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Mammal Weight range (g) Rectal temperature (°C) Approximate pulse Approximate respiratory
rate/minute rate/minute
Badger 10000–15000 38–39 50–80 15–45
Chipmunk 100–250 38 200 100
Chinchilla 400–600 35.4–38 100 45–65
Ferret 500–2000 38.8 180–250 30–36
Fox 5000–10000 38 40–80 30
Guinea-pig 500–1100 38 230–380 70–100
Hamster 85–120 37–38 280–500 50–120
Hedgehog 800–1100 35.1 100–250 40–60
Mouse 20–60 37.4 300–700 150–200
Rabbit 1000–5000 38.5–40 130–320 30–60
Gerbil 50–90 39 260–600 70–120
Rat 250–400 38 300–500 80–100
Bird Approx. weight Rectal temperature (°C) Approximate pulse Approximate respiratory
range (g) rate/minute rate/minute
African Grey Parrot 300–400 40–42 100–300 15–45
Blue-fronted Amazon 300–500 40–42 125–200 15–45
Parrot
Budgerigar 30–60 40–42 260–400 60–100
Canary/finch 12–30 40–42 300–500 60–100
Chicken 2000–4000 40–42 80–100 20–50
Cockatiel 100–180 40–42 150–350 40–50
Umbrella Cockatoo 450–750 40–42 100–300 15–40
Lesser Sulphur-Crested 250–400 40–42 100–300 15–45
Cockatoo
Duck 2000–3000 40–42 100–150 15–30
Kestrel 150–300 40–42 150–350 15–45
Lovebird 50–70 40–42 250–400 60–100
Blue and Gold Macaw 900–1300 40–42 115–250 15–30
Greenwinged Macaw 1000–1500 40–42 100–250 15–30
Pennant’s Parakeet 180–200 40–42 150–300 30–60
Peregrine Falcon 550–1500 40–42 100–200 30–60
Pigeon 260–350 40–42 150–300 30–50
Quail 20–40 40–42 300–600 60–100
Sparrowhawk 150–300 40–42 150–350 15–45
Sparrow 25–30 40–42 250–600 100–150
Swan 5000–7000 40–42 60–100 15–30
Amphibians
Amphibians can tolerate a wide range of environmental
temperatures but the lower temperatures may be
immunosuppressive. Clinical parameters for common pet
amphibian species are given in Figure 8.7.
8.7 Clinical parameters of common amphibian species (SVL = snout–vent length of adult)
Common name Species Typical SVL Weight Environmental Approx. pulse Approx.
(cm) range (g) temperature rate/minute respiratory
range (°C) rate/minute
Crested Newt Triturus cristatus 10 5–15 18–22 40–80 10–40
Tiger Salamander Ambyostoma 10 100–150 15–25 40–80 5–40
tigrinum
Leopard Frog Rana pipiens 8 50 15–25 60–80 50–80
Tree Frog Hyla arborea 3 20–50 15–25 60–80 50–80
Species Bodyweight Size of feeding tube (Fr) Approx. volumes (ml) twice daily
Mediterranean tortoises > 1 kg 8 10
Juvenile iguanas 100–400 g 6–8 2–8
Adult cornsnake 200 g 8–10 5–10
8.31
Obtaining a ventral
tail vein blood sample
from a snake.
8.27
Metatarsal vein of a
swan.
8.32
Obtaining a ventral
tail vein blood sample
from an iguana.
Reptiles
The choice of vein used for the intravenous sites depends
upon the type of reptile under consideration. The jugular vein
is useful in chelonians (Figures 8.28 and 8.29), but access to
this vein requires a surgical cut-down in snakes and lizards; the
ventral tail vein is useful in snakes and lizards (Figures 8.30,
8.33 How to access the dorsal tail vein
in a tortoise
8.31 and 8.32). Care must be taken if injecting into the dorsal
tail vein of a chelonian (Figure 8.33) as the injection may be 1. Fully extend the tail
inadvertently placed in the epidural space and may produce 2. Insert the needle into the exact midline of the dorsal
hindlimb paresis or paralysis. Intracardiac catheters may be tail close to the shell
placed in snakes to access the circulation if the peripheral veins 3. Advance the needle to touch the vertebrae
4. Aspirate the syringe and withdraw it slightly until
are too small for ready access. Aseptic technique is required
blood is seen in the hub of the needle.
when accessing the veins or heart.
Disease Causative agent Common Signs in animal Symptoms in humans Precautions required
animal hosts
Ringworm Microsporum canis Hedgehog Scaly patches, hair loss Scaly patch of skin, may be Wear gloves, change clothes between animals
Trichphyton gypseum Hamster pruritic
(All rodents, rabbits)
Ferret
Scabies Sarcoptes scabiei Ferret, fox, Dermatitis, pruritus Dermatitis, pruritus Wear gloves
rodents
Cestodiasis/tapeworm Hymenolepis spp. Mouse, young rat Weight loss, constipation Diarrhoea, constipation Caution when handling animal or its faeces
Salmonellosis Salmonella spp. Reptiles None, diarrhoea Diarrhoea Caution when handling animal or its faeces
Fox, badger, ferret
Birds
Invertebrates
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium spp. Reptiles None, diarrhoea Diarrhoea Caution when handling animal or its faeces
Ferret Thickening of stomach (especially if human is immunocompromised)
mucosa causing
regurgitation in snakes
Giardiasis Giardia spp. Reptiles None, diarrhoea Diarrhoea, abdominal pain, Caution when handling animal or its faeces
Birds septicaemia
Ferret
Psittacosis Chlamydia psittaci Birds None, respiratory, lethargy Headache, fever, confusion, Wear mask/respiratory apparatus, gloves,
myalgia, non-productive change of clothing
cough, lymphadenopathy Reportable in some areas
Influenza (’flu) Orthomyxovirus Ferret Sneezing, nasal discharge, Sneezing, nasal discharge, fever Mask
fever, lethargy lethargy More commonly from human to ferret
Leptospirosis Leptospira spp. Ferret, rodents None Severe ’flu-like symptoms Avoid contact with urine
Amphibians Wear mask and gloves
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis, Ferret, badger, deer None, wasting, pneumonia Pneumonia, cough Wear mask and gloves
M. tuberculosis Fish Notifiable
Amphibians
Lymphocytic Arenavirus Rodents None, respiratory signs, ’Flu-like, choriomeningitis Very rare
choriomeningitis CNS signs Wear mask and gloves
Hantavirus Hantavirus genus Small mammals, None Fever, vomiting, haemorrhages, Very rare
rodents renal failure Reported in wild rats in UK
189
Perioperative care • Fluid therapy is essential to maintain hydration, especially
if the recovery period is prolonged (e.g. following
Preoperative care ketamine anaesthesia)
• Preoperative starvation is generally not considered
• Every effort should be made to minimize the anaesthetic necessary, provided no food is present in the oesophagus
time or live insects in the stomach
• Prior to anaesthetizing the animal, all equipment, • Larger chelonians and lizards may be starved for 18 hours,
personnel and drugs should be prepared snakes for 72–96 hours, to ensure digestion is completed.
• The postoperative recovery area should be set up in
advance. Amphibians and fish
Amphibians and fish should be starved for 24–48 hours prior
Anaesthesia is required for humane restraint, muscle to anaesthesia.
relaxation and analgesia. There are particular factors to be
taken into account when considering anaesthetizing exotic Anaesthetic agents and methods of
and wild animals. These factors include species, age, weight, administration
percentage of body fat, environmental temperature, and the
presence of concurrent cardiovascular or respiratory disease. Inhalation anaesthesia
Any animal that is compromised by dehydration, blood Inhalation is a relatively simple method of anaesthetic
loss, cachexia, anorexia or infection will pose a greater induction and maintenance of most species. Rapid variations
anaesthetic risk than a clinically normal animal. Complete in depth and rapid recoveries are possible. Induction of
preanaesthetic assessment and stabilization are therefore anaesthesia can be achieved via a face mask or by placing the
especially important for wild animals for which no prior whole animal in an anaesthetic chamber. Endotracheal
history is available. intubation should be used whenever possible to allow
scavenging of waste gases, to reduce the amount of gas used
• A thorough clinical examination is carried out to ensure and to allow positive pressure ventilation if required. In
that the animal is free from clinical disease, especially with general, isoflurane is the preferred agent, at 4% for induction
regard to respiratory and cardiovascular function and 1–2% for maintenance of general anaesthesia. Many
• Food and water intake should be measured preoperatively reptiles can breath-hold, making induction by mask or
and used to assess postoperative recovery chamber impractical.
• An intravenous or intraosseous catheter may be pre-placed
for intraoperative and postoperative care Mammals
• The patient should be weighed immediately before surgery The technique of endotracheal intubation in the larger
to enable the correct dosing of the animal mammals is essentially similar to that for a similar-sized
• The patient should be handled correctly to minimize domestic animal (e.g. badger and dog). Endotracheal
trauma and stress. intubation, however, is technically difficult in rabbits and small
rodents: these animals have a relatively large tongue and big
Mammals teeth, small oral cavities and a small deep larynx that make
visualization of the laryngeal opening difficult.
• Preanaesthetic fasting is not required in rodents as they do
not vomit and there is a risk of hypoglycaemia with • Techniques for endotracheal intubation in the rabbit are
prolonged starvation given in Figures 8.52 (visual technique) and 8.53 (blind
• Food (not water) may be withheld from rabbits and technique). Tube sizes and equipment required are given in
guinea-pigs for 3–6 hours to reduce the amount of Figure 8.54
ingesta in the gut • Unsuccessful intubation attempts can produce
• Fasting may significantly alter the body weight of the laryngospasm in rabbits, which is often fatal. The animal
animal should be sufficiently anaesthetized so that swallowing and
• It is beneficial to administer subcutaneous fluids as a coughing reflexes are abolished
routine at a rate of 10 ml/kg Hartmann’s fluid before • Most rodents can be intubated using the blind technique
surgery. (Figure 8.53). Endotracheal tubes may be made out of
infusion set tubing or plastic intravenous catheters.
Birds
Birds
• Assessment of the hydration status, blood glucose level
and liver function is particularly important • An uncuffed tube should be used, as birds possess
• Preanaesthetic starvation is restricted to the time required complete tracheal rings that may be ruptured by inflation
to empty the crop (in those species that have one). This of a cuff
can be easily palpated as full or empty. In emergency cases, • Ensure that the bird is anaesthetized by mask inhalation or
the crop can be manually evacuated once general an injectable regime before attempting intubation
anaesthesia has been induced. • Use a gag to keep the beak open in those with powerful
beaks (e.g. parrots). A finger may be used to keep open
Reptiles the mouth of some birds (e.g. pigeons)
• Visualize the glottis (Figure 8.55). This is easy to see in
• Premedication is not considered necessary passerines and raptors but difficult in psittacine species,
• Reptiles should be maintained at their correct due to their fleshy tongue – use a tongue depressor to
temperatures prior to anaesthesia and during recovery allow visualization of the glottis.
Amphibians
Tip Amphibians may be intubated using plastic tubing of an
Endotracheal tubes for birds and reptiles may be made appropriate size.
from appropriate gauge intravenous plastic catheters or
intravenous drip tubing.
Injectable agents of anaesthesia
Reptiles Agents of anaesthesia for the various animals are described in
Figures 8.57–8.62. If an injectable agent is used to induce
• An uncuffed tube should be used, as reptiles possess anaesthesia it is always good practice, and in some cases essential,
complete tracheal rings that may be ruptured by inflation to provide supplementary oxygen via mask or endotracheal
of a cuff tube, with or without the addition of gaseous anaesthesia.
• A gag should be used to keep the mouth open
• The glottis of the snake is easily visualized on the floor of Via the water
the mouth This method is used for amphibians, fish and aquatic
• The lizard glottis (Figure 8.56) is positioned at the back of invertebrates.
the tongue and is sometimes difficult to visualize in
animals with a large fleshy tongue. To aid visualization, • Two containers of water should be available – one to make
pressing beneath the chin externally may raise the glottis up the anaesthetic solution and one to recover the animal
• The chelonian possesses a large fleshy tongue that • The animal should be anaesthetized and recovered in water
obscures the view of the glottis. Pressing upwards below taken from its tank or pond, to prevent any stress due to
the chin raises the glottis; fully extending the head will aid temperature, pH or other differences
visualization • The anaesthetic agent is added to the water at a low dose
• Many chelonians have a very short trachea. A long initially and mixed thoroughly
endotracheal tube should not be used, as intubation of • The animal is introduced to the anaesthetic mixture
one bronchus may occur – resulting in ventilation of only • Once the righting reflex is lost, the animal may be taken
one lung. out of the anaesthetic solution and placed on a wet towel
• Fish and amphibians should be handled with wet gloves at volume and core temperature of the particular species being
all times monitored. The standard equipment used for dogs and cats
• Anaesthesia may be maintained by syringing the stock will often not accurately measure these parameters in small
anaesthetic solution over the gills in fish or over the skin mammals (Figure 8.63), birds or reptiles (Figure 8.64).
in amphibians, as required.
Methods to minimize heat loss
To recover, the fish is placed into the clean water and
• Heat loss via respiration and a cold flow of gas should be
moved in a slow circle until voluntary swimming movements
avoided by using humidifiers and warming the air in the
commence. Fish should never be dragged backwards through
anaesthetic circuit
the water as this will damage the gills.
• Hair/feather removal over surgical area should be
Amphibians may be recovered in a similar way, or by
minimized
running the clean water over the animal until it regains
• Excessive wetting of the patient should be avoided
voluntary and respiratory movements.
• The use of alcohol-based antiseptics should be avoided, as
Monitoring anaesthesia these will chill the animal
Monitoring anaesthesia in fish and amphibians is limited to • Anaesthetic time should be minimized by adequate
observing the heart beat and gill movements. Monitoring in preparation; prolonged surgery should be avoided
invertebrates is limited to observations of movements. • Areas of the body away from the surgical site should be
insulated
Temperature • A regulated heat source should be provided
A common reason for perianaesthetic deaths in small animals • Core temperature should be monitored constantly.
is hypothermia. A decreased core temperature leads to
prolonged recovery times, increases the potency of Avoid excessive feather removal in birds, as many
anaesthetics and may lead to death during anaesthesia or on only moult once or twice a year. The extent of
recovery. The heat sources should be monitored to avoid feather loss is especially important when
hyperthermia or burns. All electronic monitoring equipment assessing whether wild birds are fit for release.
must be able to measure the heart rate, respiratory rate and
8.63 Reptile under anaesthesia. 8.64 Small mammal under general anaesthesia.
Reptiles
8.70 Cardiovascular failure
• Many reptiles can maintain apnoea for a prolonged period
Causes
when conscious; thus induction by inhalation anaesthetic
• Overdose of anaesthesia
is not recommended
• Hypoxia/hypercapnia
• Many reptiles will require intermittent positive pressure
• Blood loss (15–20% = hypovolaemia and shock)
ventilation (IPPV) continuously throughout the
• Hypothermia (body temperature of < 25°C leads to
operation, as apnoea is common cardiac arrest in mammals).
• The respiratory rate required to maintain gaseous
anaesthesia is often greater than the normal respiratory Signs
rate of the conscious animal, but should be based on this • Increased capillary refill time, cyanosis, pallor
rate initially and the depth of anaesthesia monitored • Decreased body temperature (slow change)
• Gradual decrease in blood pressure or pulse rate
• If the reptile had been maintained or induced with a
• Change in heart rate/rhythm.
long-acting injectable agent (e.g. ketamine), the animal
may take hours to regain consciousness completely Action
• IPPV with oxygen should not be stopped until the reptile • Administer 100% oxygen via endotracheal tube or mask
has begun to breathe spontaneously. and ventilate
• Administer fluids at a rate of:
– 10–15 ml/kg per hour for maintenance, or
Tip – 50 ml/kg over 1 hour in emergency due to
The careful use of dry heat (e.g. from a hairdryer) on the hypovolaemia
recovering reptile will speed the time taken to regain • If cardiac arrest, start chest compressions at rate
spontaneous breathing and voluntary movement. Monitor appropriate for heart rate of animal
the heat to avoid overheating the reptile. • Reverse anaesthesia.
8.72 Analgesia (many of these doses are anecdotal and approximate and may not be
licensed for the species)
Drug Small mammals Larger mammals
(e.g. rat) (e.g. rabbit, badger)
Dosage Route Frequency Dosage Route Frequency
(mg/kg) (hours) (mg/kg) (hours)
Buprenorphine 0.05–0.1 s.c. 6–8 0.01–0.05 s.c. 6–8
Butorphanol 1–5 s.c. 4–6 0.1–0.5 s.c. 4–8
Carprofen 5 s.c. 8–12 1–5 s.c. 8–12
Meloxicam 0.2 s.c. 12–24 0.1–0.2 s.c. 24