Topic 1-Water 10/03/2018 3:10:00 PM

Distribution and Regulation of our Body’s Water

1. ¾ of earths surface covered with water ( oceans- Challenger Deep in
Mariana Trench is little short of 11km down)
2. Makes up 50-60% of mass of human body
3. Life as we know cannot exist without water

 Most biochemical reactions take place in water

 Blood the transport system in body is a solution of substances in
water
 Environment inside and surrounding our cells is a watery
environment

 In a person with normal BMI ( BODY MASS INDEX), total body

water represents:
o 55-60% of body weight in Women
o 60-65% body weigh in M
o Ie man normal BMI, 70kg –body contains 42-45.5 kg of
water!
 Fluid compartments of the body
o Intracellular fluid (ICF)= fluid inside cell
o Extracellular fluid ( ECF)=Interstitial fluid and Plasma
 66% Intracellular (ICF)
 33% Extracellular (ECF)
o approx. 75% of ECF=interstitial
o appros23% of ECF=plasma
o Other small amounts of body fluid include joint fluid, CSF
(Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colourless
body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord
 Water content in different organs
o Blood-85%
o Bone-22%
o Skin-72%
o Adipose(fat)-10%- more fat less percentage of water- are
immiscible
o Muscle-75%
 Gain water from
o Drinking-60%
o Eating-30%
o Metabolism-10%--> also produces CO2
 Lose water from
o Faeces-100mls per day
o Sweat –varies
o Urine-Adaptable-1500mls
o Insensible loss-breathing 700mls

 Regulation of body water- Thirst determines intake

 o Stimulated by blood volume and blood pressure
o Behavioural responses – sweating, panting, raised hairs –
determined by hypothalamus in brain
o Urine production regulates water loss

 Transfer of water in and out of cells

o Cell membranes are selectively permeable ie they allow
unrestricted passage of water- but not necessarily large
molecules ie starch starch and iodine prac
o Large quantities of water are constantly moving in and out
of our cells
o Net movement of water is a significant cellular process
known as osmosis

Dehydration hypertension Overhydration-Hyponatremia

 Headache, dizziness, light
headedness- brain tissue
loses water causing brain
to shrink and pull away
from skull-pain receptions
surrounding brain trigger
and headache sets in,
blood volume also
decrease, decreasing flow
of blood and o2 to brain
 Low blood sodium levels
diluted by fluids
 Symptoms similar to
dehydrations-
disorientations, confusion,
headaches, muscle
weakness, nausea and
vomiting

Structure of Water
 Water is a POLAR molecule
 Polar water molecules form intermolecular bones known as
hydrogen bonds
 Molecule has a positively charged end and a negatively charged
end

δ−
δ+ δ+

Due to high different in electronegativity3.44-2.20=1.24  polar covalent

Can also H-bond- an intermolecular bond!
Thermal & other Properties of Water
 Considered a sticky molecule
o High surface tension- allows insect to walk on it
o Water on spider webs
o Unlike other molecules, when it freezes instead of
becoming denser the hydrogen bond keeps them expanded
and form ice crystals
 Thermal ( heat) properties of water- as a result of H-bond
o High melting and boiling points
 Both MP and BP of H20 are high compared to to
other molecules of similar mass
 Takes significant amount of heat energy to separate
polar molecules as they move from solid to liquid to
gas
o High heat capacity
 Heat Capacity: the amount of heat energy required
to raise the temp of a defined amount of a substance
by one degree
 A high heat capacity means: water can absorb a
relatively large amount of heat without undergoing a
large change in temperature
 Implications for human body- water can absorb heat
energy without large temp change human body is
protected against the large temp changes in our
external environment
o High heat of vaporisation
 Heat of vaporisation: the amount of heat energy
necessary to vaporise a given amount of liquid
without changing its temp
 Heat of vaporisation is the energy required to
overcome the molecular forces of attraction between
the molecules of a liquid and bring them to the
vapour state where such attractions are minimal
 Implications for human body-cooling our bodies by
perspiring
 We use this high heat of vaporisation to cool
off on a hot day
 High energy requirement to break multiple
hydrogen bonds
 Note: Hydrogen bonds only has around
5% the strength of a covalent bond.
However when many hydrogen bonds
 can form between 2 molecules-resulting
union is quite strong and stable
 When we perspire the evaporating water
absorbs heat from the body to enable the
water to evaporate ( ie sweat)
 This transfer ( removal) of heat provides an
effective means of cooling our bodies
Liquid BP Heat Capacity Heat of
J/K Vaporisation
Benzene 80.1 1.74 436
Water 100.0 4.18 2268
Methyl Benzene 110.6 1.70 413

 Extra
o O2 doesn’t diffuse very well through water
Carbon Chemistry-Topic 2 10/03/2018 3:10:00 PM

Carbon Chemistry
 Chemistry of all living organism ( that we know of) is based on
carbon
 “ Organic chem”=chem of compounds containing compound
 Important biological molecules made of only a few elements
o Carbon
o Hydrgoen
o Oxygen
o Nitrogen
o Phosphorous
o Sulphur

Hydrocarbons
 In biological compounds-carbon often bonds with hydrogen
called hydrocarbons
 Small diff in electronegativity between C and H 2.55-2.20=.35
<0.4
 Suggests pair of electrons in C-H bond evenly shared therefore
non polar
 Are soluble in non-polar solvents ( ie kerosene, acetone)
 Insoluble in polar solvents ( ie water)
  Like dissolves like
 Hydrocarbon chains are important in body:
o Main reserve of energy ( lipid or fat stores) is in the form
of hydrocarbon chains
o Hydrocarbon chains form a major part of cell membrane
Functional Groups and Functional Groups in Biological Compounds
 Many biological compounds contain other atoms: Oxy, nitro,
phosphorous, Sulphur
 Atoms give hydrocarbon chains special chemical characteristics
and functions-form functional groups
 Major function groups in Biological compounds
o Hydroxyl ( or alcohol ) group
o Carbonyl group
o Carboxyl group
o Amino group

Functional Groups and Polarity

 When oxygen or nitrogen are part of a hydrocarbon molecules
they make it
o More polar
o Therefore more water soluble
 Solubility Video
Lipids and Carbohydrates-Topic 3 10/03/2018 3:10:00 PM

Lipids ( or Fats)
 Derived from Greek word lipos meaning “fat”
 Lipids, phospholipids, lipoproteins, glycolipids
 Biological molecules insoluble in water ( hydrophobic)
Function of Lipids in Body
1. Storage of energy-adipose tissue help insulate body temp
change
2. Source of energy after energy from carbs is used up,
2xenergy/g compared to protein or carbs- vast fat reserve
around kidney
3. Basic component of cell membranes- phospholipids key
component of cell membranes
4. Chemical messengers-steroid hormones
o Some are essential fatty acids, ie Omega 3-regulate
cardiovascular, immune and inflammatory pathways
o Body can store fats very efficiently
Types of Lipids-Structure

Fatty Acids
 Long chain hydrocarbon molecule with a single carboxyl group
( aka carboxylic acid)
  Typically contain 12-18 carbon atoms
 Insoluble in water
 Saturated ( no double bond) or unsaturated ( have double bond)
o Monosaturated-one double bond
o Polyunsaturated-many double bonds

Lect Activity 1

Heptane: C7H16
Molecular Formula : CH3-(CH2)6-CH3
Structural

Line Formula
 Each point is a carbon
  Assume H attaches
Fatty Acids-Saturated vs Unsaturated

Properties of Saturated Fatty Acids

 Contain only single C-C bonds
 Closely packed
 Strong attraction between chains
 Have high melting points
 Are solids at room temperature

 IUPAC name: Hexadecanoic acid Common name: Palmitic acid

 Functional group-carboxylic acid

Properties of Unsaturated Fatty Acids

 Contains one or more double C=C bonds
 Cis isomer puts kinds in the fatty acid chains
 Cis- denoting or relating to a molecular structure in which 2
particular atoms or groups lie on the same side of a given plane
in the molecule
o Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular

formula but have different arrangement of the aotms in

space
o Excludes arrangements due to rotation as a whole/ rotation
particular bonds
o Instead atoms making up molecule are joined in a different
order
o Stereoisomerism: Atoms making up isomers joined in
same order but still have different spatial arrangement-eg
Geometric ( cis/trans) isomers
o Geometric isomers arise when you have restricted rotation
somewhere in a molecule

o Compare this to molecules with unrestricted rotation

  Molecules can not pack closely
 Few attractions between chains
 Low melting points
 Are liquids at room temp

CIS VS TRANS
 Trans isomer- trans from Latin meaning across
 Cis isomer-cis from Latin meaning on this side
  Stearic acid-around steak white fatty part-solid at room temp
 Olive oil-a lot of oleic acid-liquid

Trans Fat in Processed Foods

 Produced by hydrogenation ( chemical reaction where hydrogen
molecules saturate organic compounds in the presence of a
catalyst usually) of natural ‘cis’ fats
 Often used in processed foods
 o Trans fat makes crispier chips-ramping up temperature of
oil
o Longer shelf life
 Associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease
 ‘Trans’ fats now banned for use in foods in many countries

Triglycerides
 Main storage lipid molecule of our body
 Lipids stored in adipose tissue
 Located beneath the skin ( subcutaneous fat), around internal
organs ( visceral fat) , in bone marrow ( yellow bone marrow),
intermuscular ( muscular system) and in breast tissue-adipose
depots, serves as an endocrine organ capable of regulating
metabolic homeostasis and the synthesis and secretion of several
hormones
 Composed by glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Phospholipids
 Often called glycerophospholipids
 Most abundant lipids on plasma ( cell) membranes
 Composed
o Glycerol
o Two fatty acids
o Phosphate group
 o A small polar molecule

Lipid bilayer of the Cell Membrane ( aka Plasma membrane)

 Forms a bilayer structure
Types of Lipids
1. Lipids that include fatty acids in their structure
 Triglycerides-fat storage molecules
 Phospholipids-Cell membranes
2. Lipids that do not contain fatty acids are
 Steroids
o Cholesterol
o Sex Hormones ( eg estrogen, testosterone)
o Adrenal gland hormones ( eg cortisol, aldosterone)
 Steroids- a steroid molecule consists of a characteristic 4 ring
hydrocarbon structure

 Nucleus not cell nucleus-simply mean centre

 Eg: Cholesterol
o Most abundant steroid in the body
 o A hydrocarbon with a hydroxyl group attached to the
steroid nucleus
o

Cholesterol in the Body

 Consumed in diet from meats, milk and eggs
 Synthesized in the liver
 Most abundant steroid lipid in body
 A key component of plasma ( cell) membrane
 Brain and nerve tissue
 Synthetic pathways of steroid hormones and Vit D
Too much Cholesterol

 Cardiovascular disease forming plaque around arteries-can

depend on genetic background and accumulation
o Reduce blood flow cells not getting oxygen-cells die within
minutes
o If vulnerable plaque, soft thin fibrous cap more likely to
rupture, causing a blood clot to form at the rupture site,
cutting off or restricting blood flow and potentially causing
a heart attack or stroke
 Gallstones=solid cholesterol remove so gall bladder can function
 Brain nearly 100% cholesterol-25% of cholesterol in your body is
found in your brain

Carbohydrates
 Insoluble carbohyrates-dietry fibre
 2:1:1 C:H
 A major energy source via our diet
 Contains element, C,H and O
 Saccharides = sugars
 Eg- Glucose, sucrose, lactose, starch, glycogen and cellulose
Key Role of Carbohydrates:
 Metabolic fuel-eg glucose is the blood sugar
  Storage form of energy as starch in plants and glycogen in
animals- store less than a 1/3 of energy-short term, long term is
adipose tissue
 Essential components of nucleic acids ribose in RNA and 2-
deoxy-ribose in DNA
o Blood type determined by type of carbohydrate outside
RBC?
 Mediation of interaction between cells present on the surface of
cell membrane
Types of Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharide’s-simplest carbohydrates
 Disaccharides-consists of 2 monosaccharide’s
 Polysaccharides- many monosaccharide’s
 If breaking down using water we call hydrolysis
 Enzymes- catalysing chemical reactions, making things instant
 Specific enzyme- break down carb

 Lipids and proteins can break down into glucose- brain needs
glucose!
Monosaccharides
 Monosaccharides are the simplest units of carbohydrates and the
simplest form of sugars-are the building blocks of more complex
carbohydrates such as disaccharides and polysaccharides
 Any of the class of sugars ( e.g. glucose) that cannot be
hydrolysed to give a simpler sugar
 3-6 Carbon atoms typically
 Consists of a carbonyl group ( C=O) and several hydroxyl groups
( OH)
 The number of carbons in a sugar determines which size groups
of sugars it belongs to: IUPAC naming
  5 carbons: pentose
 6 carbons: hexose
Important Monosaccharides
 Glucose
 Galactose
 Fructose
Glucose:
 Found in fruits, honey, vegetables
 Formual C5H12O6
 Main sugar found in our bodies-blood sugar
 Energy fuel-a key component of our cell metabolism
 Lots of hydroxyl groups
 Rely on hormone insulin released from pancreas to regulate
blood glucose levels, and enable any sugar that isn’t immediately
required to be stored-if cannot regulate or it stays high is
diabetic
 Glucose tolerant tests available-done in pregnancy to test for
gestational diabetes
 Can form a ring structure- more stable

Blood Glucose Level
 Normal blood glucose level is 70.0-90.0mg/dL
 Glucose tolerance test measure blood glucose for several hours
after ingesting glucose

Galactose
 Has formula C6H12O6- not found free in nature
 Obtained from lactose, a disaccharide- lactose sugar in milk
  Lactose-milk sugar broken down by lactase
 Galactose doesn’t exist as a free monosaccharide, need enzyme
to break it down
 Same molecular formula, and similar structure to glucose except
for the –OH on C4
 Has 2 hydroxyl group-same molecule formula- enzymes however
can determine change- and not metabolise galactose

Fructose
 C6H12O6
 Exists as cyclic structure
 Reacts the –OH on C-5, with the C=O on C-2
 Fructose sweetest carb-found in fruit juice, honey
 Converted to glucose in tody
Important Disaccharides
 Consists of 2 monosaccharides

Maltose
 Disaccharide also known as malt sugar
 2 glucose molecules, linked by a glycosidic bond
 Glycosidic bonds: covalent chemical bonds that link ring-shaped
sugar molecules to other molecules. They form by condensation
reaction between an alcohol or amine of one of the molecule and
carbon of the sugar
 Used in cereals, sweets and brewing beer
Lactose
 Disaccharide of galactose & glucose
 Joined by glycosidic bond
 Found in milk and milk products
 Galactose taken pretty much from lactose
 Makes up 2-8 % of milk by weight
  Is digested by lactase enzyme, as we get older enzyme less
active therefore cause abdominal bloating, diarrhoea

Sucrose
 Table sugar from sugar cane
 Consists of glucose and fructose
 Joined by glycosidic bond
 Is fructose that gives it its sweetness-glucose itself is not very
sweet –why? Due to its stereoisomerism structure
 Fructose twice as sweet at glucose
 Can be extracted naturally from sugar cane and sugar beet
 Whiter the sugar the more processing it undergone removing lots
of minerals and salts
Polysaccharides
 Polymers of glucose
 Examples:
o Cellulose ( in plants and wood)
 Is a polymer of glucose units in unbranched chains
 All linked by glycosidic bonds
 Body unable to digest – requires enzymes such as
cellulase to break down which we don’t have
 Instead forms dietary fibre
 Herbivores can digest, as have different
compartmentalised stomachs, and enzymes
o Starch ( potatoes, pasta)
 Starch (70-80% amylopectin, 20-30 amylose)-
polymer of glucose molecules
 Amylopectin: water soluble polysaccharide, is broken
down rapidly and has a high GI index, meaning it can
increase blood sugar rapidly, leading to weight gain
 Amylose: difficult to digest and smaller, contains
100-10,000 glucose units, less heavily branched,
linear shape can pack tightly
 Forms a continues chain, branched and unbranched
  All linked by glycosidic bonds

o Glycogen ( in humans –main storage for of glucose)

 Mode in our bodies, the storage molecule of glucose
 Structure is a polymer of glucose ( polysaccharide)
 Is similar to starch in potatoes but is more highly
branched
 Broken down to glucose via process glycogenesis-
part of glucose homeostasis
 Aprox. 350g of glycogen in the body ( liver and
muscle)
 Glycolipids: Complex lipids that contain
carbohydrates-ie found o the outer part of the
plasma membrane
 Covalently attached, exposed on outer surface on
cell. Have a communicative role, acting as markers
for cellular recognition .
 Glycoproteins: Complex proteins that contain
carbohydrates attached to polypeptide chain-ie
mucins, secreted in mucus of respiratory and
digestive tracts. The sugars when attached to mucins
give them considerable water holding capacity and
makes them resistant to proteolysis ( break down of
proteins by enzymes) by digestive enzymes-also in
cell membrane
 Glycoproteins are found on the surface of the lipid
bilayer of cell membranes. Their hydrophilic nature
allows them to function in the aqueous environment,
where they act in cell-cell recognition and binding of
other molecules. Cell surface glycoproteins are also
important for cross-linking cells and proteins (e.g.,
collagen) to add strength and stability to a tissue.
Glycoproteins in plant cells are what allow plants to
stand upright against the force of gravity.

Proteins and Nuclei Acids 10/03/2018 3:10:00 PM

Follow Lecture Slides

Function of Proteins
 Collagen most abundant protein in the body
Essential Amino Acids
 If not synthesized in diets, must be obtained from diet eggs, fish,
almonds, walnuts  have protein but lack lysine hence eat beans
Examples of Amino Acids
 Alanine instead of H functional group, have methyl group
Types of Amino Acids ( polar , NP)
 Non polar amino acids- if the R group is NP. Predominantly
carbon and hydrogen hence NP
 Polar ( neutral), if the R group is uncharged ie OH ie serine
 Polar ( charged) – when R group is charged, is COO- ( carboxylic
acid in solution)

 Blue=peptide backbone
 Peptide bond form by losing a water-condensation polymer
 A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two
molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with
the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule
of water (H2O).
  Side groups in order: NP, NP, P, NP

Levels of Protein Structure

1. Primary: Amino acids in unique sequence- one change can have
massive impact on function
Structure of insulin- why so important? Once have structure, then can
remake it synthetically, crucial for those with diabetes
2. Alpha Heli-held together by hydrogen bond, where all the R groups
face outside
3. Beta-R groups above and below the sheet, held by hydrogen bonds
neighbouring each other
4. Tertiary structure
 Myoglobin-150 amino acids, and other haem groups and iron ion
Quaternary Structure
 2 or more protein ( polypeptide chains)
 Stabilized by the same interactions found in tertiary structures,
ie hydrophobic, hydrophilic, salt bridge, h-bond, disulphide bonds
 Haemoglobin 4 polypeptide chains ( subunits), 2 alpha 141
amino acids, 2 beta 146 amino acids

Causes of Denaturation
 Heat and chemicals ( detergents)- break hydrogen bonds and
disrupt hydrophobic interactions ie autoclave, or egg white
turning white upon heat
 Change in pH ( acids and bases)-disrupt ionic bonds, ie acidify
milk. When milk becomes acidic the negative charge which keeps
the casein ( main protein in milk) separate is neutralized hence
becoming precipitated
 Heavy metal ions- mercury and lead poisoning heavy metals
very toxic, because they target and disrupt S-S bonds (
disulphide bridges)  some amino acids can form disulphide
bonds
 Agitation-breaks H-bond, and peptide chains, ie milk shaken to
butter, whip eggs to meringues-disrupting bond in tertiary
structure some are reversible
1. No-not about hydrolysing bonds in between individual amino acids (
happens in digestion) pepsin breaks peptide bonds  denaturation is
unfolding molecule, losing shape
2. Core body temp 37 physiological ph is 7.4, if you have fever above
39, even few degrees above we feel unwell  denaturation of our
proteins, fever unwind proteins don’t function as well

Nucleic Acids
 Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine
 Ribose: In RNA is “ normal” sugar, with one oxygen atom
attached to each carbon atom
 Deoxyribose: Modified lacked one oxygen atom

 In RNA instead of Thymine is replaced by Uracil

From RNA to protein synthesis Video

Notes: Protein Synthesis ( Infocus Biology)

Mutations ( Infocus Biology)
Cell Membrane 10/03/2018 3:10:00 PM

Cell Membrane
 Some require proteins to transport
 Semi-permeable- allow things go through easily, normally solvent
molecule, but other thinks like phosphate, iodine, large substance,
ionic will require a carrier to cross
 Phospholipid bilayer- more like a liquid ( free to move about) than a
solid
Membrane Fluidity
o Quasi-fluid- so things can go through it
o Cis-introduce kinks can’t pack as well
o Everyone cell membrane must have cholesterol- rigid part of
molecule, not flexible introduces rigidity, make the liquid less like
a liquid therefore packing will also be difficult
o Polar group at end of cholesterol stick out interact with water
Some terms
Membrane Transport
 Driving forces that move molecules or ions
 Concentration gradient, ie Sodium concentration higher inside than
outside
 Things go from high concentration to low concentration
 Why? Molecules moving in random motions-collide in cell membrane
some dissolution will be successful therefor equalise
 Electric gradient require only positive and negative ion- experience
electrical gradient force
 Force can be in same direction or opposite
Osmosis
o Water from high concentration to low concentration
o Solute concentration lower, water is higher
o Reverse osmosis-as stopped raining as much ?
o Plants-take water and nutrients up by osmosis
Distinction between isoosomotic and isotonic
o Osmotic- refers to calculations
o Tonicity-experiment
o Results may be same or not
Lysis
 Osmotic mechanism-by gaining water
 Vivo-real life, vitro-lab
 Illustrating Examples
o Urea small molecule cross membrane without carrier
o All urea solutions regardless of concentration will be hypotonic
o Because urea is a small molecule able to cross cell membrane
Types of Membrane Transport
 Require carriers
 Rupter-hypertonice
 Didn’t swell or burst-isotonic solution will always be isosmotic









 Urea- small polar molecule, can cross cell membrane by passive
diffusion doesn’t require carrier
 Urea entering cell-osmolality in cell is greater inside cell, why? Because
urea is equal but then cell also has its own salt concentration
 After the urea has gone into the cell water follows cells get biggers
and ruptures

Types of Membrane Transport

Facilitated diffusion: Higher to lower concentration – similar to passive
diffusion but that doesn’t require carrier
Primary AT: Expenditure of metabolic energy, against electrochemical
gradient from lower to higher
Secondary AT: Expenditure of energy, against conc gradient

Passive or Simple Diffusion

o No plateau, starts at origin, just goes through phospholipid
bilayer
Factors Affecting Diffusion
 Polar molecules ( urea)
 Can go through protein chanel
 Two ways of simple diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
 Higher to lower

 Cariers have pockets, where molecules being transported can fit in-
can be specific to things its transported
 Limited no. of carriers, once all used – “ wait in line”

Secondary Active T
 Sodium ion going down its concentration gradient, glucose is going
against
 Secondary for Glucose
 Na+ facilitated diffusion