From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field

Magnetic field

Electromagnetism generates a electric field (see

electromagnetism).
In special relativity, the electric field and
magnetic field are two interrelated aspects of
a single object, called the electromagnetic
field. A pure electric field in one reference
frame is observed as a combination of both
Electricity · Magnetism
an electric field and a magnetic field in a
moving reference frame.

B and H
See also: Magnetization
Alternative names for B and H
B

name used by

magnetic flux density electrical engineers

magnetic induction electrical engineers

magnetic field physicists

Magnetic field lines shown by iron filings. H

The high permeability of individual iron fil-
ings causes the magnetic field to be larger at
the ends of the filings. This causes individual
filings to attract each other, forming elong-
ated clusters that trace out the appearance of
lines. It would not be expected that these
"lines" be precisely accurate field lines for
this magnet; rather, the magnetization of the
iron itself would be expected to alter the field
somewhat.
A magnetic field is a vector field which
surrounds magnets and electric currents, and
is detected by the force it exerts on moving
electric charges and on magnetic materials.
When placed in a magnetic field, magnetic
dipoles tend to align their axes parallel to the
magnetic field. Magnetic fields also have
their own energy with an energy density pro-
portional to the square of the field intensity.
For the physics of magnetic materials, see
magnetism and magnet, and more specific-
ally ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and
diamagnetism. For constant magnetic fields,
such as are generated by magnetic materials
and steady currents, see magnetostatics. A
changing electric field results in a magnetic
field, and a changing magnetic field also
name used by
magnetic field intensity electrical engineers
magnetic field strength electrical engineers
auxiliary magnetic field physicists
magnetizing field physicists
The term magnetic field is used for two dif-
ferent vector fields, denoted B and H,[1] al-
though there are many alternative names for
both (see sidebar). To avoid confusion, this
article uses B-field and H-field for these
fields, and uses magnetic field where either
or both fields apply.
The B-field can be defined in many equi-
valent ways based on the effects it has on its
environment. For instance, a particle having
an electric charge, q, and moving in a B-field
with a velocity, v, experiences a force, F,
called the Lorentz force (see below). In SI
units, the Lorentz force equation is
where × is the vector cross product. The B-
field is measured in teslas in SI units and in
gauss in cgs units.

1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Although views have shifted over the
years, B is now understood as being the fun-
damental quantity, while H is a derived field.
It is defined as a modification of B due to ma-
terial media such that (in SI):
(definition of H )
where M is the magnetization of the material
and μ0 is the magnetic constant.[2] The H-
field is measured in amperes per meter (A/m)
in SI units and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs
units.[3]
In materials for which M is proportional to
B the relationship between B and H can be
cast into the simpler form: H = B ⁄ μ, where μ
is a material dependent parameter called the
permeability. In free space, there is no mag-
netization M so that H = B ⁄ μ0 (free space).
For many materials, though, there is no
simple relationship between B and M. For
example, ferromagnetic materials and super-
conductors have a magnetization that is a
multiple-valued function of B due to hyster-
esis.[4]
See History of B and H below for further
discussion.
The magnetic field and
permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are objects that produce
their own persistent magnetic fields. All per-
manent magnets have both a north and a
south pole. Like poles repel and opposite
poles attract. Permanent magnets are made
of ferromagnetic materials such as iron and
nickel that have been magnetized. For more
details about magnets see magnetization be-
low and the article ferromagnetism.
Force on a magnet due to a non-
uniform B
See also: Magnet#Two models for magnets:
magnetic poles and atomic currents and
Magnetic moment
The most commonly experienced effect of the
magnetic field is the force between two mag-
nets. This force is often described as ’like
poles repel while opposites attract’. A more
general description, that also applies to mag-
netic fields that have no poles (such as that
due to the current through a straight wire), is
that a magnet experiences a force, when
2
Magnetic field
placed in a non-uniform external magnetic
field.
In this model, each magnetic pole is a
source of a magnetic field that is stronger
near the pole. Further, an external magnetic
field exerts a force in the direction of the
magnetic field for a north pole and in the op-
posite direction for the south pole. In a
nonuniform magnetic field, each pole sees a
different field and consequently is subject to
a different force. The difference in the two
forces moves the magnet in the direction of
increasing magnetic field. (There may also be
a net torque.) In contrast, a magnet in a uni-
form magnetic field experiences at most a
torque, and no net magnetic force, no matter
how strong the field is.
Unfortunately, the idea of "poles" does not
accurately reflect what happens inside a
magnet (see ferromagnetism). For instance, a
small magnet placed inside of a larger mag-
net will feel a force in the opposite direction.
The more physically correct description of
magnetism involves atomic sized loops of cur-
rent distributed throughout the magnet.
Mathematically, the force on a magnet
having a magnetic moment m is:[5]
.
The force on a magnet due to a non-uniform
magnetic field can be determined by sum-
ming up all of the forces on the elementary
magnets that make up the entire magnet.
The ability of a nonuniform magnetic field
to sort differently oriented dipoles is the
basis of the Stern-Gerlach experiment, which
established the quantum mechanical nature
of the magnetic dipoles associated with
atoms and electrons.[6][7]
Torque on a magnet due to a B-
field
See also: Faraday’s law of induction
A magnet placed in a magnetic field will feel
a torque that will try to align the magnet with
the magnetic field. The torque on a magnet
due to an external magnetic field is easy to
observe by placing two magnets near each
other while allowing one to rotate.
The alignment of a magnet with the mag-
netic field of the Earth is how compasses
work. It is used to determine the direction of
a local magnetic field as well (see below). A
small magnet is mounted such that it is free
to turn (in a given plane) and its north pole is
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The direction of the magnetic field near
the poles of a magnet is revealed by pla-
cing compasses nearby. As seen here, the
magnetic field points towards a magnet’s
south pole and away from its north pole.
marked. By definition, the direction of the
local magnetic field is the direction that the
north pole of a compass (or of any magnet)
tends to point.
The magnetic torque also provides the
driving torque for simple electric motors. An
electric motor changes electrical energy into
mechanical energy (motion). In a motor, a
magnet is fixed to a shaft free to rotate
(forming a rotor). This magnet is subjected to
a magnetic field from an array of electromag-
nets —called the stator. The polarity of each
individual electromagnet in the stator easily
can be flipped by switching the direction of
the current through its coils. By flipping com-
ponent electromagnet polarities in sequence,
the field of the stator continuously changes
to place like poles next to the rotor, subject-
ing the rotor to a torque that is transferred to
3
Magnetic field
the shaft. The inverse process, changing
mechanical motion to electrical energy, is ac-
complished by the inverse of the above mech-
anism in the electric generator.
See Rotating magnetic fields below for an
example using this effect with
electromagnets.
Visualizing the magnetic
field
Mapping out the strength and direction of
the magnetic field is simple in principle.
First, measure the strength and direction of
the magnetic field at a large number of loca-
tions. Then mark each location with an arrow
(called a vector) pointing in the direction of
the local magnetic field with a length propor-
tional to the strength of the magnetic field.
An alternative method of visualizing the mag-
netic field which greatly simplifies the dia-
gram while containing the same information
is to ’connect’ the arrows to form "magnetic
field lines".
A compass placed near the north pole of a
magnet will point away from that pole—like
poles repel. The opposite occurs for a com-
pass placed near a magnet’s south pole. The
magnetic field points away from a magnet
near its north pole and towards a magnet
near its south pole. Not all magnetic fields
are describable in terms of poles, though. A
straight current-carrying wire, for instance,
produces a magnetic field that points neither
towards nor away from the wire, but en-
circles it instead.
B-field lines
Various physical phenomena have the effect
of displaying magnetic field lines. For ex-
ample, iron filings placed in a magnetic field
will line up in such a way as to visually show
the orientation of the magnetic field (see fig-
ure at top). Another place where magnetic
fields are visually displayed is in the polar au-
roras, in which visible streaks of light line up
with the local direction of Earth’s magnetic
field (due to plasma particle dipole interac-
tions). In these phenomena, lines or curves
appear that follow along the direction of the
local magnetic field.
These field lines provide a simple way to
depict or draw the magnetic field (or any oth-
er vector field). [8] The magnetic field can be
estimated at any point (whether on a field
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field

line or not) by looking at the direction and for monopoles. Despite these efforts, no mag-
density of the field lines nearby. netic monopole has been observed to
Field lines are also a good tool for visualiz- date.[10]
ing magnetic forces. When dealing with mag-
netic fields in ferromagnetic substances like
iron, and in plasmas, the magnetic forces can
The magnetic field and
be understood by imagining that the field electrical currents
lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band)
Currents of electrical charges both generate
along their length, and a pressure perpendic-
a magnetic field and feel a force due to
ular to their length on neighboring field lines.
magnetic B-fields.
The ’unlike’ poles of magnets attract because
they are linked by many field lines, while
’like’ poles repel because the field lines
Electrical currents (moving
between them don’t meet, but run parallel, charges) as a source of magnet-
pushing on each other. ic field
B-field lines always form closed loops All moving charges produce a magnetic field.
[11] The magnetic field of a moving charge is
Field lines are a useful way to represent any
very complicated but is well known. (See Jefi-
vector field and often reveal sophisticated
menko’s equations.) It forms closed loops
properties of fields quite simply. One import-
around a line that is pointing in the direction
ant property of the B-field that can be veri-
the charge is moving. The magnetic field of a
fied with field lines is that magnetic field
current on the other hand is much easier to
lines always make complete loops. Magnetic
calculate.
field lines neither start nor end (although
they can extend to or from infinity). To date Magnetic field of a steady current
no exception to this rule has been found. (See
magnetic monopole below.)
Since magnetic field lines always come in
loops, magnetic poles always come in N and
S pairs. Magnetic field leaves a magnet near
its north pole and enters the magnet near its
south pole but inside the magnet the magnet-
ic field continues from the south pole back to
the north. [9] If a magnetic field line enters a
magnet somewhere it has to leave the mag-
net somewhere else; it is not allowed to have
an end point. For this reason as well, cutting
a magnet in half will result in two separate
magnets each with both a north and a south
pole.

Magnetic monopole
(hypothetical)
A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical
particle (or class of particles) that has, as its
name suggests, only one magnetic pole Current (I) through a wire produces a mag-
netic field (B) around the wire. The field is
(either a north pole or a south pole). In other
oriented according to the right hand grip
words, it would possess a "magnetic charge"
rule.
analogous to electric charge.
Modern interest in this concept stems
The magnetic field generated by a steady
from particle theories, notably Grand Unified
current (a continual flow of charges, for ex-
Theories and superstring theories, that pre-
ample through a wire, which is constant in
dict either the existence or the possibility of
time and in which charge is neither building
magnetic monopoles. These theories and oth-
up nor depleting at any point), is described
ers have inspired extensive efforts to search
by the Biot-Savart law.[12] This is a

4
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field

consequence of Ampere’s law, one of the four

Maxwell’s equations that describe electricity
and magnetism. The magnetic field lines gen-
erated by a current carrying wire form con-
centric circles around the wire. The direction
of the magnetic field of the loops is determ-
ined by the right hand grip rule. One can also
imagine driving a bus along the current. To
your left, the magnetic field points up. To
your right, it points down. (See figure to the
right.) The strength of the magnetic field de-
creases with distance from the wire.
A current carrying wire can be bent in a
loop such that the field is concentrated (and
in the same direction) inside of the loop. The
field will be weaker outside of the loop.
Stacking many such loops to form a solenoid
(or long coil) can greatly increase the mag-
netic field in the center and decrease the
magnetic field outside of the solenoid. Such
devices are called electromagnets and are ex-
tremely important in generating strong and
well controlled magnetic fields. An infinitely
long solenoid will have a uniform magnetic
field inside of the loops and no magnetic field
outside. A finite length electromagnet will
produce essentially the same magnetic field Charged particle drifts in a homogeneous
as a uniform permanent magnet of the same magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B)
With an electric field, E (C) With an inde-
shape and size. An electromagnet has the ad-
pendent force, F (e.g. gravity) (D) In an in-
vantage, though, that you can easily vary the
homogeneous magnetic field, grad H
strength (even creating a field in the opposite
direction) simply by controlling the input cur-
rent. One important use is to continually
switch the polarity of a stationary electro-
magnet to force a rotating permanent mag-
net to continually rotate using the fact that
opposite poles attract and like poles repel.
This can be used to create an important type
of electrical motor.

Force due to a B-field on a mov-

ing charge
Force on a charged particle
A charged particle moving in a B-field will
feel a sideways force that is proportional to
the strength of the magnetic field, the com-
ponent of the velocity that is perpendicular to
the magnetic field and the charge of the
particle. This force is known as the Lorentz
force, and is given by
where
F is the force (in newtons)
Beam of electrons moving in a circle. Light-
ing is caused by excitation of atoms of gas in
a bulb.
q is the electric charge of the particle (in
coulombs)
v is the instantaneous velocity of the
particle (in meters per second)
B is the magnetic field (in teslas).

5
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The force is always perpendicular to both the
velocity of the particle and the magnetic field
that created it. Neither a stationary particle
nor one moving in the direction of the mag-
netic field lines will experience a force. For
that reason, charged particles move in a
circle (or more generally, in a helix) around
magnetic field lines; this is called cyclotron
motion. Because the magnetic force is always
perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic
fields can do no work on an isolated charge.
It can and does, however, change the
particle’s direction, even to the extent that a
force applied in one direction can cause the
particle to drift in a perpendicular direction.
(See figure.) The magnetic force can do work
to a magnetic dipole, or to a charged particle
whose motion is constrained by other forces.
Force on current-carrying wire
The force on a current carrying wire is simil-
ar to that of a moving charge as expected
since a charge carrying wire is a collection of
moving charges. A current carrying wire will
feel a sideways force in the presence of a
magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macro-
scopic current is often referred to as the La-
place force.
Direction of force
The right-hand rule: With the thumb of the
right hand pointing in the direction of the
conventional current or moving positive
charge and the fingers pointing in the direc-
tion of the magnetic field the force on the
current will be in a direction out of the palm.
The direction of the force is reversed for a
negative charge.
The direction of force on a positive charge
or a current is determined by the right-hand
rule. See the figure on the right. Using the
right hand and pointing the thumb in the dir-
ection of the moving positive charge or posit-
ive current and the fingers in the direction of
the magnetic field the resulting force on the
6
Magnetic field
charge will point outwards from the palm.
The force on a negative charged particle is in
the opposite direction. If both the speed and
the charge are reversed then the direction of
the force remains the same. For that reason a
magnetic field measurement (by itself) can-
not distinguish whether there is a positive
charge moving to the right or a negative
charge moving to the left. (Both of these will
produce the same current.) On the other
hand, a magnetic field combined with an
electric field can distinguish between these,
see Hall effect below.
An alternative, similar trick to the right
hand rule is Fleming’s left hand rule.
Electromagnetism: the
relationship between
magnetic and electric
fields
The magnetic field due to a
changing electric field
See also: Ampere’s Law and Maxwell’s
equations
A changing electric field generates a magnet-
ic field proportional to the time rate of the
change of the electric field. This fact is
known as Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s
Law. Therefore the full Ampere’s Law is:
where J is the current density, and partial de-
rivatives indicate spatial location is fixed
when the time derivative is taken. The last
term is Maxwell’s correction. This equation is
valid even when magnetic materials are in-
volved, but in practice it is often easier to use
an alternate equation .
Electric force due to a changing
B-field
Above is a discussion of how a changing E-
field can cause a B-field. The inverse process
also occurs: a magnet moving through a sta-
tionary coil will generate an electric field
(and therefore tend to drive a current) in the
coil. (These two effects bootstrap together to
form electromagnetic waves, such as light.)
Both these phenomena play a part in
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Faraday’s Law, which forms the basis of
many electric generators and electrical mo-
tors. More generally, Faraday’s law states
that any change in the magnetic field linking
a circuit will generate an electromotive force
or EMF, a force tending to drive a current.
Mathematically, Faraday’s law is com-
monly represented as:
where is the electromotive force (the
voltage generated around a closed loop) and
Φm is the magnetic flux (the product of the
area times the magnetic field normal to that
area). This law includes both the case when
the flux changes because of the magnetic
field generated by a time varying E-field (so-
called transformer EMF) and the case when
the flux changes because of movement
through a magnetic field (so-called motional
EMF). The appearance of the magnetic flux
in this law is why engineers often refer to the
B-field as the "magnetic flux density". Cer-
tain calculations involving magnetic fields
are easier when formulated in terms of flux
density, for example, in magnetic circuits.
A limited form of Faraday’s law of induc-
tion that does not include motional electro-
motive force is the Maxwell-Faraday
equation:
which is one of Maxwell’s equations. This
equation is valid even in the presence of
magnetic material.[13]
Mathematical properties
of B
The magnitude of B is defined (in SI units) in
terms of the voltage induced per unit area on
a current carrying loop in a uniform magnetic
field normal to the loop when the magnetic
field is reduced to zero in a unit amount of
time.
The magnetic field vector is a tating coil, Hall effect magnetometers, NMR
pseudovector (also called an axial vector).
(This is a technical statement about how the
magnetic field behaves when you reflect the
world in a mirror.) This fact is apparent from
many of the definitions and properties of the
field; for example, the magnitude of the field
7
Magnetic field
is proportional to the torque on a dipole, and
torque is a well-known pseudovector.
Maxwell’s equations
As a vector field, the B-field has two import-
ant mathematical properties that relates this
magnetic field to its sources. These two prop-
erties, along with the two corresponding
properties of the electric field, make up Max-
well’s Equations. Maxwell’s Equations to-
gether with the Lorentz force law form a
complete description of classical electro-
dynamics including both electricity and
magnetism.
The first property is that a B-field line nev-
er starts nor ends at a point but instead
forms a complete loop. This is mathematically
equivalent to saying that the divergence of B
is zero. (Such vector fields are called solen-
oidal vector fields.) This property is called
Gauss’ law for magnetism and is equivalent
to the statement that there are no magnetic
charges or magnetic monopoles:
where ∇ · represents the divergence
operation.
The second mathematical property of the
magnetic field is that it always loops around
the source that creates it. This source could
be a current, a magnet, or a changing elec-
tric field, but it is always within the loops of
magnetic field they create. Mathematically,
this fact is described by the combination of
the above Gauss’s law with the Ampère-Max-
well equation:
where ∇ × represents the curl operation, J =
complete microscopic current density and E
= electric field.
Measuring the B-field
Devices used to measure the local magnetic
field are called magnetometers. Important
classes of magnetometers include using a ro-
magnetometer, SQUID magnetometer, and a
fluxgate magnetometer. The magnetic fields
of distant astronomical objects can be de-
termined by noting their effects on local
charged particles. For instance, electrons
spiraling around a field line will produce
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
synchotron radiation which is detectable in
radio waves.
Hall effect
When a current carrying conductor is placed
in a transverse magnetic field the sideways
Lorentz force on the charge carriers results
in a charge separation in a direction perpen-
dicular to both the current and the magnetic
field. The resultant voltage, due to that
charge separation, is proportional to the ap-
plied magnetic field. This is known as the
Hall effect. The Hall effect is often used to
measure the magnitude of a magnetic field as
well as to find the sign of the dominant
charge carriers in semiconductors (negative
electrons or positive holes).
SQUID magnetometer
See also: superconductivity
Superconductors are materials with both dis-
tinctive electric properties (perfect conduct-
ivity) and magnetic properties (such as the
Meissner effect, in which many supercon-
ductors can perfectly expel magnetic fields).
Due to these properties, loops of supercon-
ducting material broken up by Josephson
junctions can function as very sensitive mag-
netometers, called SQUIDs. SQUID magneto-
meters are used in a Scanning SQUID micro-
scope to create a 2D map of the magnetic
field.
The H-field
In the formulation of Maxwell’s equations at
a microscopic level where all charges and
currents are treated explicitly, only the E-
and B-fields occur. On the other hand, when
charges and currents are divided into "free"
and "bound" categories, D- and H-fields are
used, with the H-field determined by the
"free" current and time rate of change of
D.[14] Thus, when the "free" and "bound" di-
vision of currents and charges is introduced,
the H-field appears and simplifies the equa-
tions for the magnetic field because micro-
scopic details of the B- and E-fields inside
materials can be treated separately as prob-
lems of condensed-matter physics. The H-
field is defined as:
(definition of H in SI
units)
8
Magnetic field
(definition of H in
cgs units)
where M is magnetization density of any
magnetic material. H is measured in amperes
per meter (A/m) in SI and in oersteds (Oe) for
cgs. In SI units, μ0 is a defined constant
called the magnetic constant (μ0 = 4π × 10−7
Tm/A).
Magnetization
See also: Magnetization
Hierarchy of types of magnetism. See My-
ers.[15]
Materials placed in a magnetic field can be-
come magnetized. Magnetization is due to
the accumulated effect of many tiny magnetic
dipole moments that occur on the atomic
level. In non-magnetized materials, the mag-
netic dipoles align randomly such that the
net magnetic moment cancels producing no
net magnetic field. But, if the magnetic di-
poles of the material becomes aligned a net
magnetization and magnetic field is pro-
duced. The magnetization field M represents
how strongly a region is magnetized and is
defined as the volume density of the net mag-
netic dipole moment in that region of
material.
An equivalent way to represent magnetiza-
tion is to add all of the currents of the dipole
moments that produce the magnetization.
The resultant current is called bound current
and is the source of the magnetic field due to
the magnet. Mathematically, the curl of M
equals the bound current. Unlike B, though,
magnetization must begin and end near the
poles. (There is no magnetization outside of
the material.) Therefore, the divergence of M
must be non-zero near the poles of a magnet.
Most materials produce a magnetization in
response to an applied B-field. Typically, the
response is very weak and exists only when
the magnetic field is applied. Materials are
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
divided into groups based upon their magnet-
ic behavior:
• Diamagnetic materials[16] produce a
magnetization that opposes the magnetic
field.
• Paramagnetic materials[16] produce a
magnetization in the same direction as the
applied magnetic field.
• Ferromagnetic materials and the closely
related ferrimagnetic materials and
antferromagnetic materials[17][18] can
have a magnetization independent of an
applied B-field with a complex
relationship between the two fields.
• Superconductors (and ferromagnetic
superconductors)[19][20] are materials that
are characterized by perfect conductivity
below a critical temperature and magnetic
field. They also are highly magnetic and
can be perfect diamagnets below a lower
critical magnetic field. Superconductors
often have a broad range of temperatures
and magnetic fields (the so named mixed
state) for which they exhibit a complex
hysteretic dependence of M on B.
In the case of paramagnetism, and diamag-
netism the B-field often is proportional to the
H-field such that:
, between angular momentum and magnetism
where μ is a material dependent parameter
called the permeability (see constitutive
equations). In some cases the permeability
may be a second rank tensor so that H may
not point in the same direction as B. These
relations between B and H are examples of
constitutive equations. However, supercon-
ductors and ferromagnets have a more com-
plex B to H relation, see hysteresis. In all
cases the original definitions of H in terms of
B and M still are valid.
The advantage of the H-field is that its
bound sources are treated so differently that
they can often be isolated from the free
sources. For example, a line integral of the
H-field in a closed loop will yield the total
free current in the loop (not including the
bound current). Similarly, a surface integral
of H over any closed surface will pick out the
’magnetic charges’ within that closed
surface.
Magnetic dipoles
See also: Spin magnetic moment and
Micromagnetism
9
Magnetic field
Magnetic field lines around a ”magnetostatic
dipole” the magnetic dipole itself is in the
center and is seen from the side.
The magnetic field of an ideal magnetic di-
pole is depicted on the right. As discussed be-
low, however, due to the inherent connection
between angular momentum and magnetism,
magnetic dipoles in actual materials are not
ideal magnetic dipoles. The connection
is the basis of the Einstein-de Haas effect "ro-
tation by magnetization" and its inverse, the
Barnett effect or "magnetization by rota-
tion".[21]
The magnetic field of permanent magnets
and of all magnetic material originate at the
atomic level. Orbiting electrons along with
the nucleus form tiny magnets.[22] The orbit-
al component of these tiny magnets can be
modeled as tiny loops of current with associ-
ated magnetic dipoles.[23] The dipole moment
of that dipole is defined as the current times
the area of the loop and represents the
strength of that magnet (magnetic dipole).
However, in magnetic materials such as al-
loys of iron, cobalt and nickel, the magnetism
is almost entirely spin magnetism, not orbital
magnetism.[24][25]
The magnetic dipole originating in an
atom, electron, or nucleus is not a true di-
pole, as is an electric dipole. Viewing a mag-
netic dipole as a rotating charged sphere
brings out the close connection between
magnetic moment and angular momentum.
Both the magnetic moment and the angular
momentum increase with the rate of rotation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
of the sphere. The ratio of the two is called
the gyromagnetic ratio, usually denoted by
the symbol γ.[24][26]
For an atom, individual electron spins are
added to get a total spin and individual orbit-
al angular momenta are added to get a total
orbital angular momentum. These two then
are added using angular momentum coupling
to get a total angular momentum. The mag-
nitude of the atomic dipole moment is
then:[27]
where J is the total angular momentum
quantum number, gJ is the Landé g-factor,
and μB is the Bohr magneton. The component
of this magnetic moment along the direction
of the magnetic field is then:[28]
where m is called the magnetic quantum
number or the equatorial quantum number,
which can take on any of 2J+1 values: -J,
−(J-1), … , (J−1), J.[29] The negative sign oc-
curs because electrons have negative charge.
Because of the angular momentum, the
dynamics of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic
field differs from that of an electric dipole in
an electric field. The field does exert a torque
on the magnetic dipole tending to align it
with the field. However, torque is proportion-
al to rate of change of angular momentum, so
precession occurs: the direction of spin
changes. This behavior is described by the
Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation:[30][31]
where γ =gyromagnetic ratio, m = magnetic
moment, λ = damping coefficient and Heff =
effective magnetic field (the external field
plus any self-field), and ’×’ = vector cross
product. The first term describes precession
of the moment about the effective field, while
the second is a damping term related to dis-
sipation of energy caused by interaction with
surroundings.
Uses of the H-field
Energy stored in magnetic fields
In asking how much energy does it take to
create a specific magnetic field using a par-
ticular current it is important to distinguish
10
Magnetic field
between free and bound currents. It is the
free current that we directly ’push’ on to cre-
ate the magnetic field. The bound currents
create a magnetic field that the free current
has to work against without doing any of the
work.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the H-
field is important in magnetic energy calcula-
tions since it treats the two sources differ-
ently. In general the incremental amount of
work per unit volume δW needed to cause a
small change of magnetic field δB is:
If there are no magnetic materials around
then we can replace H with B ⁄ μ0,
For linear materials (such that B = μH ), the
energy density can be expressed as:
(Valid only
for linear materials)
Nonlinear materials cannot use the above
equation but must return to the first equation
which is always valid. In particular, the en-
ergy density stored in the fields of hysteretic
materials such as ferromagnets and super-
conductors will depend on how the magnetic
field was created.
Magnetic circuits
A second use for H is in magnetic circuits
where inside a linear material B = μ H. Here,
μ is the magnetic permeability of the materi-
al. This result is similar in form to Ohm’s Law
J = σ E, where J is the current density, σ is
the conductance and E is the electric field.
Extending this analogy we derive the coun-
terpart to the macroscopic Ohm’s law ( I = V ⁄
R ) as:
where is the magnetic flux
in the circuit, is the mag-
netomotive force applied to the circuit, and
Rm is the reluctance of the circuit. Here the
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
reluctance Rm is a quantity similar in nature
to resistance for the flux.
Using this analogy it is straight-forward to
calculate the magnetic flux of complicated
magnetic field geometries, by using all the
available techniques of circuit theory.
History of B and H
The modern understanding that the B-field is
the more fundamental field with the H-field
being an auxiliary field was not easy to arrive
at. Indeed, largely because of mathematical
similarities to the electric field, the H-field
was developed first and was thought at first
to be the more fundamental of the two. A
brief history of this important transition in
thought is instructional in giving insight into
the nature of both H and B.
Perhaps the earliest description of a mag-
netic field was performed by Petrus Pereg-
rinus and published in his “Epistola Petri Per-
egrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucauc-
ourt Militem de Magnete” and is dated 1269
A.D. Petrus Peregrinus mapped out the mag-
netic field on the surface of a spherical mag-
net. Noting that the resulting field lines
crossed at two points he named those points
’poles’ in analogy to Earth’s poles. Almost
three centuries later, near the end of the six-
teenth century, William Gilbert of Colchester
replicated Petrus Peregrinus work and was
the first to state explicitly that Earth itself
was a magnet. William Gilbert’s great work
De Magnete was published in 1600 A.D. and
helped to establish the study of magnetism as
a science.
The modern distinction between the B-
and H- fields does not become important un-
til Siméon-Denis Poisson (1781–1840) de-
veloped one of the first mathematical theor-
ies of magnetism. Poisson’s model, developed
in 1824, assumed that magnetism was due to
magnetic charges. In analogy to electric
charges, these magnetic charges produce a
H-field. In modern notation, Poisson’s model
was exactly analogous to electrostatics with
the H-field replacing the electric field E-field
and the B-field replacing the auxiliary D-
field.
Poisson’s model was, unfortunately, incor-
rect. Magnetism is not due to magnetic
charges. Nor is magnetism created by the H-
field polarizing magnetic charge in a materi-
al. The model, however, was remarkably suc-
cessful for being fundamentally wrong. It
11
Magnetic field
predicts the correct relationship between the
H-field and the B-field, even though it
wrongly places H as the fundamental field
with B as the auxiliary field. It predicts the
correct forces between magnets.
It even predicts the correct energy stored
in the magnetic fields. By the definition of
magnetization, in this model, and in analogy
to the physics of springs, the work done per
unit volume, in stretching and twisting the
bonds between magnetic charge to increment
the magnetization by μ0δM is W = H · μ0δM.
In this model, B = μ0 (H + M ) is an effective
magnetization which includes the H-field
term to account for the energy of setting up
the magnetic field in a vacuum. Therefore the
total energy density increment needed to in-
crement the magnetic field is W = H · δB.
This is the correct result, but it is derived
from an incorrect model.
In retrospect the success of this model is
due largely to the remarkable coincidence
that from the ’outside’ the field of an electric
dipole has the exact same form as that of a
magnetic dipole. It is therefore only for the
physics of magnetism ’inside’ of magnetic
material where the simpler model of magnet-
ic charges fails. It is also important to note
that this model is still useful in many situ-
ations dealing with magnetic material. One
example of its utility is the concept of mag-
netic circuits.
The formation of the correct theory of
magnetism begins with a series of revolution-
ary discoveries in 1820, four years before
Poisson’s model was developed. (The first
clue that something was amiss, though, was
that unlike electrical charges magnetic poles
cannot be separated from each other or form
magnetic currents.) The revolution began
when Hans Christian Oersted discovered that
an electrical current generates a magnetic
field that encircles the wire. In a quick suc-
cession that discovery was followed by Andre
Marie Ampere showing that parallel wires
having currents in the same direction attract,
and by Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
developing the correct equation, the Biot-
Savart Law, for the magnetic field of a cur-
rent carrying wire. In 1825, Ampere exten-
ded this revolution by publishing his
Ampere’s Law which provided a more math-
ematically subtle and correct description of
the magnetic field generated by a current
than the Biot-Savart Law.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Subsequent development in the nine-
teenth century interlinked magnetic and elec-
tric phenomena even tighter, until the
concept of magnetic charge was not needed.
Magnetism became an electric phenomenon
with even the magnetism of permanent mag-
nets being due to small loops of current in
their interior. This development was aided
greatly by Michael Faraday, who in 1831
showed that a changing magnetic field gener-
ates an encircling electric field.
In 1861, James Clerk-Maxwell wrote a pa-
per entitled ’On Physical Lines of Force’ [1]
in which he attempted to explain Faraday’s
magnetic lines of force in terms of a sea of
tiny molecular vortices. These molecular vor-
tices occupied all space and they were
aligned in a solenoidal fashion such that their
rotation axes traced out the magnetic lines of
force. When two like magnetic poles repel
each other, the magnetic lines of force
spread outwards from each other in the
space between the two poles. Maxwell con-
sidered that magnetic repulsion was the con-
sequence of a lateral pressure between adja-
cent lines of force, due to centrifugal force in
the equatorial plane of the molecular vor-
tices. When deriving the equation for mag-
netic force in part I of his 1861 paper, Max-
well used a quantity which was closely re-
lated to the circumferential speed of the vor-
tices. This quantity was therefore a measure
of the vorticity in the magnetic lines of force,
and Maxwell referred to it as the intensity of
the magnetic force. In the 1861 paper, the
magnetic intensity which we will denote as v,
was always multiplied by the term μ as a
weighting for the cross sectional density of
the lines of force. The quantity v corresponds
reasonably closely to the modern magnetic
field vector H, and the product μv corres-
ponds very closely to the modern magnetic
flux density B, where μ is referred to as the
magnetic permeability.
Although the classical theory of electro-
dynamics was essentially complete with Max-
well’s equations, the twentieth century saw a
number of improvements and extensions to
the theory. Albert Einstein, in his great paper
of 1905 that established relativity, showed
that both the electric and magnetic fields
were part of the same phenomena viewed
from different reference frames. Finally, the
emergent field of quantum mechanics was
merged with electrodynamics to form
quantum electrodynamics or QED.
12
Magnetic field
Special relativity and
electromagnetism
Magnetic fields played an important role in
helping to develop the theory of special
relativity.
Moving magnet and conductor
problem
Imagine a moving conducting loop that is
passing by a stationary magnet, as seen by
an observer on the magnet, and contrast this
with an observer on the loop, who sees a sta-
tionary loop near a moving magnet. The ob-
servable phenomenon here depends only on
the relative motion of the conductor and the
magnet, whereas the customary view draws a
sharp distinction between the two cases in
which either the one or the other of these
bodies is in motion: in the stationary magnet
case, carriers moving in a magnetic field are
subject to a magnetic force that gives rise to
the current (the so-called motional electro-
motive force), while if the magnet is in mo-
tion and the conductor at rest, a changing
magnetic field induces an electric field that
drives the current (the so-called transformer
electromotive force). Bringing these two de-
scriptions together was one factor that led
Albert Einstein to develop his theory of spe-
cial relativity.
In more detail, an observer for whom the
magnet is stationary would see an unchan-
ging magnetic field and a moving conducting
loop. Because the loop is moving, all of the
charges that make up the loop also are mov-
ing. Each of these charges will have a side-
ways, Lorentz force, acting on it due to the
B-field, and this force generates the current.
Contrariwise, an observer on the moving loop
would see a changing magnetic field because
the loop is not moving in this observer’s ref-
erence frame, but the magnet is. This chan-
ging magnetic field generates an electric
field that generates the current.
The observer for whom the magnet is sta-
tionary claims there is only a magnetic field
that creates a magnetic force on a moving
charge. The observer for whom the loop is
stationary claims that there is both a magnet-
ic and an electric field but all of the force is
due to the electric field. Which is true? Does
the electric field exist or not? The answer, ac-
cording to special relativity, is that both
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
observers are right from their reference
frame. A pure magnetic field in one reference
can be a mixture of magnetic and electric
field in another reference frame.
Electric and magnetic fields dif-
ferent aspects of the same
phenomenon
According to special relativity, electric and
magnetic forces are part of a single physical
phenomenon, electromagnetism; an electric
force perceived by one observer will be per-
ceived by another observer in a different
frame of reference as a mixture of electric
and magnetic forces. Magnetic and electric
forces are facets of the underlying electro-
magnetic force, and the partition of the elec-
tromagnetic force into separate electric and
magnetic components is not fundamental, but
varies with the observational frame of
reference.
More specifically, rather than treating the
electric and magnetic fields as separate
fields, special relativity shows that they nat-
urally mix together into a rank-2 tensor,
called the electromagnetic tensor. This is
analogous to the way that special relativity
"mixes" space and time into spacetime, and
mass, momentum and energy into four-
momentum.
Magnetic field shape
descriptions
• An magnetic field is one that runs east-
west.
• A magnetic field is one that runs north-
south. In the solar dynamo model of the
Sun, differential rotation of the solar
plasma causes the meridional magnetic
field to stretch into an azimuthal magnetic
field, a process called the omega-effect.
The reverse process is called the alpha-
effect.[32]
• A dipole magnetic field is one seen
around a bar magnet or around a charged
elementary particle with nonzero spin.
• A quadrupole magnetic field is one seen,
for example, between the poles of four bar
magnets. The field strength grows linearly
with the radial distance from its
longitudinal axis.
• A magnetic field is similar to a dipole
magnetic field, except that a solid bar
13
Magnetic field
Schematic quadrupole magnet ("four-pole")
magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips,
two opposing magnetic north poles and two
opposing magnetic south poles.
magnet is replaced by a hollow
electromagnetic coil magnet.
• A magnetic field occurs in a doughnut-
shaped coil, the electric current spiraling
around the tube-like surface, and is found,
for example, in a tokamak.
• A magnetic field is generated by a current
flowing in a ring, and is found, for
example, in a tokamak.
• A magnetic field is one in which the field
lines are directed from the center
outwards, similar to the spokes in a
bicycle wheel. An example can be found in
a loudspeaker transducers (driver).[33]
• A magnetic field is corkscrew-shaped, and
sometimes seen in space plasmas such as
the Orion Molecular Cloud.[34]
Important uses and ex-
amples of magnetic field
Earth’s magnetic field
See also: North Magnetic Pole and South
Magnetic Pole
Because of Earth’s magnetic field, a compass
placed anywhere on Earth will turn so that
the "north pole" of the magnet inside the
compass points roughly north, toward Earth’s
north magnetic pole in northern Canada. This
is the traditional definition of the "north pole"
of a magnet, although other equivalent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A sketch of Earth’s magnetic field repres-
enting the source of Earth’s magnetic field as
a magnet. The north pole of earth is near the
top of the diagram, the south pole near the
bottom. Notice that the south pole of that
magnet is deep in Earth’s interior below
Earth’s North Magnetic Pole. Earth’s mag-
netic field is produced in the outer liquid part
of its core due to a dynamo that produce
electrical currents there.
definitions are also possible. One confusion
that arises from this definition is that if Earth
itself is considered as a magnet, the south
pole of that magnet would be the one nearer
the north magnetic pole, and vice-versa. (Op-
posite poles attract and the north pole of the
compass magnet is attracted to the north
magnetic pole.) The north magnetic pole is so
named not because of the polarity of the field
there but because of its geographical
location.
The figure to the right is a sketch of
Earth’s magnetic field represented by field
lines. The magnetic field at any given point
does not point straight toward (or away) from
the poles and has a significant up/down com-
ponent for most locations. (In addition, there
is an East/West component as Earth’s mag-
netic poles do not coincide exactly with
Earth’s geological pole.) The magnetic field is
as if there were a magnet deep in Earth’s
interior.
Earth’s magnetic field is probably due to a
dynamo that produces electric currents in
the outer liquid part of its core. Earth’s mag-
netic field is not constant: Its strength and
the location of its poles vary. The poles even
14
Magnetic field
periodically reverse direction, in a process
called geomagnetic reversal.
Rotating magnetic fields
The rotating magnetic field is a key principle
in the operation of alternating-current mo-
tors. A permanent magnet in such a field will
rotate so as to maintain its alignment with
the external field. This effect was conceptual-
ized by Nikola Tesla, and later utilized in his,
and others’, early AC (alternating-current)
electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can
be constructed using two orthogonal coils
with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC
currents. However, in practice such a system
would be supplied through a three-wire ar-
rangement with unequal currents. This in-
equality would cause serious problems in
standardization of the conductor size and so,
in order to overcome it, three-phase systems
are used where the three currents are equal
in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase
difference. Three similar coils having mutual
geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create
the rotating magnetic field in this case. The
ability of the three-phase system to create a
rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is
one of the main reasons why three-phase sys-
tems dominate the world’s electrical power
supply systems.
Because magnets degrade with time, syn-
chronous motors and induction motors use
short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet)
following the rotating magnetic field of a
multicoiled stator. The short-circuited turns
of the rotor develop eddy currents in the ro-
tating field of the stator, and these currents
in turn move the rotor by the Lorentz force.
In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the
concept of the rotating magnetic field. In
1885, Galileo Ferraris independently re-
searched the concept. In 1888, Tesla gained
U.S. Patent 381,968 for his work. Also in
1888, Ferraris published his research in a pa-
per to the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Turin.
See also
General
• Electric field — field produced by electric
charges and changing magnetic fields that
affects charged particles.
• Electromagnetic field — a field composed
of the electric field and the magnetic field.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• Electromagnetism — the physics of the
electromagnetic field.
• Faraday’s law of induction — the
connection between electric and magnetic
fields as found in motors and generators
• Lorentz force — the connection between
fields and forces
• Magnetism — phenomenon by which
materials exert a magnetic force on other
materials.
• Magnetohydrodynamics — the study of the
dynamics of electrically conducting fluids.
• Magnetic flux — amount of ’magnetic
field’ through a given loop.
• Magnetic monopole — hypothetical
particle which causes nonzero divergence
of magnetic field.
• Magnetic nanoparticles — extremely small
magnetic particles that are tens of atoms
wide
• Magnetic reconnection — an effect which
causes solar flares and auroras.
• Magnetic potential — the vector and
scalar potential representation of
magnetism.
• SI electromagnetism units — common
units used in electromagnetism.
• Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) —
list of magnetic field sources and
measurement devices from smallest
magnetic fields to largest detected.
Mathematics
• Ampère’s law — law describing how
currents act as circulation sources for
magnetic fields.
• Biot-Savart law — the magnetic field set
up by a steadily flowing line current.
• Magnetic helicity — extent to which a
magnetic field "wraps around itself".
• Maxwell’s equations — four equations
describing the behavior of electric and
magnetic fields and their interaction with
matter.
Applications
• Dynamo theory — a proposed mechanism
for the creation of the Earth’s magnetic
field.
• Earth’s magnetic field — a discussion of
the magnetic field of the Earth.
• Electric motor — AC motors used
magnetic fields.
• Helmholtz coil — a device for producing a
region of nearly uniform magnetic field.
• Magnetic field viewing film — Film used to
view the magnetic field of an area.
15
Magnetic field
• Maxwell coil — a device for producing a
large volume of almost constant magnetic
field.
• Stellar magnetic field — a discussion of
the magnetic field of stars.
• Teltron Tube — device used to display an
electron beam and demonstrates effect of
electric and magnetic fields on moving
charges.
Further reading
Web
• Nave, R.. "Magnetic Field Strength H".
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
hbase/magnetic/magfield.html.
• Oppelt, Arnulf (2006-11-02). "magnetic
field strength".
http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/
sDefinition/
0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html.
• "magnetic field strength converter".
http://www.unitconversion.org/
unit_converter/magnetic-field-
strength.html.
Books
• Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C.
(1969). Introduction to modern
electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-018388-0.
• Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of
engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.).
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-948746-8. OCLC
221993786.
• Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to
Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-805326-X. OCLC 40251748.
• Jackson, John D. (1999). Classical
Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN
0-471-30932-X. OCLC 224523909.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists
and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism,
Light, and Elementary Modern Physics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN
0-7167-0810-8. OCLC 51095685.
• Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent
Magnet and Electromechanical Devices:
Materials, Analysis and Applications.
Academic Press Series in
Electromagnetism. ISBN 0-12-269951-3.
OCLC 162129430.
Notes and references
[1] The standard graduate textbook by J. D.
Jackson "Classical Electrodynamics"
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
specifically follows the historical
tradition, specifically, "In the presence of
magnetic materials the dipole tends to
align itself in a certain direction. That
direction is by definition the direction of
the magnetic flux density, denoted by B,
provided the dipole is sufficiently small
and weak that it does not perturb the
existing field". Similarly, in Section 5 of
Jackson, H is referred to as the magnetic
field. Hence, Edward Purcell, in
Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill,
1963, writes, Even some modern writers
who treat B as the primary field feel
obliged to call it the magnetic induction
because the name magnetic field was
historically preempted by H. This seems
clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the
laboratory and ask a physicist what
causes the pion trajectories in his bubble
chamber to curve, he’ll probably answer
"magnetic field", not "magnetic
induction." You will seldom hear a
geophysicist refer to the Earth’s
magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist
talk about the magnetic induction of the
galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B
the magnetic field. As for H, although
other names have been invented for it,
we shall call it "the field H" or even "the
magnetic field H." In a similar vein, M
Gerloch (1983). Magnetism and Ligand-
field Analysis. Cambridge University
Press. p. 110. ISBN 0521249392.
http://books.google.com/
books?id=Ovo8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110.
says: “So we may think of both B and H
as magnetic fields, but drop the word
’magnetic’ from H so as to maintain the
distinction … As Purcell points out, ’it is
only the names that give trouble, not the
symbols’.”
[2] Magnetic Field Strength H
[3] Magnetic Field Strength Converter
[4] H. P. Myers (1997). Introductory solid
state physics (2 ed.). Taylor & Francis.
p. 366. ISBN 074840659X.
http://books.google.com/
books?id=QhqyWH7DDQ0C&pg=PA366.
[5] See Eq. 11.42 in E. Richard Cohen, David
R. Lide, George L. Trigg (2003). AIP
physics desk reference (3 ed.).
Birkhäuser. p. 381. ISBN 0387989730.
http://books.google.com/
books?id=JStYf6WlXpgC&pg=PA381.
16
Magnetic field
[6] Yuval Ne ̕eman, Y. Kirsh (1996). The
Particle Hunters (2 ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 56. ISBN
0521476860. http://books.google.com/
books?id=K4jcfCguj8YC&pg=PA56.
[7] John S Townsend (2000). "Stern-Gerlach
experiments". A Modern Approach to
Quantum Mechanics (2 ed.). University
Science Books. pp. 1–23. ISBN
1891389130. http://books.google.com/
books?id=3_7uriPX028C&pg=PA3.
[8] Note that when a magnetic field is
depicted with field lines, it is not meant
to imply that the field is only nonzero
along the drawn-in field lines. The use of
iron filings to display a field presents
something of an exception to this
picture: the magnetic field is in fact
much larger along the "lines" of iron, due
to the large permeability of iron relative
to air.
[9] To see that this must be true imagine
placing a compass inside of the magnet.
The north pole of the compass will point
toward the north pole of the magnet
since magnets stacked on each other
point in the same direction.
[10] Two experiments produced candidate
events that were initially interpreted as
monopoles, but these are now regarded
to be inconclusive. For details and
references, see magnetic monopole.
[11] In special relativity this means that the
electrical field and the magnetic field
must be two parts of the same
phenomenon. For a moving single charge
or charges moving together we can
always shift to a reference system in
which they are not moving. In that
reference system there is no magnetic
field. Yet, the physics has to be the same
in all reference systems. It turns out the
electric field changes as well which
produces the same force in the original
reference frame. It is probably a mistake,
though, to say that the electric field
causes the magnetic field when relativity
is accounted for, since relativity favors
no particular reference frame. (One
could just as easily say that the magnetic
field caused an electric field). More
importantly it is not always possible to
move into a coordinate system in which
all of the charges are stationary. See
classical electromagnetism and special
relativity for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field

[12] In practice the Biot-Savart law and other [19] M Brian Maple et al. (2008).
laws of magnetostatics can often be used "Unconventional superconductivity in
even when the charge is changing in novel materials". in K. H. Bennemann,
time as long as it is not changing too John B. Ketterson. Superconductivity.
quickly. This situation is known as being Springer. p. 640. ISBN 3540732527.
quasistatic. http://books.google.com/
[13] A complete expression for Faraday’s law books?id=PguAgEQTiQwC&pg=PA640.
of induction in terms of the electric E [20] Naoum Karchev (2003). "Itinerant
and magnetic fields can be written as: ferromagnetism and superconductivity".
in Paul S. Lewis, D. Di (CON) Castro.
Superconductivity research at the
leading edge. Nova Publishers. p. 169.
ISBN 1590338618.
http://books.google.com/
books?id=3AFo_yxBkD0C&pg=PA169.
[21] B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008).
Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2
ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p. 103. ISBN
where ∂Σ(t) is the moving closed path
0471477419. http://books.google.com/
bounding the moving surface Σ(t), and
books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103.
dA is an element of surface area of Σ(t).
[22] The total magnetic moment of an atom is
The first integral calculates the work
due to a combination of ’currents’ of
done moving a charge a distance dℓ
electrons ’orbiting’ the nuclei of the
based upon the Lorentz force law. In the
magnetic material plus a spin component
case where the bounding surface is
of the magnetic moment of the electrons
stationary, the Kelvin-Stokes theorem
and the nucleus. (The true nature of the
can be used to show this equation is
internal magnetic field of the electrons
equivalent to the Maxwell-Faraday
and of the nucleons that make up the
equation.
nucleus is relativistic in nature.) Uwe
[14] John Clarke Slater, Nathaniel Herman
Krey, Anthony Owen (2007). Basic
Frank (1969). Electromagnetism (first
Theoretical Physics. Springer. p. 151.
published in 1947 ed.). Courier Dover
ISBN 3540368043.
Publications. p. 69. ISBN 0486622630.
http://books.google.com/
http://books.google.com/
books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151.
books?id=GYsphnFwUuUC&pg=PA69.
and H. Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf,
[15] HP Meyers (1997). Introductory solid
William D Brewer (2000). The physics of
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External links
Information
• Crowell, B., "Electromagnetism".
• Nave, R., "Magnetic Field". HyperPhysics.
• "Magnetism", The Magnetic Field.
theory.uwinnipeg.ca.
• Hoadley, Rick, "What do magnetic fields
look like?" 17 July 2005.
Field density
• Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to
Electronic Properties of Materials (1st
ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-412-49580-5.
Rotating magnetic fields
• "Rotating magnetic fields". Integrated
Publishing.
• "Introduction to Generators and Motors",
rotating magnetic field. Integrated
Publishing.
• "Induction Motor-Rotating Fields".
Diagrams
• McCulloch, Malcolm,"A2: Electrical Power
and Machines", Rotating magnetic field.
eng.ox.ac.uk.
• "AC Motor Theory" Figure 2 Rotating
Magnetic Field. Integrated Publishing.
Journal Articles
• Yaakov Kraftmakher, "Two experiments
with rotating magnetic field". 2001 Eur. J.
Phys. 22 477-482.
• Bogdan Mielnik and David J. Fernández
C., "An electron trapped in a rotating
magnetic field". Journal of Mathematical
Physics, February 1989, Volume 30, Issue
2, pp. 537-549.
• Sonia Melle, Miguel A. Rubio and Gerald
G. Fuller "Structure and dynamics of
magnetorheological fluids in rotating
magnetic fields". Phys. Rev. E 61, 4111 –
4117 (2000).

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