EXPERIMENTAL AND INVESTIGATION OF

SPARK PLUG USING SILICON FOUL

RELEASE COATING
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

The development of a high performance, long life Spark plug has become
essential in response to these demands. While improve performance (high
ignitability and low required voltage), the discharge part of the Spark plug needs to
be reduced in size. But, in the past this has been difficult because of the limitations
in terms of wear. It has been difficult to achieve both smaller discharge parts and
longer life. To dramatically improve wear resistance, we researched materials that
are both resistant to oxidation and have a high melting point.

This research resulted in our development of a various coatings. Through this

development we have been able to produce a coating that surpasses the
conventional foul release technology. The coating is now being used in high
volume vehicle production. This paper is divided into the following three parts and
describes the development of the new generation of coating spark plug. This paper
discussed about the Silicon foul release Coating on the Spark Plug and to evaluate
the Knoop Hardness and carbon deposition properties.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

SPARK PLUG

Today, more sophistication is being demanded of the essential requirements

of engines in terms of performance, which are "high power" and "low fuel
consumption". At the same time, a closer eye is being kept on global
environmental problems than in the past, and "lower emissions" are becoming
essential.

To achieve these tasks, the number of engine-related components is

increasing, and the space in which such components can be loaded is severely
restricted. In response to these social and technical trends, we expect that in the
future spark plugs, which are placed in the combustion chamber, must be able
to withstand more severe conditions.

That is, they must be able to withstand leaner combustion, higher pressure,
stronger swirling, and large quantities of EGR(exhaust gas recirculation). This
in turn will increase the required voltage and worsen the ignitability environment.
A Spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to
the combustion chamber of a spark ignition engine to ignite the compressed
air/fuel mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within
the engine. A spark plug has metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a
central electrode by a porcelain insulator.
 The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a
heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The
spark plugs metal shell is screwed into the engine’s cylinder head and thus
electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between
the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or
structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side,
earth or ground electrode.

Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes in Saab Direct Ignition
when they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the
cylinders this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase
sensor, knock sensor and misfire measurement function. Spark plugs may also be
used in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible air/fuel mixture
must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.
Spark plugs are under constant chemical, thermal, physical and electrical attack by
corrosive gases at 4500 degrees Fahrenheit, crushing pressure of 2000 pounds per
square inch (PSI), and electrical discharges up to 18000 volts. This unrelenting
assault under the hood of a typical automobile occurs dozens of times per second
and over a million times in a day’s worth of driving.

HISTORY OF SPARK PLUG

The spark plug evolved with the internal combustion engine, but the earliest
demonstration of the use of an electric spark plug to ignite a fuel-air mixture was in
1777 In that year, Alessandro Volta loaded a toy piston with a mixture of marsh
gas and air, corked the muzzle, and ignites the charge with a spark from a Ley den
jar In 1860, French engineer Jean Lenoir created what most closely resembles the
spark plug of today.

Manufacturing of Spark Plug

To make spark plugs, manufacturers first extrude or cold-form steel to the proper
hollow shape. At this point, the steel forms ore called “blanks”. Next, these blanks
undergo further forming operations such as machining and knurling, and the side
electrode with only a partial bend is attached. The ceramic insulator, with a hollow
bore through its center, is molded under pressure. He combined an insulator,
electrodes and spark gap in a single unit. As part of his patent application for the
Internal combustion engine that year, he devoted one sentence to describing the
spark plug. He refined this spark plug in 1885.

In the early 1900s, Robert and Frank Stranahan, brothers and partners in an
automobile parts importing business, set out to produce a more efficient and
durable spark plug. They added gaskets between the metal shell and porcelain
insulator, made manufacturing easier, and reduced the possibility of gas leakage
past the gaskets. In 1909, Robert Stranahan sold the plug to one automobile
manufacturer and went into the spark plug manufacturing business, cornering the
market at that time. The industry exploded as the age of the automobile opened.
Eventually, variation in ignition systems, fuel, and performance requirements
placed new demands on spark plugs. Although the basic design and function of the
plug has changed little since its inception, a staggering variety and number of
electrode and insulator materials have been tried.

RAW MATERIALS

The electrodes in a spark plug typically consist of high-nickel alloys, while the
insulator is generally made of aluminum oxide ceramic and the shell is made of
steel wire. Selections of materials for both the electrodes and the insulator have
consumed much research and development time and cost. One major spark plug
manufacturer claims to have tested 2000 electrode materials and over 25000
insulator combinations. As electrodes erode, the gap between them widens and it
takes more voltage than the ignition system can provide to fire them. High-nickel
alloys have been improved and thicker electrodes have been used to reduce engine
performance loss. In addition, precious and exotic metals are increasingly being
used by manufacturers. Many modern plugs feature silver, gold and platinum in the
electrodes, not to mention center electrodes with copper cores. Silver has superior
thermal conductivity over other electrode metals, while platinum has excellent
Corrosion resistance.
 Insulator material also can have a dramatic effect on spark plug
performance. Research continues to find a material that better reduces flashover, or
electrical leakage, from the plug’s terminal to the shell. The breakthrough use of
sillimanite, a material that is found in a natural state and also produced artificially,
has been succeeded by the use of more heat resistant aluminum oxide ceramics, the
composition of which are manufacturer’s secrets. One major manufacturer’s
process for making the insulator involves wet grinding batches of ceramic pellets
in ball mills, under carefully controlled conditions. Definite size and shape of the
pellets produce the free flowing substance needed to make a quality insulator. The
pellets are obtained through a rigid spray drying operation that removes the water
from the ceramic mixture, until it is ready for pouring into molds.

Spark plug construction

A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes
through the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the
combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures without deteriorating
over long periods of time and extended use. Spark plugs are specified by size,
either thread or nut (often referred to as Euro), sealing type (taper or crush washer),
and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm (16 mm), 14 mm
(21 mm; sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm). In the
United States, common thread (nut) sizes are 10mm (16mm), 12mm (14mm,
16mm or 17.5mm), 14mm (16mm, 20.63mm) and 18mm (20.63mm).
PARTS OF THE PLUG
Terminal
The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. The
exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most
passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires
have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut. Plugs which
are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double
purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type
of connection.

Insulator
The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina, a very hard
ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer’s
name and identifying marks, and then glazed to improve resistance to surface spark
tracking. Its major functions are to provide mechanical support and electrical
insulation for the central electrode, while also providing an extended spark path for
flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply
recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it
more readily accessible. A further feature of sintered alumina is its good heat
conduction reducing the tendency for the insulator to glow with heat and so light
the mixture prematurely.

Ribs
By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded
metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the
electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator
surface from the terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes
the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in
the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark plugs are manufactured without ribs;
improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important.

Insulator tip
On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the
combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminum oxide (alumina) ceramic as the
upper portion, merely unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 °C (1,200 °F) and
60 kV. The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the
heat range of the plug. Short insulators are usually “cooler” plugs, while “hotter”
plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends
on the thermally conductive metal core. Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft,
used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the
centre electrode. With the development of leaded petrol in the 1930s, lead deposits
on the mica became a problem and reduced the interval between needing to clean
the spark plug. Sintered alumina was developed by Siemens in Germany to
counteract this. Sintered alumina is a superior material to mica or porcelain
because it is a relatively good thermal conductor for a ceramic, it maintains good
mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at higher temperatures, and this
ability to run hot allows it to be run at “self cleaning” temperatures without rapid
degradation. It also allows a simple single piece construction at low cost but high
mechanical reliability.

Seals
Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber or the engine when
installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion
chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal
powder, but old style seals were typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze.
The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the
cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing.

Metal case/shell
The metal case/shell of the spark plug withstands the torque of tightening the plug,
serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and
acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side
electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. It’s
important to install spark plugs with the correct “reach,” or thread length. Spark
plugs can vary in reach from 0.095 to 2.649 cm (0.0375 to 1.043 in), such for
automotive and small engine applications. Also, a marine spark plug’s shell is
double-dipped, zinc-chromate coated metal.

Central electrode
The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and
commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the
sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly sold without an “R”in the plug type
part number, lack this element to reduce electro-magnetic interference with radios
and other sensitive equipment.

The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or

noble metals. In the late 1970s, the development of engines reached a stage where
the heat range of conventional spark plugs with solid nickel alloy centre electrodes
was unable to cope with their demands. A plug that was cold enough to cope with
the demands of high speed driving would not be able to burn off the carbon
deposits caused by stop–start urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions,
making the engine misfire.

Similarly, a plug that was hot enough to run smoothly in town could melt
when called upon to cope with extended high speed running on motorways. The
answer to this problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a
different material and design for the centre electrode that would be able to carry
the heat of combustion away from the tip more effectively than a solid nickel alloy
could. Copper was the material chosen for the task and a method for manufacturing
the copper-cored centre electrode was created by Flo form At one time it was
common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either manually or
with specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore
the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for two reasons:
 cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the
insulator which can provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the
spark (increasing emissions)
 Plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement,
particularly with modern long life plugs.
 iridium and platinum plugs that have longer life times han copper have
become more common

The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as
yttrium, iridium, tungsten, or palladium, as well as the relatively high value
platinum, silver or gold) allows the use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper
edges but will not melt or corrode away.

These materials are used because of their high melting points and durability,
not because of their electrical conductivity (which is irrelevant in series with the
plug resistor or wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark
and initial flame energy. At one point, Firestone marketed plugs with polonium in
the tip, under the (questionable) theory that the radioactivity would ionize the air in
the gap, easing spark formation.
Spark plug gap

Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted by
the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the ground electrode slightly.
The same plug may be specified for several different engines, requiring a different
gap for each. Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between 0.6 and 1.8
mm (0.024 and 0.071 in).

FIG. spark plug gap

The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box gap. A spark plug
gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of precise diameters,
and is used to measure the gap. Use of a feeler gauge with flat blades instead of
round wires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, will give erroneous
results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes.
 The simplest gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses which
match the desired gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With
current engine technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems
and computerized fuel injection, the gaps used are larger on average of carburetors
and breaker point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era
cannot always measure the required gaps of current cars. Vehicles using
compressed natural gas generally require narrower gaps than vehicles using
gasoline.

Heat range

The operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical temperature at the
tip of the spark plug within the running engine, normally between 500 and 800 °C
(932 and 1,472 °F). This is important because it determines the efficiency of plug
self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual
temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct relationship
between the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage.
However, the level of torque currently being produced by the engine will strongly
influence spark plug operating temperature because the maximal temperature and
pressure occur when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and
rotational speed directly determine the power output).

The temperature of the insulator responds to the thermal conditions it is

exposed to in the combustion chamber, but not vice versa. If the tip of the spark
plug is too hot, it can cause pre-ignition or sometimes detonation/knocking, and
damage may occur. If it is too cold, electrically conductive deposits may form on
the insulator, causing a loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark
current.

OPERATION

The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto.
As the electrons flow from the coil, a voltage develops between the central and
side electrodes. No current can flow because the fuel and air in the gap is an
insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the
gases between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of
the gases, the gases become ionized.

The ionized gas becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across the
gap. Spark plugs usually require voltage of 12,000–25,000 volts or more to "fire"
properly, although it can go up to 45,000 volts. They supply higher current during
the discharge process, resulting in a hotter and longer duration spark. As the
current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark
channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in the spark channel causes the ionized gas
to expand very quickly, like a small explosion.

This is the "click" heard when observing a spark, similar to lightning and
thunder. The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the
end of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the
gases burn on their own. The size of this fireball, or kernel, depends on the exact
composition of the mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion
chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will make the engine
run as though the ignition timing was retarded and a large one as though the timing
was advanced.

Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
 Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

H.T. Lin, M.P. Brady, R.K. Richards, D.M. Layton, Characterization of

erosion and failure processes of spark plugs after field service in natural gas
engines, Wear, Volume 259, Issues 7 – 12, July – August 2005, Pages 1063-
1067, ISSN 0043-1648:
Micro structural and optical spectroscopic analyses were carried out on as-received
and used spark plugs after field service in natural gas (NG) reciprocating engines.
The objectives of this work was to examine the corrosion and erosion mechanisms
of natural gas engine spark plug as well as identify the primary life limiting
processes during field operation.

The optical emission spectroscopic analysis showed a strong Ca signal in the

exposed spark plugs and scanning electron microscopy showed substantial
formation of Ca-enriched glassy oxide phase(s) on the electrode surfaces. In
addition, inter granular cracking was observed in the subsurface region of both
iridium (Ir) and platinum-tungsten (Pt-W) alloy electrode insert tips. The
coalescence and subsequent growth of these cracks would accelerate the wear of
the electrodes and shorten the lifetime of the spark plugs. Also, extensive internal
oxidation and subsequent crack generation occurred along the interface between
Ni-base alloy electrode and Pt-W alloy tip insert during field service, which would
result in substantial degradation in the ignitability and performance of the
electrodes, and thus spark plug failure.

F.A. Soldera, F.T. Mucklich, K. Hrastnik and T. Kaiser, “Description of the

discharge process in spark plugs and its correlation with the electrode erosion
patterns,” in IEEE Transaction on Vehicular Technology, vol. 53, no. 4, pp.
1257-1265, July 2004:
The phases of the discharges in spark plugs were studied with a high-speed camera
and an oscilloscope. The discharges were done using samples of nickel alloys and
platinum as cathode in air at pressures ranging from 100 to 900 kPa. For low
pressures (100 kPa), a glow discharge occurs after the breakdown. For higher
pressures, a discharge follows the breakdown and changes into a glow discharge
when the current decreases.

The damage produced on the cathode surface was analyzed with scanning
electron microscopy and white light inter ferometry and was correlated with the
corresponding discharge. The craters on the surface are mainly produced by the
breakdown and arc discharge. The glow discharge delivers energy to the cathode in
a large area and produces a negligible material damage. The movement of the arc
hot spot produces further craters that are commonly overlapped. Transitions from
glow to arc, modes produce new small craters, which in some cases can be
arranged along polishing traces. This work is relevant for the development of new
electrode materials for spark plugs and electrical contacts.

F. Soldera, A. Lasagni, F. Mücklich, T. Kaiser, K. Hrastnik, Determination of

the cathode erosion and temperature for the phases of high voltage discharges
using FEM simulations, Computational Materials Science, Volume 32, Issue 1,
January 2005, pages 123-139, ISSN 0927-0256:
A discharge produces an energy input in the cathode material, which causes the
Erosion of the material surface. The principal mechanism of erosion is the
formation of craters mainly due to melting. From calorimetric results published in
the literature, the amounts of energy delivered to the cathode for the different
phases of the discharge (breakdown, arc and glow discharge) were calculated. A
FEM model was developed to simulate the temperature distribution and the phase
transitions, which allows the definition of molten and evaporated zones. These
zones were compared with the volumes of craters done in Pt-samples at air with
pressures ranging between 1 and 9 bar and static electrode gaps of 2mm. the
breakdown energy is enough to melt an amount of material, which is responsible
for the formation of very flat craters.

The formation of deeper overlapped craters observed in experiments cannot

be produced during the breakdown; they are produced by the arc phase of the
discharge. The assumption of the crater area as the area for the energy exchange
between plasma and material gives the best results in the simulation. The glow
discharge produces only a light heating of the cathode, without any significant
erosion.

Armando Ortiz, Jorge L. Romero, Ignacio Cueva, Víctor H. Jacobo, Rafael

Schouwenaars, Spark plug failure due to a combination of strong magnetic
fields and undesirable fuel additives, Case Studies in Engineering Failure
Analysis, Volume 1, Issue 2, April 2013, Pages 67-71, ISSN 2213-2902:
Spark plugs designed for optimal durability failed after 100 h of operation. The
insulator was covered with a deposit consisting of iron oxides and soot. The strong
magnetic field deposits metal ions on the insulator. Organ metallic anti-knocking
agents in low grade fuel acerbate the effect. Government action imposing
compliance with fuel composition norms is essential.

CHAPTER-3

COATINGS AND METHODS

 CHAPTER-3

COATINGS AND METHODS

PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION

Flash over spark leakage from terminal to metal shell

Flash-over when the spark gap has widened due to wear of the electrodes, a higher
voltage is required. The flash-over occurs when the required voltage between the
plug electrodes is higher than the voltage flying between the terminal and metal
shell. The plug cable material hardens as time elapses, which in turn reduces the
tightness of the cover and insulator, lowering the preventive power for flash-over.
as a higher voltage is required for a turbo charged engine, flash-over is more likely
to occur. It is important to recognize that a plug cable is a consumable part which
needs to be replaced periodically. when there is no spark after washing the car or
the engine room, check whether water has entered the plug cover or not.
GOOD
Deposits accumulated on the firing end may induce abnormal combustion (pre-
ignition), causing problems that include melting of the electrodes.

Fig. good

If the edges of electrodes are worn and rounded, sparks will not easily occur,
which leads to engine starting problems and misfiring during running: maximum
power cannot be obtained from the engine

Fig. Worn electrodes

Power leaks through the carbon accumulated on the firing end, causing misfiring as
well as hindering engine starting.

Fig Fouled

The deposits accumulated on the spark plug overheat and cause abnormal
combustion (pre-ignition) that may lead to melting of the electrodes of the spark
plug.

Fig. Deposits

Spark plug overheating

Prolonged overheating may induce abnormal combustion (pre-ignition), resulting
in melting of the spark plug electrodes. Overheated spark plugs have a white
insulator surface at the firing end speckled deposits. Electrode melting represents
excessive overheating. When the spark plug temperature exceeds 870°C, the firing
end serves as a heat source before sparking and induces abnormal combustion (pre-
ignition), possibly damaging the piston.

Spark plug fouling

It is a phenomenon by which carbon attached to the firing end causes electrical
leakage that leads to misfiring. As the high voltage generated by the ignition coil
leaks away through the carbon, misfiring may occur and cause running and starting
difficulties

Firing end appearance of a spark plug important

Because the Firing end appearance reflects the suitability of the spark plug as well
as the condition of the engine. There are three basic criteria: good, fouled, and
overheated. The firing end appearance also depends on the spark plug tip
temperature. The boarder-line between the fouling and optimum operating regions
(450 degrees Celsius) is called the spark plug self cleaning temperature. It is at this
temperature that the deposits accumulated are burnt off.

BASIC INTRODUCTION OF COATINGS

A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually referred

to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative,
functional, or both. The coating itself may be an all-over coating, completely
covering the substrate, or it may only cover parts of the substrate.
 An example of all of these types of coating is a product label on many drinks
bottles- one side has an all-over functional coating (the adhesive) and the other side
has one or more decorative coatings in an appropriate pattern (the printing) to form
the words and images. Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses
of protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are
only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is presumably only for
the function of preventing corrosion.

Functional coatings may be applied to change the surface properties of the

substrate, such as adhesion, wetability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In
other cases, e.g. semiconductor device fabrication (where the substrate is a wafer),
the coating adds a completely new property such as a magnetic response or
electrical conductivity and forms an essential part of the finished product.

A major consideration for most coating processes is that the coating is to be

applied at a controlled thickness, and a number of different processes are in use to
achieve this control, ranging from a simple brush for painting a wall, to some very
expensive machinery applying coatings in the electronics industry. A further
consideration for 'non all over' coatings is that control is needed as to where the
coating is to be applied. A number of these non-all-over coating processes are
printing processes. Many industrial coating processes involve the application of a
thin film of functional material to a substrate, such as paper, fabric, film, foil, or
sheet stock. If the substrate starts and ends the process wound up in a roll, the
process may be termed “roll-to-roll” or “web-based” coating. A roll of substrate,
when wound through the coating machine, is typically called a web. Coatings may
be applied as liquids, gases or solids.
PURPOSES OF A COATING

A coating serves many purposes. Some of these are presented as below:-

Protection of steel structures from the environment by acting as a barrier between
the substrate and the aggressive environment, such as the marine and industrial
environments. Control of solvent losses. Control of marine fouling certain
constituents in coating control the growth of mildew and marine fouling in
seawater. Reduction in friction (coating reduces friction between two contacting
surfaces). Pleasant appearance; certain types of coatings provide a pleasant
appearance and produce attractive surroundings.

Change in light intensity; by selection of appropriate coatings the light

intensity in rooms and buildings can be varied as desired. Visibility; many
combinations of colors because of their visibility from large distances are used on
television and radio towers to warn aircraft. Modification of chemical, mechanical,
thermal, electronic and optical properties of materials. Application of thin coatings
on low cost substrates results in increased efficiency and cost savings.

FOUL RELEASE COATING

COPPER-BASED COATINGS
Copper antifouling coatings have been used in the marine industry for two hundred
years. The current generation of copper paints relies on three factors for its
effectiveness: the toxicity of copper; secondary biocides which are effective against
organisms not harmed by copper; and an ablative resin
system which slowly but constantly dissolves, talon& with it early stages of fouling.
Copper has been used since antiquity as an antifouling agent. Copper
sheathing was first used on ships of the Bri6sh Navy in 1779.

It is widely distributed in animal and plant tissues; for humans copper is an essential
trace element and is comparatively non-toxic compared to other trace elements.
Copper is an effective control agent for many but not all forms of marine life.

SECONDARY BIOCIDES

DCOI has broad-spectrum activity against bacterial slime, barnacles, against algae,
tube worms, hydroids bryozoans, tunicates and diatoms. DCOI and its metabolites
remain in the environment for only short periods of time; in seawater they bind
strongly and essentially irreversibly to sediment and subsequently are rapidly
degraded

The `zinc complex of 2-pyridinethiol-1-oxide possesses broad spectrum antimicrobial

activity against algae, bacterial slime, fungi and diatoms. It is frequently used in
combination with cuprous oxide to provide protection against hard as well as soft
marine fouling organisms.

ABLATIVE RESINS

Ablative ("self-polishing") resins are made from polymers with labile functional
groups such as esters. Hydrolysis of these groups releases a small molecule and
creates a hydrophilic site on the polymer backbone. The small molecule released is
sometimes toxic and may contribute to antifouling performance through its
poisonous properties. When the polymer backbone accumulates a sufficient number
of hydrophilic sites it becomes water-soluble and washes from the surface of the
coating taking with it algae, diatoms, and other marine organisms and their juvenile
forms. A fresh surface is thus created, and the process is repeated. Ablative coatings
require a constant water Bow past the surface and are most effective at consistently
high water velocities. The lifetime of these coatings is determined by the initial
thickness of the coating and by the temperature of the seawater. In temperate waters
ablation is on the order of 75 mm pa year; thus a new coating applied at a thickness
of 375 mm (15 mils) would be expected to give five years of service.

NON TOXIC FOULING RELEASE COATING

Prospective nontoxic hull paints include fluoro polymer- and siloxane-based

coatings. These coatings, which have been a subject of intense laboratory and field
studies for the past 25 years, are called "fouling-release" to differentiate them from
their poisonous precursors. Ideally these "nonstick" coatings should completely
prevent the attachment of fouling but actually they do foul, but only weakly. They
significantly limit the strength of the joint between fouling and hull, making the bond
so weak that it can be broken by the weight of the fouling or by the motion of the
ship through the water. The performance of fouling-release coatings is determined by
three properties. Surface energy is the first of these; a low surface energy will
discourage the initial attachment of fouling. The modulus of the coating is important
because it influences the mechanism by which the joint between a coating and a
foulant will fail. Lastly, the thickness of the coating can be important factor in
favoring peel fracture rather than shear fracture.

The fracture mechanics at an interface - in this case, the joint between fouling
and a coating - differs from that of a solid because the interface determines the
direction of crack propagation. A joint is tough if a large amount of energy is
expended in order to propagate a crack along it. Toughness of the joint is strongly
influenced by the deformation of the adherents near the crack tip. Elastomeric
coatings, such as the silicones, deform readily and failure of the joint occurs by peel, a
mechanism which requires lower energy than failure by shear. As a crack moves along
an inner face a polymer in the crack tip is placed in tensile stress. An adhesive slips on
a silicone surface toward the crack tip, reducing the extension of the polymer, thus
reducing its tensile stress, and reducing the energy needed to propagate the crack.
Studies have shown_ that, in joints with one mobile side, the shear stress at the
interface can be as low as 5-100 kPa Thus the Bruited amount of bio adhesion on
silicone polymers is a consequence of the ability of the fouling to slip on the polymer
surface. This behavior does not occur on fluoro polymers

FLUORINATED COATINGS

Fluorinated polymers were first considered attractive fouling-release candidates

because of their low surface energy. Subsequent research has demonstrated that many
other factors are of equal or greater importance than surface energy. The most
productive route to fouling-free performance is to discourage the initial bonding of
marine organisms. This is accomplished by constructing a well- organized surface of
closely-packed fluorinated groups, driving its surface energy as low as possible, and
cross linking or otherwise stabilizing the surface in so that it resists rearrangement and
penetration of marine adhesives. Fouling is minimized when:

 The surface is very smooth. Teflon @ (polytetrafluoroethelene)

accumulates marine fouling rapidly because it is a porous material. Marine
adhesives
invade cavities in the surface and cure inside them creating a secure
mechanical
interlock even where chemical compatibility does not exist.
 The surface is composed exclusively of fluorinated groups. CF3 groups are
 more effective than CF2 groups, which in turn are more effective than
CF3groups, in reducing the energy of the surface.
 There is sufficient fluorine in the bulk of the coating to effectively control
the organization of fluorine at the surface.
 Dipoles such as -CF2-CH2- M e located well beneath the surface
 The surface is cross linked in order to hold fluorine in place, resist
rearrangement and infiltration of marine adhesives, and maintain stability in the
marine environment.

SILICONE COATINGS

Coatings based on silicones have also been extensively tested for resistance to marine
fouling. The critical discovery that fouling release does not correlate with surface energy
alone, but with the square root of the product of surface energy g and elastic modulus E
.The minimum in adhesion coincides with the lowest value of elastic modulus tested,
although this does not correspond to the lowest surface energy tested, demonstrating
that elastic modulus is at least as important as surface energy in determining the
performance of silicone fouling-release coatings. Therefore the most effective route to
fouling-free performance is to encourage the release of fouling organisms from the
surface by predisposing the adhesive joint between the foulant and the coating to quick
and easy failure by peeling This is accomplished by judicious control of the thickness
and elastic modulus of the silicone coating Fouling release from silicone coatings is
best enabled when:

 The silicone resin has a linear, highly flexible backbone that is substituted
with a sufficient number of groups to diminish surface energy while
 preserving
backbone mobility.
 The silicone resin has the lowest elastic modulus consistent with physical
toughness.
 The silicone resin is stable in the marine environment, and resistant to
hydrolysis which causes loss of mass and development of surface
roughness.
 The coating is applied at a thickness that favors failure by peel rather than
failure by shear at the coating-foulant joint.
 The coating is very smooth.

Some commercial nontoxic silicone coatings contain a silicone oil which

migrates from the bulk of the coating to the surface and into the water. Fouling settles
on the oil rather than on the surface of the coating. The joint between oil and coating is
weak and fails readily; the oil migrates into the water taking early stages of fouling with
it. The oil also plasticizes the coating Despite the encouraging performance of
commercial coatings based on this technology, we see two drawbacks to this approach
First the silicone oils are lost, usually. Within two years in temperate waters, with
several consequences. The mechanical properties of the coating deteriorate significantly
and sharply, and the coating becomes brittle and cracks. The weak boundary layer is no
longer formed, fouling settles and adheres with tenacity, and the coating must be
replaced. Second, silicone oils are released into the environment. Although there is no
toxicity associated with these compounds in seawater, we believe that a policy of
absolutely no release to the environment will prove best in the long run.
SELECTION COATING MATERIALS

2. SILICON

Silicon is formed in two ways, reaction bonding and sintering. Each forming
method greatly affects the end microstructure. Reaction bonded Si is made by
infiltrating compacts made of mixtures of Si and carbon with liquid silicon. The
silicon reacts with the carbon forming more Si which bonds the initial Si particles.
Sintered Si is produced from pure Si powder with non oxide sintering aids.
Conventional ceramic forming processes are used and the material is sintered in an
inert atmosphere at temperatures up to 2000ºC or higher. Both forms of silicon
carbide (Si) are highly wear resistant with good mechanical properties, including
high temperature strength and thermal shock resistance. Our engineers are always
available to best advise you on the strengths and weaknesses of each ceramic for
your particular needs.

General silicon carbide information

Silicon is composed of tetrahedral of carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds
in the crystal lattice. This produces a very hard and strong material. Silicon carbide
is not attacked by any acids or alkalis or molten salts up to 800°C. In air, SiC forms
a protective silicon oxide coating at 1200°C and is able to be used up to 1600°C.
The high thermal conductivity coupled with low thermal expansion and high
strength give this material exceptional thermal shock resistant qualities. Silicon
carbide ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain their strength
to very high temperatures, approaching 1600°C with no strength loss. Chemical
purity, resistance to chemical attack at temperature, and strength retention at high
temperatures has made this material very popular as wafer tray supports and
paddles in semiconductor furnaces.

The electrical conduction of the material has lead to its use in resistance heating
elements for electric furnaces, and as a key component in thermostats (temperature
variable resistors) and in varistors (voltage variable resistors).

Typical silicon characteristics include:

 Low density
 High strength
 Good high temperature strength (Reaction bonded)
 Oxidation resistance (Reaction bonded)
 Excellent thermal shock resistance
 High hardness and wear resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity

Typical silicon applications include:

 Fixed and moving turbine components

 Seals, bearings, pump vanes
 Ball valve parts
 Wear plates
 Kiln furniture
 Heat exchangers
 Semiconductor wafer processing equipment
Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and
carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and made
into grinding wheels and other abrasive products for over one hundred years.
Today the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade ceramic
with very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives, refractories,
ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. The material can also be
made an electrical conductor and has applications in resistance heating, flame
igniters and electronic components. Structural and wear applications are constantly
developing.

SILICON PROPERTIES
Properties value

Poisson’s Ratio 0.14

Coefficient of Thermal 4.0

Expansion
Thermal Conductivity 120 W/m•°K

Specific Heat 750 J/Kg•°K

Coated spark plug
Coated Spark Plug

TESTING
CORROSION TEST

Cyclic corrosion testing (CCT) has evolved in recent years, largely within the
automotive industry, as a way of accelerating real world corrosion failures, under
laboratory controlled condition. As the name implies, the test comprises different
climates which are cycled automatically. So the samples under test undergo the
same sort of changing environment that would be encountered in the natural world.
The intention being to bring about the type of failure that might occur naturally,
but more quickly, i.e. accelerated. By doing this manufacturers and suppliers can
predict more accurately, the service life expectancy of their products.
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical hardness
used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a small
indentation may be made for testing purpose.

A pyramid diamond point is pressed into the polished surface of the test material
with a known (often 100g) Load, for a specified dwell time, and the resulting
indentation is measured using a microscope.

CARBON DEPOSITION TEST

Carbon removal specifically formulated for removal of completely carbon, grease,
oil, varnishes and other heavy deposits from petrol engine. Its unique combination
effectively remove carbon deposits, varnish, gummy matter, baked/burnt on grease
deposits and all persistent with high solvency and penetrating capabilities to
remove carbonaceous residue formed by fuel engine part. RXSOL-16-1003-025 is
a highly concentrated wetting emulsifying agent which makes this protect water
soluble. This powerful action is based on two layer mechanism. The top layer
prevents the evaporation of the volatile Components in the bottom layer. The
bottom layer removes the deposited substances. This way, the deposits are bind
and trapped resulting to complete and safe removal. Carbon cleaner is very active
which eliminates the need for scrubbing or brushing which can cause mechanical
damages to disc and result in poor performances.

TEST READING
 TEST READING

SPARK PLUG CORROSION TEST

AS PER THE “ASTM” STANDARD TESTING SPECIMEN SPARK PLUG

Si materials % of 330 k 550 k 600 k

no petroleum
1 chromium
 2 chromium

3 chromium

AS PER THE “ASTM” STANDARD

SI materials % of 330 K 550 K 600 K

NO petroleum

1 zinc

2 zinc

3 zinc

AS PER THE “ASTM” STANDARD

SI MATERIALS % OF 330 K 550 K 600 K

NO PETROLEUM

1 Nickel

2 Nickel
 3 Nickel

AS PER THE “ASTM” STANDARD

KNOOP TEST

MATERIALS VALUE

NICKEL

CHROMIUM

ZINC

CARBON DEPOSITION IN %

MATERIALS VALUE

MILD STEEL

NICKEL

CHROMIUM
ZINC
 Chapter-4

APPLICATION

Chapter-4

APPLICATION

 USING AUTOMOBILE COMPONENTS

Chapter-5
 CONCLUSION

Chapter-5

CONCLUSION
Proper electro deposition of mild steel using zinc, Chromium and Nickel particle

was carried out. The Carbon Deposition, Knoop Hardness and Corrosion Test of

the resultant deposition were investigated with the following deductions:

 Increasing of Chromium percentage causes decreasing the Corrosion.

 By using Nickel, Zinc and Chromium the hardness of the ground electrode

gets increased.

 Zinc and Chromium is used to resists the corrosion in spark plug

 By coating the Zinc, Nickel and Chromium, the deposition of Carbon

content gets decreased.

 Due to this Coating the Environmental Pollution gets decreased.

 Performance of engine also improved.

 Chapter-6

REFERENCE

Chapter-6

REFERENCE
 Armando Ortiz, Jorge L. Romero, Ignacio Cueva, Víctor H. Jacobo, Rafael

Schouwenaars (April 2013), Spark plug failure due to a combination of

strong magnetic fields and undesirable fuel additives, Case Studies in

Engineering Failure Analysis, Volume 1, Issue 2, , Pages 67-71, ISSN 2213-

2902.

 Y. Daisho (1998) how should engines for automobiles be in the year 2010

and beyond? JSAE SYMPOSIUM 9834510.

 Y. Daisho (1998) Present and Future Automobile Power Plants. Journal of

Automotive Engineers of Japan Vol.52, No7.

 H.T. Lin, M.P. Brady, R.K. Richards, D.M. Layton (July – August 2005),

Characterization of erosion and failure processes of spark plugs after field

service in natural gas engines, Wear, Volume 259, Issues 7 – 12, Pages

1063-1067, ISSN 0043-1648

 K.Nishio et al (1993). A Study about Improvement of Spark Erosion

Resistance on Thin Electrode Type Spark Plug Journal of Society of

Automotive Engineers of Japan Vol.24 No4.

 Y.Daisho : Present and Future Automobile Power Plants. Journal of

Automotive Engineers of Japan Vol.52,No7 1998
 T.Ohshima et al. : A Consideration about Electrode Shape of Spark Plug
(PART2). JSAE No912263 (1991)
 Y.Daisho How should engines for automobiles be in the year 2010 and
beyond? JSAE SYMPOSIUM 9834510 (1998)
 K.Nishio et al. :A Study about Improvement of Spark Erosion
Resistance on Thin Electrode Type Spark Plug Journal of Society of
Automotive Engineers of Japan Vol.24 No4. 1993
 Eoin.W.Gray et al. :Electrode erosion by particle ejection in low-current
arcs. Journal of Applied Physics. Vol.45. No2. (1974)
 A.S.Darling :Some Properties and Applications of the Platinum-Group
Metals. The Institute of Metals. Review 175. (1973)
 H.Kawamura et al. :Development TOYOTA New 1GZ-FE Engine.
TOYOTA Technical Review 207 (1997)