28 December 2014

MHP: Feasibility Study

MHP: Feasibility Study

Factors to be considered during feasibility study.
A) TECHNICAL ASPECT
 Identification of Intake site and PH site locations
 Feasibility Study Power availability (Site survey,
measurement of Head (H) & Flow (Q)
 Canal alignment/ civil component locations
 Power requirement (demand survey, measurement of
distances/ Load center, No. of HH, possible end uses)
 Designing and Sizing of civil components/ PH
 Design sizing of Penstock pipe/ supports
 Selection and sizing of Turbine and Generator
 Selection and sizing of Electro-mechanical
components
 Designing and sizing of Transmission, Distribution
and Protection system.
 Detailed Project Cost estimation.
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 28 December 2014

MHP: Feasibility Study

B) SOCIO ECONOMICAL ASPECT
 Individual / Community
 User's Committee
 Water right issues
 Land ownership
 Social and institutional
 Operation and Maintenance
 Environmental

C) FINANCIAL ASPECT
 Project Cost summary (Civil/ Electro-mechanical)
 Funding (Local Contribution/Loan / Subsidy…)
 Financial Analysis (C/B ratio, NPV, IRR)

MHP Site Measurement: Component Location

a. The best location for an Intake is generally along a straight stretch of a river.
b. Susceptible to more severe damage from high flood flows.
c. Sediment tends to accumulate in front of location a

b c

Identify the safe site for

- Intake location
- Forebay Location
- PH Location

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 28 December 2014

MHP Site Measurement: Component Location

To find Forebay Level

- Measure the Intake Level
- Find the Canal Drop
- Find the Forebay Level

To find PH Level
- Mark the maximum flood level
- Measure the safe height from the flood level
5

MHP Site Measurement

To find Forebay Level
- Measure the Intake Level Identify the safe site for
- Find the Canal Drop - Intake location
- Find the Forebay Level - Forebay Location
- PH Location
Intake Level

Forebay location
Canal drop Canal bed slope

Forebay Level
Measure the Gross Head
HGross (Level Difference from Forebay to PH Level)

PH location
PH Level
Safe height To find PH Level
Max. Flood Level - Mark the maximum flood level
- Measure the safe height from the flood level

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 28 December 2014

Head Measurement
• Head (H): Vertical Height through which
the water drops.
Forebay

Gross Head (Hg)

Net Head (HN)
Frictional Head Loss (hf)
Head
(Meter)

Turbine
Head (Gross)= (Forebay Level – Turbine level)

Net Head Hg= Available head

hf= Head Losses
Hn= Net effective head

hf (losses)
Forebay

Hnet (net head)

Penstock pipe

H=Hgross

Nozzle
Hnet=Hg-hf Pelton Runner

Z
Reference line Water Jet
0 0
By Ashok Shrestha
8

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 28 December 2014

Gross Head: Independent of Penstock Length

hf1 hf2
Forebay

H=Hgross Hn1
Hn2

Z
Reference line
0 0

Gross head: Independent of Penstock length/ bends.

Forebay hf

Penstock pipe
Hnet

H=Hgross
Nozzle Pelton Runner
Hnet=Hg-hf

Reference line Water Jet

Z
0 0

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 28 December 2014

Gross Head: Types of Turbine

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Gross Head : Turbine Configuration

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 28 December 2014

Gross Head : Types of Turbine

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Site Selection/ System Layout

Using long length penstock pipe

Intake
Forebay

Penstock

Penstock PH
Transmission
line

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 28 December 2014

Site Selection/ System Layout

Using medium length penstock pipe
Intake

Foreba
y

Penstock

PH
PH Transmissi
on line

15

Site Selection/ System Layout

Using short length penstock pipe
Intake

Foreba
y

Penstock

Transmissi
on line
PH

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 28 December 2014

Methods of Measuring Head

1. Water filled pipe and measuring rod (1)
Head measured (h1) with first set of readings (A1 & B1)
h1 =( A1 – B1)

B1

Total Head, H= ∑(h1+h2+.......)

A1
Equipment:
h1
-Clear plastic pipe
-Wooden rod
-Marker pen
-Measuring tape/ Scale

17

Procedures:
• Take a 10m long clear plastic pipe of 6-10 mm dia and fill it with water, hold the
two ends vertically and fill the water at least 200mm below the top.

• Take a measuring rod and start measurements from the top (or bottom). Taking an
example for measurement from top level.

• One person (A) holds one end of the tube while the other person (B) walks
downhill. (A) and (B) maintain the level raised/ lower in the tube so that the water
does not spill over the tube. At a certain level (A) and (B) takes their respective
measurement of the water levels. Next, (A) walks at (B)'s position and (B) moves
further down and (A) and (B) take next set of readings. Repeat the same activities
until the final point (power-house or forebay level).
Sets of Reading in Meters Head in Meters
Readings Person (A) Person (B) h= A-B
1 A1 B1 h1=A1-B1
2 A2 B2 h2=A2-B2
3 A3 B3 h3=A3-B3
. . . .
. . . .
n An Bn hn=An-Bn
Total Head, H = ∑(h1+h2+...+hn)
By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

1. Water filled pipe and measuring rod (2)

Person "B" marks the water level on the
ground
Person "A" measures the head from
h3 ground level (marked by person "A") to the
water level on the pipe as shown in figure.

h2

H
h1
H=∑(h1+h2+h3+....)

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1. Water filled pipe and measuring rod (3)

Measuring head with water filled tube using person’s height (eye level)
Y=h1=h2=h3=h4=h5 = Person's height (Eye level)

H
Y

Total height, H = Person's height (Y)*No. of Reading (n)

By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

2. Spirit Level and Plank/ String

Equipment:
-Spirit Level
-Plank or String
Spirit level
-Wooden rod
-Measuring tape

By Ashok Shrestha
21

Measuring head with Spirit Level and Plank

Forebay
h1

h2

h3 H

h4

Total Height:
h5

H = ∑(h1+h2+h3+h4+h5)
Turbine

By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

Procedures:
• The spirit level is attached to a straight plank or string

• Take wooden marked rod and start measurements at the top (or
bottom)

• Place one end of the plank at the straight point and hold the other end
of the plank to the rod. Raise or lower plank or string to obtain level
and take reading on the rod. The second reading is taken by moving
the plank to the lower end and moving the rod to new position. Repeat
the same process to take other readings.
Points Height in meters
1 h1
2 h2
3 h3
. .
. .
n hn
Total height H=∑(h1+h2+h3+...+hn)
By Ashok Shrestha
23

Pressure in a Fluid
Patm

h1 P1

h2
P2
h h3

P3

Pressure increases as
depth (h) increases.

P=x gxh
Pressure of 760 mm
Hg mm

PAbs = PG + PAtm
Atmospheric Pressure

PAtm = PHg
By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

3. Water filled tube with Pressure gauge

h1
P1
P
h=
xg
h2
P2
Total Pressure; P = P1+P2+P3+P4
Pressure gauge

h3 P3

h4 P4

Calibrated the pressure gauge at known height and plot the graph.
25

Procedure:
• Take about 30m long clear plastic tube and fill it with water. Fix one end to
the pressure gauge and remove all air bubbles.
• Start at top (or bottom). Hold the open end of the tube to the required point
and lower the pressure gauge down the slope.
• At the lowest point record the pressure reading. Walk down to this point with
open end and lower the pressure gauge again to take next reading. Repeat
the same process until complete head is measured.
Pressure Readings
Conversion of pressure to Pa.(N/m2)
Pressure gauge 2
2 1 Kgf/cm 98066.5 (Pa.)
Point Pa. (N/m ) 2
1 Kgf/m 9.8067 (Pa.)
1 P1 1 KPa 1000 (Pa.)
2 P2 1 bar 100000 (Pa.)
3 P3 1 PSI 6894.757 (Pa.)
4 P4
P
. . H 
. .   g
. . P (Pa.)
n Pn H (m) =
Total = Pn 9810
Note: Convert Pressure to Pascal if the gauge is used other than Pa. unit.
By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

4. Abney Level (Sighting meter/ Clinometer)

Surveyor View through Abney
Bubble
Eye Level height
 (Angle of sight) below the
cross-hair
of Surveyor

Bubble
above the
cross-hair

Bubble
at center
the cross-
hair
Eye
Piece
Index
Arm

Eye Level height

of Surveyor
Assistance
Bubble level Holding
Line of
sight Target Stick

Cross
hair

Mirror set screw

By Ashok Shrestha
27

Measuring Head with Abney Level.

1
L1 h1
h = L x Sin
2
L2
H = h1+h2+h3+h4+h5
h2

3 h3 H
H L3
4

L4 h4


h 5
L L5 h5

By Ashok Shrestha
28

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 28 December 2014

Procedure:
• Take an Abney level and a measuring tape and a staff (rod) with level marked at
surveyor eye level height.
• Start at Top (or bottom) point. Surveyor stand at the Forebay level. Assistance moves
certain distance downhill and hold the staff showing the marked level to the surveyor.
• Surveyor adjust focusing of Abney level so as to see clearly the reading on staff and
move the Indexing knob clockwise or counter-clockwise seeing bubble within focus.
• Now, the surveyor fix the cross hair at the point of marked height of the staff and align
the bubble at the perfect center of cross hair and at the same time take the degree
reading.
• Measure the diagonal distance between the surveyor and assistance with the help of
measuring tape. Move surveyor to assistance’s position and assistance to further
down at new point. Repeat the same process to take next set of data until the
complete head is measured.

Data Record Sheet

Point Degree Length Head
1 1 L1 h1
2 2 L2 h2
3 3 L3 h3 h1 = L1 x Sin1
4 4 L4 h4
5 1 L5 h5
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
n n Ln hn
Total Head = h1+h2+….+hn

By Ashok Shrestha
29

4. Abney Level (Sighting meter/ Clinometer)

Measuring head with Abney: Using Leveling methods (Setting angle at 00)
Staff
Surveyor B1
A1= Surveyor’s Eye Level (Known)
A1

Assistant

A2 h1= (B1-A1)
Surveyor

Take reading when

the Bubble
Located at the B2
center of the cross-
hair
Back Front Head
Reading Reading (H)
h2= (B2-A2)
A1 B1 h1=(B1-A1)
A2 B2 h2=(B2-A2)
Set the
Angle at O0
. . .
for all . . .
readings. An Bn hn=(Bn-An)
∑A ∑B H=∑(Bn-An)
H=(∑B-∑A)

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 28 December 2014

Example:
The following sets of field data obtained during Abney Level Survey
for head measurement. To verify the field data, the surveyor has also
taken the angle and length readings 1 , L1 (point 0-4) and 2 , L2
(point 4-8) as shown in the figure.
1.Find the total head (From point 0 to 8) of the site.
2.Verify the approximate angles 1 and 2
3.Find approximate length of penstock pipe Points Angle Length
(Degree) (meter)
0 -1 230 14.5 m
1

L1= 48.9m
0
L1 1-2 12.50 9m
Forebay level 1 2-3 220 11 m
2
3 2 3-4 90 14.4 m
4
4-5 540 12.5 m

L2=50m
5-6 500 14 m
5 L2
6-7 280 16.5 m
7-8 130 7m
6
7
8 Turbine level

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Solution: Points Angle

(Degree)
Length
(meter)
0 -1 230 14.5 m 5.666
0 1 16.620 1-2 12.50 9m 1.948
13.987

48.9
Forebay level 1 2-3 220 11 m 4.121
2
3 3-4 90 14.4 m 2.253
4
2 37.0970
4-5 540 12.5 m 10.113
5-6 500 14 m 10.725
5 50
30.158

6-7 280 16.5 m 7.746

7-8 130 7m 1.575
6 98.90 44.145
7
Points 8 Turbine level
Length Head Angle
1-4 48.9 13.987 16.620
4-8 50 30.158 37.097

a. = 44.145 m
b. = θ1=13.9870; θ2=37.0970
c. = 98.9 m

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 28 December 2014

Survey data: Typical Example

Abney Level Survey
Field data
Project Name: Date:
Ground Vertical
Angle Elevation
Station Distance Distance Remarks and Notes
(Degree) (m)
(m) (m)
A 0 1000 Intake Level
33 -5 -2.88
B 33 997.12
21 -7 -2.56

Jungle area
C 54 994.56 Gravel and Sandy soil
36 -6 -3.76
D 90 990.80
36 -11 -6.87
E 126 983.93 Hard rock area
40 -9 -6.26
F 166 977.68
50 3 2.62

Farm field
G 216 980.29
30 6 3.14
H 246 983.43 Footpath Crossing
48 -2 -1.68
I 294 981.75 34

5. Dumpy Level / Auto Level

• Only measures horizontal angles.
• The precision is 5 minutes.
• Costlier equipment
• Skilled and Trained person needed

Not Level
BS1 FS1 Level

BS2 FS2

h1 A BS3 FS3
(Elevation)
h2 B
A=FS1-BS1 (Elevation)
C
h1=A-B B=FS2-BS2 (Elevation)

h2=B-C C=FS3-BS3 h3
H=h1+h2+h3+……… D
h3=C-D
(Elevation)

By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

Measuring Head : Auto Level

42

Theodolite
-Cost of equipment is very high
-Highly skilled and trained person needed
-Highly accurate and precision equipment
-Normally not used in MHP site.
Theodolite measures both D
vertical and Horizontal Angles
r
L*Sinα
L
B
z
C a
h
hi

h= Elevation (B)-Elevation (A) = [L* Sin(a) - r]+hi

By Ashok Shrestha
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 28 December 2014

Know elevation of A: want to find elevation of B

As before: V = L sina
Here hi = AD and r = BC
C  elevB = elevA + hi + V - r
 H= (elevB - elevA)= hi + L sina - r
r
L
V
B elevB
a D
E H
elevA
A

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Topographic Map:
- Useful for table work only for preliminary study of the site.
- Accuracy depend on scale and quality of topographic map.

Topographic Map
Altimeter:
-Weather/ temperature sensitive
-Experienced person needed to use
-High accuracy type are very expansive
-Ordinary type have high error %
Altimeter
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 28 December 2014

Map Study: Catchment Area

46

Map Study: Catchment Area

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 28 December 2014

Map Study: Elevation

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Flow Measurement
The purpose of flow measurement is to find out quantity of water flow (m3/s
or ltr/s) available in the river or stream to generate power from water at
particular site.
Flow can be predict using hydrological study data. The hydrology study
data should be based on many years study of daily records. This includes:
1. Flow prediction by area-rainfall method
2. Flow prediction by correlation data

The other methods are to measure the flow directly at river using
different techniques. In our context, hydrological data are not readily
available. Therefore, the flow is generally measured using some of the
following methods.
1. Bucket method
2. Float method
3. Propeller device (Current meter)
4. Weir method
5. Salt gulp method (Salt dilution method)

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 28 December 2014

Area - Rainfall Method

• Catchment Area
• Annual Rainfall
• Rainfall vs Runoff
• Average Daily Flow
• Flow Duration Curve (% of
average discharge vs % of
discharge exceeded.

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Hydrological Cycle

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 28 December 2014

Spatial distribution of Monsoon Season Rainfall

(Source: DHM, Nepal)

52

The Hydrological Cycle

Rainfall

B C
B1
A
A1 Catchment
B Catchment
A

Contour Map (Scale 1cm = 1km)

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 28 December 2014

Annual Rainfall

Catchment
(Area)

Volume of Flow/ Year (Q) (m3/yr)

=
[Annual Rainfall (m/yr)*Catchment Area (m2)]

Runoff (Volume) = [(Rainfall - Evaporation - Surface Absorption)*Catchment Area]

If rainfall data for the proposed site is not

available, then rainfall data of nearby sites
can be used as weightage average basis.

 A( x)   A( y )   A( z ) 
Rainfall Average
  * Rainfall (x)    * Rainfall (y)    * Rainfall (z)
 ATotal   ATotal   ATotal 

54

m3  Volume of flow per y ear(Q)   Q (m3) 

Annual AverageDaily Flow(ADF)( )  
s  No. of Seconds in a y ear(s)   (365* 24 * 60 * 60)(s) 

ADF Net

 ADF  Q
Irrigation
Q 
Seepage

Flow Duration Curve

% of average daily discharge
vs
% of time discharge
exceeded

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 28 December 2014

Mean Monthly Flow: Typical Example

80

70
70

60 58.32
Flow (m3/s)

50

40 37.91

29.18
30

20
14
10.5
10 8.76
7.59
5.26 5.26
3.86
2.8

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

56

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 28 December 2014

River-flow Characteristics

A typical river flow hydrograph

58

Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

Flow in the river varies throughout
the year. MHP is usually designed
for minimum flow measured during
dry season

550
400
85

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 28 December 2014

Flow prediction by correlation

method
• Obtain the discharge records of gauged
river site available to the nearby river.
• Take the no. of flow measurement for the
ungauged site
• Find the corresponding flow at the gauged
river.
• Draw a correlation of flow between two
rivers

60

Flow prediction by correlation method

Catchment (E )- For which Rainfall/Runoff data available
Catchment (B) - For which Rainfall/Runoff data to be
predicted Correlation of Flow between Site E and B

FDC for Site E

FDC for Site B
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 28 December 2014

Conductivity (μ.S)
Meter reading ,
Flow Measurement

time (seconds)

62

1. Bucket Method
This is a very simple method in
which whole flow to be measured is
diverted into a Bucket or any
container of known capacity
(volume).
Time it takes to fill the container is
recorded.
Flow rate, Q can be obtained simply dividing Volume of container
the volume of container by time taken to fill it Q=
Time taken to fill
up.
Example:
In a particular site a 50 liter bucket is used to measure the flow. The time
taken to fill the bucket is 5 seconds. Find flow rate Q,

Volume of container 50 (ltr.)

Q= = = 10 ltr/s
Time taken to fill 5 (s)

- This method is suitable only for a small streams to measure around 20 ltr/s flow.
- Disadvantage of this method is difficulty in channeling whole flow to a
container 63

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 28 December 2014

2. Float Method
Flow(Q)  Area (A)Velocity(V )
Area (A)  B  H
L
Velocity(V) 
T

64

2. Float Method .........../

x3 W3
L
L
The flow in this method is measured on the A3
basis of Area - Velocity method (i.e. Q = A x V) x2 W2
x1 A2
To find area: d1 d
2 d3
d4
Select river section with uniform parallel
width of around 10 to 20m long distance, A 1
W1
L.
Divide this distance as the first point x1, Where:
the mid point, x2 and the last point, x3 . W= Top width of river at water level (m)
d1,d2,d3.. = Depth of water at different points (m)
Take width at point x1 = W1(m) A1,A2,A3 = Cross-sectional area at points 1,2 and 3 (m2)
To measure the depth, the river width is x1,x2,x3 = Point where width is measured as W1, W2 and W3
divided into no. of points (1,2,3,....) of L = Distance between points L1 and L3
small width. from these point depth is
measured as d1, d2, .... . .The average
d1+d2+d3+.....+dn-1+dn
d(1)ave. =
depth (d(1)ave.) is calculated using the n
relation
The Cross-sectional area of the river, at point x1= A1 = W1 x d(1)ave. (m2)
Similarly find A2, and A3
The Cross-sectional area of the river, at point x2= A2 = W2 x d(2)ave. (m2)
The Cross-sectional area of the river, at point x3= A3 = W3 x d(3)ave. (m2)
A1+A2+A3
Average Cross sectional area of river Aave. =
3
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 28 December 2014

2. Float Method
To find velocity:
Divide top surface of river in 3 section,
Channel-1, Channel-2 and Channel-3.
Drop a float at the mid point of each channel
and record the time taken by float to travel the
distance, L meter as t1, t2 and t3 seconds. Find
average time taken as:
t1+t2+t3
L (m) tave. =
Velocity of flow, V = 3
tave.(s)
The velocity of flow of water varies as
maximum just below the top surface to
minimum zero at bottom level of the river.
The correction factor (c.f.) is used to find the
mean velocity of flow.
River type c.f. VMean = V(surf.) x c.f.
Top surface VMax.
Concrete Channel 0.85
Smooth riverbed 0.65
Q (m3/s)= A ave (m2)x VMean (m/s) VMean
Shallow (~0.5m) flow river 0.45 Q (ltr./s)= Q (m 3/s) x 1000 River bed
Shallow and rough riverbed 0.25
66

Velocity Profile
(River type vs Mean Flow Velocity)

67

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 28 December 2014

3. Current meter (Mechanical/ Electro-magnetic type)

In this method, the current meter is used to measure the velocity of flow at
various sections at uniform distance and depth (or at 0.6d) across the cross-
section of river and Average mean velocity is calculated.
Mechanical type

V1+V2+V3+...... +Vn
Vmean =
n
The cross sectional area (A) of the
river is calculated taking average
depth (as explained in float
method) and width (W) across the
line where velocity is measured.

Q (m3/s)= Aave (m2) x VMean (m/s)

Note: Some current meter supplied with formula to calculate velocity of flow from the given rotational speed.

68

Current meter

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 28 December 2014

70

4. Weir Method
a. Rectangular Weir
In this method, the whole stream of water is
made to flow through a Rectangular weir.
The thickness of water being dropped from the
weir is measured as "h" (m). The flow rate, Q
can be found by using the relation h
Where (m3/s)
Q = 1.8 x (L-0.2h) x h1.5
Q = Flow rate (m3/s)
L = Width of the notch (m)
h = height or Thickness of water falling from notch of weir

The size of the weir should be as shown in the

figure, in proportionate to thickness of water, h. L

Flow over a sharp-crested weir

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 28 December 2014

4. Weir Method
b. "V"- notch Weir (900)
In this method, the whole stream of water
is made to flow through a "V"-notch weir.
The thickness of water being dropped
from the weir is measured as "h" (m). The
flow rate, Q can be found by using the
relation Q = 1.4 x h2.5 For Ө=900
Where For Ө= Other than 900
Q = Flow rate (m3/s)
Q = 1.4 x h2.5x tan (Ө/2)
h = height or Thickness of water at notch of weir

The size of the weir should be as shown in the

figure, in proportionate to thickness of water, h.

72

5. Salt Gulp / Salt dosing Method

In this method a known quantity of salt (solution) is thrown into the stream and its
conductivity is measured at a certain distance downstream, so as to allow to mix it
up completely and uniformly with stream water.
The basic idea behind this method is that, as salt mixed on water its conductivity
increases as per the amount of salt added in it. For a fixed quantity of salt, the
conductivity will be high for water of strong concentration indicating low quantity
of water. Similarly, the conductivity will be low for weak concentration indicating
the high quantity of water in the stream.
The increase in conductivity due to mixing of salt and time taken to pass all this salt
cloud is plotted on graph, The area of the graph is then converted into
concentration of the solution by multiplying suitable conversion factor.
The concentration so obtained with mixing of known quantity of salt in water is
used to determine the flow.
Conductivity meter
Bucket of salt water

Distance: 20m to 70m

Probe

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 28 December 2014

5. Salt Gulp / Salt dosing Method ........./

Procedure:
1. Select the spot on the stream where there is no stagnant pool of water and
locate the upstream point to mix salt and downstream point to take the
conductivity reading.
2. Decide quantity [Mass = M (mgs)] of salt to be used (Approx. 1 gram for 1
liter flow) and mix it with water on a bucket carefully without spilling it out.
3. Get one person at upstream point with bucket of salt solution and the another
person at downstream with conductivity meter and data recording sheet.
4. Take a record of temperature and base conductivity of water.
5. Pour all the salt into the stream at upstream point
6. As soon as the conductivity start rising, take reading of conductivity at every
5 seconds of time interval until the conductivity comes down to its base
reading..
7. Take a graph paper and plot a graph of conductivity against time and find the
area under the curve. [Area = A (micro siemens . seconds)].
8. Find the correct conversion factor for the temperature measured in the
stream. [Conversion factor = k (micro-siemens/mgs/ltr.)]
9. Now, find quantity of flow, Q (ltr./s) using the relation:
M (mgs) x k (micro-siemens/mgs/ltr.)
Note: Q (ltr./s) =
Micro-siemens = μS = S x 10 = Ohm x 10
-6 -1 -6 A (micro-siemens . seconds)
74

Sample reading/ Conductivity–Area graph

Conductivity (μ.S)

Typical Area Curve

Meter reading ,

(Conductivity x time
curve)

time (seconds)
Conductivity/concentration (μ.S/mg/ltr)
Conversion factor, k

Conversion factor line

2.04
to be corrected with
given temperature

22

Temperature, 0C
75

34
 28 December 2014

Following data were obtained during flow measurement of a stream using salt
gulp method. Fine flow of the stream.
Conductivity 20 20 20 20 22 27 35 49 65 85 95 96 94 88 78

Time 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75

Conductivity 65 55 47 40 35 31 28 26 24 23 22 21 20 20 20

Time 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150

Base Temperature = 220 No. of Square count = 118 Area = 138 x 5 x 5 = 3450
Amount of salt = 100 gms (μS-
No. of ½ Square 40 = 20 At 220C,
Base conductivity = 20 μS Total = 138
seconds)
100
k = 2.04 μS/mg/ltr.
95
90 Mxk
85 Q=
80 A
75
Conductivity (micro simens)

70
65 100*1000*2.04
60 =
55 3450
50
45
40 = 59.13 ltr/s
35
30
25
20
15
mg*S*10-6 /(mg/ltr)
10
5
S*10-6*s
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

135

140

145

150
Time (Seconds) 76

To find area under curve : more accurate method

Conductivity 20 20 20 20 22 27 35 49 65 85 95 96 94 88 78
a1 = 5
Time 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
a2 = 22.5
Conductivity 65 55 47 40 35 31 28 26 24 23 22 21 20 20 20
a3 = 55
Time 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
100 a4 = 110
95
90
a5 = 185
85 a6 = 275
80
75 a7 = 350
Conductivity (micro simens)

70
65
a8 = 377.5
60 a9 = 375
55
50 a10 = 355
45
40
a11 = 315
35 a12 = 257.5
30
25 a13 = 200
20
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19 a20 a21 a22 a23 a24 a14 = 155
15
10 a15 = 117.5
5
0 a16 = 87.5
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

135

140

145

150

a17 = 65
Time (Seconds)
a18 = 47.5
Base Temperature = 220 a1= (25-20)*(22-20)/2=5
a19 = 35
Amount of salt = 100 gms a2= (30-25)*(22-20)+(30-25)*(27-22)/2=22.5
.. .. a20 = 25
Base conductivity = 20 μS
. . a21 = 17.5
At 220C, Total shaded area (a1+a2+.......+a24) = 3455 μS-sec. a22 = 12.5
k = 2.04 μS/mg/ltr. a23 = 7.5
Mxk 100*1000*2.04
Q= = = 59.05 ltr/s a24 = 2.5
A 3455 Total 3455
77

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 28 December 2014

Salt Dilution Methods (Basic Theory)

If the stream flow rate is "q" ltr/sec and "M" milligrams of salt is injected, then each
second the mass of salt, mi, passing the measuring point varies, climbing to a peak as
the salt cloud passes and then falling back to zero or base conductivity level.
i n
M  m1  m2  ........  mn  M  m i 0
i

If "c" is the cconcentration of the stream water in milligrams/ ltr, each

second's average concentration of salt solution in the stream water will be
c  c1  c2  ........  cn
So instantaneous concentration will be:
m m m
c1  1 ; c2  2 ; cn  n
q q q 1
c S
k
M  c1  q  c2  q  .....  cn  q
i n t t t The concentration (c) of
M  q 
i 0

ci  M  q  c  dt  M  q 

S
k
q

 dt  M   S  dt the solution is related to
k its conductivity (S) by a
0 0 0 correction factor, "k"
q A M k which varies with
M  q temperature.
k A
78

The ultrasonic transit-time flow-meter (UTTF)

Multiplexer Receiver

Flow

Multiplexer Transmitter

C= Sonic Velocity
C= Sonic Velocity
Ff = Transmit frequency
tf= Time for Transmit Frequency
Fb= Receive frequency
tb= Time for Receive Frequency
v= Velocity of Fluid
v= Velocity of Fluid
L= Distance apart (Transmitter/
L= Distance apart (Transmitter/ Receiver)
Receiver)
79

36
 28 December 2014

PRINCIPLE OF UTTF
UTTF uses a pair of ultrasonic elements or transducers, each capable of working as a
transmitter as well as receiver (or sensor). The resultant velocity of the ultrasonic beam
traveling from one to the other transducer (see figure 1) is decided by velocity of beam
in still water (c) and the component of the water velocity (v) along the direction of the
beam travel (ν cosθ). Taking the length of the transit path as L, the transit time taken of
the beam in forward (upward) and backward (downward) directions, tf and tb, are given
by

(Figure 1)

Thus the average water velocity ‘ν’ is directly proportional to Δt. This relation can be
used for the measurement of the average velocity. Once average velocity is measured,
the discharge rate can be obtained by multiplying it with area of cross-section of the
conduit.
However, the limitation of this method is that the relationship is influenced by ‘c’ (the
velocity of beam in still water), which changes slightly with density of water and
presence of foreign particles and materials in water.

80

To make the measurement independent of 'c', the so called “sing-around

arrangement” illustrated in figure 2 is used. It measures the difference ΔF
between the frequencies (rate) at which the beam travels in the forward
and reverse directions. As shown by the following mathematical
relations, the velocity of water 'v' is directly proportional to 'ΔF' and does
not depend on `c’.

Multiplexer Receiver

Flow

Multiplexer Transmitter

(Figure 2)

81

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 28 December 2014

Tracer Methods: Allen salt velocity method

A salt in water dilution increases the electric
conductivity of the water.
By injecting a salt dilution dose in a water
flow conduit, the transit time of this dose
between two electrodes in the conduit can be
traced electrically.
The conduit volume V between these two
A electrodes divided by the average transit time
tmean of the passage of this salt dose, gives
the true value of the discharge

Allen salt velocity method

A dilution of common salt is kept in the
Q
V

A * L) Where:
Q= Flow rate
container "A", maintaining certain pressure, t mean t mean V= Volume of the conduit
which is injected then at "C". tmean= Average transit Time
The injected dose is transported along the
pipeline with the same velocity as the main
flow.
In cross sections of the chosen lengths of the
pipe, electrodes are installed as shown
schematically on the figure.
dependent on the conductivity of the water
analogous to the diagram shown, the recorder
will record an electric current
82

Salt Dilution Method: Mohr's titration method

Two cross sections (I) and (II) with a certain
mutual distance, are chosen.
In cross section (I) a steady continuous flow of
a homogeneous strong concentrated salt
solution is injected.
In cross section (II), which is a distance far
enough downstream to ensure thorough q
mixing, the flow becomes a dilution with a
concentration depending on the relation Q
between the magnitude of the main water flow
and the injected flow of salt solution.
The samples are taken out from several
positions in the cross section.
The discharge Q can be determined
using relation:
This method can be used for the
 C  C2  measurements of the discharge in mountain
Q  q   1 

 C 2  Co 
rivers.

where: Q is the discharge to be measured

q is the discharge of the salt solution injected
Co is the initial concentration of the salt in natural water (Concentration of C0 must
not exceed 15% of C1)
C1 is the concentration of salt in the injected salt solution (~1:4 by weight)
C2 is the concentration of the salt dilution at the sampling station 83

38
 28 December 2014

Slope- Area Method

(A method of measuring flow when no other method works ?)
Procedure:
 Select length Straight, long (> 5 x width) of
uniform flow and cross-section
 „Measure the slope (S)
 „Measure cross-sections Area (A)
 Calculate Hydraulic mean depth (R)
 „Estimate appropriate Manning Roughness
coefficient "n" from the table
 „Calculate flow (Q) using the formula

Area (A)
R
Weted Permeter (P)
2
A* R 3 * S
Q
n

84

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39