is assumed cohesion & UNIFORM SURCHARGE
live loads. Formulations are based on M-O less, with a friction angle of ‘f’.
equations and are given for dry (moist) According to IS:1893 (Part 4),
backfill as well as partially submerged 4. The backfill is unsaturated so distribution factor(say ‘Kd’), which is
backfill. The following assumptions are that liquefaction problem will not the ratio of lateral dynamic increment in
made in the formulation: arise. active pressures to the vertical pressures

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

266 Bhowmick on
at various depths along the height of wall, ‘H’ may be taken as a multiplier as P2 = Vertical Pressure at bottom of the
shown in Fig.2 below. The partial wall height ‘h’ indicates the portion of wall under layer under consideration.
saturated soil condition. The pressure distribution of dynamic increment in active
K1 = Distribution factor at top of the
earth pressure may be obtained by multiplying the vertical effective pressures by the
layer under consideration.
coefficient ‘Kd’ at corresponding depths. Fig. 3 & Fig. 4 below shows the typical
earth pressure diagram showing static and dynamic increment pressure for ‘dry’ & K2 = Distribution factor at bottom of
‘partially saturated’ conditions respectively. Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the static and the layer under consideration.
dynamic increment pressure for ‘dry’ & ‘partially saturated’ conditions respectively.
Annexure-A gives the derivation of the
These diagrams with generic formulas will help designers to draw pressure diagrams
above equations (2) & (3).
for even layered soils with different soil properties along the height of wall.

The variation of pressure along the wall height due to dynamic increment can be 5. ILLUSTRATIVE DESIGN
non-linear with jump discontinuities. Structural design of Abutment components EXAMPLE

The Problem :

To find out the forces and moments due

to earth pressure and live load surcharge
of a partially submerged abutment wall,
H=10m height. The forces are moments
are required at the base and at 3m above
base. Design parameters are as follows:

Height of Submerged portion of Wall

from base, h = 4m

Soil Properties : C = 0; f = 30o; d = 20o;gd

= 1.8 t/m3; gs = 2.0 t/m3

Seismic Zone = 4; Importance Factor

= 1.2; Response Reduction Factor,
R = 2.5

The Solution :

Fig. 2 : Distribution Factor, Kd Step 1 : To find earth pressure

will often require tedious calculation of force and it’s point of application for any coefficients under Normal
intermediate layer of soil. Such calculation can be simplified by breaking the pressure Case : Ka, Kah, Kav
diagrams into several layers (without jump discontinuities) and calculating the force Based on the soil parameters, the EP
& point of application within this layer using the following simplified equations: coefficients are as follows:

………………. Eq. 2 -Ka = 0.297;

-Kah = Ka Cos d = 0.279;
…..……………. Eq. 3 -Kav = Ka Sin d = 0.102
E = (F.E) / F Step 2 : To find horizontal & vertical
Where : seismic coefficient Ah, Av

F = Force in the layer due to dynamic Increment. -Z = 0.24; I = 1.2; R = 2.5; Sa/g =
2.5
F.E =Moment due to force from bottom of the layer under consideration.
-Ah=Horizontal seismic coefficient
E = Depth of C.G of the Force from bottom of the layer under consideration.
= Z *I Sa = 0.144
D = Depth of the Layer under consideration. 2 R g*
-Av = 0.2 x Ah = 0.029
P1 = Vertical Pressure at top of the layer under consideration.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Simplified Method of Calculation of Dynamic Increment Component of Earth Pressure & Live
Load Surcharge For Bridge Abutments & Retaining Walls 267
Step 3 : To find earth pressure
coefficients under Seismic
Case : Ca, Cah, Cav
Based on the soil parameters, the EP
coefficients are as follows:
-Ca = 0.410 (dry); Ca’ = 0.551
(submerged) [Note : d = 10o
for submerged case]
-Cah = Ca Cos d = 0.385 (dry);Cah’
= 0.543 (submerged)
Fig. 3 : Distribution of Static & Dynamic Pressure with height of Wall
(Due to Earth Pressure on Dry Soil)
-Cav Ca Sin d = 0.140 (dry);
Cav’= 0.096 (submerged)
Step 4 : To find the pressure diagrams
of static & dynamic increment
for Earth Pressure & Live
Load Surcharge.
Vertical Effective Pressure at various
heights due to earth pressure:
-At top, EP1 = 0
-At 6m below top, from where soil
Fig. 4 : Distribution of Static & Dynamic Pressure with height of Wall (Due to Earth property changes, EP2 = 1.8 x 6.0 =
Pressure on Partially Saturated Soil) 10.8 t/m2
-At 7m below top, EP3 = 1.8 x 6.0
+ 1.0 x 1.0 = 11.8 t/m2
-At base, EP4 = 1.8 x 6.0 + 1.0 x 4.0
= 14.8 t/m2
Vertical Effective Pressure at various
heights due to uniform live load
surcharge:
-Uniform along the depth
= 1.8 x 1.2 = 2.16 t/m2
Fig. 5 : Distribution of Static & Dynamic Pressure with height of Wall
(Due to Uniform Surcharge on Dry Soil) Distribution coefficient at various
heights due to earth pressure & uniform
surcharge:
-At top, EK1 = 3 x (Cah -
Kah) = 3 x (0.385-0.279)
= 0.317
-At 6m below top, with dry
soil property, EK2 = 3 x (Cah
- Kah) x h/H = 3 x 0.106 x 4/10
= 0.127
At 6 m below top, with submerged soil
Fig. 6 : Distribution of Static & Dynamic Pressure with height of Wall property, EK3 = 3 x (Cah' - Kah') x h/H
(Due to Uniform Surcharge on Partially Saturated Soil)
= 3 x (0.543-0.279) x 4/10 = 0.316

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

268 Bhowmick on
At 7m below top, with submerged soil
property, EK3 = 3 x (Cah' - Kah') x h/H

= 3 x (0.543-0.279) x 3/10 = 0.237

Step 5 : To calculate the layer wise

force and it’s c.g. find the
distribution diagram for
static & dynamic increment
for Earth Pressure & Live
Load Surcharge.

a  Total Lateral Load at Base due

to Dynamic Increment on Earth
Pressure := 6.166+3.118+4.550 =
Fig. 7 : Static & Dynamic Pressure
13.8Tonnes

Table 1 : Dynamic Increment due to Earth Pressure b. Total Lateral Load at 3m above
base due to Dynamic Increment
Layer of the Soil on Earth Pressure : = 6.166+3.118
= 9.3 Tonnes
S. Layer-1 Layer-2 Layer-3
Component (Top Layer) (Int. Layer) (Bottom Layer)
No. c. Total Moment at Base due
(dry soil – (6m to 7m (7 to 10m from to Dynamic Increment
top 6m) from top) top) on Earth Pressure :
1 Height of Layer, D 6.0 m 1.0 m 3.0 m = [6.166 x (4+2.333) + 3.118
x (3+0.516) + 4.550 x 1.961]
2 Pressure, P1 (in t/m )
2
0.0 10.80 11.80 = 58.9t.m
3 Pressure, P2 (in t/m )
2
10.80 11.80 14.80
d. Total Moment at 3m above Base
4 Distribution Factor, K1 0.317 0.316 0.237 due to Dynamic Increment on Earth
5 Distribution Factor, K2 0.127 0.237 0.0 Pressure : = [6.166 x (1+2.333)
+ 3.118 x (0.516)] = 22.16t.m
6 Force, F (in Tonnes) 6.166 3.118 4.550
Depth of C.G from Bottomof a. Total Lateral Load at Base due to
7 2.333 0.516 1.961
the Layer, E (in Metres) Dynamic Increment on Live Load
Surcharge:= 2.877 + 0.597 + 0.768
Table 2 :Dynamic Increment due to Live Load Surcharge
= 4.2 Tonnes
Layer of the Soil
Layer-1 Layer-2 Layer-3 b. Total Lateral Load at 3m above
S. (Top Layer) (Int. Layer) (Bottom Layer) Base due to Dyn. Increment on
Component
No. (dry soil – top (6m to 7m from (7 to 10m from Live Load Surcharge:= 2.877 +
0.597 = 3.5Tonnes
6m) top) top)
1 Height of Layer, D 6.0 m 1.0 m 3.0 m c. Total Moment at Base due to
Dynamic Increment on Live Load
2 Pressure, P1 (in t/m2) 2.16 2.16 2.16 Surcharge : = [2.877 x (4+3.429) +
3 Pressure, P2 (in t/m2) 2.16 2.16 2.16 0.597 x (3+0.524) + 0.768 x 2.00]
= 25.0 t.m
4 Distribution Factor, K1 0.317 0.316 0.237
5 Distribution Factor, K2 0.127 0.237 0.0 d. Total Moment at 3m above Base
due to Dynamic Increment on
6 Force, F (in Tonnes) 2.877 0.597 0.768 Live Load Surcharge :
Depth of C.G from = [2.877 x (1+3.429) + 0.597
7 Bottom of the Layer, 3.429 0.524 2.000 x (0.524)]
E (in Metres) = 13.1t.m

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Simplified Method of Calculation of Dynamic Increment Component of Earth Pressure & Live
Load Surcharge For Bridge Abutments & Retaining Walls 269
6. CONCLUSION 2. There is a need for focused covered adequately in IRC Codes.
1. Increase in lateral earth pressure research on dynamic effect of Latest provisions in the code
on abutments and retaining wall earthquake on abutment walls and (IRC:6-2014) introduced the same
structures during earthquakes retaining walls in India. formula for dynamic increment,
as given in IS:1893-1984, with
has been one of the major causes 3. Seismic design of abutments
of their damage and excessive which, engineers are not familiar.
& retaining walls needs to be
displacement.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Paper No. 627

ESTIMATION OF CAPACITY FOR MULTI-LANE DIVIDED

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS IN INDIA
Naveen Sharma* P.K. Sarkar** Ankit Kathuria*** S. Velmurugan****

abstract

For development of any country transportation plays a very significant role in improving the economic sector.
As per the present estimates, the length of Indian road network is of approximately 4.3 million km. considering
the need for providing enhanced mobility, the Government of India has proposed its massive National Highway
development Program (NHDP). Despite the above program, India does not have an indigenous Highway Capacity
Manual like other developed countries. Very recently, a research study has been initiated titled Development of
Indian Highway Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM) under the aegis of Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) by Planning Commission aimed at development of capacity standards for all classes of roads in India.
As a part of this study, two National Highways having four and six lane divided carriage way widths have been
considered as candidate sections. The videography technique was used to capture the speed-flow data for a period
of 12 hour. Simulation study was conducted to assess the behavior of traffic flow. In order to estimate the traffic
flow correctly, dynamic Passenger Car Unit (PCU) was derived by taking speed and influence area of the vehicle
as against the car.
Further capacity analysis was worked out for four & six lane divided carriageway using static & dynamic PCUs.
The value of capacity with respect to static and dynamic PCU for four & six lanes divided National highway was
2200 and 2250 PCU/lane/hour/direction and 2166 and 2233 PCU/lane/hour/direction respectively.
The results evolved in the study are pointers towards the need for the indigenous development of Highway
Capacity Manual.

1. INTRODUCTION
The absence of suitable capacity
standards for Indian conditions have
posed severe constraints to rationally
and economically ascertain the road
facilities required for present and
future conditions. In this paper an
attempt has been made to evolve
capacity of four and six lane divided hour period with the help on videography
National highways. technique in order to determine the
effect of lane width, directional split and
2. DATA COLLECTION AND shoulder condition on the capacity of four-
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY lane and six-lane divided Carriageways.
2.1 Data Collection The sections were selected in a manner
The data for this study were collected that the effect of each parameter could
at two sections of multi-lane divided be studied individually. The details of
national highway roads spread over 12 these sections are presented in table 2.1:

* Engineer & Transport Planner, e-mail: naveensharma356@gmail.com

** Professor, Department of Transport Planning, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi, e-mail: pradipsark@gmail.com
***Doctoral Student in Transportation Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.
e-mail: ankit.civilengineer@gmail.com
****Principal Scientist, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning Division, CRRI, New Delhi, e-mail: vms04@yahoo.co.in

Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received by the 10th January, 2015

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

272 Sharma, Sarkar, Kathuria and Velmurugan on
Table 2.1: Details of Selected Test Sections From these distributions, important
Carriage way Trap parameters namely 15th Percentile Speed
Section Type of
Location Width in one direction Length Remarks (V15), 50th Percentile Speed (V50), 85th
No. Section
of travel (m) (m) Percentile Speed (V85), 95th Percentile
Near Modi Speed (V95) and Spread Ratio (SR) were
Unpaved calculated to check the validity of the
Nagar in the
Four lane earthen data. V15 is used to determine the lower
I. State of Uttar 7.5 m 60
Divided shoulder of speed limit whereas V85 is used for upper
Pradesh
1.2 m speed limits and V95 is used as a design
(NH-58)
Near Sonipat Unpaved speed for geometric design of highways.
Six lane in the State of earthen The SR (Spread Ratio) is used to explain
II. 12.4 m 60 normality of the observed data and it is
Divided Haryana shoulder of
(NH-1) 1.5 m defined as,
V -V
The recorded video data was replayed time taken to traverse the 60mtrap length. SR = V85-V50 …………........... 2
50 15
on the screen and the required data As the two selected test sections are
for speed and traffic were decoded. divided road segments exhibiting minor The estimated frequency curve will be
The vehicles were divided into fifteen variation in horizontal curvature and truly normal when SR is unity. It will tend
categories and the data extracted from traffic conditions in the two directions to deviate from the normal distribution
video recording were volume, space of travel on the roadway, the above said as SR (Spread Ratio) deviates from the
mean speed, headway and lateral traffic data collection was carried out at unity. As can be seen from the fitted
clearance by individual vehicles during each of the locations on both directions normal distributions, the speed data
every five minute of time interval. The of travel by treating as individual test follow the normal curve only when SR
data collected through videography section and hence the total number is ranging between 0.69 and 1.35 (Dey,
technique survey was finally used for of study sections amounts to four. All et. al., 2007)(13).
further analysis. these study sections possess good riding
quality with roughness ranging around 2.2.3 Dynamic PCU Study
2.2 Research Methodology 2000-2500 Millimeter/Kilometer. The Passenger car Unit (PCU) is complex
The primary objective of the study is to test sections have been chosen far away parameter and depends upon all factors
assess the free flow speeds of different from the urban influence so that free on geometry and traffic operation as many
vehicle types and determine the Dynamic flow conditions can be experienced and researchers have developed methods to
PCU factor on multi-lane National the free flow data was extracted during estimate PCU for the vehicle type.
Highways so that the estimated roadway the lean period of traffic flow. As the test
capacity will yield the real picture sections include four-lane and six-lane, 2.2.4 Methodology Deployed for
of ground condition and thus help to separate analysis has been carried out for Dynamic PCU analysis
develop a realistic speed - flow equations these Carriageways. The free speed data
was collected by classifying the vehicles In the present study, the Dynamic PCUs
for estimating the roadway capacity. In
into fifteen categories as mentioned are calculated on the following basis
order to achieve the above envisaged
above in data collection. (Paul Probahat Kr. & Sarkar P.K, 2013)
objectives, separate methodologies are (17)
. The basic concept used to estimate
adopted. To accomplish the above stated 2.2.2 Methodology for free flow
the PCU is that it is directly proportional
objectives, the following studies were speed analysis to the ratio of speed and inversely
conducted:
The observed free speeds of different proportional to the space requirement of
a vehicle w.r.t car.
●● Free Flow Speed study vehicle types were classified into suitable
intervals generally of 5 kilometers per Speed ratio of car to the vehicle i
●● Dynamic PCU study
hour (Kmph) to determine the frequency PCUi =
Speed ratio of car to the vehicle i
●● Speed - Flow study distribution of vehicles as per speed.
The mean speed and standard deviation VC/Vi
2.2.1 Free Flow Speed study PCUi =
(SD) values were calculated from the VC/Vi .....................................3
In the present study, free flow speed frequency distributions. Further, these
data was extracted from the video data data were fitted to normal distribution Where, PCUi = equivalent passenger car
collected on the test section by decoding using mean and SD of vehicle speeds. unit of vehicle i,

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Estimation of Capacity For Multi-Lane Divided National Highways in India 273
VC= clearing speed of car (km/hr), volume with this videography survey. microscopic simulation is shown in
Space Mean Speed (SMS) data was the form of flow chart in Figure 2.2.
Vi= clearing speed of vehicle i (km/hr), extracted out of videography survey. As From the Figure 2.2, it can be observed
mentioned earlier, the trap lengths of that the data collection is the first and
Ai= projected rectangular plan area of the road stretches selected for the mean foremost requirement for understanding
car (m2), speed measurements was 60m. By noting speed-flow characteristics on multi-
down the time of entry and exit of the lane highways videography method
Ai= projected rectangular plan area of vehicles, the travel time over the selected was adopted for data collection. The
vehicle i (m2) recorded film was replayed on screen
and the required data were decoded
through manual method. The vehicles
were divided into fifteen categories
and the data extracted from video
recording were traffic Volume, Space
Mean Speed (SMS) of vehicles during
every five minute time interval. The
video data on classified traffic volume
counts and space mean speed were
decoded in a synchronized fashion.
Using this data, a model has been
developed in VISSIM 5.4, microscopic
simulation software. Then the model is
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Model for determining Dynamic PCU
appropriately calibrated and validated
using the observed data considering
In the above given equation, the first traffic volume and speed.
trap length was determined and thereby
variable of speed ratio will be function the travel speed was derived. Based on 3. ANALYSIS OF DATA
of composition of traffic stream as the the collected speed and flow data, speed
speed of any vehicle type depends on its - flow relationships have been developed 3.1 Free Speed Analysis
own proportion, type and proportion of for different vehicle types for four-lane
other vehicles. Hence the speed of any and six-lane divided Carriageways The analysis of collected free speed
vehicle type will be true representation separately. data was carried out as per the
of overall interaction of vehicle type due methodology explained in Section
to presence of other vehicles. The second 2.2.6 Methodology for Speed-flow 2.2.2. As mentioned in section 2.1, the
variable space ratio indicates influence analysis data collected for the two test sections
area of vehicle with respect to car. Fig. 2.1 The methodology followed for the covering both directions of travel
shows the framework for determination
of dynamic PCU. The headway and
lateral clearance data has been measured
from the recorded video data based on
the analogy presented in Figure 2.1

2.2.5 Speed-Flow Study

The speed - flow studies were conducted
along with free flow speed studies at
the test sections mentioned in Table
2.1. In the case of speed - flow studies,
videography technique was used for the
determination of journey speeds and
simultaneously Classified Traffic Volume
Counts were conducted to estimate flow
by synchronizing start time of the traffic
Figure 2.2: Methodology for Estimating Capacity using Microscopic simulation

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

274 Sharma, Sarkar, Kathuria and Velmurugan on
have been utilized. These sections speeds and SR were estimated. present the various percentile speeds
include four-lane and six-lane divided and the spread ratio of different
carriageway, but separate analysis has From the normal distribution curves, free vehicle types. Since the free speed
been carried out for these Carriageways. speeds of vehicles on various selected analysis mainly focuses on free-flow
The observed free speed data was sections of the multi-lane high speed conditions, the vehicles travelling
fitted through normal distribution and corridors are estimated and presented with higher speeds are considered
relevant parameters namely average in Table 3.1 for four-lane and six-lane while arriving at the average free
speed, standard deviation, percentile divided Carriageways. These tables also speeds.

Table 3.1: Free Speed Statistics of Different types of Vehicles on Four-Lane& Six-Lane Divided Carriageways
FOUR-LANE DIVIDED Carriageways
Vehicle Type Sample Size Avg. Speed * V15 * V50 * V85 * Max. Speed* SD* SR
Two Wheeler 267 62 48.29 62.22 76.16 100 13.45 1.000718
Auto 42 42 34.89 41.6 48.32 64 6.78 1.00149
Motorized Four Wheeler 42 57 45.7 55.77 65.84 77 9.71 1
Small Car 445 73 57.23 72.68 88.12 120 14.9 0.999353
Big Car 408 76 58.9 76.3 93.7 125 16.81 1
Bus 147 65 53.46 64.84 76.22 91 10.98 1
Mini Bus 54 62 46.9 62.26 77.61 93 14.82 0.999349
Light Commercial Vehicle 173 58 47.91 57.95 67.98 82 9.68 0.999004
Heavy Commercial Vehicle 138 53 41.08 52.86 64.64 80 11.37 1
Multi Axle Vehicle 76 64 46.17 54.52 62.86 97 8.05 0.998802

SIX-LANE DIVIDED Carriageways

Vehicle Type Sample Size Avg. Speed * V15 * V50 * V85 * Max. Speed* SD* SR
Two Wheeler 98 56 39.4 56.1 72.7 131 16.06 0.994012
Auto 37 43 32.45 43.22 53.99 61 10.39 1
Motorized Four Wheeler 36 58 45.92 58.03 70.14 79 11.68 1
Small Car 353 84 68 84.1 100.3 137 15.6 1.006211
Big Car 451 86 69.2 86.5 103.7 138 16.62 0.99422
Bus 97 79 65.87 79.25 92.62 126 12.91 0.999253
Mini Bus 47 84 67.17 84.23 101.28 115 16.45 0.999414
Light Commercial Vehicle 157 58 46 63.8 81.7 119 17.23 1.005618
Heavy Commercial Vehicle 378 53 52.3 69.4 86.5 111 16.5 1
Multi Axle Vehicle 66 65 49.15 65.63 82.11 101 15.9 1
*Kmph
From Table 3.1 it can be observed that compared with other vehicle 3.2 Analysis of Dynamic PCU
the normal distribution curve described types demonstrating the rapid
the speed distributions satisfactorily in advancements in car manufacturing The analysis of collected data for
most of the vehicle types since the SR technologies and superiority of headway and lateral clearance was carried
value is ranging around 1.0 (from 0.994 these engines. out as per the methodology explained in
to 1.001) demonstrating that SR is well ●● Section 2.2.4. As mentioned in section
The mean free speed of Mini Bus 2.1, the data collected for all the 2 test
within the limits. A critical evaluation of and Light Commercial Vehicle
the free speed studies on four-lane and sections have been utilized, Eqn. 3 is
(LCVs) are more or less same. used to analyze the data collected on four-
six-lane divided carriage way reveals the
following: ●● The mean free speed of Two lane and six-lane divided Carriageways
Wheeler is marginally higher independently. The values of PCU factor
●● The free speed of both small and than that of LCVs and Heavy obtained using Eqn. 3 is presented in
big cars is much higher when Commercial vehicle. Table 3.2.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Estimation of Capacity For Multi-Lane Divided National Highways in India 275
Table 3.2: Dynamic PCU Values of Vehicles At Different Test Sections
DYNAMIC PCU FOR DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF VEHICLES
Motorized Motorized Motorized Light Heavy Multi-
Cycle
Two Three Four Small Car Big Car Bus MiniBus Commercial Commercial Axle Bicycle Tractor
Rickshaw
Wheeler Wheeler Wheeler Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min
6-LANE DIVIDED NH-1
0.4 0.3 1.8 1.4 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.1 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.5 2.9 2.3 4.8 2.5 8.9 6.9 0.5 0.4 1.7 1.3 2.9 2.1
4-LANE DIVIDED NH-58
0.3 0.2 1.5 1.3 1.9 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.2 5.6 5.0 3.3 2.7 2.8 2.1 4.1 3.5 8.7 7.4 0.5 0.5 1.6 1.5 2.7 2.0
3.3 Analysis of Speed-Flow carriage way with approximately 2.0m 3.1 as an input to simulation model,
paved shoulder and 0.5m earthen simulation runs were carried out in order
Using the validated simulation model, to estimate the output. In this simulation
shoulders. Accordingly, the links are
speed - flow relationships have been
created in VISSIM 5.4 with total of four model, the outputs obtained are volume
developed. The roadway capacity has and speed of vehicles. The observed data
lanes on each link including two lanes
been estimated using Static and Dynamic on these parameters were collected in
of main carriage way. Similarly for
PCU in this study. In microscopic the field for validation of the developed
test section at NH-1, which is six-lane simulation model. The comparison of
simulation, a model which accurately
divided section model, was developed.
represents the existing situation is known estimated values with observed values is
as the ‘Base Model’. The base model is carried out and error is estimated. This
3.3.1 Calibration of Microscopic iterative process of simulation model
constructed by representing the network Simulation Model calibration was carried out through
area that was defined in the model and
the modification of the various model
using actual, observed traffic flow Calibration is a process of adjusting the parameters and simulation runs were
data. The validated base model is used model parameters, network and vehicle performed till the error is within the
to develop a ‘future year base model’ demand to reflect and represent observed satisfactory level of 1-5%.
against the various scenarios and design data and/or observed site conditions to
options to be compared. The base model a sufficient level to satisfy the model 3.3.2 Validation of Microscopic
development can be summarized in the objectives. The calibration process Simulation Model
following steps: adopted in this study is explained in the Validation is the process of checking the
form of flow chart as shown in Figure developed simulation model in terms
1. Developing base network. 3.1. of predicted traffic performance for
road system against field measurements
2. Defining model parameters.
By giving the parameters listed in Figure of traffic performance such as traffic
3. Calibrating the network.
4. Validating the model.
Development of a network that
accurately determines the constraints
of a road network is an important stage
in the modeling process. The basic key
network building components are: Links
and Connectors. In the present simulation
model, links are created spanning for
60m representing the test section near
Meerut on NH-58 for both directions.
However, a buffer link is provided for
buffering process of the network which
is taken 200m. Both test section link and
buffer links are appropriately connected
by connectors.

As mentioned earlier, the test section

selected on NH-58 is a four-lane divided
Figure 3.1:Calibration Procedure Adopted in Development of Simulation Model

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

276 Sharma, Sarkar, Kathuria and Velmurugan on
volumes, travel times and average accuracy under heterogeneous traffic on these Carriageways as the desired
speeds. In the present study, the conditions for four and six-lane divided speed characteristics might be different
calibration and validation process was Carriageways. Based on the developed on these Carriageways compared to
carried out by trial and error method. simulation models, the evolution of four-lane divided Carriageways. This
After carrying out many trials, the speed - flow relationships is attempted. may be regarded as the limitation of
prediction error in volume and speed is Using the same, the roadway capacity the present model and it is worthwhile
reduced to satisfactory level. The final can be estimated. to study this aspect in future scope of
validation results for traffic volume the study. Considering the above traffic
and speed are estimated for Delhi to 3.3.3 Development of Speed - Flow flow conditions, the simulation runs are
Meerut as well as from Meerut to Delhi Equations and Roadway made to estimate speeds of different
directions separately and then similarly Capacity through Simulation vehicles on four-lane and six-lane
for the six lane divided test section both divided Carriageways. The developed
the directions separately. Using the developed simulation model,
linear speed - flow equations speed-flow
the speed data for different vehicle is
equations present high goodness-of-fit as
It has been observed from the comparison estimated or different traffic volume the R2 values are more than 0.7 for all
that the error in estimation of traffic conditions for four-lane divided and the Carriageways, Further, the capacity
volumes is less than 5 per cent across six-lane divided carriage way. The of these Carriageways is calculated
different vehicle types whereas the simulation runs are carried for various from these linear speed-flow equations
overall error in the estimation of traffic scenarios of traffic volumes ranging from by taking the intersect between un-
volume is almost zero which represents 2500 vph, 3000 vph and this process was congested and congested curve. From
the accuracy of the developed simulation considered up to 5500 vph. this exercise, the capacity is estimated
model. The comparison of observed and as 4,400 and 4,500 PCU/hour/dirin the
In case of six-lane divided carriage
estimated data of different vehicle speeds
way, traffic flow up to 8000vph was case of four lane divided carriage way
shows that the error in vehicular speeds is whereas 6,498 & 6,699 PCU/hour/dir
considered. For this purpose, separate
ranging from 1 per cent to 5 per cent for for six-lane divided Carriageways as
network has been created by introducing
different vehicle types which represent, shown in Figure 3.2 and 3.3. The fit of
extra lanes so as to formulate six-
the developed simulation model is the speed-flow equation is very good as
lane divided carriage way scenarios.
reasonably accurate and showing the
However, the driving behaviour is kept the estimated free speed and capacities
actual ground conditions. are realistic with respect to four and six-
same as four-lane divided carriage way
It can be inferred that the developed assuming that it will not drastically lane divided Carriageways. Speed flow
simulation models are able to predict change in spite of increase in the number Equation developed for the uncongested
the vehicular movements (i.e. flow of lanes. These aspects would be further and congested flows are presented in the
and speed) with reasonable degree of investigated by observing real data Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Roadway Capacity of Six-Lane Divided Carriageways Evolved through Simulation Models

4-LANE DIVIDED NATIONAL HIGHWAY 6-LANE DIVIDED NATIONAL HIGHWAY

STREAM SPEED VS STREAM SPEED VS STREAM SPEED VS STREAM SPEED VS

Equation FLOW USING S PCU FLOW USING D PCU FLOW USING S PCU FLOW USING D PCU
EQUATION EQUATION EQUATION EQUATION
y = -0.0084x + 72.997 y = -0.0084x + 75.434 y = -0.0058x + 76.898 y = -0.0058x + 78.761
Upper Curve
R² = 0.6609 R² = 0.6526 R² = 0.6767 R² = 0.6767
y = 0.0084x + 2.323 y = 0.0084x - 0.3655 y = 0.0059x + 1.4352 y = 0.0059x - 0.4668
Lower Curve
R² = 0.7079 R² = 0.6928 R² = 0.7347 R² = 0.7347

4. ROADWAY CAPACITY
As it has been stated in section 4.3.2,
the estimated roadway capacities based
on simulation models proved to be
realistic as the estimated error with
respect to estimated and observed speed
and traffic volume is very small. The
evolved capacity for multilane divided
National Highway is 2200 PCU/hr/lane/
dir and 2250PCU/hr/lane/dir for four-
lane divided carriage way with respect
to static and dynamic PCU respectively.
At the same time, in the case of six-
lane divided carriage way the evolved
capacity is 2166 PCU/hr/lane/dir and
2233 PCU/hr/lane/dir with respect to
static and dynamic PCUs respectively.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

 Estimation of Capacity For Multi-Lane Divided National Highways in India 277

Figure3.2: Roadway Capacity of Four-Lane Divided Carriageways Evolved through Simulation Models

Figure3.3: Roadway Capacity of Four-Lane Divided Carriageways Evolved through Simulation Models

The equation for speed-flow relationship, model. The capacity with respect to as little as 3 percent variations in
based upon this evolved capacity has four and six-lane divided National capacity values between static PCU
already been presented in section 3.3.3. highway is estimated to be around and dynamic PCU.
5. CONCLUSION 2200 PCU/hr/lane/direction, taking in Though this study is of limited in nature,
to account static and dynamic PCU. it is noteworthy to mention that the
Based on the studies carried out in this It is also observed that there is not outputs derived in this study could be
study, an attempt has been made to much difference on capacity values pointers for the ongoing comprehensive
evolve capacity of National highways between four-lane and six-lane divided study undertaken recently towards the
for four lane and six lane divided Carriageways even by considering preparation of the Indian Highway
carriage-way by deploying simulation the dynamic PCU. This accounts for Capacity Manual.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014

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Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2014