Earth Science Reviewer

Earth’s grid or coordinate system can be described and determined by means of the position or location of any place
on the Earth's surface.

Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the equator. It is measured in degrees,
minutes, and seconds. The greatest possible latitudes are 90° N and 90° S. Different latitudinal positions on maps or
globes, equidistant circles are plotted and drawn parallel to the equator and each other. These are known as the
parallels, or parallels of latitude.

Longitude is a measurement of location east or west of the prime meridian at Greenwich. It is the amount of arc created
by drawing first a line from the center of the Earth to the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian and then
another line from the center of the earth to any point elsewhere on the Equator. Longitude is measured 180° both east
and west of the prime meridian.

The equator is also called the great circle around the Earth that is equidistant from the geographic poles and lies in a
plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis. It divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres and forms the
imaginary reference line on the Earth's surface from which latitude is considered. It is the line with 0° latitude.

The prime meridian is the imaginary line used to indicate 0° longitude that passes through Greenwich and terminates
at the North and South poles. It is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. It is used as the reference for all other
meridians of longitude, which are numbered east or west of it. This also serves as the basis for the world's standard
time zone system.

Mining- Mining is an attractive economic venture but it always brings about numerous problems. Mining destroys the
natural environment and alters the natural conditions of the surrounding area. Processing the mineral ores often
involves chemical processes that emit toxic gases, airborne particles, or harmful waste materials. As a positive step,
the government has stopped mining activities in protected and eco-tourism sites.

Destruction of Coral Reefs- The Philippine’s coral reefs cover about 26 000 square kilometers. Coral reefs are like
underwater forests with a complex ecosystem that supports marine life. Coral reefs can be damaged by overfishing
and by poison and dynamite fishing. Reefs can also be buried by excessive amounts of silt and sediments washed out
to the sea as an effect of deforestation, mining, and poor farming practices.

Air and Water Pollution- Air and water pollution have overtaken many major urban areas. Rivers and streams have
become so polluted because they have been used as sewers and garbage dumps. Polluted waters have also affected
coastal mangrove swamps which are natural fish breeding sanctuaries.

3 R’s ( REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE)

The atmosphere is the invisible protective layer of Earth. Earth’s atmosphere contains a mixture of different gases.

Layers of the atmosphere

The troposphere is the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. It extends to a height of 16 kilometers over the
equatorial region and 8 km over the polar region. All the gases that make up the air in the atmosphere are found in the
troposphere.
Stratosphere, it is above the troposphere, which reaches to a height of 50 km. the ozone layer in this region. Ozone
absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. because of the absorption of energy, temperature in the stratosphere rises.
Mesosphere it is above the stratosphere. Since the air is thin in this layer, it absorbs only a small amount of radiation
from the sun. thus, the temperature in this layer drops. The mesosphere extends upward to about 80 km.
Thermosphere it is above the mesosphere, which extends up to 500 km. this layer contains very little amount of air.
Since this layer is comparatively closer to the sun, the air absorbs a large amount of solar radiation.
Ionosphere, which is found within the thermosphere, is said to be an ion-rich region. The atmospheric gases gain
electrical charges because of the high frequency solar radiation. Ions in the ionosphere can be excited by the solar
wind from the sun causing the auroral display in the polar regions. The aurora borealis in the north and aurora australis
in the south- are bands of light with different colors.
Exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. It lies above the ionosphere and extends up to thousands
of kilometers into space. Artificial satellites orbit Earth in this region or just below this region

Weather Vs Climate
The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are
over a short period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time.
Elements of Weather
1.Temperature of Air
Thermometer- measures the air temperature
2. Air Pressure
Barometer- measures the atmospheric pressure
3. Moisture Content
Psychrometer is a device used for accurately measuring atmospheric moisture near the surface
4. Precipitation- is a term given to moisture that falls from air to the ground.
rain gauge- is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid
precipitation over a set period of time.
The Water Cycle - also known as the hydrologic cycle, is the process by which water moves from place to place above,
on, and below the Earth's surface.\
Evaporation – Condensation - Precipatation
5. Clouds- it is a signal when there is an incoming weather.
6. Wind- Is simply the flow of a huge amount of air, usually from high pressure area to low pressure area
Wind Instruments
Anemometers, Speedometer, Weather Vane

Sea Breeze and Land Breeze- During the day, the Earth’s soil is heated more quickly than bodies of water. The air
above the land gets warmer too. Warm air rises and creates a low pressure area over the land. As warm air rises, cool
air coming from the sea moves to replace it. This air movement from sea to land is called sea breeze. During the
night, the land is cooler than the sea. Consequently, the air over the land is cooler than the air over the sea. The air
over the sea rises and pressure gets lower. The air from the land moves toward the sea to replace the rising air. This
air movement from the land to the sea is called land breeze. To sum up, the differences in air pressure over the land
and sea are cause by temperature differences.

Monsoons- Monsoons are comparable to sea and land breezes, except that they involve greater masses of air that
move horizontally. In monsoons, the wind blows either to the continent or to the oceans because of the differences in
temperature and pressure. Monsoons are large-scale land and sea breezes that affect larger areas.

The Northeast Monsoon- brings the cold Siberian wind to the country from November to February when it is winter
in the Northern Hemisphere. High pressure develops over the cold Asiatic continent while low pressure develops over
the Pacific Ocean. Air moves from the continent to the ocean but due to Coriolis effect, the wind blows to the
northeastern direction of the Philippines.

The Southwest Monsoon- From June to November, the Philippines is affected by the wind blowing from the Southern
Hemisphere. Low-pressure areas develop over the ocean and high-pressure areas over Australia. Winds from
Australia blow toward the ocean. When the winds cross the equator, they turn right due to the Coriolis effect and blow
toward the southwest direction of the Philippines. This is referred to as the southwest monsoon or hanging habagat.
Since hanging habagat absorbs moisture from the surrounding oceans before it reaches the Philippines, it brings heavy
rains throughout the country.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- two opposing winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
converge on the tropics. Along or near the equator, where solar radiation is greatest, air is heated and rises due to
convection creating trade winds in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Trade winds meet near the equator,
forming an equatorial band of low pressure in an area called the Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ. The strategic
location of the Philippines between 4° and 22° north of the equator makes it open to the influence of this low pressure
band.

Tropical Cyclones develop over the warm ocean surface of the Pacific Ocean between the Philippines and the
Marianas Islands about 5° above the equator. Warm air over the warm waters rise, carrying much water vapor. Up in
the atmosphere, water vapor condenses into clouds and gives up heat. The cycle of evaporating and condensing goes
on. Because of the rotation of the Earth, the masses of clouds and warm air spin into a counterclockwise motion in the
Northern Hemisphere. By now, it is a cyclone. The warm air keeps feeding the cyclone with warm humid air. The center
of the cyclone is a low-pressure area, called the “eye”, where there are no rains nor clouds.

In the Western hemisphere, it is called hurricane. In the eastern hemisphere, where the Philippines located, it is called
a typhoon,

Thunderstorms are local weather disturbances. Thunderstorms occur when very high altitude cumulus clouds reach
a height where temperature is below freezing point. Cumulonimbus clouds form when there is a continuous rising of
warm moist air caused by heating. The thunderstorm is preceded by gusty winds blowing toward the thunderstorm.
As the thunderstorm approaches, winds change direction and they blow away from the storm. Heavy rain, thunder,
and lightning accompany the storm..

Tornado is a violent whirling wind. It moves across a narrow path over land. It occurs when the very warm surface of
the earth causes very strong convection; thus a tornado is a runaway convection cell. A tornado ca be very destructive.

El Niño and La Niña are unusual weather patterns. Some local fishermen in Ecuador ere first to call the warm Pacific
current flowing southward along the coast of Ecuador El Niño because it appears usually during the Christmas season.
Warm surface waters warm the surrounding area and cause drought. La Niña is when sea surface temperature
becomes cooler than usual in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

365 ¼ days= 1 complete revolution

24 hours = 1 complete rotation
Perihelion- closest position of earth to the sun
Aphelion- farthest position of earth to the sun

The Amount of Solar Energy Received- By June 21 or 22, the sun’s vertical rays fall on the Tropic of Cancer. Because
of Earth’s tilted axis, the Northern Hemisphere receives more solar energy than the Southern Hemisphere. Thus, it is
summer in the north and winter in the south. During this time of the year, days are longer in the north while nights are
longer in the south.

By September 21 or 22, the vertical rays of the sun are directed on the equator. Both hemispheres receive the same
amount of energy. Daytime is as long as nighttime everywhere on Earth. It is autumn in the north and spring in the
south.

As Earth revolves around the sun, the vertical rays shift southward from the equator. By December 21 or 22, the vertical
rays fall on the Tropic of Capricorn. During this time of the year, it is winter in the north and summer in the south. Nights
are longer in the Northern Hemisphere while days are longer in the Southern Hemisphere.

By March 21 or 22, the sun’s rays directly fall again on the equator, Daytime is as long as nighttime in both
hemispheres. It is spring in the north and autumn in the south.

The Philippines is located between 4°N and 22°N Latitude. It is a part of the tropical region bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south. The lengths of days and nights do not vary much in this
part of the world.

Solar eclipse happens when the Moon is directly between the Earth and the Sun. The moon’s shadow falls unto
daytime part of the Earth. A solar eclipse can therefore happen only during the new moon.

There are two parts of the moon’s shadow; the umbra which is the darkest part and around it is a conical, lighter
shadow called the penumbra.

There are 4 types of solar eclipses:

1. Total solar eclipse happens when the Sun is completely covered by the Moon.

2. Annual eclipse happens when the distance between Earth and the Moon is great that the shadow of the
moon does not totally cover the sun.

3. Hybrid eclipse is the transition between the total and annular solar eclipse.

4. Partial eclipse happens when the Sun and the Moon are not exactly in line and only a portion of the Moon
covers the Sun

Lunar Eclipse happens during full moon. The earth at this point is between the Sun and the moon.

There are 3 types of Lunar eclipse

1. Total Lunar Eclipse takes place when the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon and covers the
Moon with its shadow. When this happens, the Moon can turn red, earning it the nickname of Blood Moon.

2. Partial Lunar Eclipse, the earths umbra starts covering the Moon, making the eclipse more visible.

3. Penumbral Lunar Eclipse, this begins when the penumbral part of Earth’s shadow starts moving over the
Moon.

Rocks are divided into 3 groups

Igneous- are formed when magma solidifies.

Sedimentary- formed from the products of the mechanical breakup of other rocks.

Metamorphic- are produced from preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or from other metamorphic rocks

Prepared by: Earlyn Joy V. Eniola