THE

TECHNIQUE
OF
CANON
By HUGO NORDEN
 FORM:
THE SILENT LANGUAGE

by Hugo Norden

This book deals with the creative application of the

Dynamic Symmetry principle to all sorts of art forms in
ways that most people may never suspect could be either
possible or artistically practical. In a sense it opens a
door to a kind of "underworld" that lies quite outside the
realm of conventional academicism. This is a
controversial subject that invariably engenders
enthusiastic agreement or violent rejection.
Except for some scattered articles in magazines of
limited distribution, the publication of FORM: THE
SILENT LANGUAGE makes generally available for the
first time Dr. Norden's unique and original insights into
the infra-audible aspects of both musical and verbal
communicative forms. That this volume will prove to be
stimulating and enlightening to creative artists is to be
expected; that it will be controversial is inevitable.
(1131-5 Cloth $15)

CONVERTIBLE COUNTERPOINT IN THE STRICT STYLE

by Serge Ivanovitch Taneiev

A very unique book, available only at Branden Press, it
was translated from the Russian by C. Ackley Brower,
with Introduction by Serge Koussevitsky. The sole English
translation of "the most distinguished treatise ever
written on musical composition." "Taneiev's glorious
treatise on counterpoint means to musical science as much
as Newton's Principia meant to cosmology..." —Lazare
Saminsky (1415-2 Large Format Cloth $30)
THE TECHNIQUE OF CANON

Thi s One

C9L5-E4W-6GU3
FABIAN 8ACMSACM
THE TECHNIQUE OF CANON

BY
HUGO NORDEN

Boston
BRANDEN PRESS
Publishers
® Copyright 1970
BRANDEN PRESS
ISBN 0-8283-1028-9

Paperback Edition
with ADDENDUM
Published by
BRANDEN PRESS
Box 843 2 1 Station Street
Brookline Village, MA 02147

0 Copyright 1982
Branden Press
ISBN 0-8283-1839-5

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Norden, Hugo, 1909-

The Technique of Canon.

Reprint of the 1 970 ed ., with addendum .

1. Canon (Music) I. Title.
MT59.N67 1982 781.42 82-9678
ISBN 0-8283-1839-5 (pbk. |
To my wife, Mary
 FOREWORD

The present slim volume has a single specific objec

tive: namely, to set forth simply and concisely the prin
ciples of canon writing. The concern is exclusively with
the mechanics of this highly specialized branch of musical
composition, and not with its historical development. Thus,
the few classical examples that are included are examined
on this basis.
This book is extracted from a much larger and far more
comprehensive treatise on canon which remains unpub
lished. Consequently, vastly more can be said about the
artistic application of the structural principles of canon
than is contained herein, but the principles as such are
complete as given.
The conventional exercises that usually follow each
chapter in most textbooks on music theory are here inten
tionally omitted. It seems more realistic and fruitful for
the student or his teacher to set up original problems for
each type of canon and thereby employ the principles more
creatively.

HUGO NORDEN

Boston, Massachusetts
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION The Double
Counterpoint Principle 11
I Double Counterpoint 20
II Canon in Two Parts 30
III Invertible Canon in Two Parts 48
IV The Spiral Canon, Canonic
Recurrence 55
V Canon in Contrary Motion 74
VI The Crab Canon 91
VII Crab Canon in Contrary Motion 106
VIII Canon in Three Parts, I 112
IX Canon in Three Parts, II 137
X Canon in Four and More Parts,
Canon with Unequally
Spaced Entrances 148
XI Canon in Augmentation, Canon
in Diminution 178
XII The Round 195
*****

XIII Canonic Harmony 200

XIV Embellishment 207
XV Addendum 214
XI Index 218
 INTRODUCTION

THE DOUBLE COUNTERPOINT PRINCIPLE

1. Canon derives its musical nature as well as its

structural being from the utilization and manipulation of
Double Counterpoint. Therefore, before embarking upon
the study of Canon itself, it is necessary to understand
and master in every detail the whole principle and the
practical mechanics of Double Counterpoint.
2. In its most elementary form Double Counterpoint
means that two complementary themes that are intended
for simultaneous performance are so written that either
one can correctly serve as bass to the other. By identifying
two such complementary themes as T and 'IP respective
ly, a Double Counterpoint mechanism can be operative
as follows:
Ex. i
(a)

3E
The method involved is that of vertical displacement. It
can be seen at a glance from the following illustration on
three staves how 11 is shifted downward one octave from
its position above I to a new relationship below 1.

Ex. 2

g
W
¥
8ve
^^

P 3f=f
n *■ ■*■ As.
igU Si 3L

It can, of course, be argued that II is shifted an octave

upward from below I to function above it.
3. Such a double counterpoint structure is always iden
tified according to the interval of the vertical displace
ment; the present case being Double Counterpoint at the
8ve, hereafter to be abbreviated simply as D. C. 8.
4. A practical illustration of an invertible two-part
structure of this type, but in a somewhat more elaborate
form, is found at the beginning of Bach's Invention No. 6
in E major. It will be observed that the themes in mea
sures 5 - 8 are exactly the same as those in measures 1 - 4,
except that the vertical arrangement is shifted from I to H.

12
 Ex. 3

WHIP f-
# §.
Mtm k

Later in the Invention, measures 21-28, the same themes

are used in the same way in the key of B major, but with

the presentation reversed so that {' precedes J

Ex. 4

i um FP£ ?=* §
2J
m m
m «rjcjritr xj^'cr jj H
23 26 27 28

m rr^ ^

13
Ex. 3 and 4 operate within D. C. 22, or D. C. 8 expanded
by two octaves.
5. In the preceding illustrations the two vertical arrange
ments, { and " (vice versa in Ex. 4), appear contiguously
and in the same key. This is not always the case. In Ex. 5
(two passages from The Well- Tempered Clavier by Bach),
(a), measures 3-4, is in B minor while in (b), measures
22-23, the inversion is in E minor. The following quota
tions are from Fugue X in Vol. 1.

Ex. 5
(a) II (Countersubject)

I (Subject)

II (Countersubject)
14
Because in a fugue the subject and answer are customarily
given more prominence than the countersubject, in the
above pair of illustrations the former are designated as T
and the latter as Ml'. However, from the purely mechanical
considerations the I and II designations could be reversed
with no effect upon the double counterpoint.
6. All of the illustrations given above have demonstrated
D. C. 8 or its expansion by two additional octaves into
D. C. 22. Other intervals of inversion are equally possible
and just as useful. They are, however, not so often en
countered. Ex. 6 provides an instance of D. C. 7 and its
resulting two-part structures.
Ex. 6
II

£ ^te 3GC

7th

3 pp
ii
*¥?
vift i&a
F^T 6
I
II

ii
^m $m^
^ m
P^m
^^ ^
m
ii
i

us s
♦—■-» XE

^^ m
BEEEggEg ^
JJ

I i J
16
When the interval of vertical displacement is something
other than D. C. 8, the inversion may require accidentals
that will put it in a key different from that of the original.
Such a tonality change is demonstrated in the ' arrange
II
ment above.
1. It is not necessary for the vertical displacement of
one theme to be from above to below the other, or vice
versa. That is to say, in a given J contrapuntal structure
1 may be shifted up or down to another pitch above 11; or,
likewise, II may be shifted up or down to another pitch
below I. Ex. 1 illustrates how such a shift can operate.
The interval of vertical displacement is a 2nd upward,
thereby bringing into play D. C. 2.

Ex. 7

17
 I
II

7B m
m
II
m jDC

W 3E

From analysis of passages such as the above it would be

impossible to tell in which direction the shift had been
made. While it is stated that the displacement of I is
upward away from the position closer to II, it could just
as well be interpreted that 1 is shifted downward from the
higher position towards 11. Only the composer can be
entirely certain as to the direction of the displacement.
8. When the counterpoint and its displacement are both
on the same side of the other theme as in the preceding
illustration, the closer position of the two themes must
be calculated in terms of minus (-) intervals. Minus inter
vals come about when the parts cross. While there appears
18
to be not the slightest evidence of any crossing of parts
in Ex. 7, the following presentation of D. C. 2 on three
staves shows why such a calculation in terms of minus
intervals is necessary.

Ex. 8

IE

-2 -3 -5 -6 -7

2£
zr

9. These introductory observations demonstrate the Dou

ble Counterpoint principle in its most obvious and elemen
tary form. Actually, its application in the construction of
canons is somewhat different and considerably moie sophis
ticated. The remainder of the present volume will show
these principles in operation in complete detail.

19
 CHAPTER I

DOUBLE COUNTERPOINT

1. A technique in Double Counterpoint within the dia

tonic system requires the mastery of seven basic intervals
of inversion: D. C. 8, D. C. 9, D. C. 10, D. C. 11, D. C. 12,
D. C. 13 and D. C. 14. Any other inversions that are neces
sary for systematic canon construction can be readily
formulated by contracting or by expanding the above named
inversions by an octave. The following three illustrations
show how such adjustments are made.
2. Take, for example, D. C. 10:
Ex. 9

2
10

10 7

3E
^ 3E
3E

30C
3E
JOE

10

4 3 2

m HE

20
This is expandable into D. C. 17 (10 + 8) by writing the
counterpoint on the uppermost staff one octave higher:

Ex. io
jDC
_o_
if:

17 9 10 11 12
(10 + 8) (2 + 8) (3 + 8) (4 + 8) (5 + 8)

10 8 7

30E
XXI

13 14 15 16 17
(6 + 8) (7 + 8) (8 + 8) (9 + 8) no + 8)

4 3 2 1
O
XJ1

By the opposite method the interval of inversion can be

compressed to IX C. 3 (10-8) by writing the counterpoint
on the lowest staff of Ex. 9 one octave higher:
21
Ex. 11

as:
1 2

3 -3
(10-8) (Sh) (6-8)
L o

3E
3E

10

-4 -5 -6 -7 -8
(5-8) (4-8) (3-8) (2-8) (1-8)
3E
3E
It

From the foregoing the following inversion relationships

can be developed:

D. C. 8 = D. C. 15 (8 + 8), D. C. 1 (8-8)
D. C. 9 = D. C. 16 (9 + 8), D. C. 2 (9-8)
D. C. 10 = D. C. 17 (10 + 8), D. C. 3 (10-8)
D. C. 11 = D. C. 18 (11 + 8), D. C. 4 (11-8)
D. C. 12 = D. C. 19 (12 + 8), D. C. 5 (12-8)
D. C. 13 = D. C. 20 (13 + 8), D. C. 6 (13-8)
D. C. 14 = D. C. 21 (14 + 8), D. C. 7 (14-8)
22
Further octave expansions are likewise possible:

D. C. 15 + 8 = D. C. 22 (cf. Ex. 3, 4, and 5)

D. C. 16 + 8 = D. C. 23
D. C. 17 + 8 = D. C. 24
D. C. 18 + 8 = D. C. 25
D. C. 19 + 8 = D. C. 26
etc.

3. A word of explanation about the apparently strange

arithmetic may be in order. Due to our system of numerical
identification of intervals, when two intervals are added
one note-the upper note of the lower interval and the lower
note of the upper interval-is counted twice. And in the
process of intervallic subtraction the same note is sub
tracted twice. The following diagram shows how this comes
about .

Ex. 12

no JET.

4. Each D. C. inversion must be studied separately for

the particular concord- discord relationships it contains.
What is shown below is in accordance with the traditional
rules for correct academic counterpoint. This is provided
merely as a frame of reference. Actually, the correctness
of the counterpoint as such has nothing whatever to do
with the arithmetical calculation of canons should a
23
composer's artistic intentions call for the construction of
contrapuntal combinations quite outside the scope of tradi
tional academic availabilities.
5. In contrapuntal progression a tied note can result
in three different situations:
(1) a correctly resolved suspension, indicated
by S. > in the Table of Inversions;
(2) an incorrect suspension effect, indicated
by 3. >;
(3) a tie (i.e., a concord), indicated by T. >.
Resulting therefrom are nine inversion possibilities as
follows:

w-tX <4>-fc::> 11 T.---5*

<5>-fct « -£'~:
<2> ?::t

»-fc2 »-££ p) '£:;:

A corresponding set of illustrations in terms of 4th Species
Counterpoint will demonstrate how the above combinations
might appear in notation.

24
Ex. 13
(1) D.C. 8 (2) D.C. 10 (3) D.C. 10
S..

#
7—6

o
2 —3
P-
^^ ^
S..
(4) D.C. 8 (5) D.C. 12 (6) D.C. 8
?.--> T..-:

-o-. o d
2—1 ;
PPPP7—8 5—4

7 —8 6—7 4 —S
' —O-

Up fl P
(7) D.C. 9 (8) D.C. 9 (9) D.C. 10
S.-- T.~-» T....

Pefe
T...:
*) Does not produce correct academic counterpoint.
**) Must be a correctly treated discord.
***) Double ties are not indicated on the Table of Inver
sions since no resolution problem exists.

6. Under certain conditions $. —> can be changed

to S >.when the interval of inversion is expanded by
an octave. For instance, by expanding D. C. 8 to D. C. 15
the 2-1 effect in (4) above would become a correct 9-8
suspension.

Ex. 14

1
9 —8

~o
*)
7—8''

Up pp ?.— ->

The expansion of the inversion does not improve the

academically faulty 7-8 effect below the Cantus Firmus.
7. The complete Table of Inversion follows.
26
 TABLK OF INVERSIONS

S—»S.—»T. —>S.—» S.- --»

I). C. 8:
8 7 6 5 4* 3 2 1
1 2 3 4* 5 6 7 s
S- -->

I) C 9:

s. > S. »s. 9 S. Si. --->

0. C. 10:
111 9 8 / 6 5 4* 3 2 1
1 2 i 4» 5 6 7 8 9 10
S. —. S. —»s. % --» S. ►

S. _»T...»S. _»T....»S »S. _*T.. ..>S „T....>S.. ->

11* 10 9 8 7 6 5 4* 3 2 1
D. C. 1 1:
I 2 3 4* 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll«
T...»S. _*t.—>s >S. _»T.—»?.. ..>T....>S —»T.-.
1— .--.J
->

S » S. —»T. ...>s. S. J... .>

12 11* 10 _9_ _8_ 2 2 4* 3_ 2 J_
I). C. 12:
1 2 3 4* 5 6 8 9 10 II* 12
S » S. —»s. >J. -•!. -> s. —» S._

's._-»T.' ..»S._ -*T.. ->s. S. —is. »l ...>S._ -»T.. .-> 1

13 12 11* 10 9 *8 7 6 5 4* 3 2
DC. 13
1 2 3 4* 5 6 7 8 9 10 11* 12 13
.->S. —»T. S.S.. S. .>T .-->S. ~>S.- -»S.-

s._»"s.^. ' S »T.—>S »T.. .->S is > ->

14 13 12 11* 10 9 8 7 6 5 4* 3 2 1
a c. u 1 2 3 8 9 10 11* 12 13 14
4* 5 6 7
T...->S._». S.—fr.S.—fr.T.-;^.. .o.T.-^S.—* S »S »T.- .>
•)S.. ♦ can become T... . » over a fiee bass.

n
 n and J refer to the 6-5 above and the 5-6
below the Cantus Firmus respectively, since these may
be considered either as Ties or Suspensions. In the above
table these are listed amongst the Suspensions because
of their descending stepwise melodic motion, and not
because of any implications of dissonance, although the
latter may well be present in a multi-voiced texture.
8. When any of the seven basic inversions given in the
above table are reduced by an octave so that minus inter
vals come about due to the inevitable crossing of parts
a 4 becomes a -5, and a 5 becomes a -4, thereby changing
the status of the interval from discord to concord and vice
versa. For instance, in D. C. 9 the following intervals
occur.

Ex. 15

3E

But, when D. C. 9 is compressed into D. C. these points

in the inversion become
28
Ex. 16

-5
«-«
; O

9. Before proceeding to the chapters that follow the

student must study very carefully the Table of Inversions
and experiment extensively with the dissonance resources
of each D. C. inversion.

29
 CHAPTER II

CANON IN TWO PARTS

1. In order to qualify as a canon, a two-voice composi

tion must meet three conditions:
(1) both voices will have the same melody;
(2) the melody will enter at different times;
(3) the entire mechanism will repeat without altera
tion, omission, or the addition of free material. Less rigidly
constructed music must be relegated to the more general
realm of Imitation. Of the three conditions stated above,
only the last presents any problems in terms of Double
Counterpoint.
2. Before embarking upon the business of canon con
struction it will be helpful to establish a set of seven
terms together with suitable abbreviations in order to
simplify the identification and explanation of the pro
cesses involved:
P = Proposta, the voice that first announces the
canon theme; the leader.
R = Risposta, the second voice to state the canon
theme; the follower.
c. u. = canonic unit, the note value in which the
canon is calculated,
u. v. = upper voice
1. v. = lower voice
m. v. = middle voice
c = interval of the canon
m = melodic interval
v = vertical interval
No other terms are necessary for the present.
30
3. Before beginning a canon, the following aspects of
the composition must be decided:
( 1) the initial notes of both P and R;
(2) the time span (i. e. , the number of c. u.) between
the initial notes of P and R;
(3) the time span (i. e. the number of c. u.) between
the double bars which embrace the repetition of the canon
mechanism. Thus, an elementary canon problem could be
planned out and stated as follows:

Complete the following canon.

Ex. 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r£-r 1 • 4 '
•

C = 8

J^L ° * *
^—I?

A technical description of the above problem would be:

Canon at the 8ve at 1 c. u. lead in the P (the c. u. being
the whole-note), with P in 1. v. and 8 c. u. between the
double bars.
4. The canon can be completed systematically by means
of a series of six steps carried out in the following order:
Step one: Copy in before the second double bar what
ever comes in the P before the first double bar.
31
Ex. 18

351
R
c= 8

m
This first step places the beginning of P (i.e., the portion
that precedes the entrance of R) between the double bars
so that condition (3) as stated in paragraph 1 above will
come about automatically when the remaining four steps
have been completed.
Step two: Block off twice as many c. u. before the sec
ond double bar as have been copied in in the P. (In this
case 2 c. u. will be blocked off since 1 c. u. has been
copied in.)

Ex. 19
t » •
h£~l f • 4
•

*Fz—**— • -e r
./ t> 1 •

32
Step three: Continue P and R until the former comes up
to the blocked-off portion, and the latter extends into it.
(The following solution operates within the vertical and
melodic limitations of 1st Species Counterpoint.)

Ex. 20
< •
1 •
Jjj) k j I

o -0- -&-
A
f* —©—
J-^> • ** •

Step four: Tie over both P and R to a trial note "x",

and add the interval between x and R to the interval between
P and x to determine the D. C. inversion within which the
repeat will operate.

Ex. 21
1 •
• •
6
L/ i
y£ L* ^ m 1
i^i • •
v Vj (Tk 9> ^.
cy /*
O

O
%y
^

v\*
/• i
.r*.
** 6
*»
Q_
'. o *»
o M *
-^-t •
* 8 + 7 = D.C. ^14

33
 Step five: Referring to the D. C. inversion determined
by the interval addition in Step four (in this case D. C. 14)
in the Table of Inversions in paragraph 1 of Chapter I,
select a suitable pair of intervals to substitute for those
created by the trial notes (x) in Ex. 21 above, since these
do not make correct 1st Species Counterpoint.

Ex. 22

A i1 •
V
Jr iL ^B • ' *"
IfTi ™ ■ ct •
"v n
/«
C = 8y 5 + 10= D.C. 14
—cr~ —M o —CT- o
»)! , —& 1f V
f»
>* O
V J« —© r
* h0
•8-1-7= D.C. • 14

It goes without saying that the sum of the trial note inter
vals and the sum of the intervals that are used to complete
the canon must be the same. Now that the canon is com
pleted the trial notes will serve no further purpose and may
be erased. However, should the trial notes developed in
Step four also produce acceptable counterpoint in whatever
idiom is being employed, they may be used for the comple
tion of the canon.
5. For proof that condition (1) in paragraph 1 is fulfilled,
the diagonal intervals throughout the entire canon should
be checked. They must all agree. Should it so happen that
the diagonal intervals are not all alike, somewhere an
error has been made and the resulting structure is in that
case not a canon.
34
Ex. 23

PP 3CE
r --r r. —^
T
v 7>. 7 ¥ '/I £L J
/
"/
3E
m£ T^
3E
2E

6. The abstract canon as developed in paragraph 4 above

can be used in all sorts of ways that are limited only by
the composer's imagination and invention. The c. u. may
be adjusted to any note value desired. And the canon may
be embellished as the composer wishes. Ex. 24 shows two
extremely simple treatments. In (b) the notes of the basic
abstract canon occur at the beginning of each measure.

Ex. 24

(a) c. n. = •

^^
c=8 ¥ ¥
P Ti r

m
?*¥W
t a
i
f $ (P)

35
The numerous techniques of canonic embellishment are
treated in more depth and in far greater variety in a later
chapter.
1. The five step process demonstrated in paragraph 4 is
the same regardless of the interval of the canon and
whether P is in 1. v. or u. v. The following problem of a
canon at the 7th with P in u. v. and 10 c. u. between the
double bars is carried out through the series of steps
without comment or explanation.
36
Ex. 25

3SI

c~ 7
\
^m
R

(a) Step one:

rfri—| •• 1

c = 7
\
o
•1 «
j. y . t

(b) Step two:

« •

F#*=l • 4
r\ «

c=7 \o
^y p •
h
••
•
R •
•

•
(c) Step three:
»
4 •
ij) i i• » •
rv n
c=7 :«►
\
o —©- O o
i ii •
^/ y. • •
R

37
 1 •
#H t o
o
—O- -fr- •

\ «► *
o -»- O <»

,^_J!—
R ! 7 H- 4= *. D.C. 10

(e) Step fi ve:

f) it
-*-*— i O H
ia_o_ t o o ..«!.. -&- A O 0 1
3 r 8= D.C. 10
c=7 4»
.O .9-
-©- ■o —©- O O -O—
• i
f ¥ • •
4
R : 7h- 4= : D.C. 10
11 •

8. By means of the suspension resources within D. C.

10, the trial notes in this case could serve to complete the
canon in the following manner. Ex. 26 is a reworking
of Step five.
Ex. 26

Step five reworked: *)

i m:
c=7
3E
HE
XE
ggH
7-6_t4 --5 =
gfep
B I
3.C.
10
XE
§§E
s. —I
'7 + 4 = D.C. •
10 •
*) See D. C. 10 in the Table of Inversion
38
Many contrapuntal situations arise in which Step five be
comes impossible within the 1st Species intervallic restric
tions. When this occurs, correct dissonances provide the
only solution.
9. When two or more c. u. in the P precede the entrance
of R, Steps four and five must be repeated for each one of
these c. u. The problem to be completed is proposed in
the usual format:
Ex. 27

f#*=l f

o
• ~&~
|g
$== ^ R
c = 6
<*

Since there is no difference between this and the preceding

one c. u. canons in carrying out Steps one, two and three,
these are now shown simultaneously.
Step two
Ex. 27 continued .>
w
(a) Steps one, two and three: * ■
a »•

F#^ 1
1
—o-
O
o
/6
•

c=6
o o o
c>
• I -7 t •»
U-2.
p «
•
C

■ • « • • 1

Ste p thrt;e / \ Step one

39
(b) Step four for 1st c. u.

*E XE XEZX
XE
c= 6

^:g " XE
S
2 + 11= D.C. 12.

(c) Step five for 1st c. u.

11
■x •
f#*=q —■■— 1
1 -o-
-cr- K0 —4
O +
3 10 = D.C. 12
c=6 R
o o
■ 1
r^-I ^ •
2 + 11= D.C. 12

(d) Step four for 2nd c. u.:

4t •
v0 4s
iC ™ ■■ *
o
o
»- It 0 £r_
H
" '•
IIS
"v A
o
c=6 'R 3 + 10 = d.c. i:
«►
'C* «%
4V o'' «
/• * ••
j * •
! 2 + 11= D.C. 12
! 7 + 8= D.C. 14

40
(e) Step five for 2nd c. u.:

=fc= 3tzat
HE
3£
10 =
Si
D.C. 12
c=6 10 + 5= D.C. 14
_o_ _Ck o
3x: 35:
§a
•2 + 11= D.C. 12
7 + 8= D.C. 14

The canon is herewith completed, and can be used in any

c. u. dimension and ornamented as elaborately as may be
desired (cf. paragraph 6). The diagonal intervallic check
for correctness will now be carried out as follows (cf.
paragraph 5):

Ex. 28

R
r» ■ —O
O |
-3»- -if—'.
... &

-£-z—
4 •
^

(P)

10. The method demonstrated above makes certain the

successful repeat of any two-part canon regardless of the
number of c. u. involved, either before the entrance of
the R or between the double bars.
41
11. Only one additional observation is in order con
cerning two-part canons with two or more c. u. in the P
before the entrance of the R. This has to do with the
number of c. u. between the double bars, and has an effect
chiefly upon the embellishing of the canon. The number
of c. u. between the double bars may be
(1) an even multiple of the number of c. u. in the
P before the entrance of the R;
(2) an odd multiple of the number of c. u. in the
P before the entrance of the R, or less frequently,
(3) no multiple of the number of c. u. in the P before
the entrance of the R.
The canon developed in paragraph 9 is of the first type:
2 c. u. before the entrance of the R, and 8 c. u. (4 x 2)
between the double bars. An odd multiple would place
some number like 10 (5 x 2), 14 (1 x 2), etc. c. u. between
the double bars. And, were the canon to be constructed so
that no multiple of 2 would be embraced by the double
bars, the number of c. u. would then have to be an odd
number such as 1, 9, 11, etc.
12. Aside from the embellishment problems that are apt
to arise in the second and third types of time span between
the double bars (measured in terms of c. u.) mentioned in
paragraph 11, a more theoretical difference exists that
may pass unnoticed in an analysis of the finished canon.
Every canon wherein two or more c. u. precede the entrance
of R actually embodies as many one c. u. canons as there
are c. u. in the P before R enters. This can be shown by
means of the completed canon in Ex. 28 by numbering the
two given c. u. in the P before the entrance of R as (1)
and (2) respectively and then indicating the two one c. u.
canons originating therein by and as below.
42
Ex. 29

L-2c.u._J«_ 8 (2 x 4) c. u.

*=
H
31
us: 3£
-**-.* T7 ,»*
$•
c= 6
I x -j^
m IT

(1) (2) (1) (2)

The above diagram shows that when (1) and (2) in P

return before the second double bar they come in the same
one c. u. canons as at the beginning. This would likewise
be the case if there were an odd multiple of 2 between the
double bars. But, were the number of c. u. between the
double bars not a multiple of 2, such as 9, the situation
before the second double bar would change since (1) would
come in the (2) one c. u. canon and (2) would come in the
(1) one c. u. canon. Ex. 30 shows how this operates when
the same problem is increased to 9 c. u. 'between the double
bars.
Ex. 30

■2 c. u^- 9 c. u.
Y
*»T> S HT 3
,4 T
I A A' ir x*z i

rr -O. or
m CD (2)
o:

(l) (2)
43
The same arithmetical principle of canon dimensions as
discussed above is, of course, applicable to whatever
number of c. u. there may be either before or between the
double bars. Nothing further remains to be said about how
a canon repeats.
13. Before ending this chapter it may prove interesting
to examine the construction of one canon in The Musical
Offering by Bach. Somewhat enigmatic in appearance, it
is presented thus:

Ex. 31
Bach

This is a canon at the 15th, P in u. v. with 4 c. u. (each

c. u. being a J ) in the P before the entrance of R and
with 20 c. u. between the double bars. The obbligato
between P and R is a free part and has no bearing on the
mechanical structure of the canon. The canon together
with the free part is given below in full with each c. u.
numbered in both P and R. The free part is written in the
treble clef so that it can be read easily at the piano if
so desired.
44
Ex. 32

Free Part

(9) (10) (11) (12) (|!» (14) (15) (16)

^faJ
(51
§ J fifif
(6) H) (8)
i£
(9) (10) (11) (12)

^W~[f^^P[m-ii|J p
lfr^CTBfri^
(17) (18) (19)
^

(B) (14) (15) (16)

wlJTq 7

Shorn of embellishments and without the obbligato, the J

-note c. u. structure with its trial notes and double counter
point calculations appears thus:
45
Ex. 33
>(D (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (152 Sl6l...

Ii P ?
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

f s i P * £ B i
(1^ ^(18) (19) (20)
© i2J_ (3) (4)

46
14. As presented in the printed music the above canon
has the double bars come after the first c. u. in the P.
Once the canon is completed it is immaterial at what point
the double bars are placed since the mechanism repeats
automatically.
15. From the principles set forth in this chapter it is
possible to reconstruct for analysis purposes any existing
two-part canon as well as to solve any repeat problem in
an original two-part canon.

M
 CHAPTER III

INVERTIBLE CANON IN TWO PARTS

1. Just as Ex. 1 and Ex. 2 of the Introduction show an

invertible two-part counterpoint and illustrate its inter-
vallic construction, so can an invertible two-part canon
be written. Such a mechanism, which yields two two-part
canons, involves the simultaneous operation of three D. C.
inversions:
(1) the interval in which the canon inverts,
(2) the inversion within which the upper two-part
canon repeats, and
(3) the inversion within which the lower two-part
canon repeats.
For an elementary problem: compose a canon at the 6th,
P in I. v. with I c. u. before the entrance of R and 8 c. u.
between the double bars, infertible in D. C. 12, thereby
producing a canon at the 7th with P in u. v.

Ex.34
Original canon

48
2. Ex. 35 shows, the usual procedure, as established in
paragraph 4 of Chapter II, carried through Step four in both
canons at the same time.

Ex. 35

Original canon I 6 + 8=D.C. 13

In every invertible canon the sum of the D. C. inversions

within which the two canons repeat is equal to twice the
interval in which the canon is inverted, in the present
case 13 + 11 - 12 x 2.
3. While intervals within a D. C. inversion are added as
shown in paragraph 3 of Chapter 1, the D. C. inversions
are added according to the usual arithmetic. The two kinds
of addition that become an integral element of every inver
tible canon should not be too confusing once the process
is understood.
49
4. Step five can now be carried out to complete the
canons. But, before doing so, review the S. >, % *,
and T. — > resources within the three D. C. in\ersions
involved, as given in the Table of Inversions in paragraph
7 of Chapter 1. Ex. 36 shows Step five executed in both
canons, that is above and below the P, without further
explanation.
Ex. 36

Original canon + 8= D.C. 13

n jggr
$s T t* ?
6 7 8 7
T— ->

K-&
— -*.. 3
7 6 5 6

Hl^
3H

7 + 5= D.C. 11

*) See footnote concerning l J to Table of Inversions

in Chapter I.

5. When suitably embellished and performed separately

as -perhaps -different sections of a larger composition,
the two canons developed above within the Double Counter
point technique might appear as shown below. Although
the two canons are worked out simultaneously, the har
monic effect can be quite, and even surprisingly, unlike.
This can be heard by comparing (a) and (b) of Ex. 37-
50
Ex. 37

(a)A Allegro

wm ^
m
^Ffi w^m I uzffl
^JB
^S w
+4h*-0-
mm*
g^f i
(»)
irtttf
51
6. In a little vocal canon by Haydn the R together with
its inversion (or more correctly, displacement) are used at
once. The displacement is made in D. C. 3 (D. C. 10-8),
so that the R is sung below P in parallel 3rds throughout
the entire canon. (See Ex. 1 in paragraph 7 of the introduc
tion.) Technically this can be described as a canon at the
3rd, P in u. v. with 2 c. u. ( J") before the entrance of R
and 24 c. u. between the double bars; and with the R dis
placed in D. C. 3. As is the case in the Bach canon quoted
in Ex. 31 in Chapter II, the double bars for use in perfor
mance are not placed where the double bars for calculating
the repeat would normally appear. It is being left to the
student to reconstruct the compositional processes and
D. C. calculations through which this canon was evolved.
52
Ex. 38

53
Upon the completion of the analytical reconstruction, it
may be just a trifle disappointing to realize that Haydn
seems to avoid any really challenging D. C. problems by
means of repeated notes and rests.
1. The above is not a three-part canon! It is a two-part
canon with the R doubled through vertical displacement
in D. C. 3.
 CHAPTER IV

THE SPIRAL CANON-CANONIC RECURRENCE

1. The so-called Spiral Canon is simply a form of the

two-part canon as already discussed in Chapter II. The
only difference is that in a Spiral Canon the repeat takes
place at a pitch other than that at which the original
entries of P and R occur. There are two general categories
of the Spiral Canon: those in which the repeat is
(1) on another degree of the scale within the same
key, and
(2) on the corresponding scale degree in another
key.
The latter type is the more common. An example of each
is shown below.
Ex. 39

etc.

55
 xc

m: 3E
It
C maj. E maj.

etc'.

J L.
A-flat maj. -
G-sharp maj.

In (a) the repeat automatically occurs a 3rd higher for as

many times as the canon is continued. In (b) the repeat
will be each time in the key a major 3rd higher than the
preceding one so long as the canon is carried on; in this
case the series being C major, E major, G-sharp (enhar-
monically A-flat) major and C major one octave higher than
at the beginning. Naturally, the proper accidentals must
be inserted to modulate satisfactorily into each subse
quent recurrence of P and R.
2. Thus, by inserting different accidentals, the above
canon could be adjusted to modulate upward by minor 3rds
from C major through Ft.-flat major, G-flat (enharmonically
(--sharp) major, A major and back into C major one octave
higher.
56
Ex. 40

etc.

G-flat maj. =
F-sharp maj.

The illustrations in Ex. 39(b) and Ex. 40 happen to involve

major keys. Minor keys are, of course, equally usable.
3. Modulating canons (type (2) mentioned in paragraph 1
above) can spiral in any of the following intervals and
return to the original key one octave higher or lower:

(1) minor 2nd, up or down (4) major 3rd, up or down

(2) major 2nd, up or down (5) augmented 4th, up or down
(3) minor 3rd, up or down (6) 8ve, up or down

Spiralling by any other interval-the perfect 4th or any

interval greater than the augmented 4th, except the 8ve-it
is impossible to return to the original key within one .
octave above or below.
57
 4. When the canon is at some interval other than the
octave or unison, the insertion of accidentals to effect a
smooth modulation can present problems. In Ex. 41 a canon
at the 5th, P in u. v. with 3 c. u. before the entrance of
R, spirals downward by minor 2nds.

XE
3E E ¥ i i

JO.
VOL

B maj.

P m F *

R etc.
«¥«=
2 fe
^ ii ?te Cm 3C MO-

By reducing the c. u. from © to J and grouping them

in three-beat measures, the above canon could appear for
practical performance purposes thus:
58
Ex. 42
C maj.

B maj.

$mis
pa m j
R etc.

p £e*£ Hi J U

As a duet for two violins through the entire cycle of 12

keys, it would be expedient to begin an octave higher and
end with a short coda thus:

Ex. 43

Allegretto
C maj .

Violin I

Violin
"P 59
^m
 B maj.
-f^tf-
mm. m it=iz

P^m Jm& 15
■±±\

B-flat
i^k

^
i Hii *^ll
A maj.

-* *■ m R
f
H3^ Pip ^1 ^

60
 A-flat mai.
■/iWiuitPHuH
4
P tf | ryp'r ^ PP
R

imp SH g^S
r jj w3 w-r >p
G mai
f-srW
P P^g w wm
lfe# ^^
^
■ i
MS
F-sharp maj.

tt P i#^f W
R.

*-it—*.
w i^ 5 P9
61
 F mai

^m jfofeIm
a* s i P
PP
Hn it'^J iir a $

J r\ . E mai
iH ^
i ^
*#
R

PipPI p Jgnjjjl Jjjjji

E-flat
"^r
m 8 gpi gz* 3
R

l&i^ij p i i Br"
.^ PH
"rB *E^

62
 9 jiff ;J*| I m
m t
0 ' *
«
C-sharp ma| ^2
g ^m ?fpp
m s
JL
P^ IB i f*«*

w
fe^#
¥ ** i
R

81
6 JTJ3- SPi ^ §
63
5. Except for Step one, the process for constructing the
repeat of the spiral is the same as shown for the two-part
canon in Chapter II. The illustrations that follow show the
steps in the construction of the model in Ex. 39-40.
Step one: Copy in at the desired pitch and after the
number of c. u. that are required for each section of the
spiralling canon mechanism whatever c. u. appear in both
the P and the R at the beginning of the canon.

Ex. 44

Lr
■■
Fff\
V \j
^ c
ir R

£\m
•/•
/
S
rv
r» V €%m |1

Step two: Block off twice as many c. u. as come in P

before the return of R. (cf. Ex. 19 in Chapter II.)

Ex.45

• •
f#= -o- -&
c=8
lT 7*-

64
«1
w
p 4i
Steps three, four, and five:
Ex. 46

f£=^ —e—
u —e
c=8

-^ »
e— n o— —o
^
jt **

8 = D.C. 16(D.C. 9 + 8)
+ 5 = D.C. 13

The accidentals can now be added, as in Ex. 39(b) and

Ex. 40, and all subsequent repetitions will occur auto
matically however long the canon may be continued (cf.
Ex. 41-43.).
6. A Spiral Canon by Bach in The Musical Offering
appears under the title "Canon a 2- per tonos" thus:

65
 Ex. 47
Bach

Written out in full, the above canon together with the

obbligato against which it is played appears as follows:

Ex. 48
J f\ Obbligato

i act 2
m
4£=
^ I
£
^P
i.
*=e
?

66
i S
gg tMtoCT
^^

te
A 1 J i
s J^frcfr##Or r ^
^^v
tn%f i ^g
Obbligato
The basic canon, stripped of its embellishments and
divorced from its accompanying obbligato, is given with
all of the D. C. calculations required for the repeat a major
2nd higher in Ex. 49. To say the least, it is proof of Bach's
uncanny ability that he could embellish such an unlikely
looking and intrinsically static canon into such beautiful
and artistically successful music. His use of the rest
eliminated one D. C. problem at the end. In a few instances
the embellishing notes become both harmonically functional
and ornamental, and are inserted in parenthesis.
Ex.49
m m X £
10 -4

^ p i * 4 £
P3 (Dmin.)
--4

D.C. 9

A confusing aspect of this canon in its original printed

form is .that the R cannot apply the accidentals literally
since B-flat must be answered by F-natural and B-natural
must be answered by F-sharp if the resulting harmony is
to make sense. The entire key sequence is C minor, D
minor, E minor, F-sharp minor, G-sharp minor, A-sharp
minor (enharmonically B-flat minor) and back to C minor
one octave higher than the beginning. The canon operates
at the perfect 5th throughout.

69
 THE CANONIC RECURRENCE

1. The same technical process that makes possible the

Spiral Canon also enables a composer to bring in the
original canon theme at whatever pitch he may desire at
any pre-determined point within the form. One modest
illustration will suffice. A typical problem would be to
compose a canon with the original P theme brought in at
the specific points indicated:

Ex. 50

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
E
= 8 /* (c = 8)
-»-
£ p p
(11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)
£
(c = 8)

m
Steps two, three, four and five as required to bring in each
recurrence of the original theme, indicated by , are
completed in Ex. 51 without further explanation. It will be
70
 noted that the D. C. calculation process as employed here
is exactly the same as that by which a Spiral Canon
is solved.
Ex. 51

(1) (2) (3) (4) . (5) (6) . (7) (8) (9) (10)
jCC
IE nsz
c= 8

I
w 5 +
f3 tz:
10
.fit.
R

*l;. o
§ EF
8 + 7 *= D.C. 14

.(11) ^12). (13) (14) (15) (16) (17). (18) (19) .

* o M a '.
« *
xe POf x
19
P J 6 + 12
(5 + 2 8ves) (5 + 8)
Xfil
XE
^ 351
• p I . '— •— • — . — •—1 • p I— •—^»
•8+19 *=D.C. 26(D. C. 12 + 2 8vesT) 8 + 10 = D. C. 17

*(i5. t. io+j

8. The artistic possibilities of the Canonic Recurrence

technique in a systematically planned and well executed
form are limited only by the inventive skill and creative
71
uoijbuiSbiiii jo eqi ersoduioc y leduiis jneiuhsiipquie jo
ehj nonbd pedopAep 3aocjb Abui ntxod eth Xbm o] sihj pin>|
jo jbcisnui noiiisoduioc

xg ZS

a
s §ggj » j F?m
)s) )9) GO

«
s »
&
r "1
FAr g
^

s
r» #
Sfr nE m
(6) (nf
)8) )01)

ps r* -•
ii^r
KS

£3 6e sr 5 m
Zl
 - (12) (15)
(13) (14)

m fRP??5?^g
gg J?DJ^
s^ §1 3 Elae ■» ■

L.
(17)
(16) (19)

i# «---*
5 ^^

m itftir £e£ SFB

izr

73
 CHAPTER V

CANON IN CONTRARY MOTION

1. A canon is in Contrary Motion when the P and R

progress by the same melodic intervals, but in the opposite
direction.
Ex.53
*)

*) In repeated notes no element of melodic direction in

the present sense is involved.

2. An elementary problem could be set up and stated

as follows:
Complete the following Canon in Contrary Motion.
F.x. 54

m •
•

•
t

•i

*) In a canon in contrary motion the "c" interval is not

relevant in the same way that it has functioned in the pre
ceding chapters, and will not be indicated in the present
chapter.
74
3. To effect a satisfactory repeat, proceed thus:
Step one: As in step one in paragraph 4 of Chapter II.
See Ex. 18.

Ex. 55

• *
*

Ben »
\J . —1 I■ "11
■

Step two: The same as step two in paragraph 4 of Chapter

II. See Ex. 19.

Ex. 56

• *■
■•

75
Step three: Continue P and R in contrary motion until
the former comes up to the blocked-off portion, and the
latter extends into it (cf. Ex. 20).

Ex.57 i •
1 •
•» •
2— *-e- ■—
.«x o
«
*

.&- •

D l
U- 1 —&- t&—e-
n • •
R • *
• •

Step four: Tie over both P and R to a trial note x, and

place in a vertical alignment the interval between x and R
above the interval between P and x.

Ex.58

11 •
F#=| t_ •
•
#4? p
B o .o .o-

• —o- r-O-

12^9
Extend this pair of intervals into a series to the right by
reducing each number by 1 until the smaller figures reach
1, and to the left by increasing each number by 1 as far
as may be desired.

14 13 12 9 8 7 6 5 410
etc.
11 10 9 8
6 5 4 3 2 17
N. B. Such a series of vertically aligned intervals does
not represent double counterpoint, and has no relation to
the Table of Inversions in Chapter 1.
Stev five: Select a suitable pair of intervals from the
above series and complete the canon.

Ex. 59
m •
vf\
/r V •
lC\ ■ r» ■
"v 4> r% X°
p
o
.&. T*
o Ip •©-
13 10
11 1
s\» r» z1 r
/• ™ • n i i •
/ • • ** i u *
a ©, rCk

r • ;i -•/ r
-etc. _M_ ! 13/
u ; io :

4. When two or more c. u. in the P precede the entrance

of R, the five step process as demonstrated above is
carried out for each c. u. separately. Without further expla-
77
nation steps four and five are shown below in Ex. 60(a)
and (b) as they were applied in the construction of the
canon in Ex. 53 in paragraph 1.
Ex. 60

(a) Steps four and five for first c. u.:

8' : 7 8

(b) Steps four and five for second c. u.:

5. Under Step four in paragraph 3 the instructions say
that the pair of vertically aligned intervals resulting from
the trial notes (x) are to become part of a series that is
to be extended "to the right by reducing each number by 1
until the smaller figures reach 1 ." In most cases this is
quite sufficient. But, in a close canon it may become
necessary to continue the series beyond 1 into minus (-)
intervals. In Ex. 61 the trial notes (x) produce minus (-)
intervals so that the series must be extended right to give
additional minus intervals and left in order to arrive at 1.
The following shows only the canon as completed with
Step five.

Ex.61

p—i:
R W
■&
/ ifc
-6 3
v
m -77
* ■
zzz
-5 -2
-i—

etc. I \3 i 2 -2
3 -2 -3':
L*J 5

79
6. Embellishments for a canon in contrary motion will,
as is the canon itself, likewise be in contrary motion. This
applies to chromaticized notes as well as to diatonic ones.
Ex. 62 provides an extremely simple treatment of the canon
in Ex. 59.

Ex.62

80
It may be very difficult, if not outright impossible, to say
with any degree of certainty what the duration of the
original c. u. is once a canon is embellished. It could be
argued quite convincingly that in the above canon the
c. u. = «P , with 4 c. u. in the P before the entrance of R
in the event that Ex. 59 were not in existence to support
the fact that structurally the canon operates by 1 c. u. per
measure.
1. A rather interesting canon in contrary motion by exact
intervallic imitation appears in The Musical Offering by
Bach under the caption, "CANON a 2. Quaerando in-
venietis.", with no point indicated for the entrance of R:
Ex « Bach
■ur- i uvrrrt \r 1 1 ! r n *i i r^^

8. The canon is calculated in the key of F major. It

does not follow that it "sounds" in F major. Nor does it
follow that it "looks" like F major. By aligning vertically
the F major scale against itself in contrary motion, taking
the 2nd degree of the scale as the originating point, it
can be seen how the corresponding notes in P and R are
derived. That is, the notes that are vertically aligned in
the following diagram provide the corresponding notes that
will occur diagonally in P and R in the canon. Chro-
maticized notes used in the canon have black noteheads.
81
Ex. 64

VII I II III IV

-^f,
JE
tr >b*
iv in ii : i vii

v VI VII I II III

b^tyo «^P *B^be

$

y> ° g iH5 n-*bi -&.

;KHK»i
VI V IV III ii :

Written out in full, the canon will appear thus:

Ex. 65

I &: - I
P g t|j j ^e s

s 82
 mm PP B J i
p
s ^
R
' \* \>* I d E
^

333 4s=*
J J.i
^^

?> I JkJt;J M\* 5 i P?

j 1 J3flJJ3]L ^PRI pgg J3
Sfcf^t £w
d *d« JJ^JJJJ I

a JJJ J .^^^^
i p
n§4S * g£H|
83
 f
zHft
S I ft ^ B^ IP
The relationship of the above canon to the diagram in
Ex. 64 will be seen at a glance when the R is placed
directly below the P so that the corresponding notes are
aligned vertically. The notes so aligned vertically will
correspond without exception to those in Ex. 64.
Ex. 66

im ¥*=$ m i
W
m£ m % h+ 5 ¥
zzz

9. In order to reconstruct the repeat calculations a

slightly different format will be helpful (cf. Ex. 31-33 in
Chapter II). When the first double bar is placed immediately
before the entrance of R in the usual way, it becomes
clear that 10 c. u. come in the P before R enters, and
60 c. u. separate the double bars. The c. u. = J , and
all c. u. in P and R are numbered so that they may be
readily matched with the diagram in Ex. 64. Ex. 67 shows
the completed canon with steps four and five carried out
for each of the 10 c. u. without further explanation or
comment. Half-notes are rewritten as tied quarter-notes
for c. u. identification.
84
 E x. 67

i *.' © , i
T1 J i .R-
.•*-, 1 3^4-
a Is t
St-
10 - (48)
1 "™* — "T
I t * n t
f 4 * ' I
tk 1 t1»? •
CO
r ▼ w i t

a. © !I CO II
sr 3, I > 2- T
si Us .. I w I
C\4
3 T 1 co T
*— I T>
ot 1 \ *™ 3,
I1 5
2-
T
> 1C5*
co 1 i i co" T
So"
) 3 1 2- T
li n i
P
i .
r £
® ' .a
*I 1 R- co
1* ^ri
T'

) s '
© T
<*-..
! ©- "5 ml1!
o
9 -- ©II 1 9 11
eo\. f co --
65- 1
CO
ey L w --
e
E ' Pi
tCK CO 1 * TT»
s' fi! n~': .■
1

CO
El
1
ft 1 1)
2- T
SB*" CO 1 2-
g" 3, 1
CO S- '
P" L • J
i
> <3- Ei N T
CO
§ L W 1
CM .
io - p.
CO r 2- J
.n i 1 5- '
o 1 L '* §
CO '.'.
[ ** S-
Si -
ST . >
cv L i ®...
^2, [ i • --
0. 2i

85
From the numerical information contained in the preceding
diagram the reconstructing of the repeat through the 10
c. u. should present no problem. However, two ef the series
combinations may seem a bit confusing because of the
embellishments until they are thought out completely:
(56) _ (6) and (57) _ (7)
(46) (56) (47) (57)
10. The Bach canon examined in Ex. 63-67 is in exact
contrary motion in one key with odd-numbered diagonal
intervals. On the other hand, the little canon developed
in Ex. 54-59 is in exact contrary motion in one key with
even-numbered diagonal intervals, operating diatonically
in the key of C major. This possibility exists when the
major scale is set against itself in contrary motion with
the two lines originating on the fifth and sixth degrees of
the scale respectively. Ex. 68 demonstrates how this
situation comes about.
Ex. 68

m VI
V
V* *iS o g

r» o TT^)n
« Ctogj 33E

When the P and R in Ex. 59 are aligned vertically as in

Ex. 66 it will be seen at a glance how this principle
works to generate the melodic lines.
11. The chromaticized notes in Ex. 68 correspond to
those suggested in Ex. 62, being simply an embellished
version of the canon in Ex. 59- The student may wish to
experiment with still more extensive and imaginative use
of accidentals in this otherwise extremely simple canon.
86
 12. A canon in exact contrary motion can be constructed
with even more interest when the P and R are calculated
in two different keys. The final canon in The Musical
Offering by Bach, No. 6 captioned "Canon perpetuus,"
is so written. The P, assigned to the flute, is calculated
in D-flat major while the R, given to the violin, is struc
turally derived from the key of D major. The beginning of
the composition, which has a subjoined continuo part (not
included herewith), appears thus:
Ex. 69

^W^rrr
*• mH
m i :WJ
i t

Pi te£
i/jPJ', ~r»r > t=tOi
m etc.

^m
By aligning vertically in contrary motion the scales of
D-flat and D with the intervening chromaticized notes,
beginning on the second degree of the scale (cf. Ex. 64),
and then aligning the P and R likewise (cf. Ex. 66), the
entire bi-tonal concept becomes apparent at once. Both
of these theoretical structural alignments are given with
no further comment in Ex. 70, but in the latter the chro
maticized notes are indicated by "x." The music, despite
its bi-tonal origin, "sounds" in C minor with numerous and
varied transient modulatory effects.
87
Ex. 70

m ".*? ■."if a "'? o if

') :
x x X*—.. x
m . a
m^ ^ i=ii
feB
p§ m
P? etc.
x x

1) 8ve higher than in above diagram

2) 8ve lower than in above diagram

This closing movement of The Musical Offering is not,

strictly speaking, a canon because the normal repeat pro
cess is not present. More correctly, it consists of two
different canons so smoothly spliced together at measures
18 and 20, and again at the repeat, that it would take a
keen listener to notice what actually takes place. The
second canon reassigns the P and R themes and is calcu
lated in the keys of A-flat and A major respectively. In
the most rigid sense of the word, this movement can be
thought of as a very skillfully wrought canonic fraud.
13. Contrary motion canons can be developed in this
way from any desired pair of major keys. Contrary motion
canons in exact intervallic imitation cannot originate in
minor keys, but can easily he made to "sound" in a minor
key resulting from the fusion of two major keys.
88
 14. From the foregoing examples it will be observed
that canons in contrary motion fall into the following types:
(1) by inexact intervallic imitation,
(2) by exact intervallic imitation in one key
(a) with odd-numbered diagonal intervals, and
(b) with even-numbered diagonal intervals,
(3) by exact intervallic imitation in two keys
Type (1) is not illustrated in this chapter since it requires
no particular skill, and will occur quite naturally when the
originating point is taken at some scale degree (or degrees)
other than those shown in Ex. 64 and Ex. 68

INVERTIBLE CANON IN CONTRARY MOTION

15. An invertible canon in contrary motion offers no

great difficulties in its numerical construction, but it can
present troublesome problems if it is to be written in
strict counterpoint. Since any such invertible mechanism
actually consists of two independent canons that must be
composed simultaneously, but performed separately (cf.
Ex. 36 and Ex. 37(a), (b), it becomes necessary therefore
to set up two intervallic series which will be applied in
opposite directions, one operating to the left and the other
to the right. Ex. 71 provides an example in D. C. 15
(D. C. 8 + 8), and consists of two one c. u. canons both
of which are in exact intervallic imitation in one key and
with even-numbered diagonal intervals. The intervallic
series operative in the two canons produce a crude ascend
ing third-beat dissonance in the penultimate measure which
results in a rather successful suspension in the last
measure.
89
Ex. 71

The above diagrammed method will suffice for constructing

any invertible canon in contrary motion.

90
 CHAPTER VI

THE CRAB CANON

1. A Crab Canon is one in which the theme operates

against itself in retrograde:

Ex. 72

Such a contrapuntal device is also known as a Retrograde

Canon and as Canon in Cancrizans Motion, the three terms
being synonymous. When, as in Ex. 72 above, the canon
theme is to be performed against itself at the same pitch,
it can be written on one staff with the clef at the right-
hand end of the line reversed.
91
Ex. 73

in 3
ipHapiii Jij-j ii
An 18-measure crab of this type is included in The Musical
Offering by Bach as No. IV of "Canones diversi" under
the misleading title of "Canon a 2." The student can
write it out in full on two staves with no difficulty.
2. In a crab canon the terms Proposta and Risposta are
hardly applicable since the voices do not enter at different
times. Nor is there any problem of a repeat. However,
should a repeat be desired, a crab canon at the unison
such as that shown above would not be effective because
the two ends are in all probability the same. Thus, a strong
repeat progression is conspicuously lacking. To repeat
successfully, the theme in retrograde should be at another
pitch to set up a satisfactory end to beginning progression.

Ex. 74

m
i 1 -&-
? iW ^

92
Here, in order to effect a satisfactory repeat progression,
the theme in retrograde is one note lower than the original
theme.
3. A crab canon is constructed within the D. C. inver
sion determined by the sum of its terminal intervals, which
must be established before the process of any thematic
invention is begun. In Ex. 75 the sum of the 8ves at either
end isD. C. 15 (D. C. 8 + 8).
Ex. 75

8 _—— 8

4. Once the terminal D. C. relationship is established,

the canon will be composed inward from both ends until
the thematic lines connect at the middle. Ex. 76(a) - (d)
provide a note by note demonstration of this compositional
working technique.
Ex. 76
(a) First progression from either end

3X5Z
§ 6

g¥^g zee:

13
93
(b) Second progression from either end

XE
!ms:
3C2
jOl 3E

4^=*Z&
S=
13
10
(c) Third progression from either end

*— XE
*=^1
-CC is: XC

-O-
XE
^^g rc
*=^l~i

13
10
10
(d) Last progression from either end, bringing about connection at
middle

13
10
10
10 6
94
By means of the technique shown in detail above any crab
canon, regardless of its length, thematic complexity or
whatever its terminal intervals may be, can be written.
5. A common structural feature with a resulting contra
puntal weakness exists in the crab canons in Ex. 72, in
The Musical Offering, and in Ex. 76(d). All three are (1)
derived inter vallically from essentially the same D. C.
inversion (Ex. 72 and the one by Bach from D. C. 1
(D. C. 8-8) and Ex. 76(d) from D. C. 15 ( D. C. 8 + 8) ),
and (2) all three contain an even number of notes. The
resulting weakness is a stagnant harmonic situation at
the middle progression where the two halves of the canon
are connected. These three ineffective middle progressions
are as follows:

Ex. 77

(a) Ex. 72 (b) Bach (c) Ex. 76 (d)

_Q_
3E
S
-3 3 10 6

95
This problem, which is inherent in D. C. 1 (D. C. 8-8)
and D. C. 15 (D. C. 8 + 8), can be overcome by making the
crab canon embrace an odd number of notes, thereby having
as fulcrum one central interval instead of a progression.
Ex. 78 gives two illustrations of such a solution: (a)
consisting of 11 o derived from D. C. 1, and (b) 21 J
derived from D. C. 15. Theoretically in each of these
instances the central interval is a double interval inasmuch
as it is approached from both directions. This, however,
is purely theoretical and not audible.

Ex. 78
(a) 11 © derived from D. C. 1 (D. C. 8 - 8)
••••
A —*-
V i ?
4\ n
l¥k
VVJ ™
O o O '.-&'. .©.
Xf T5 T5
15
©.
o '.-&'.
C\» '»
•I*i n
-/ 9n
*

1
-3 - - 3
3 - - -3
8 - -6
3- -3
i ■ •
: l :
••••

96
97
It is impossible to derive a crab canon from D.C.8 inasmuch
as crabs can only be composed from odd-numbered inversions.
6. The problem of a middle progression does not enter into
Ex. 74 since this crab is derived from D.C.3 (D.C. 10-8)
Ex. 79

I¥ w n

1 f 1 w im i ?
-3

-6
-4

-3-6
But, to derive a crab canon comprising an odd number of notes
from D.C.3 (D.C. 10-8) could cause contrapuntal problems at
the middle because the central interval will unavoidably be
a 2nd, the midpoint in the D. C. inversion.
Ex. 80

p £ zd:
i£
p * 3*5 m ?
-3

-3

98
7. From these observations it becomes evident that
each D. C. inversion must be studied separately in order
to determine accurately its middling possibilities for both
even and odd numbers of notes. To this end the Table of
Inversions is herewith given again but with one addition:
the middle intervals of the odd-numbered inversions are
boxed in with a solid line while in each of the even-
numbered inversions the intervals that will become the
middle when the inversion is decreased or expanded by
an octave is boxed in by a dotted line. For instance '2-\
in D. C. 10 becomes inD. C. 10-8, which is D. C. 3.
2.
8. An even-numbered D. C. inversion has no middle
interval and, therefore, cannot serve in the construction
of a crab canon. Thus, if it is desired to utilize the inter-
vallic and melodic resources of D. C. 8, D. C. 10, D. C. 12
or D. C. 14 and the harmonic implications arising there
from, these must be either reduced or expanded into the
corresponding odd-numbered inversions of D. C. 1 or D. C.
15, D. C. 3 or D. C. 17, D. C. 5 or D. C. 19, D. C. 7 or
D. C. 21 respectively (cf. Chapter I, paragraph 2). Up to
this point D. C. 1, D. C. 15 and D. C. 3 have been illus
trated in operation in the construction of crab canons.
9. The Table of. Inversions, with the additional indica
tions explained in paragraph 7 above, follows without
further comment:

99
 TABLE OF INVERSIONS

i '
» S—->S.—»T. ■.->$.—* ?.---»
8 : 7 6 5 4* 3 2 ;iI •
I). C. 8:
i . 2 3 4* 5 6 1 [8
S. —»T.->S. —*S. —* , %.---v-

S._—J\.~>S. _*S._ .-->S »T. ->

9 8 7 6 5 4* 3 2 1
1). C. 9
1 2 3 4* 6 7 8 9
T.. ..»S »T S._ ► S. _vr.. ..>».. -»T.. ->

10 7' 6 *5 4* *3 2
D. C. 10:
4* 5 6 7 8 9 10
S.

S._*T.->S. ,T..->S. ^T....>S..

DC. 11:
11* 10 9 8 7 1 _4* 2
2 3 4* 7 8 9 10 11*
..>S. ►T...->S.- .,».-> T. ->S..

S. —»T. -.->S. _^S. S. S.--.»

D. C. 12:
11* ; 10: _9_ 8 7 2 4* si": 2 1
2 S 1 .' 4* 5 6 1 8 9 11* 12
S li'" s. —».S. —»l .-•jt -> S. s »

_*s—»r.l-05—»r.. ..>?..._>
S >T.'..>S._»T.._>S „ S..
13 12 11* 10 9 8 7 6 5 4* 3 2 1
D. C. 13:
1 2 3 4* 5 6 7 8 9 10 11* 12 13
T. . . »S. __»T. . . >S. _*S. _♦ .> T. . - ->S. _»T. -»S. —*S. —*

;S._U.t.-.->s. .T.-->S »S.. ;s.-^»t.. .„»...->

D.C..4:f f f
;_n*J jo 1 L 1 1 2.10 111*!
:±* . 1.12 L13 L14
7 8 9
T.->S.. ! f : „S.-
I 6T.~>S.~.>T.~?>S. ► »S.-i*S »T.-..>

*)S.. .can become T » over a free bass.

100
10. Embellishment, in the sense that it is demonstrated
in the preceding chapters, cannot be applied to crab
canons. Each note must be calculated separately. This
is so because an interval that occurs on an accented note
in the first half of the crab canon is inverted to an interval
on a weak note in the latter half, and vice versa. Thus, in
a D. C. inversion wherein a discord inverts to a discord, as
in D. C. 15 or D. C. 17, an unaccented discord in the first
half inverts to an accented discord in the latter half, and
vice versa. Ex. 81 illustrates this rhythmic shift principle
very simply in terms of D. C. 17 (D. C. 10 + 8).

Ex. 81

P.N. t P.N.
iW iP
1 fc"4
ggff^ Eg m
P f
ii

101
It is understood, of course, that a canon such as the above
would not be used as a complete composition, but rather
as a transitional section within a larger form.
11. In triple rhythm the rhythmic shift of the inversion
is as follows:
1st beat inverts to 3rd beat
2nd beat inverts to 2nd beat
3rd beat inverts to 1st beat
See Ex, 78(b) and Ex. 80 above.
12. While this rhythmic shift of the inversion can cause
contrapuntal problems in D. C. inversions wherein concords
invert to concords and discords invert to discords, it
becomes a help in those inversions where concords invert
to discords, and vice versa. For instance, in D. C. 9,
except for the central 5th which inverts to a 5th, all con
cords invert to discords, and vice versa. Thus, in a crab
canon derived from this particular inversion, a discord
that falls on an unaccented note in the first half will invert
to a concord on the corresponding accented note in the
latter half, and vice versa. An example follows.

102
Ex. 82
--

9 V- «

Bi-

0 <l...
z' --
4 «
z
a

3 M
<
i
ll c...

(X

"J
■Hi
•»

103
A thorough study of the varied intervallic resources within
each D. C. inversion in the Table of Inversions coupled
with extensive experimentation will provide a complete
working technique in the manipulation of the discords in
every possible crab canon problem.

INVERTIBLE CRAB CANON

13. The composing of an invertible crab canon involves

the manipulation of three D. C. inversions at once:
(1) the D. C. inversion from which the upper crab
canon is derived,
(2) the D. C. inversion from which the lower crab
canon is derived,
(3) the D. C. inversion in which the crab canon
is inverted.
The sum of (1) and (2) will invariably be equal to (3)
multiplied by 2.
14. A specific problem could be stated as follows:
compose a crab canon derived from D. C. 11 (condition (1)
above) that is invertible in D. C. 10 (condition (3) above)
to a crab canon derived from D. C. 9 (condition (2) above).
Thus, 11 + 9 = 10 x 2:

104
Ex. 83
7—5
6 e
5 T
7 5
8 e
D.C. 11 4 8
6 7
6 : : 6
<ft (ft (ft (ft
s ±M IS m:

D.C. 10

mm T=$ w
^m ¥ gm
D.C. 9

4 —6

When working within such rigid intervallic restrictions it

becomes virtually impossible to achieve acceptable coun
terpoint without (1) permitting some liberties and possibly
crude dissonances, or (2) subjoining a free bass part.
105
 CHAPTER VII

CRAB CANON IN CONTRARY MOTION

1. The Crab Canon in Contrary Motion is the only canon

mechanism that involves no structural application of a
D. C. inversion. In contrast to the crab canon as discussed
in Chapter VI, intervals in a crab canon in contrary motion
are simply the same from either end. This is not to be
confused with D. C. 1 as shown in Ex. 78(a) which utilizes
minus (-) intervals. Ex. 84 illustrates how this curiously
unsophisticated contrapuntal ly constructed device operates.

Ex. 84

P.N.*)

-9-

P.N.*)
*=3* m 3^
&
§
P £ h

10 10

e e
3-3

*) Although no D. C. inversion is involved, cf. Chapter VI,

paragraph 10.
106
2. The contrary motion crab canon shown above, by
having had both voices begin and end on middle C, can
be turned upside down and be read exactly the same as
in its original position. Note the reversed and inverted
clefs at the right-hand end of the music. It can also be
written on one line in the alto clef thus:
Ex.85

£
ZL.
1p i ^^
Such a presentation is possible because in the treble, bass,
and alto clefs middle C comes on the middle line and
therefore all C's relate identically whether viewed right
side up or upside down.
Ex.86

3L
m jpjjj

This is quite obviously more entertaining than pratical.

3. When a crab canon in contrary motion embraces an
even number of notes, the same interval (that is, numer
ically) is unavoidably repeated at the middle (cf. Ex. 84).
This limits the melodic possibilities and harmonic implica
tions of the canon because should the two adjacent inter
ior
vals that flank the middle happen to be unisons, 5ths, 8ves
or discords, the result is an unfortunate contrapuntal
progression. Thus, such a canon might be smoother in
triple rhythm with an odd number of notes without any
middle interval being repeated.

Ex. 87

i i
££ i
?
8 6
10

This canon, not being in the key of C, can therefore not

be inverted visually.
4. In a crab canon in contrary motion the problems of
intervallic imitation are the same as those explained in
paragraphs 8, 10, 12-14 of Chapter V.
108
 INVERT IBLE CRAB CANON IN CONTRARY MOTION

5. A crab canon in contrary motion can be written in

any desired D. C. inversion. The problem is simply to
restrict the choice of vertical intervals to those which
will invert successfully within the D.C. inversion selected.
While all D. C. inversions are theoretically possible, a
little experimentation will soon show that some of them are
not too practical. Ex. 88 demonstrates such a canon
inverted in D. C. 12.
3—3
Ex. 88 8 5
8 8
10 10
11 11
10 10

.<a
i i? mt
i
mi m fi
>.N.|

¥ P ££P

10—10
Every pair of vertically aligned intervals falls within the
table of D. C. 12.
109
 DOUBLE CRAB CANON IN CONTRARY MOTION

6. More as a test of harmonic ingenuity than contrapuntal

skill or inspired creativity, a four-part chorale style texture
can be constructed by setting in motion at once two crab
canons in contrary motion like that shown in Ex. 84 and
Ex. 85; one in Bass and Soprano, and the other in Tenor
and Alto. This method of construction accounts for the
peculiar sequence of chords in Ex. 89.
Ex. 89

i
mm
P ti
m m i i m mp
p
m
j jj
^£ 3
^

i Hi
s m ^

n \

1.
j,
i kmm
i f
The construction process for a harmonic texture such
as in Ex. 89 can be seen by isolating the two constituent
crab canons in contrary motion as in Ex. 90(a) and (b). Of
course, considerably more freedom and motion can be
110
 achieved by the use of more dissonant chords r greater
liberties, accidentals, etc., but the basic structural prob
lem and its solution remains the same. If it is not desired
to make it visually invertible, a canonic texture such as
the above can be written by the same process in any key
and at any pitch.
Ex. 90
(a) Bass - Soprano

etc. etc

15
10
10
10

etc. etc.

Ill
 CHAPTER VIII

CANON IN THREE PARTS, I

1. A Canon in Three Parts consists of a Proposta and

two Rispostas, hereinafter designated as P, Rx and R2. If
one thinks of the three parts of the canon as soprano, alto
and bass, there are six possible orders of entry in which
P, Rx and R2 can function:
(1) S. R, (3) S. R,
A. P A. R2
B. R2 B.

(2) S. R2 (4) S. P
A. P A. R2
B. Rx B. Rt-

(5) S. R2 (6) S.
A. Rx A. Rt
B. P B. R2 —
The first four comprise type I and are discussed in the
present chapter. The remaining two require a different
technique and are treated in Chapter IX.
2. Picking at random entrance arrangement (2) from
amongst the first four listed in paragraph 1, it might be
worked out as follows:
112
"*3 16 J8
V 1 ?:..
y aj ■ -—- 11 -o- m*—1
„2\ ii— -11-*
«:
V

-o- o a.
.<>
o o
»\7 1 II ' o 11 Q o •
—V-r i
D if
*

i|ji\\ leduiis jU3iuhsi||abiu9 siqi nouez) pjnoa eb [nefsn sb b

oui joj eejth 'sjikhumjsui Ajbissod omj snfiou pur :o|po
xa 29
onaifcuv
I
3
nHOW I

s
£ S£ i 1
SB 7—»
g 1 £
4
Ell
3. The composing of a three-part canon brings into play
two separate applications of double counterpoint to operate
concurrently in the solution of the following two problems:
(1) the formation of the thematic line to generate a
satislactory sequence of harmonies in accor
dance with whatever harmonic idiom the com
poser chooses to write, and
(2) the achieving of an effective repeat.
These will be demonstrated separately as given above in
the step by step process employed to construct the canon
in Kx. 91.
114
4. The problem can be stated thus:
Complete the following three-part canon (cf. Chapter
II, paragraph 4):
R2
ll^'l - •
f O
•

o •
•1 •

5. Step one: Let "Cj" and "C2" designate the intervals

between the given notes of P and Rx and of Rj and R2
respectively:

Then apply the formula

Cj + c2 = D. C. inversion
to determine the double counterpoint from which the canon
will derive its melodic contours and sequence of harmonies.
Ex. 94

i m
fc=

'!'■>
nr
rc2 = 9
\/
m, &.
XE

4 + 9 - D. C. 12
115
Thus, the structural interval of inversion is D. C. 12.
6. Step two: Proceed with the writing of the canon, and
as each new note is added, let the vertical interval between
P and Rj be identified by "v." and that between Rj and
R2 in the subsequent c. u. by "v.". In every progression
the following formula will be in evidence:
v1 + v2 c1 + c2 = D. C. inversion
In notation the first progression in Ex. 91 will demonstrate
the above formula as follows:
Ex. 95
bp=
f S £3S

v9 = 10
xz: z

3+ 10= D.C. 12
The second progression likewise:
Ex. %

5 + 8- D.C. 12
And so on throught the entire canon.
116
 Ex. 97
+ 8^ fl +
rt P
V L
"S
•
l?N ' "7 • O" V
r% .
VVJ
•J <*
p
\ J> X

.O Lo -1
1\C\* L
••. p ■ • -** . -r%
•
!*^ " 7
■
^3 + .</ \ + • Si f

+ 10^ ^3 + 10^ ^5 + 8 3 +

s 3S3 « St
DDE
jQ

T5

n rO- gp
^ s JX

8+5 3 + 10 3 +

7. When more than one c. u. in the P precedes the

entrance of Rx and the same number of c. u. in Rt precedes
the entrance of R2, the method of determining the D. C.
inversion within which the canon will operate is the same
as that shown in paragraph 5 above. Ex. 98 demonstrates
Step one (cf. paragraph 5) in a three-part canon beginning
according to entrance arrangement (1) as given in paragraph
1 above.
117
Ex. 98

8. Step two applied to the first progression would appear

as follows:

Ex. 99

JX 5-»
t*
v1 = 3
3E
S:
3 + 12 = D. C. 14

The second progression will be carried out in the same

manner.
118
Ex. 100
R,

^-o- XE
"O" ^
vj-5 v2=10

m r~cr
R.
-»d XT

5 + 10 = D. C. 14

The process continues in this way until the end of the

canon regardless of the number of c. u. in the P before
the entrance of Rr In order to show some of the more
interesting features of a D. C. inversion such as D. C. 14,
the canon is continued for a few more c. u.
Ex. 101
,5 + 10 _5 +
R,
*=
ZE
¥* I *R;fs
ICE
^

><-4
3+12 10 +5 +

119
 etc.

'5+10 5 + 10*5 4 + 10 11
T.*) T.*>
(or S.)
*) See D. C. 14 in the Table of Inversions.

It must be mentioned once again that this process of canon

calculation in three-part canons is operative only when R
enters at the same number of c. u. after the beginning of
Rj as Rj enters after the beginning of P. In other words,
the entrances of P, R1 and R2 will be equally timed.
9. The repeat of a three-part canon presents a fairly
complex problem. A three-part canon consists of three
two-part canons:
(1) P + Rj
(2) R. + R.
(3) P + R,
Each of these three constituent two-part canons will repeat
according to the principles that are given in Chapter II.
However, the repeat calculations must be made at a dif
ferent time in each one of these two-part canons. It can
be pointed out that of these three two-part canons (3) is
the result of the D. C. calculations in (1) and (2), and is
itself not directly calculated.
120
 10. The three-part canon developed in Ex. 97 together
with the repeat calculations within the three constituent
two-part canons is given in full and without further com
ment in Ex. 102 below. If the structural principles demon
strated in Chapter II have been mastered and the character
istics and limitations of each D. C. inversion in the Table
of Inversions have been studied thoroughly, the problem
of a repeat in a three-part canon should cause no great
difficulties. With this background, Ex. 102 should be
self-explanatory.
Ex. 102
R2
0 pi
y • MM _. 6
• c» ^^ If _ O M *> *•
vp ' 6 "'
i?N n 9 «>
o
-©. XJ TJ <>
15 .&- o .»
1 P- XT 4»

o » ** t> . «> - «*—

C\* ..' ™
•Mi «.» o •
' n • •
- " i

* •
tt?-&—1
/L p
IPi n P
L »
•
i
•
•
"0 *
■».
.&■ •o-
-O- TJ
(1) + 3 =
7(14 -8)
\ o —&-
4» ■J ti
■ a a
9yF=
i' 7 [J—
•
• 4 + 4= •
Id.C. 7(14-8)

121
 *) Written on two staves for clearer + 7=
identification. D.C. 13
**) Not calculated. 7 + 7--
D.C. 13

11. An extremely simple vocal canon by Haydn is

presented in two of the entrance arrangements listed in
paragraph 1. These are shown in Ex. 103 (a) and (b), and
both versions are constructed within D. C. 15 with no
dissonances involved.
122
 *
Haydn
je hö
Je
her- je

fahr.
Gc-
mehr
hö
Stand,
her
Ge
mehr
fahr.
je-•
Firn-
[
] r
*

hü-
Je
Stand,
her
^m Stand.

und
Fuchs
Der
Adler
der 7
J
1
'
J Jehöher
Ge
fahr.
mehr-
t
/J
"ine
^ Ge
fahr.
nehr.
ä=P=P
Stand.
^m £

hö
Je-
her je
hö
Stand,
her
je - (
]
Fine je

Ge
mehr
fahr.-
1
<J-

Stand.

hü-
her

je hö
Stand,
her-
je

Ge
mehr
fahr.
^^ ^
P(1)
See
1,
a(a)
ragraph
Andante

*=¥ ^m
# s I i
 fs «

Si
o.
■ ;,
Si .*-*
X c
3
n. 13
c
<
on
«'i|!a

124
12. In its basic unembellished form this canon can be
seen as having each c. u. = 6 , with the other notes of the
harmony treated as embellishments in the 5th, 9th, 10th
and 11th c. u. of each part. The entrances come 2 c. u.
apart, and 12 c. u. comprise the entire canon theme.
Ex. 104(a) and (b) show the structural aspects of the entire
three-part canon as well as the mechanics of the repeat
in full.
13. In spite of the almost pretentious simplicity of this
canon, one structural feature merits some explanation.
Except for the unaccented note in the 5th c. u. of the P, no
note produces a 4th or 5th against any other part. Thus, the
canon is in the purest kind of triple counterpoint, which
means that it can be performed in all six entrance arrange
ments listed in paragraph 1, since at no point will an
objectionable six-four chord occur. The rule for writing a
three-part canon in triple counterpoint can be stated thus:
When all three constituent two-part canons will invert
correctly in D. C. 8 or D. C. 15, the total three-part
structure will automatically be in triple counterpoint,
thereby making all six vertical arrangements available.
The student would profit by experimenting with the remain
ing four inversions of this ingenious three-part canon by
Haydn.
14. Ex. 104(a) and (b) follow, and show without further
comment the structural calculations in Ex. 103(a) and (b)
respectively.

125
Ex. 104 (a)

(1
L
J "1 U
■ a*
ii
• ][ -- u i U ** .
- — d- ■ Q ■
i ii ,
(i -a i- +
1 °°

': 1 -+. vO 1 > + T

V

: I .«.•
4 *° 1

ii J I-:''

i 1 —t

ii

n ** tu

i ii

i
c

,|!a

126
 c
nr
i.j
C22.
n C.8*
(D
2
8ves)
6 6
*=
+= 6
n.
c.
9
17 H
t=
C.
D.
22 10
C.
0.
C.
6--D.
n
1

16 D.
C.
2
12
=

£e
£==
3
16
6

5=?= 6 6

?
—ntr
—P
!
m

(2)
^^
(5)
m
Ex. 104 (b)

*L

X
5C Xs
Hi

X2 3s
Ml
X
X »
BY
\

<M£

128
to
15. The student can experiment in two ways with this
canon for three voices by Haydn:
(1) try the remaining four entrance arrangements
to determine whether they would work out suc
cessfully, and
(2) try to develop an embellished version of Ex.
104 (a) and (b) without the use of rests.
As to what may be uncovered by such experimentation, it
will be observed that if the quarter rests at the beginning
of R2 and at the end of P were omitted, the progression
at the repeat would be marred by some quite nasty con
secutive octaves. It is not unusual for a faulty abstract
canon to be improved by ingenious embellishment.

SPIRAL CANON IN THREE PARTS

16. The technique demonstrated in Chapter IV for com

posing spiral canons in two parts can be extended to three
parts. However, in three parts the contrapuntal problem
can become at once vastly more interesting and correspond
ingly more difficult due to
(1) the possibility of involving restrictive D. C.
inversions in the weaving of the harmonic tex
ture of the canon, and
(2) the virtually unavoidable complexity in achieving
a successful repeat.
A typical problem: Complete the following three-part canon,
derived from D. C. 13 to spiral upward by major 3rds.
130
Ex. 105

R, Ri

±= 31 %
m
XT
c =g Xf
c, =6 p
r jtt .fe
ggS US

TV ,v2
Rh
R2
6 + 8 = D.C. 13

The complete solution follows.

131
INJ
 _fe: Je.
d.
c.
io
n=
C.
D.
12
17
+= D.
C.
3
5= C.
D.
5=
m= ~©~ *)
^C.
U
8D. C.
r>.
9
(6)-
7
C.
D.
7
13
=; D.
C.
6
9+=

C.
D.
9
5
6=
*? D.
C.
5
9=
8(9) (7)
6
D.
C.
1
3= C.
D.
3
I=

3£
rr:^-^7^|
3
^
,*o

fcnc
1ytrt 5
4

jr

l&= m S
(2) (5)
 17. An unpretentiously embellished version of the three-
part spiral canon developed in Ex. 105 and Ex. 106 is
provided in Ex. 107, scored very simply for two violins
and cello. Since the spiral ascends by major 3rds, the
key sequence will be G major, B major, E-flat major
(enharmonic of D-sharp) and G major.
18. The basic canon in Ex. 106 has one set of rather
conspicuous parallel 8ves in measures 12-13, which show
up more clearly than could be desired in two-part canon
(2). It might be noted how these are concealed through
embellishment.
Ex. 107
Andante

Violin 1
m wS
Violin 11
P^pH^i mm
Cello
3
T

134
£
^m p ^

j. W3&
JbiJE
i #
 etc.

The above ascending canon can be continued throughout

the entire octave spiral as was done in the case of the
descending two-part spiral canon in Ex. 43.
19. The Canonic Recurrence in three parts in constructed
by the same technique as is employed in writing the spiral
canon, and requires no further explanation (cf. Chapter
IV, paragraphs 7-8).

136
 CHAPTER IX

CANON IN THREE PARTS, II

1. This chapter concerns three-part canons employing

entrance arrangements (5) and (6) as listed in paragraph 1
of Chapter VIII:
(5) .R, (6) P,

XR.
.R,

2. In these two entrance arrangements c2 is not an

addible interval and will be indicated within (), thus:
Ex. 108

It is necessary to identify c2 in this way because it is

the 8ve inversion of the interval that must be added to
that of Cj in order to determine the D. C. inversion within
which the canon is constructed. Ex. 109 demonstrates
how this process of intervallic addition is carries out.
137
 8 + 3 = D.C. 10 7 + 4 = D.C. 10
inverted inverted

3. The inverted inversion principle can be seen at a

glance when the D. C. 10 table is written out in full with
the inverted inversions included both above and below. In
each instance the number in () is the interval of the
inversion inverted in D. C. 8 (cf. Ex. 11 and the remainder
of paragraph 2 in Chapter I).
(-3) (-2)(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (8)
D. C. 10: ip_
inverted 1 2l3(4 5 6 1 8 9 10
(8) CV(6r(5) (4) (3) (2) (1) (-2) (-3)

Ex. 109(a)/ \ Ex. 109 (b)

4. In like manner, v2 is not addible and must be treated

in the same way as c2 is treated. Ex. 110(a) and (b)
demonstrate the v + v addition for a few c. u. in the
canons set up by the beginnings in Ex. 109(a) and (b).
138
Ex. HO

(a) First progression: p

5 + 6 = 10

(8) (3)
-10 + lK 5 + 6^
Continuation:
i>i| P
m TS I XT
s
etc.

nr
m 3E to-
3T

\ 0) Si (fi) \ (fi)
5 + 6 8+3 8+3

139
 (b) First progression:

W vx "lO v2 =(8)
» 1
/

S
10 + 1 = 10

.5 + 6" (1)f
,3+8'
Continuation:
k P
3X1
i Pw
R,

-W 3X
353 352
^

Nt df \ (6) \ (ST
10 + 1 8+3 10 + 1

140
5. When the P moves away from Rl to produce a vx
greater than the structural D. C. inversion currently in
force,

Ex. in

3X

(11)

^ XT
v,=12*> Rl v2 = (10)

9S ZEE

*) Greater than the interval of inversion, D. C. 10

141
then, in order to achieve the proper D. C. addition sub
tract 8 from both vx and v2 before making the intervallic
calculations. This is demonstrated in Ex. 112.

Ex. 112

(a)
R„

m 13-8 = 6
JCE

(11-8 = 4)

m 3X

6 + 5-=" 10

142
6. Whenever v and v are equal, the structural inverted
interval of inversion is always D. C. 8.
7. Concerning repeats, there is nothing to add to what
is shown in Chapter VIII, beginning at paragraph 9.
8. The student is urged to experiment with those D. C.
inversions wherein most of the concords invert to discords,
and vice versa. As a typical problem of this type, Ex. 113
shows a three-part canon in entrance arrangement (5), with
3 c. u. separating the entrance of P - Rj and Rx - R2
respectively, being constructed within the inverted inver
sion of D. C. 14:

(-7) (-6) (-5) (-4) (-3) (-2) (1)

D. C. 14: ii il li 11 jfl 2 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(8) (7) (6) (5) (4) (3) (2)

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(1) (-2) (-3) (-4) (-5) (-6)
The problem: Complete the following three-part canon:

143
 Ex. 113

12 + 3= D.C. 14

Solution:

.17-8 (4) \-*18-8 (5) \ (4) I (8)

10 + 5 11 + 4 ^10+ 5 ^4+1
144
 (11-8)."
(4) ^17-8 V(4) .(4)
- * 10 + 5 l+S

*) This c. u. omitted in embellished version in Ex. 114.

See rests on the 2nd beat in measure 2, 3, and 4 after
the first double bar.
**) Repeated.
145
The repeat calculations within the three constituent two-
part canons can be readily analyzed on the basis of what
is shown in this regard in Chapter VIII. No further explana
tion of this process is required here. A slightly embellished
version of the above three-part canon with each c. u.

reduced to a J , and scored for string trio is given in

Ex. 114. A short coda is appended so that the canon can
be brought to a practical ending when performed.
Ex. 114
Allegretto
Violin 1

Violin 11

Cello eSS r

j-

R2
g§|i
tUMmM
m1 1 1.

i sf *)
n
m r g ^T i
146
 n n 0 0*
fEt m i&
It
n
%
PiS £ ur n m
**^d

?;Cjr f/F S
w m i
I urrr P' r an
s 1 i^
R,
P
(n),
PjC
it sa
£
Coda (free material)

m ff^r P £ £

*fi

•f- • • •
m mw
y~Ljrr m 3C

*) Cf. footnote*) to Ex. IB.

147
 CHAPTER X

CANON IN FOUR AND MORE PARTS

CANON WITH UNEQUALLY SPACED ENTRANCES

1. A canon in more than three voices embodies a fixed

number of constituent canons of three different types:
(1) calculated three -part canons (with equally
spaced entrances),
(2) uncalculated three-part canons (some with une
qually and some with equally spaced entrances),
(3) two-part canons.
For instance, a four-part canon , consisting of P,Rj, R2, R3

Ex. 115

i=P x2

m ■w

contains within itself

(1) 2 interlocking calculated three-part canons:

Rx-R2-R3
148
Ex. U5
(a)
1
f\
y
iC
Im
VO «- v'
ir P° ''

Ck*
•I" ■ ^B
V6
/ ^ H

(2) 2 interlocking uncalculated three-part canons:

p_Ri_R3
P-R _R,
Ex. 115

r&*> 7&L
P2\
^4-
^

(3) 6 two-part canons:

P-R, R,-Ra
P-R2 R1-R3
P-R, R„-R.
It is at once evident that with so many constituent canons
in operation at once, a four-part canon is a highly complex
contrapuntal mechanism.
149
2. The structural components of multi-voiced canons
can be tabulated as follows:

Calculated Uncalculated 2-part

3-part Canons 3-part Canons Canons
4-part Canon: 2 2 6
5- part Canon: 3 7 10
6- part Canon: 4 16 15
7-part Canon: 5 30 21
8-part Canon: 6 50 28

A little experimentation will readily show how this arith

metical situation comes about. More than 8 parts, while
theoretically possible, is hardly practical either struc
turally or musically.
3. In paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII it is shown how a
canon in three parts can have 6 possible entrance arrange
ments of P, Rj and R . As the number of parts, that is the
number of Rispostas, is increased the number of possible
entrance arrangements is correspondingly increased accord
ing to the following table:
4-part Canon: 24 entrance arrangements are possible
5-part Canon: 120 entrance arrangements are possible
6-part Canon: 720 entrance arrangements are possible
7-part Canon: 5040 entrance arrangements are possible
8-part Canon: 40320 entrance arrangements are possible
However, regardless of the number of parts in the canon,
the constituent three-part canons will fall within the six
entrance arrangements listed in paragraph 1 of Chapter
150
VIII. In the four-part beginning used for illustration pur
poses in Ex. 115, the interlocking three-part canons are
of types (1) and (6) respectively (cf. Chapter VIII, para
graph 1), and must be calculated accordingly.

Ex. 116
Three-part entrance arrangement (1)

Three-part entrance arrangement (6)

Thus, the formation of the two calculated three-part canons

in the above beginning can be treated as follows:

151
Ex. 116

D. C. 8 inverted
*) In the second of the two interlocking three-part canons
Rj serves as P, while R2 and R3 serve as Rx and R„
respectively.

The two calculated three-part canons will then operate

in the two inversions as demonstrated below. It will be
observed that c2 of the first three-part canon becomes cx
of the second. The complete calculation process proceeds
as shown by the arrows.
D. C. 8:
1 2 3 4 5 J6 1 8

(1) (2) (3/(4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

D. C. 8 JL 1 A 1 ± ± L i.
inverted: 12(345678
(8) (V(6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
152
4. Within the two calculated three-part canons \l and v2
follow the same D. C. process as c2 and c2. By this
method, the first progression of the four-part canon cur
rently under construction can be carried out as follows:

Ex. 117

3 + 6- D.C. 8
153
 D. C. 8: -1 2G t 1 1 1 1 1
2 » 3^ 4 5 6 7 8

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)\6) (7) (8)

D.C. 8 11111/111
inverted: 12 3 4 5(678
(8) (7) (6) (5) (4)^(3) (2) (1)
Within the same format and without further comment, the
complete canon is given in Ex. 118. For purposes of
expediency-to keep awkward voice-leading and doublings
to a minimum-the canon is tonaliticized in B-flat major.
Ex. 118

> + 3* ^ + 6^ ^3 + 6 6 + 3*^

+ 1\

\^ tnr \, cer \ (6)4

"3 + 6

*) See footnote to Ex. 116(a).

154
5. Within the four three-part canons embodied within
the one four-part canon (two calculated and two uncal-
culated), six two-part canons are also in operation (cf.
paragraph 1 and 2 above). It is upon these, basically, that
the repeat depends. These six two-part canons as they
are contained in Ex. 118 can be demonstrated as follows:
Ex. 119
(4)
I g^ w ■ 3C 31= *♦-

m
6 + 8 = D.C. 13

3^
6
Hi!
+ 8 = D.C. 13

*==:
?RF *e-
10 13= D.C. 22
(D.C. 8 + 2 8ves)
(5) c=ll
10 + | 10 =
D.C. 19(12 + 8)

9g^ T-
^V.t"o,Jn
11 + 12 = D.C. 22
(D.C. 8 + 2 8ves)
10 + 10 =
D.C. 19(12 + 8)

. o n Lxn
5g^ i 6 * 8=
(6) c=6 D.C 13
\
^= ZBC
3E nx:

DC 13

156
6. The four-part canon developed in Ex. 115-119 is
relatively unsophisticated mechanically due to the fact
that both of the calculated component three-part canons
are derived from D. C. 8. For this reason the great majority
of the multi-voiced canons in the musical literature are
so constructed. The problem becomes considerably more
involved when the calculated three-part canons represent
different intervals of inversion. Such a case is the canon
problem proposed in Ex. 120. Here the mechanism operates
within D. C. 12 and the inverted inversion of D. C. 10
respectively.
Ex. 120
8+3 D. C. 10 inverted
3

°1=V^5 +* 8- = D. C. 12
A possible solution to the above problem within the most
conservative textural resources follows in Ex. 121 with
the two constituent three-part canons in score. Greater*
linear flexibility could be achieved by permitting more
freedom in the introduction and resolution of discords.
Such freedom, however, is brought about by the artistic
requirements of the composer and does not affect the
arithmetical calculation of the canon. Ex. 121 is given
with all calculations in the usual manner, but without
further explanation.
157
158
The two-part canons and their repeat calculations can be
written out as in Ex. 119 if so desired.
7. As the D. C. calculations within a multi-voiced canon
are made more complex, the embellishment problem assumes
new dimensions. Outwardly, this becomes evident in three
specific respects:
(1) fewer melodic possibilities exist that do not
create inept contrapuntal situations, such as
parallel fifths or octaves;
(2) added liberties in the use of dissonances be
come inevitable, and
(3) the melodic lines, though relatively unadorned,
generate a peculiar kind of "drive".
Ex. 122 is a modest and conservatively embellished version
of the above four-part canon in score for string quartet.
One may profit from experimenting in seeking to achieve
greater melodic flexibility without resorting to unaccept
able contrapuntal compromises.
Ex. 122
Allegro con brio

Violin I
m
Violin II

Viola ps
Cello
w i ■
^g
59
 £
m *
1 ■ g:

|g f^ss
>' » -31 i i• ^
•
• •
^
^
**-

• »
m
a ^^

221 3DI g§
E »-* s 3* ^W
r ' i-

pVIFf
^
r r r t

160
 i
ifcfcfc
m =^= ^ 1 *=F
ffPff <A

Ei^i
■ * ■ a2E J
I
J
1 I
J

yr N j ^^
«A

i g j /
«A
T-- VI
3EE3E
*fz *

IS
lA

H ^^
1
S*==■*= ■> ■ r
A coda or epilogue in any desired proportion to the canon
can be added to bring the composition to an artistically
satisfactory close as regards time, tonality, and harmony.

THE THREE-PART CANON IN VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

8. In order accurately to determine in advance the

melodic possibilities of any multi-voiced canon it is merely
necessary to see all of the constituent three-part canons
in their respective vertical alignments. By this method
one can tell at a glance what melodic intervals are avail
able within the harmonic idiom desired.
9. The vertical alignment of entrance arrangements
(l)-(4) listed in paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII as carried
out in the following series of steps:
Step one: Determine the structural D. C. inversion by
adding cx and c2 in the usual way.

Ex. 123

5 + 8-D. C. 12

162
Step two: On a three-stave system as used for double
counterpoint place the initial note of P on the middle line.
Ex. 124

Step three: In the subsequent c. u., on the staff either

above or below as the case may be, place the initial note
of Rj exactly as it comes in the given canon beginning.

Ex. 125
Step four: On the remaining staff, either lowest or upper
most as the case may be, write a note at the interval below
or above Rl that is determined by adding cj and c2 (cf.
Step one above).

Ex. 126
R,

-«-=*
•12 = 5(cl) + 8(c2)

m 3E

*) Except when cx and c2 are both 8 (or 1 or 15) this will

not be the initial note of Rr
Step filler Let P proceed by a melodic interval (m) to form
suitable intervals for vx and v2 within the structural D. C.
inversion, thus:

164
Ex. 127

*) This is the interval, but not the notes, of v

**) In this vertical alignment the note on the middle staff
for purposes of calculation serves a double function: as
P in vt and as Rx in v..

10. A pair of concurrently functioning formulae hereby

comes into operation thus:
(1) cj + m = Vj
(2) D. C. V
1
= V
2
The melodic interval, m, is minus (-) when P moves
towards R and plus (+) when P moves away fromR1.
In the canon progression the above vertical alignment is
applied thus:
165
 Ex. 128
c1 = 5 R,

i eW m = -3 *)
a
IDE
y=^
^3 + ltf^D.C. 12
*) See footnote *) to Ex. 127

By means of the above method all of the melodic intervals

(m) and their resulting vertical intervals (\x and v2) within
the three-part canons initiated in Ex. 123 can be seen in
advance as demonstrated below:
Ex. 129

(a) m=l, v^S (c) m = -3, vj=3

v2 = 8 v, = 10
R

Cl=s
r
/ v1 = 5

m=l v2 = 8

^
cf. Ex. 127 R2
(d) b=-4, vl = 2 (e) m = -5, vx=l (f) ra = -6, vj=-2
v2 = 12 v2 = 13
R,

\=2 c1 = 5 Zv1 = i c1=S f

/ /

m
p
)
3d

m= -4 v2 = 11
P 11
■= -5
)

12
li
P -o-
m= -6 13

S ZEE S= Jtt

Rn
^ HI

(g) m = -7, vJ--3 (h) m = -8, v^-4 (i) m = +2, vx = 6

v2=14 v3 = 15 v2 = 7
R
1

cx=5
P
v1 = -3 ?
v1 = -4 Cj-5 y vx = 6

m = -7

3E
14

S
m = -8
-R.

v2 = 15

3tt
m
S
m = +2 v2 =

3E
R^

167
(j) m = +3, rt=7 (k) m = +4, v^g

(n) m = +7, v^ll (o) m = +8, Vj = 12

v2=2 v2=l

Vj = H &!=!:

Mm p
m = +7
P
m = +8

6= 31 m HE

168
Which of these melodic intervals (m) together with their
resulting vt and v2 intervals are usable depends upon the
harmonic and melodic textures that are desired. But, at
whatever point in the canon a given m may occur, the
resulting vx and v2 will inevitably be the same.
11. In a three-part canon cast in entrance arrangements
(5) and (6) as listed in paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII, the
process is the same as that shown above through Step
three. At Step four, however, things are done differently.
In the following exposition no comments are necessary
until Step four.
Step one:
Ex. 130

Step two:
Ex. 130
Step three:
Ex. 130

3E

Step four: Write on the remaining staff, the highest or lowest

as the case may be, an imaginary note equal to the D. C.
in force above or below Rr; and then transpose this note
one octave (two octaves if necessary) inward towards Rr

Ex. 131
8vel Imaginary note

•D.C. 11

3E

no
It is against the solid notes that m will be directed in
order to determine in advance the intervals of v, and v 2-
Step five:
Ex. 132

m ~rr^
IS*
3CT

Ri
-v2=0)
6

XE
$
'1

m D. C. 11 inverted

In v2 the actual interval is that involving the solid note,

while the addible interval is the one involving the imagi
nary note. From here on the available intervals are deter
mined as is shown in Ex. 129.
12. From what is demonstrated above in paragraphs
8-11 it should now be clear that the successor a multi-
voiced canon depends in large measure upon the constitu
ent three-part canons being so planned that their respective
m intervals produce complementary vt and v2 intervals.
Otherwise, an impasse can come about in which no melodic
intervals will produce satisfactory vertical combinations.
However, what combinations are usable depends upon the
harmonic idiom in which the canon is cast. That is, a
canon operating within pure triadic harmony will be less
flexible melodically than one employing chords of the
seventh and ninth, or non-triadic formations.
171
13. When more than one c. u. separate the entrances
of P and Rj, R1 and R2, R2 and R3, etc. depending upon
the number of voices in the canon, the vertical alignment
calculations operate precisely as shown in paragraphs
8-11 above except that each c. u. actually initiates a
separate one c. u. three-part canon (cf. paragraph 12 in
Chapter II). Ex. 133 proposes a three-part canon derived
from D. C. 14 with each entrance separated by three c. u.
Ex. 133
* Rl
^v
fP< " Mi
Tr*\ t>
V \7
\y
• P^ Xf
-©.

k>i*
• ■■ — MB B> BBJ BBI o
/ fk

R2

A problem such as the above can be most readily visualized

as three interlocking single c. u. canons by connecting
the corresponding c. u. by different kinds of lines thus:
1st c. u. ■
2nd c. u.
3rd c. u
This method of identification is shown in Ex. 134.
Ex. 134

etc.

172
Thus, each c. u. can be calculated according to its own
vertical alignment, so that the complete canon actually
consists of three separate vertical alignments in operation
simultaneously.

CANON WITH UNEQUALLY SPACED ENTRANCES

14. No direct calculation process for constructing multi-

voiced canons with unequally spaced entrances exists.
Such canons operate in the form of the uncalculated three-
part canons within a canon of four or more equally spaced
entrances (cf. Ex. 115(b) in paragraph I). Thus, by treating
either Ry or R2 as imaginary voices-that is to say, silent-
two three-part canons with unequally spaced entrances
can be extracted from th,e four-part canon proposed in
Ex. 115, thus:
Ex. 135
Rj deleted

^2 (°"ginal R3)
(b)
R,

R2 deleted
IS
J»
S
R2 (original R,)
173
 15. When the above two uncalculated three-part canons
are extracted from the four-part canon in Ex. 118 they
can, of course, be embellished in countless ways. Using
the harmonic and linear texture as developed in Ex. 118,
these are embellished as string trios in Ex. 136(a) and (b)
below, the two treatments being unlike.
Ex. 136
(a) cf. Ex. 135 (a)
Andante

Violin
pin PIP ^S n
Viola Ha ^f a
Cello m (

tn J- • J- 3

Bee i ^S
§ipc ; r ?r r
ifcftjfc

¥ I
5=3*
I a=3i * J J J J

s ■ g ■ m isi

ifcfct
=? HP «—P"

1 31
"If3! 1 ■ ■ i

w i r? 8
(b) cf. Ex. 135 (b)
Allegro
n
Violin
P ^ PIPP
Viola ^ pig
Cello
S -
175
ifcfcfc s ^

n
^^ p ^^

^
*f^ PSA) ^^
f?A)
PP ¥ wm^
^
r fFif :

T
iflZ
i £ s .- *

16. When a canon with unequally spaced entrances is

to be extracted from a systematically constructed multi-
voiced canon with equally spaced entrances, the problem
can be treated in two ways:
(1) the parts to be omitted operate in correct counter
point against the parts that are retained, or
(2) the omitted parts need not operate in correct
counterpoint against those that are retained, since
they will never be heard together.
176
The latter may make for greater linear freedom, both in the
basic canon and in the embellishment.
17. Since a canon in four or more parts is merely an
extension of the three-part canon principle, the Spiral
Canon and Canonic Recurrence can be written in the usual
manner. However, as the number of voices and the number
of constituent three-part canons are correspondingly in
creased, the problem of making satisfactory connections
become more difficult.

177
 CHAPTER XI

CANON IN AUGMENTATION: CANON IN DIMINUTION

1. A canon is in Augmentation when the R is in longer

notes than those in the P,

Ex. 137

(c.u. = J)

$ ¥ 133 f etc.

73 g -etc.
^
71?
R(c.u. =d) P3
and in Diminution when the R is in shorter notes than
those in the P.

Ex. 138
P(c.u. =J)

mc=6
^
^
etc.

m 6£
I iR(c.u.=«h i L
5 J 5 J
178
When R is the part in shorter notes (i.e. in a canon in
diminution), a special problem comes about when it has
progressed by as many c. u. as it follows the entrance
of P in that the c interval occurs in two adjacent vertical
intervals. Thus, a serious error would result if such a
canon were written with c = 1, 5 or 8.
2. When the two parts begin simultaneously neither one
serves as P or R, so that such a canon can be thought of
as being either in augmentation or diminution.

Ex. 139
...=J
W fP etc.

2
w w
ZC e—P
m
:. u. =d

3. Embellishment, even though extremely modest, can

greatly change the nature of a canon in augmentation. A
seemingly inconsequential rhythmic elaboration in the P
affects every aspect of the flow of the canon when it is
augmented in the R. Ex. 140 shows a slightly embellished
version of the canon beginning originally given above in
Ex. 137.
179
 Ex. 140
(c. u. =J )
£ JJ *P
^^P
^
R (c,
?
J=2 B
^FP
F* etc.
etc.

^^
fH J' s*1
£
4. The part in longer notes can be related in any desired
time proportion to the part in shorter notes. In the pre
ceding illustrations the proportion is 2 : 1. Augmentation
canons in the proportion of 3 : 1 and 4 : 1 could begin as
shown below and would be described as canons in Triple
Augmentation and Quadruple Augmentation respectively.
Ex. 141
(a) Canon in Triple Augmentation
P (c.u.
(b) Canon in Quadruple Augmentation
P(c.u. =J)
^
i mw
>r-n - m IE
re
R (c. u. =©)

5. Likewise, the augmentation may be in any other

desired proportion, such as 3 : 2, 4 : 3, 5 : 3, 8 : 5, etc.
However, because such canonic structures are usually
merely imitations and do not generally involve any repeats,
these will not be taken up here. But, the repeat processes
that will be discussed in the remainder of this chapter can,
is desired, be applied to these more involved proportions
without further explanation.
6. To deal most efficiently with the repeat problem in
a canon in augmentation and to avoid unnecessary verbi
age, the following code of identifications is being estab
lished for use in the remainder of this chapter:
P-the part in short notes, regardless of its point
of entrance in relation to the part in longer notes.
R - the part in longer notes.
1, 2, 3, etc. -the c. u. numbering in P.
1, 2, 3, etc. -the c. u. numbering in R.
1. The present repeat problem concerns that of making
the P repeat while R is being heard only once. When the
augmentation is in the proportion of 2 : 1, the P wilf be
played twice against the R once. Ex. 142 demonstrates
this problem solved in extremely simple terms.
181
Ex. 142
(cu. =J;

£
d\ ~* * m IP P
za zz a i a
R*(c.u. -d)
p repeated

*
S * ^P
^ ? st*- f^
The above canon in its entirety will not repeat success
fully insomuch as the two terminal intervals are unisons,
thereby bringing about an unsatisfactory progression-con
secutive unisons-at the repetition. Thus, a free coda is
required to conclude the canon satisfactorily. Should the
entire mechanism be repeatable, the canon must be con
structed at an interval that produces an acceptable pro
gression when two are played successively, such as 3rds
or 6ths.
8. To compose a canon like that in Ex. 142, proceed
as follows:
Step one: Determine the desired length in terms of c. u.,
and number same according to the system established in
paragraph 6. This will preclude the possibility of confusion
in the intervallic calculations.
182
Ex. 143

P(c.u. =J)
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I I I I I I I I I
H H -i f- » t I H 1-
X X I I I I I I I

1 JS
R (c. u. =J )

P repeated
1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I 1 I I I I I I I
H h H 1 •- H 1 1-
I I I I I I I I I 1

10 11 12 13 14 16 16

From the above diagram it will be seen that numerous

double counterpoint situations come into play in that every
pair of c. u. in the P will be pitted against two different
c. u. in the R, as follows:
1 2 operate againstJ^ and 9_
3 4 operate against 2 and 10
5 6 .operate against 3 and 11
1 8 operate against 4 and 12
9 10 operate againstj>. and L3_
1 1 12 operate against_6_and _14_
13 14 operate against_7_and _15_
15 16 operate against 8 and i6
183
The interval between the two c. u. in the R, against which
a given pair of c. u. in the P operates, determines the
D. C. inversion in force in that particular situation. For
instance, in Ex. 142 the interval between 1 (F) and 9 (C)
is a 5th. Thus, 1 and 9_, the notes that are shifted verti
cally, relate to 1 2 in D. C. 5 (D. C. 12-8).
Step two: Write in the first and last notes in the two
occurrences of P and in the one of R.
Ex. 144

P (c. u. =J)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16
I I I I I I I I I I I
4 1- -t 1- H h -* 1-
I I I I I I I I I I I

12 3 4 5 6 7 8
R(c.u. =d)"
P repeated
1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 1 2 13 14 18 18
I I I I I I I I 1 I
-I 1- H 1 1- H 1 1- H h -+-
I I I I I I I I I I I

X X
1£ 11 11 12 a 11 12
Step three: Fill in suitable notes in the vacant c. u. until
the canon is completed as in Ex. 142. It is necessary to
be continually cognizant of the double counterpoint situa
tions occasioned by the numerical relationships tabulated
184
under Ex. 143. The order in which the c. u. are filled in
will undoubtedly vary from one canon to another, but it is
generally expedient to alternate the process from the
middle, the beginning and the end; and not attempt to
insert a continuous line from one end to the other. Actu
ally, in completing Ex. 142, the filling in was begun by
inserting c. u. 2, 15, 8 and 9 in that order.
Ex. 145
p
6 7 8 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

4 S 6 7 8
n t* b ...
-3 3«-
P repeated
12 3 4 8 8 10 11' 12 13 14 15 16
I _ I I I I I I I I
*-r-i—t- H 1 h i 1 h H—I—r+
? t—r i i i f i i i t—r
W
IP. U 11 12 l* i
"^5 12
D. C. 3 -> -5 1

With this much of a start provided, it is left to the student

to continue Step three until the canon as given in Ex. 142
is completely reconstructed. Also, the double counterpoint
involvements for the entire canon can be identified as
shown below.
185
Ex. 146

CO

-
"1*
o

a>
ao

CO

r s
eo -
CM

a|
CO

ID

-
col
v
© *

CO 52

T| 5a
CO

w
T

eo «M| CO

CN

186
 Where the minus sign is in parenthesis (-) it merely signi
fies that the P comes below the R and does not figure
into the inversion. When the minus sign is not enclosed
in parenthesis, it does figure into the D. C. calculations.
The latter condition exists when the P crosses the R
within the c. u.
9. Embellishment in the form of melodic elaboration is
as good as impossible in a canon in augmentation, due to
the fact that structurally inconsequential fast notes in
the P would, when augmented in the R, bring about all
sorts of contrapuntal complications (cf. Ex. 140). However,
some embellishment can be achieved through phrasings
and chromatics. Two different versions of the canon
developed in Ex. 142-146, each closing with a short
coda, follow.
Ex. 147

(a) Andante
 Andante

10. A canon in triple augmentation is constructed in

much the same way as a canon in double augmentation.
Only one mechanical restriction must be observed: should
the canon be at the unison, 5th or 8ve, the P and R should
not contain an even number of c. u. because at the exact
middle the two parts would unavoidably progress by con
secutive unisons, 5ths or 8ves respectively. In Ex. 148
is given, complete with D. C. calculations, an example of
a canon at the 6th in triple augmentation, P in 1. v. and
with 15 c. u. in the theme. Further explanation of the
process is unnecessary.

188
Ex. 148
TTTT1 -,

.o
P
repeau !
1
*f

U 0 u (J
Q d c d d d

2
y
ft.

Is

2_

189
11. Besides the literal repetition of P against R, as
demonstrated in the preceding illustrations, it is quite
possible to repeat the P at a different pitch. While such
a vertically shifted repetition does affect the intervals
involved, it does not have any effect upon the structural
application of the D. C. principle. Ex. 149 provides a
brief example of the P being transposed a 2nd upward for
the repetition.

190
Mx o
12*
1
2
4
3
5
7
89
10
11
12
1
2
4
35
6
7
8
111^0
9

Q*iJXJ 12

£ 10
11

g-
J-t-d-
ti 5 ■*8
-»6 7
6 7
>
6

P
r2nd
higher
epeated
gMk£ .»3
4

7
6
9
8
-*6
5

"i
r
n 131
»3
6

C.
D.
2
C. D.
6«
No
8
D.
7 C.
5
43«—

m% a
fe=£
C.
D.
3
D.
C.
3
6«
C.
D.
5
3
<
7
6

4
3*-
ii £ j_
1
2

5
8<
$=3
p
\

i sO
The above canon with the addition of very slight chromatic
embellishment, a few phrasing indications, and a brief
coda could appear as given below in Ex. 150. The tied
quarter-notes in the P are here written as syncopated half-
notes, which changes nothing audibly.

Ex. 150

isfz £3 m
gB 1 £ fe£
s/k

12. Numerous possibilities exist for composing distinc

tive augmentation canons in which the repetition of the
P and/or the R appear either in contrary motion, in retro
grade, or in contrary motion combined with retrograde.
Ex. 151 shows a simple illustration wherein the P is
repeated in retrograde and the R is written in contrary
motion to the original P. Here the D. C. calculations must
be figured in retrograde in the latter half of the canon as
the arrows indicate.
192
Ex. 151
0.

CM (I
|k W I
CO

to

3. ool us y

o
o ro CO CN CO in
t CM
(SI
II II II II J II
U U U U vo A u
d odd ^ d
IOI

ao

I-

LO
O

» eoi I
*1
CO Ml CO
II f
II et 3 "I
9 u
xl
o

TK£ j'\

193
 13. Canons in augmentation can be constructed so as
to be invertible at any desired interval of D. C, but no
additional instructions are necessary. Considerably greater
freedom and added flexibility can be achieved by employing
more dissonant harmonies and permitting more liberties
in the contrapuntal dissonances. The examples in this
chapter are meant simply to illustrate basic structural
principles and therefore use only the most conservative
textural resources.

194
 CHAPTER Xll

THE ROUND

1. When viewed as a canon type, the Round can be

defined thus: a multi-voiced canon at the unison, with
equally spaced entrances, and having the same number
of c. u. between the double bars as there are between each
pair of successive entrances. The following example by
Haydn shows these conditions in operation.

Ex. 152

Tod und Schlaf

Haydn
ifcfcte
^E

m j ,i J j
Tod ist ein

195
la
mger
m I

m Tod ist ein Ian mger

sk
i i Schlaf, Schlaf ist ein kur-zer, kur-zer

P
P 22
Tod
i
ist ein lan ger

mi:
■31

Schlaf,
3
Schlaf ist ein kur-zer, kur-zer

im Tod. Die N ot.die

die lin-dert der,
der und je -ner tilgt die

196
 W»)
M
Tod
i
ist ein Ian W
iW»)
1
Schlaf, Schlaf ist ein kur-zer,kur-zer
3 [O]*)
S rrrir r r
Tod.. DieNot.die hn-dertder,
hn-dertder und je- ner tilgt die

Bs
fc*

Not. Tod ist ein Ian ger Schlaf.

*) The point at which the round will end after it has been
repeated as many times as may be desired

Any resemblance of a round to a canon lies solely in the

manner of performance and not at all in the technical
construction of the composition.
2. Structurally a round is simply a harmony in as many
parts as may be desired, all within the range of a single
voice, and being so planned that the end of each line
flows smoothly into the first note of the next. The last
line, for purposes of repeating effectively, will lead to
the beginning of the first line. Thus, the compositional
procedure would logically take place as follows:
Step one: Determine the number of parts required, the
length of the parts, and the first and last note of each part.'
197
 Ex. 153

Step two: Complete the round by "filling in" suitable

material in each line so that the entire composition be
comes a unified and continuous melody that generates its
own harmony, as is done in the last three measures of
Ex. 152. The parts comprising the harmony may be as
square-cut or as florid as artistic considerations dictate.
3. A pleasant means of diversion as well as a good
exercise in melodic and harmonic invention can be had
by taking the round format shown in Ex. 153, in this case
it being Haydn's own plan, and completing it in different
ways. Another solution to the above round problem by
Haydn is attempted by the author in Ex. 154. While Haydn's
familiar solution as given in Ex. 152 is of the utmost
simplicity, the following endeavor is somewhat more com
198
plex from almost every point of view. This is not to imply
that complexity is a virtue. Simplicity often is the greater
achievement. From a purely technical standpoint, however,
textural control-both linear and vertical-is the great
objective.

Ex. 154

Me
fcfc :a rr rr m r
mmm.1~1 za mm
k£ i m u. h
jEE

Me
\
3Z
m(i)
ossia
5E3E

199
 CHAPTER XIII

CANONIC HARMONY

1. Quite apart from its function as a contrapuntal com

position, a canon may serve an entirely different purpose;
namely, as a kind of framework for organizing the sequence
of progressions within a harmonization. This can take
place in two general ways:
(1) by the addition of free voices below, above,
within, or around a two-part canon, and
(2) by utilizing the harmonies rhythmically and
functionally as they are determined by the
restricted voice-leadings in a canon of three
or more parts, although independently of the
canonic lines.
Thus, canonic harmony-as a structural technique-differs
from free harmony in that its direction and content is
controlled mechanically. Because a canon so used is
often concealed, it is not always readily detected through
the usual harmonic analysis methods. Therefore canonic
harmony, as opposed to free harmony, may easily pass
unnoticed-either visually or audibly—by anyone who is
not skilled in canon and its varied and often quite elusive
uses.
2. Many chorale harmonizations are constructed on this
principle. Ex. 155(a), (b) and (c) demonstrate three different
kinds of canons employed in this way. In each illustration,
the canon is extracted from the harmonization and sub
joined to it.
200
Ex. 155
Bach, "Komm, heiliger Geist, Herre Gott"
line 3 o
yd J n j i
i * * fa/a i : j
IaE
^J
W

mf
Alto
-F

P
c= 11S 13 r v r^
Bass
12 13 13 12 = D. C. 24
(D.C. 10 + 2 8ves)
S
»
P 5* 11 +
^P
14 = . (D.
D. C.C. 2410 + 2 Eves')

Cf. Chapter II

201
 From a 16th century harmonization

ma m
m
Soprano
i
T.l f

J : * J—
i /\ ^ .Tenor
Bass
«• •» _
%m m %

Cf. Chapter V, paragraphs 12-13, repeat not carried out.

Bach, "Wer nur den lieben Gott lasst walten"
(c) line 2 n\

*fi
mm r r r uir r,ri
kfe*
^Mto r tr ff
im
Tenor J
i A"
D.C. 7 4
3-«e-
-2»3
A_
Cf. Chapter VI A
202
 3. The entire Preludio 1 of the Well-Tempered Clavier,
Volume I, by Bach is composed in this way. Texturally,
except for the three last measures, this 35-measure move
ment consists of a five-part harmony arpeggiated into two
identical eight-note figures per measure, thus:

L^y.,-^^:^^ TfrT*^.' !.^.' It.^-.' «..* .

0 ^" lj» . !*•

I . jj * —* • * f r— » w— t-=f »*-»" >*-«* I » « « S^

:_rz rv » *. ■ '

i» —_i».

i #, —g g— m - r,.— - ,,—— 1

203
However, when written as chords it can be seen that the
harmony is built around two two-part canons that overlap
at the middle of the composition. The two canons are
delineated by and respectively. The double
bars do not indicate any performance repetition, merely
the mechanics of the first canon. The second canon merely
dissolves without any calculated repeating structure.

Ex. 157
P
o o
nP
fi E jt-
o<1 . o
8-HI---8
• r*
%j
--0-,- •-■€%■'
"ill
_|ii_j
s. R
* S -^o-. «
•
2^—
Jt~n- 3E ZOZ
& 3E
^ 3*=W. 3E
x£ ^ A & ^ 3fc
S
204
 c = 4

jai -*H-
I %
k

S^ 3CC ^ s he
"or
+ 14 = D. C. 19* (12 + 8)
6 + 15= .D.C. 20(13 + 8)

tr
/T 1 HLr»
TO L jja
«?>§;: . A>V
::.*..
..-*::!
.B
&i* 6 Jl»
/J* « »t»
j|
#°
f#= -•CI — -n
* Cf
8
C5

-J—i 0 o n —o— O
C 1 1—o—11—e—1

*) Notes in parenthesis in harmony, but at a lower octave.

205
4. As the number of parts in a canon is increased the
opportunities for adding to the mechanically developed
harmonies diminish. Thus, in the three-part canons in
Chapters VIII and IX and in those in four parts in Chapter
X, the harmonies-except for an occasional incomplete
chord-are entirely determined by the melodic possibilities
of the mechanism. In Ex. 89 in Chapter VII, wherein two
simultaneous crab canons in contrary motion combine into
a four-part harmonization, no options exist.
5. From what is shown it can be deduced that the com
position of artistically valid canonic harmony calls into
play a three-fold technique:
(1) the selection and control of a canon type that
will produce a harmonic fabric to meet the
artistic requirements of the composer,
(2) the ability to add other parts to the mechanical
structure to bring about the desired kind and
quality of harmonic energy, and
(3) skill in modulation and chromaticization to
make the harmony as colorful and active as may
be necessary to suit the composer's purposes.
All three aspects of the canonic technique in harmony are
demonstrated with consummate virtuosity in the Bach
Preludio shown in Ex. 156- 157.

206
 CHAPTER XIV

EMBELLISHMENT

1. From the purely creative point of view, embellishment

may well be the most communicative aspect of canon
writing. While any competent mechanic can construct a
canon once he has learned the intervallic technique, it
takes an artist to transform it into a musical composition
by means of embellishment. Thus, what follows-namely,
the categorization of the art of embellishment into five
elementary techniques that are applicable singly or in
combination-may at first seem to be an oversimplification.
For the present purposes of illustration the extremely
simple canon in Ex. 22 in Chapter H will serve as model.
2. First embellishment technique: rhythmic variation
Ex. 158 (see Ex. 22)
No notes other than those appearing in the basic outline
canon (Ex. 22) are used in this rhythmically embellished
version.
3. Second embellishment technique: auxiliary-notes,
passing-notes, appoggiaturas, etc. in the same register
as the outline canon

Ex. 159 (see Ex. 22 and cf. Ex. 158)

l) 2)
 1) Auxiliary-note
2) Passing-note
3) Appoggiatura

4. Third embellishment technique: involving other notes

of the harmony

Ex. 160

/a) Basic outline canon (cf. Ex. 22) plus other notes of harmony.

—•—
tf=r^\ I #
o o
• #
ft
*
i
o

-4h o
•

209
 Other notes of the harmony in combination with the first and
(b) second embellishment techniques.

m a—1 m
si mm m
SE
3*9 ^

1 JTf: i

i ^ i
m ^w
*)«kip jJftja fete S
Basic canon notes

! ! Other notes of the harmony

Unmarked notes: Discords as used in the second embellish

ment technique.
210
 5. Fourth embellishment technique: shift of selected
notes in the basic canon up or down an octave.

Ex. 161

(a) Basic outline canon with selected notes shifted (cf. Ex. 22).

3C
¥
m HE ai:
:m
i -©—.-.

(b)

&n - ^^ f frl

ki u cj~ k=^ =53=^3

$^^3 ^1
*ffi3
§ lg
211
A measure by measure comparison of the above with
Ex. 161(a) and with Ex. 22 will show at a glance how this
version of the canon is derived.
6. Fifth embellishment technique: extension of the notes
of the basic canon into ties, suspensions and retardations.

Ex. 162

Susp.

m *=?
Tie

m m M %mm
Tie

212
 Susp.

£ .&- I JJi a
Tie

P i ^

Two other versions of this canon are given in Ex. 24(a)

and(b).
7. Herewith is demonstrated in the simplest possible
terms the five basic embellishment processes which in
combination with chromaticization-either ornamental or
modulatory-can be developed into an adequate technique
for use in canon writing.

213
 ADDENDUM
The process for composing Canons in
Augmentation is taken up in Chapter XL The most
commonly used augmentation proportion of 1: 2 is
treated at length. The more rarely found
augmentation proportion of 1 : 3 is also touched
upon.
Augmentation in other proportions is also
possible. In general, the structural principle and the
working method shown in Chapter XI are applicable
to any degree of augmentation. As a practical
example of augmentation in a proportion other than
that of 1 : 2 or 1: 3, the following CANON IN
AUGMENTATION IN THE 2 : 3 PROPORTION is
herewith provided.
The theme in short notes is played three times
while the identical theme in longer notes is played
twice. The canon is in the violin parts. The cello
plays a free bass accompaniment, entirely unrelated
to the canon.
Canons in augmentation in proportions other
than the conventional 1 : 2 offer a virtually
untouched field for experimentation by composers.

214
 CANON IN AUGMENTATION
Ua J:J proportion Hi,£0 >]or<j,„
Aljefrretto

&.
u. *
 n

fe-r.
 INDEX

Abbreviations, 30 Diminution, 178

Accidentals, 56, 58, 65 Displacement
Addition vertical, 12 1
intervallic, 137
Alignment Embellishment, 36, 72, 80, 101,
vertical, 87 134, 179, 187
Alto clef, 107 chromatic, 192
Appoggiatura, 209 Entrances
Augmentation, 178 unequally spaced, 173
quadruple, 180 Epilogue, 162
triple, 180, 188 Expansion of inversions, 20
Auxiliary-note, 209
Free bass, 105
Bach Free part, 44
Invention No. 6, 12, 13
Musical Offering, The, 44, 81, Harmonies
87, 92. 95 sequence of, 114
Well-Tempered Clavier, The, 14, Harmony
203 arpeggiated, 203
Blocked-off portion, 33, 64, 76 four-part without option, 206
other notes of, 209, 210
Cancrizans, 91 Haydn, 53, 122, 195
Canonic unit, 30
even multiple of, 42 Intervallic calculations, 142,
no multiple of, 42 Intervallic imitation
odd multiple of, 42 exact, 89
reduction of, 58 inexact, 89
Cantus firmus, 26, 28 Intervals
Chorale, 110 addition of, 23, 49
Chorale harmonization, 200 complementary, 171
Chromaticization diagonal, 34, 41
modulatory, 213 even-numbered, 86, 89
ornamental, 213 odd-numbered, 89
Coda, 146, 162 minus, 18', 79, 187
Constituent two-part canons, 146 reduction of, 79
calculated, 120 subtraction, 23
uncalculated, 122 terminal, 93
Contrary motion vertically aligned, 77, 109
exact in one key, 86 Inversions
exact in two different keys, 87 addition of, 49
Crab canon interval, 104 Inverted inversion, 138

215
Keys Suspension, 38, 212
two different, 87 Syncopation, 192

Table of Inversions, 23,. 100

Modulation, 57
Thematic line, 114
Three-part canon, constituent
Omitted parts, 176
calculated, 148, ISO
Parallel octaves, 134 interlocking, 149, 151
Passing-note, 209 uncalculated, 148, 150, 174
Proposta, 30 Tied note, 24
Trial note, 33, 76, 79
Repeat calculations, 146 sum of, 34
Triple counterpoint, 125
Retardation, 212
Retrograde, 91, 92, 93 Triple rhythm, 102
Rhythmic elaboration, 179
Rhythmic shift, 101 Vertical displacement, 12'
Risposta, 30

216
 THE TECHNIQUE OF CANON

by Hugo Norden

Here, for the first time anywhere, the precise processes

for composing any kind of canon are made available to
the music world. Never before— as far as can be
determined— have these principles been set down for use
by composers, musicologists, students and teachers. Hugo
Norden's THE TECHNIQUE OF CANON is, historically
and musically, a landmark in every sense of the word.
The composer is given the technique needed to construct
systematically whatever type of canon meets his creative
requirements, and the musicologist is able to demonstrate
the writing of any canon by any composer of any period.
(In fact, included among the many musical examples are
reconstructions of several of the more subtle canons by
Bach and Haydn.) No longer need canons be written by a
trial and error method, nor any detail of this important
aspect of the composer's art be left to chance.
THE TECHNIQUE OF CANON is a far-reaching work
which provides a systematic and reliable basis for the
composition of canons, and opens as well new avenues for
constructing and organizing harmonies with fresh
concepts of ingenuity and sophistication. The principles
set forth in this outstanding book transcend all stylistic
barriers, and are as effective in the contemporary idioms
of our day as they were in the time of Okeghem, Byrd, and
Bach. (1839-5 Paper $9)
51995

ISBN: 0-8283-1028-9