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Article history: A modified separate flow model (MSFM) is developed to numerically investigate the heat and mass trans-
Received 21 August 2013 fer behaviors in porous media in this paper. In the MSFM, the effects of capillarity, liquid phase change,
Accepted 18 October 2013 nonisothermal two-phase region and the local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE) are considered. The vapor
and liquid velocities are both converted into intermediate variables in the simulations and conveniently
convergent solutions are obtained because a special upwind scheme for the convection or boiling heat
Keywords: transfer source and variable convergence factors are simultaneously employed. Two typical numerical
Heat and mass transfer
examples with a one-dimension model of porous media are studied that the high heat fluxes are vertical
Porous media
Modified separate flow model
and parallel to the fluid flow direction, respectively. And the results indicated that the influence of heat
Local thermal non-equilibrium flux direction on heat and fluid flow behaviors in porous media is great. The nonisothermal phenomenon
in the two-phase region is obvious for the former while the LTNE phenomenon is remarkable in the two-
phase region for the latter. The results also showed several similar behaviors that the saturation profile is
weakly discontinuous on the phase interface and a countercurrent flow exists in two-phase region.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.10.047
2 C. Xin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 78 (2014) 1–7
Nomenclature
model (TPMM) and the modified SFM were developed based on the 2. Model and method
front-capturing method. The TPMM was initially developed by
Wang and Beckermann [10]. It is widely used, but it is based on 2.1. Model
the assumptions that the two-phase region is isothermal and the
local temperature of fluid and solid is the same at each point. The total mass conservation of fluid phase in porous media can
And the two-phase region temperature used in the TPMM was of- be described as:
ten determined by the inlet or outlet pressure [18,19]. Under the
@ðql s þ qv ð1 sÞÞ
assumptions, numerical computations may be greatly simplified e þ r ðql~
ul þ qv ~
uv Þ ¼ 0; ð1Þ
but may cause larger errors [14,15]. Hence, a new front-capturing
@t
method still based on the TPMM was developed by Bridge and where e, s, q and u represent porosity, saturation, density and super-
Wetton [20]. However, in the model the liquid-only region was ficial velocity, respectively.
not considered and this staircasing phenomenon of temperature The LTNE equations considering the local convection or boiling
at the same point needs further investigations. Based on an entro- heat exchange between the solid and fluid are following:
py balance in the energy equation, Benard et al. [21] presented a @
new model in which phase region judgements were used to cap- e ½q shl þ qv ð1 sÞhv þ r ðql~
u l hl þ q v ~
uv hv Þ
@t l
ture the front with saturation equation supplemented. However,
¼ r ðkf ;eff rT f Þ þ Q sf ; ð2Þ
the supplemented equation is not necessary in some sense and
can increase the time and space complexity for numerical simula-
tions. Based on the SFM idea, Stubos et al. [22] developed a one-do-
@T s
ð1 eÞcp ¼ r ðks;eff rT s Þ Q sf þ Q ; ð3Þ
main formulation, in which Kelin and Clapeyron equations were @t
employed in the two-phase region. where h, Qsf and Q are specific enthalpy, convection and boiling heat
The models mentioned above are all based on the local thermal flow per volume and volumetric heat source, respectively.
equilibrium assumption that fluid temperature is locally equal to The capillary pressure satisfies [25]:
solid temperature. Though this assumption can simplify numerical e 1=2
simulations, it may be inadequate for a number of problems. Shi pc ¼ pv pl ¼ rJðsÞ; ð4Þ
and Wang [23] and Yuki et al. [24] numerically investigated the K
two-phase flow in porous media at high heat fluxes, and found that where, r is vapor–liquid interfacial tension, and J(s) is suggested by
the local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE) phenomena considering Udell [13] as:
the difference in temperature between the fluid and the solid were
remarkable especially in the two-phase region. However, they
JðsÞ ¼ 1:417ð1 sÞ 2:120ð1 sÞ2 þ 1:263ð1 sÞ3 : ð5Þ
were both based on the TPMM instead of SFM. In this paper, the
front-capturing method is employed that phase regions are judged In porous media, there will be potential three different regions
according to the relations between fluid temperature and satura- for the fluid phase under different conditions:
tion temperature. A modified SFM (MSFM) considering the LTNE
was developed in the simulations. Both the vapor and liquid veloc- (I) A region only with liquid water.
ities are converted into intermediate variables. The function of the (II) A region only with vapor.
primary variables and a special upwind scheme for the convection (III) A region where water and vapor coexist. In this region, vapor
or boiling heat transfer source and Newton’s linear algorithm are pressure relies on both temperature and vapor-water capil-
both employed. lary pressure, therefore the relation [25] is used:
C. Xin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 78 (2014) 1–7 3
pcðlv Þ
pv ¼ psat exp : ð6Þ x
qRT f
i-1 i-1/2 i i+1/2 i+1
Taking into account gravity acceleration, the Darcy model [25] Fig. 1. Vertex-centered FVM of cell i.
reflecting relationships of flow velocities with phase pressures is
given by:
2.2. Discretization with the FVM
krb
~
ub ¼ K g Þ b ¼ v ; l;
ðrpb þ qb~ ð7Þ
lb A 1-D steady state model was used in this paper, and the
governing equations are discretized into algebraic equations on
where K is absolute permeability, and kr the relative value. The sim- uniform grids with the finite volume method (FVM). The vertex-
plest correlations of krv and krl are power functions of liquid satura- centered FVM is used to divide the domain into a number of
tion [10,23]: control volumes (cells or elements) where the primary variables
of interest are located at the center of the control volume i shown
krl ¼ s3 ; ð8Þ in Fig. 1, while the intermediate variable, velocity is located on the
interface, because it can be easily calculated with Darcy’ law.
krv ¼ ð1 sÞ3 : ð9Þ The steady-state conservation equations can be described as
Eqs. (20–22), which can be discretized into Eqs. (23–25),
respectively.
The characteristic parameters of the porous media and fluid can
be calculated as following [10,23]: r ðql~
ul þ qv ~
uv Þ ¼ 0; ð20Þ
2
dp e3 r ðql~
ul hl þ qv ~
uv hv Þ ¼ r ðkf ;eff rT f Þ þ Q sf ; ð21Þ
K¼ 2
; ð10Þ
150ð1 eÞ
r ðks;eff rT s Þ Q sf þ Q ¼ 0; ð22Þ
ks;eff ¼ ð1 eÞks ; ð11Þ
ðql ul þ qv uv Þiþ1=2 ðql ul þ qv uv Þi1=2 ¼ 0; ð23Þ
Convective heat transfer coefficient in the pores: ðkrb Þi1=2 pb;i pb;i1
ub;i1=2 ¼ K þ qb;i1=2 g ; ð27Þ
lb;i1=2 Dx
hsb ¼ ðkb =dp Þ 2:0 þ 1:1Pr1=3 0:6
b Rep ; b ¼ v ; l: ð17Þ
where
where lb;iþ1=2 ¼ 2lb;i lb;iþ1 =ðlb;i þ lb;iþ1 Þ; ð28Þ
if state0 ¼¼ 0 and T f <¼ T sat then s ¼ 0:1; state ¼ 2; Transpiration cooling is a way of active heat protection. A cool-
¼ p 100; T f ¼ T sat ant flowing through a heated surface made out of porous media,
endif results in a temperature boundary layer on the surface to decrease
the heat flux through the surface, absorbs heat dramatically by
When phase region determination is carried out with saturation convection, and thus cools the material down. Also, transpiration
pressure Eq. (6), proper adjustments of the primary variables Tf, s cooling can be considered as an active thermal protection mecha-
and p are important for convergent solutions. nism, and it has the potential to reduce heat loads on hypersonic
vehicles, allowing thinner leading edges and sharper noses. Usu-
2.4. Solution of discretized equations ally, a gas is used as the coolant while a liquid has the advantage
that the heat of vaporization can be used as an additional cooling
The above discretized equations derived from discretization of
conservation laws involved in the mathematical model in this pa- Table 1
Thermal and transport properties of water and vapor.
per are nonlinear with the form,
Properties Water Vapor
FðXÞ ¼ 0; ð33Þ
Density (kg/m3) 996 Ideal gas law
where X represents the primary variables. Newton–Raphson itera- Surface tension (N/m) 0.059
tion method is used to solve the nonlinear equations (33). The ini- Specific heat (kJ/(kg K)) 4.17 2.1
Viscosity (106 kg/(m s)) 247:8
24:1410T140 2.77567 + 0.04035T
tial guess X0 for the solutions of Eq. (33) is obtained by assuming
Conductivity (103 W/(m K)) 680 21.994433 + 0.11842T
the primary variables of each cell in the while computational do-
Prandtl number llcp/kl 0.91
main to be linear between a minimum and a maximum values as- Saturation pressure (Pa) 1:186 1010 e
3816:44
T46:13
vaporization. Shi and Wang [23] presented a numerical approach Characteristic size 300 lm
to investigate the transpiration cooling problems with coolant Porosity 0.35
phase change within porous matrix and found that an inverse phe- Height 0.1 m
nomenon that the coolant temperature might be higher than solid Coolant mass flow rate 0.2 kg/(m2 s)
temperature, which was captured by the new LTNE–TPMM. The Heat flux on hot surface hhot(Tf Ts) = 0.594 MW/m2
Heat transfer coefficient on cold surface 300 W/(m2 K)
physical model in Ref. [23] as shown in Fig. 2 is used in this paper
and the corresponding parameters are ranged in Table 2.
The distributions of saturation and pressure in transpiration
cooling with coolant phase change are shown in Fig. 3. It is clear
that the saturation profile is weakly discontinuous on the phase 101100 1.0
interface, namely saturation is continuous but non-differentiable.
This trend is the same as that in reference [23]. In addition, the sat- 100800 P 0.8
S
uration near the phase interfaces changes more dramatically than
that in the middle of the two-phase region. This trend has also 100500 0.6
P (Pa)
been reported in Refs. [13,20]. It can also been seen that the pres-
S
sure in the single-phase region decreases approximately linearly, 100200
0.4
while the pressure in the two-phase region firstly increases dra-
matically and then decreases quickly. Due to the increasing of pres- 99900
sure along the flowing direction, a countercurrent flow of vapor 0.2
occurs according to Darcy’ law in porous media, as has been also 99600
found by simulations [23] and experiments [11]. In the countercur- 0.0
rent, the liquid evaporates at the heating surface and the vapor
99300
condenses at the interface between the liquid region and two- 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
phase region, which can enhance heat transfer greatly due to the X (m)
latent heat absorbing and releasing like heat pipes.
Fig. 3. Distributions of pressure and saturation in transpiration cooling.
The distributions of temperature and saturation in transpiration
cooling with coolant phase change are shown in Fig. 4. The numer-
ical solutions demonstrate that the solid temperature is nearly the
in the two-phase region the solid temperature varies slightly while
same as the liquid temperature in the single-phase region, while
the fluid temperature varies dramatically especially near the
they are obviously different in the two-phase region. This phenom-
interface between the two-phase region and the vapor region.
ena has also been reported numerically using the LTNE–TPMM
Therefore, the assumption that it is isothermal in the two-phase
[23]. Furthermore, the fluid temperature is higher than the solid
region for both the solid and fluid may be unreasonable.
temperature near the interface between the liquid phase region
and the two-phase region. This inverse phenomenon has been pre-
dicted numerically and explained by Shi and Wang [23]. The liquid 3.2. Convective boiling in porous media heated on both sides
evaporates into vapor at the heating surface and then the vapor
reverses and condenses at the boundary between the liquid zone Investigations of boiling heat transfer in porous media were
and two-phase zone, where lots of latent heat releases from the va- conducted [14,15] with a vertical parallelepiped box filled with
por to the solid, therefore the vapor temperature should surpass stacked sphere which was shown in Fig. 5. And the box was heated
the solid temperature according to the second law of thermody- on both sides, when the fluid flowed from bottom to top. The same
namics. The phenomenon can be captured numerically due to the physical model as that shown in Fig. 5 is employed in this paper
LTNE model which is necessary to accurately estimate the heat and it is simplified into a 1-D model along the fluid flowing direc-
and mass transfer behaviors in two-phase region. It is clear that tion Z by considering the side-heated heat flux as internal heat
Vapor Region
g Ts Tf
Two Phase Region
Liquid Region
Table 3
550 1.0 Basic parameters of convective boiling.
Ts
425 Characteristic size 200 lm
500 1.0 Tf
0.8
0.8 S Porosity 0.35
400
0.6 Height 0.2 m
450 Breadth 0.1 m
0.4 0.6
T (K)
s
400 Coolant mass flow rate 0.5 kg/(m2 s)
0.0 0.4
350 Heat flux on hot surface hhot(Tf Ts) = 72,500 W/m2
0.075 0.080 0.085 0.090 0.095 Heat transfer coefficient on cold surface 700 W/(m2 K)
350
0.2
300
0.0
250 400 1.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
X (m)
380 0.8
Fig. 4. Distributions of saturation and temperature in transpiration cooling.
360
Tf 0.6
T (K)
Ts
S
340 S
0.4
Outlet flow (X-axis)
320
0.2
300
0.0
280
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
X (m)
Heat flux Heat flux Fig. 7. Distributions of pressure and saturation in convective boiling heated on both
sides.
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