1 CHAPTER 1

2 THE PURPOSE AND

3 FUNDAMENTALS OF WASTEWATER
4 TREATMENT
5
6 Learning Objectives
7 This chapter provides information concerning the reasons behind wastewater treatment,
8 the characteristics of wastewater, and the role of an operator in this treatment process. At the
9 end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
10
11 • Explain the hydrologic cycles,
12 • List the principal causes and consequences of water pollution,
13 • Identify major categories of wastewater sources,
14 • Describe the composition and characteristics of domestic and industrial
15 wastewater,
16 • Describe the elements of a sampling and analysis program,
17 • Describe the fundamental elements of a conventional wastewater treatment
18 system, and
19 • Define the principle duties and responsibilities of the wastewater treatment plant
20 operator
21
22 Purpose
23
24 All life depends on water - clean water. Figure 1.1 shows what happens in the hydrologic
25 cycle. When water is exposed to the atmosphere, the sun causes it to evaporate and become
26 water vapor. Evaporation is the conversion of moisture into vapor. Moisture is also released to
27 the air by plants in a process called transpiration. On a hot day, a large tree may give off, or
28 transpire, as much as a four liters (one gallon) of water per minute. The moisture in the air rises
29 and forms clouds. When the clouds cool, the water vapor condenses into tiny droplets of water.
30 When these droplets become heavy enough, rain precipitates and falls to the ground. The water
31 that falls to the earth flows to oceans, lakes, and rivers. This water also soaks into the ground to
32 recharge groundwater sources. Sometimes, the water that has soaked into the ground flows
33 through the crevices and eventually forms a spring. When the water is exposed to the warm air, it
34 begins to evaporate. Thus, the water cycle starts over.
35
36

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The Purpose and Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment 1-1
 1
2
3 Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle
4
5 Moving rivers and streams provide one of nature's ways of purifying water. The churning
6 of the water over the rocks increases the dissolved oxygen concentration in the water, which
7 helps sustain aquatic life. Aquatic life in the stream then feed on the waste, reducing its volume
8 and purifying the water. However, humans often dispose so much waste into rivers and streams
9 that these receiving waters, as they are called, cannot naturally purify themselves. When the
10 natural treatment capacity of a body of water is exceeded, the water becomes polluted. Stated
11 another way, the streams assimilation capacity, or the ability of its aquatic life to consume waste,
12 is being overtaxed. More waste is being put into the receiving water than can be removed by
13 assimilation.
14
15 Plant and animal life in water need oxygen to survive. When a body of water becomes
16 polluted, algal blooms and surges in the quantities of other microorganisms occurs. They quickly
17 use all of the oxygen available in the water. Oxygen levels can quickly become too low to support
18 other plants and animals. When this happens, the stream’s water quality continues to degrade.
19 This pollution can kill fish and other aquatic animals and can pose a danger to communities that
20 use the water. To combat pollution, communities in many countries have constructed wastewater
21 treatment plants (Figure 1.2). These plants were built to reduce the amount of pollutants
22 released to the natural waterways. They help us control pollution and disease and preserve a
23 clean source of water for domestic uses, swimming, and other recreational purposes. In order to
24 ensure that wastewater treatment plants do not overload their receiving waters, many countries
25 use a permit system to monitor wastewater discharges. In the United States, these permits are
26 issued by state regulatory agencies and are called National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
27 System (NPDES) permits. These permits are used as a tool to assist in protecting public health
28 and preserving or restoring the quality of the water bodies receiving wastewater discharges.
29

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1-2 Operations Training/ Wastewater Treatment
 1
2
3 Figure 1.2 View of Wastewater Treatment Plant
4
5 Sources of Wastewater
6
7 The terms "raw sewage" or "raw wastewater" are commonly used to describe the water
8 and solids that flow through a collection system into a wastewater treatment plant. Wastewater
9 that is collected in the community can come from several different sources. These sources are
10 generally referred to as
11 • Domestic
12 • Commercial
13 • Industrial
14 • Stormwater, and
15 • Groundwater
16
17 Domestic wastewater is wastewater that comes from households. It consists of waste
18 streams such as those from toilets, laundering, cooking, bathing, and dishwashing.
19
20 Commercial wastewater comes from small businesses and institutions such as
21 laundromats, restaurants, schools, and hospitals.
22
23 Industrial wastewater is generated from manufacturing plants. This wastewater must be
24 carefully monitored because it can contain toxic wastes, nutrient-deficient waste, high organic
25 loadings, extreme pH variations, and other such substances and characteristics that could
26 negatively affect the performance of the treatment plant. Excessive quantities of harmful
27 substances in wastewater such as metals, poisons, or other similar materials are referred to as
28 toxic wastes. Nutrient-deficient wastewater is commonly generated by canning factories.
29 Wastewater that is nutrient-deficient is harmful to microorganisms because the wastewater does
30 not contain sufficient quantities of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which are essential
31 to sustain life. Industrial wastes can pose other treatment issues as well. For example, a slug
32 dose of high-strength (high BOD) wastewater can pass through a treatment plant without being

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The Purpose and Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment 1-3
 1 sufficiently treated and result in plant effluent violations. Wastewater from a dairy, for example, is
2 commonly high in organic strength (BOD).
3
4 Stormwater consists of water and solids that are collected during a rainstorm. Some
5 communities collect stormwater and send it untreated to a nearby natural water body (Figure 1.4).
6 Other communities collect this stormwater and combine it with the raw wastewater. Combining
7 the stormwater and wastewater causes surges in plant flow during rain events that can result in
8 hydraulic overloading (excessive flow) at a wastewater treatment plant.
9
10 Groundwater may enter the collection system through faulty sewer joints or cracked
11 pipes. The process of groundwater entering the collection system is referred to as infiltration.
12 Infiltration is usually minimal in new, well-constructed sewers.
13
14 Operators should be aware of the types of sewers that are present in the system they
15 work with. The three major types of sewers are
16 • Sanitary sewers
17 • Storm sewers, and
18 • Combined sewers.
19
20 Sanitary sewers contain domestic and industrial wastewater, which is conveyed to the
21 treatment plant. Storm sewers contain only stormwater, which usually goes directly to a water
22 body such as a river or stream. Combined sewers contain both wastewater and stormwater,
23 which is conveyed to the treatment plant. Figure 1.3 shows a basic collection system layout for a
24 section of a metropolitan area.
25
26 Figure 1.3 Overview of Basic Collection System
27
28 Characteristics of Wastewater
29
30 Wastewater that enters a treatment plant normally contains about 99.98% water and
31 0.02% solids. Raw wastewater normally appears cloudy and gray in color and smells musty. If
32 the wastewater is black in color and smells bad as it enters a treatment plant, this probably
33 indicates that the wastewater has become septic. Septic wastewater results when there is no
34 dissolved oxygen in the wastewater and anaerobic (or oxygen-lacking) conditions prevail.
35 Typically, wastewater turns septic because of long detention times in the collection system,
36 pumping station wet wells, and force mains. Warmer temperatures can also lead to septic
37 conditions.
38
39 Let us now review the composition of wastewater. Wastewater consists of water
40 containing solids that are either dissolved or carried in suspension. The solids are usually less
41 than 0.2 % of the wastewater composition by weight. This small amount of solids is what
42 treatment plants are designed to remove. The solids in wastewater are classified in a number of
43 ways. For example, they can be divided into two general groups:
44 • Organic solids, and
45 • Inorganic solids.
46
47 Organic solids are the waste products of plants and animals. These solids will decay or
48 decompose. Inorganic solids, on the other hand, usually will not decay or decompose. Inorganic
49 solids include materials such as sand, gravel, silt, and salts. Organic and inorganic solids can be
50 further classified as suspended solids and dissolved solids (Figure 1.4).
51

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1-4 Operations Training/ Wastewater Treatment
 1
2
3 Figure 1.4 Influent (Raw) Wastewater
4
5 Suspended solids are those organic or inorganic solids that you can see floating in the
6 water. These solids can be removed from the wastewater by physical and mechanical means,
7 such as by allowing them to settle out or by filtering them. Suspended solids include the larger
8 floating particles like fecal solids, paper, wood, pieces of food, garbage, and other similar
9 materials. Most of the suspended solids in wastewater are organic. An Imhoff Cone (Figure 1.5)
10 is a cone-shaped container that has measurements marked on the side. These cones, which
11 hold a 1-liter sample, are used for measuring settleable solids in the wastewater.
12

13
14
15 Figure 1.5 Settleable Solids Test with Imhoff Cones
16

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The Purpose and Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment 1-5
 1 Another type of solids that enters a wastewater treatment plant is dissolved solids.
2 Dissolved solids are actually in solution in the liquid. For example, when you mix sugar into hot
3 water, the sugar dissolves into the water. The sugar is now a dissolved solid. In normal domestic
4 wastewater, about half of the dissolved solids are organic and the rest are inorganic. Dissolved
5 inorganic solids are typically not removed in the wastewater treatment process.
6
7 We have talked about suspended and dissolved solids, as well as organic and inorganic
8 solids. The combination of both types of solids added together is referred to as total solids.
9 Another type of solid that operators should be familiar with is colloidal solids. Colloidal solids are
10 extremely fine suspended particles that will not settle in a typical wastewater treatment process
11 unless they are converted to larger settleable solids. They are sometimes filtered out of the
12 process.
13
14 The next important wastewater characteristic operators should understand is biochemical
15 oxygen demand, or BOD. Biochemical oxygen demand is an indirect measure of the amount of
16 organic material in the wastewater. The BOD is determined by measuring the amount of oxygen
17 consumed by microorganisms in a wastewater sample during a 5-day period at a controlled
18 temperature of 20°C. The BOD parameter is important for determining the organic loading into
19 the treatment plant, the biological processes, and the receiving stream. Two other important
20 variations of the BOD test are carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand, or CBOD, and soluble
21 biochemical oxygen demand, or SBOD. The CBOD is important when a sample is affected by
22 nitrification. The CBOD test measures only the carbonaceous BOD portion of the sample and not
23 the BOD caused by nitrifiers. More information on this test is given in Volume 2 - Chapter,
24 Activated Sludge. The SBOD measures the BOD in the soluble portion of the sample. This test
25 is important for fixed film reactor systems such as trickling filters and rotating biological
26 contactors. The SBOD test is also important at some activated sludge facilities that receive
27 industrial waste high in SBOD. Both solids and BOD are two of the most important pollutants that
28 conventional wastewater treatment focuses on removing. Figure 1.6 shows the essential
29 components of a BOD analysis.
30
31 Figure 1.6 BOD Analysis Components – Bottles, Dilution Water, Samples, DO Probe and
32 Meter
33
34 Another important chemical parameter to monitor in wastewater is the pH. pH is the
35 measurement of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. For the purposes of wastewater
36 the range that is typically monitored spans from 1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. The lower the pH
37 reading, the more acidic the solution is. Likewise the higher the reading the more basic or
38 alkaline the solution is. pH is extremely important for biological wastewater treatment because
39 the microorganisms primarily involved in the treatment process thrive only within a narrow pH
40 range close to neutral (roughly 6.5 to 8). Therefore it is important to both monitor the pH and
41 maintain this optimal range. Raw wastewater typically has a pH near 7. Major deviations found
42 while monitoring the influent typically indicate a nondomestic or industrial discharge. Also,
43 anaerobic conditions lower the pH. This low pH combined with the observation of a black or dark
44 colored influent and the presence of sulfide odors are strong indicators of septic conditions.
45 Figure 1.7 demonstrates the pH analysis for two identical samples. It is often necessary to
46 analyze samples in duplicate to avoid analysis process errors.
47
48 Figure 1.7 Duplicate pH Analysis of Treated Secondary Effluent
49 Note: 4 photos in series showing analysis and rinsing of probe. Each photo will have footnote
50 describing action
51
52 We will now examine the two primary nutrients found in wastewater, nitrogen and
53 phosphorus. In wastewater, nitrogen occurs in four basic forms:
54 • Organic nitrogen,
55 • Ammonia nitrogen,
56 • Nitrite nitrogen, and

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1-6 Operations Training/ Wastewater Treatment
 1 • Nitrate nitrogen.
2
3 Total nitrogen is the sum of the organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen.
4 Domestic wastewater typically contains 20-50 mg/L of total nitrogen and 12-40 mg/L of ammonia
5 nitrogen. Microorganisms require nitrogen to thrive. If there is a shortage of nitrogen in the
6 wastewater, nutrient-deficiency problems could develop in the secondary treatment process.
7
8 Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is an essential element for biological growth. In wastewater,
9 phosphorus is found in three forms:
10 • Orthophosphorus,
11 • Polyphosphorus, and
12 • Organic phosphate.
13
14 Orthophosphorus is the form most readily available to the microorganisms and is used as
15 a control parameter in biological phosphorus-removal processes. Treatment plant operators
16 often measure the total phosphorus of the plant influent and effluent. Total phosphorus is a
17 combination of all three forms of phosphorus. Domestic wastewater has a total phosphorus
18 concentration in the range of 5-15 mg/L. It is important to note that treatment facilities control the
19 discharge of both nitrogen and phosphorus because they serve as nutrients for algae growth in
20 receiving waters. The excess growth of algae in receiving waters leads to oxygen depletion and,
21 eventually, serious pollution.
22
23 Sampling
24
25 Since it is impossible to test all of the wastewater that enters or leaves a treatment plant,
26 operators must collect representative samples. If samples are not properly collected, accurate
27 plant process control measures cannot be made. Also, accurate testing is necessary to report
28 plant performance to regulatory agencies.
29
30
31 There are two types of sample-collection procedures commonly used in wastewater
32 treatment plants:
33 • Grab samples, and
34 • Composite samples.
35
36 A grab sample is a single sample that is collected manually. Grab samples are used if
37 the operator must know the characteristics of the process stream soon after sample collection.
38 Grab samples are used for unstable parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, and temperature.
39 They represent a “snapshot” of the characteristics of the waste stream at the moment the sample
40 was taken.
41
42 The second type of sampling procedure commonly used is the composite sample. A
43 composite sample is collected either manually or automatically to provide information on the
44 average characteristics of a sample over a longer period of time. Composite samples are
45 collected as either
46 • Timed composites, or
47 • Flow-proportional composites.
48
49 Timed composite samples are collected at regular intervals and at fixed volumes. For
50 example, an operator may collect a 300-mL sample every 2 hours for a 24-hour period. A flow-
51 proportional composite sample is collected by varying either the sample frequency or volume to
52 collect a more representative sample. Flow-proportional samples are usually required whenever
53 wastewater characteristics can differ with changes in flow. Flow-proportional samples are usually
54 taken using automatic samplers. These samplers can be programmed easily to meet a variety of
55 conditions. In larger plants, data for some parameters are continuously collected and analyzed

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The Purpose and Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment 1-7
 1 by on-line analyzers. These analyzers are used to measure such parameters as pH, dissolved
2 oxygen, temperature, and total residual chlorine.
3
4 The primary goal of sampling is to obtain a representative sample of the process liquid.
5 Sample location and sample collection technique are important factors in obtaining a
6 representative sample. The sample point selected must be a well-mixed location. Influent
7 samples should be collected upstream of any recycle, or sidestream flows. When collecting the
8 sample, the sides of the channel or tank walls should not be scraped, and no large chunks of
9 solids should be collected. Sample containers should be clearly marked, and proper preservation
10 techniques should be followed. Most samples can be preserved by refrigeration at 4 °C.
11 However, other samples require that chemicals be added for preservation purposes. After a
12 sample is properly collected, it should be delivered to the laboratory for analytical or
13 microbiological examination. Some tests, such as temperature or dissolved oxygen, must be
14 performed immediately after the sample has been collected. Figure 1.8 is a table of sampling
15 requirements for many common wastewater parameters. Refer to Standard Methods for the
16 sampling requirements of all wastewater parameters.
17
18 Figure 1.8 Sampling Requirements for Common Wastewater Parameters
19 Note: Create new table with major NPDES parameters and 4 process control parameters from
20 Standard Methods
21
22 Conventional Wastewater Treatment
23
24 These training manuals (Volumes 1 and 2) cover all major aspects of wastewater
25 treatment including natural treatment systems such as lagoons and wetlands. Each aspect will
26 be covered in greater detail in the chapters to follow. Figure 1.9 shows a schematic of a
27 conventional activated sludge treatment plant. Let us briefly look at each of these different
28 treatment components.
29

30
31
32 Figure 1.9 Conventional Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Process
33
34 • Preliminary treatment – In preliminary treatment large debris and a varied assortment of
35 undesirable solids (such as grit, sand, etc.) are removed from the influent using screens
36 and grit removal systems. Common examples of screens are manually cleaned and

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1-8 Operations Training/ Wastewater Treatment
 1 mechanically cleaned bar screens. Grit removal systems come in such forms as grit
2 classifiers and cyclone/vortex grit removal systems.
3 • Primary treatment – Primary treatment consists of the use of primary clarifiers, although
4 their use depends on the type of treatment used. In well-designed primary clarifiers,
5 BOD removal can be as high as 30-40% and solids removal can range from 50-60%.
6 The solids removed from this process are often sent to the solids handling portion of the
7 plant.
8 • Secondary treatment – Secondary treatment will vary depending on the type of treatment
9 system used. The most common system used is the activated sludge process that
10 utilizes aerated biological reactors for treatment. Other systems used are fixed-film
11 systems such as Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) and trickling filters. Typically
12 these systems are always followed by secondary clarification where the remaining bulk
13 solids are removed and sent to solids handling.
14 • Filtration – Though not routinely used for wastewater treatment, it may be required if
15 your permit requires that effluent solids levels be kept very low. Filtration will also help
16 with your disinfection process.
17 • Disinfection – Disinfection is used to destroy pathogenic organisms in the effluent before
18 it is discharged to the receiving stream. The most common disinfecting agent used is
19 chlorine. The other commonly used systems are ultraviolet radiation (UV) and
20 ozonation.
21 • Solids Handling – Solids removed from the treatment process are often processed for
22 use as fertilizer or made acceptable for landfills. The three common processes used in
23 solids handling are thickening, stabilization, and dewatering.
24 • Lagoons and Wetlands – These are known as natural treatment systems because they
25 use a process similar to the process described at the beginning of the chapter. Lagoons
26 store wastewater for a specific period of time and allow bacteria to eliminate the waste.
27 These lagoons are often either naturally or mechanically aerated. Wetlands or overland
28 flow utilize the vegetation, soil, and microorganisms of a cultivated section of land to
29 eliminate the wastes in raw wastewater. While these are called natural systems, they
30 must be carefully maintained, monitored, and operated.
31
32
33 Role of the Operator
34
35 Wastewater treatment plants require an essential element to ensure that the effluent
36 meets permit requirements. That important element is the treatment plant operator. Treatment
37 plants can be found in many parts of the world. The size of the community determines how big
38 the plant will be. Large plants with complex processes may have operators that remain in one
39 process area, such as sludge processing, whereas smaller plants require that the operator
40 understand all aspects of the plant and be able to operate the entire range of processes. The
41 need for understanding all operations and maintenance aspects of a treatment facility are now
42 also becoming a necessity for operators at large facilities as well.
43
44 The operator is responsible for keeping the treatment plant running efficiently. This
45 literally means that he or she turns valves, throws switches, collects samples, lubricates
46 equipment, reads gauges, records data, performs tests, and so on. Technology has improved for
47 both treatment and monitoring wastewater processes. Operators must regularly update their
48 skills and become familiar with new techniques as they are implemented at their facility. At many
49 plants, the operator may also maintain equipment and care for the facilities by repairing and
50 cleaning equipment, painting, and tending to the facility grounds. The operator also makes
51 operational decisions, keeps records, observes conditions around the plant, performs calculations
52 to make sure the plant is running properly, and plans the necessary repairs. Operators have the
53 responsibility of helping to explain to a utility’s governing board, civil groups, and the general
54 public what the plant is doing and why it is important to budget sufficient money and resources to
55 keep the plant running at its best. A plant operator may works for a town or city, sanitation
56 district, or other public agency. Operators may also be employed by a large industry that

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The Purpose and Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment 1-9
 1 operates its own treatment plant or by private companies that also manage treatment plants. By
2 whatever measure - pay, prestige, job satisfaction, community service, or opportunities for
3 advancement - an operator's returns are limited only by what he or she puts into the job.
4
5 The wastewater treatment field, like so many others, is changing rapidly. New and more
6 plants are being constructed, both treatment and monitoring technology are steadily advancing,
7 and the need for highly skilled operators is increasing and is expected to continue into the future.
8 To ensure that only qualified operators are in charge of these important facilities, training
9 materials like this are being developed to help guide you in this field. Operators in the
10 wastewater treatment profession can take pride in the job they do to protect the environment and
11 public health. These chapters will cover the different treatment processes in a wastewater
12 treatment facility.
13
14
15 Chapter Quiz
16
17 1. In wastewater, nitrogen can be found in the form of:
18 a. Ammonia
19 b. Organic nitrogen
20 c. Nitrite
21 d. All of the above
22
23 2. Green plant life (algae) in a stream will add dissolved oxygen to the stream only during
24 cloudy days or the night.
25 a. True
26 b. False
27
28 3. In order to discharge treated wastewater to a receiving water in the United States, the
29 operator of the facility must first obtain a(n):
30 a. Discharge permit from the state regulatory agency
31 b. Written waiver from adjacent landowners
32 c. Written waiver from downstream users
33 d. Bond for potential liability in excess of $1,000,000
34
35 4. Wastewater that is generated from normal household functions is termed:
36 a. Sanitary
37 b. Institutional
38 c. Commercial
39 d. Domestic
40
41 5. The major ingredient of domestic wastewater is:
42 a. Water
43 b. Dissolved solids
44 c. Grease
45 d. Suspended solids

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 1 Chapter Quiz Answers
2
3
4 Question 1
5
6 Answer is “d”
7 Reference: Page 1-6
8 Immediate Feedback: Total nitrogen is the sum of the organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite and
9 nitrate nitrogen. Domestic wastewater typically contains 20-50 mg/L of total nitrogen and 12-40
10 mg/L of ammonia nitrogen.
11
12
13 Question 2
14
15 Answer is “b”
16 Reference: Page 1-7
17 Immediate Feedback: Nitrogen and phosphorus serve as nutrients for algae growth in receiving
18 waters. The excess growth of algae in receiving waters leads to oxygen depletion and,
19 eventually, serious pollution.
20
21
22 Question 3
23
24 Answer is “a”
25 Reference: Page 1-2
26 Immediate Feedback: Many countries use a permit system to monitor wastewater discharges. In
27 the United States, these permits are issued by state regulatory agencies and are called National
28 Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits.
29
30
31 Question 4
32
33 Answer is “d”
34 Reference: Page 1-3
35 Immediate Feedback: Domestic wastewater consists of waste streams such as those from
36 toilets, laundering, cooking, bathing, and dishwashing.
37
38
39 Question 5
40
41 Answer is: “a”
42 Reference: Page 1-4
43 Immediate Feedback: Wastewater that enters a treatment plant normally contains about 99.98%
44 water and 0.02% solids.
45
46

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11