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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
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Voltage control of inverters can be accomplished either external or internal to

the inverter. When control is achieved external to the inverter, this can be performed
either at the output or input of the inverter.

1.1 Voltage control external to the inverter

Voltage control by varying the input of inverter is achieved using the following
methods:
An autotransformer can be used in between the ac source and
rectifier,a combination of diode rectifier and a dc chopper can be used,a phase
controlled rectifier is used on the line side, a transformer is used on the output side of
inverter,an ac voltage controller is used on the output side of inverter.
The use of a transformer at the input terminals of the rectifier has the following
features:
This is a simple arrangement to change the input voltage to the diode
rectifier. A closed loop control can be used to adjust the voltage.The transformer is
required to operate at one frequency. However, the size of transformer may be larger
than the size required for normal operation. The system becomes compact.The cost of
transformer and the diode rectifier may be that of an equivalent phase controlled
rectifier.The dynamics of variation of voltage is very slow and this method can be
employed where slow variation can be tolerated.The method is advantageous than that
the ac source is not loaded with the reactive power requirement due to the use of
diode rectifier.

A dc chopper may be combined with the diode rectifier in the dc link. The control of
dc chopper is accomplished to provide the required dc voltage at the terminals of the
inverter. The features of this method of voltage control may be summarized as
follows:
The method effects a control in the dc link depending on the output
frequency,The closed loop control employed changes the duty ratio of the chopper for
the desired value of voltage.The dynamics of a chopper are very fast. The voltage
control can be very quickly accomplished in this method.It necessitates a smoothing
equipment between the chopper and the inverter. However investigations show that a
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synchronous chopper used actually decreases the value of total inductance required in
the case of a current source inverter its value depending on chopper frequency.

An alternate method employs a phase controlled rectifier on the line side. The firing
angle of converter is varied to change the dc link voltage depending up on the
frequency. The features of voltage control using this method are as follows:
The combination of auto transformer and diode rectifier or diode
rectifier and dc chopper is replaced by a phase controlled rectifier.This however may
not show any significant economy in the cost.Voltage control may have fast
dynamics.The dc link voltage depends on the speed of motor. At low speeds, the
voltage is also small. The commutating capacitors are charged to this voltage. This
capacitor voltage may not satisfactorily commutate the thyristors. So control is not
possible below 10% of the speed of the motor.The dynamic behaviour of inverter is
also poor in the small frequency range.Special techniques may be required to extend
the range of sped control down to zero and to improve the dynamic behaviour.The
filtering equipment may impair the dynamic behavior.Line power factor is very poor
particularly at low voltage.The output wave form of voltage is a square wave and is
independent of the speed.
These inverters are called square wave inverter. The high harmonic
content of the wave form may be disadvantageous as far as the performance of motor
is concerned.

Voltage control may also be accomplished by varying the output voltage of inverter
using a transformer or ac chopper. The use of transformer has the following features:
The dc link voltage is constant. As such, this voltage does not pose
any limitation on the lower speed as far as the charging of the commutating capacitors
is concerned.Closed loop control can be used for voltage control.The method is very
simple and the inverter can also have simple circuitry.The line side power factor is
good as diode rectifier is used. The harmonic content of the line current is
minimum.Starting current capability of the system is high.The dynamics of the system
are not fast, voltage variation is only slow.A major disadvantage is the operation of
transformer at constant voltage and variable frequency. The size of transformer
increases as the frequency decreases. This actually imposes a limitation on the speed
range.The cost of the system may be the same as above. The simple operation of
inverter may offset the increase in the cost of inverter at low frequencies.
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The use of ac chopper on the output side to vary the voltage is an

effective, simple and economical method compared to the use of auto transformer.
This method has the following features:
The inverter has a constant dc link voltage independent of speed. This
does not pose any problem as far as commutation of inverter is concerned.Closed loop
control is possible. The firing angle of the chopper is controlled for the desired ac
voltage.Control of the ac chopper is simple. The inverter has also simple circuitry.The
line side power factor is good. Harmonic content of input is minimum.The dynamics
of the system and the voltage control are faster than those with auto transformer.The
voltage controller may not pose any restriction on the lower speed range as the size of
transformer imposes in the previous method.The cost of the system is less than that of
the system using previous method.The harmonic content of load current is a
problem.Among the various alternatives given above to vary the voltage external to
the inverter, the control employed using the phase controlled converter on the line
side is used very widely in practice. This inverter is called square wave inverter or
variable dc link voltage inverter. The method can be employed for both single phase
and three phase inverters.
But in all the above control methods the high harmonic content in the output
voltage is the major problem.

1.2 Voltage control within the inverter

Voltage control of the inverter achieved by varying the input to the

converter has a disadvantage that speed control is not possible from 0-10% of speed.
This disadvantage appears even with the voltage control at the output terminals. These
disadvantages can be avoided if the dc link voltage can be kept constant and control
can be obtained within the inverter itself. The constant voltage from a constant dc
source or from a diode rectifier is made available at the inverter terminals as pulses by
controlling the conduction of thyristors. The half cycle of the output voltage is made
up of several pulses so that the rms value of the voltage changes. The method is called
pulse width modulation. The output voltage waveform is a pulsed waveform.
The advantages of voltage control within the inverter can be summarized as follows:

The input voltage to inverter is constant. The capacitor voltage

therefore does not depend on the speed. This maintains the commutating capability of
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the inverter. Speeds upto zero are possible.Inverter dynamic behavior also increases
by adopting this method of voltage control.Voltage control is possible without
addition of power circuit elements.The output voltage waveform is not the same at all
frequencies. It depends on the operating frequency. The harmonic spectrum depends
up on the frequency.Control can also be employed so that harmonic neutralization is
possible besides voltage control.The line power factor is good with least harmonic
distortion.
Inverters employing the voltage control within the inverter itself are called PWM
inverters or constant voltage inverters.

1.3 PWM inverters

The problem of eliminating harmonics in switching converters has

been the focus of research for many years.If the switching losses in an inverter are not
a concern (i.e.,switching on the order of a few kHz is acceptable), then the sine-
triangle PWM method and its variants are very effective for controlling the inverter .
This is because the generated harmonics are beyond the bandwidth of the system
being actuated and therefore these harmonics do not dissipate power.On the other
hand, for systems where high switching efficiency is of utmost importance, it is
desirable to keep the switching frequency much lower. In this case, another approach
is to choose the switching times (angles) such that a desired fundamental output is
generated [3]and specifically chosen harmonics of the fundamental are suppressed
.This is referred to as harmonic elimination or programmed harmonic elimination as
the switching angles are chosen (programmed) to eliminate specific harmonics[2].
SHE (selective Harmonic Elimination) offers several advantages
compared to traditional modulation methods including acceptable performance with
low switching frequency to fundamental frequency ratios, direct control over output
waveform harmonics. In the traditional PWM methods, the high switching frequency
of inverters with increased losses is the major problem.
The performance of converters for static power conversion and of ac
motor drives is dependent, to a large extent, on the quality of their outputs. Numerous
techniques for harmonic elimination/mitigation have been developed over the years
.Elimination of harmonics, particularly the lower-order ones,results in high-quality
outputs, which in tum minimize current ripple and reduce torque pulsations,
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improving the overall system performance. Harmonic elimination is thus a key issue
in optimization of system performance.
Performance characteristics of rectifier/inverter power conversion
scheme largely depend on the choice of the particular pulsewidth modulation (PWM)
strategy employed. Present-day available PWM schemes can be broadly classified as
carrier-modulated sine PWM and precalculated programmed PWM schemes[1] .
Programmed PWM techniques optimize a particular objective function such as to
obtain minimum losses , reduced torque pulsations, selective elimination of harmonics
, and therefore are the most effective means of obtaining high-performance results.It
is interesting to note that the various objective functions chosen to generate a
particular programmed PWM technique essentially constitutes the minimization of
unwanted effects due to the harmonics present in the inverter output spectra.
In view of this, little or no difference between each one of the
programmed techniques is observed when significant numbers of low-order
harmonics are eliminated. However, each one of the programmed PWM techniques is
associated with the difficult task of computing specific PWM switching instants to
optimize a particular objective function. This difficulty is particularly encountered at
lower-output frequency range due to the necessity of a large number of PWM
switching instants.Also, in most cases only a local minimum can be obtained after
considerable computational effort . The main challenge associated with such
techniques is to obtain the analytical solutions to non-linear transcdental equations
that contain trigonometric terms which naturally exhibit multiple solutions.There have
been many approaches to this problem reported in the technical literature
including:iterative numerical methods [4]-[5],sequential homotopy-based computation
[7], resultants theory [6], Genetic algorithms[8],Walsh functions [9] and other optimal
methods [10].
Despite these difficulties programmed PWM's exhibit several
distinct advantages in comparison to the conventional carrier-modulated sine PWM
schemes that are listed below.1) About 50% reduction in the inverter switching
frequency is achieved when comparing with the conventional carriermodulated sine
PWM scheme.2) Higher voltage gain due to overmodulation is possible.This
contributes to higher utilization of the power conversion process.3) Due to the high
quality of the output voltage and current,the ripple in the dc link current is also small.
Thus a reduction in the size of the dc link filter components is achieved.4) The
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reduction in switching frequency contributes to the reduction in switching losses of

the inverter and permits the use of gate-turn-off (GTO) switches for high-power
converters.5) Elimination of lower-order harmonics causes no harmonic interference
such as resonance with external line filtering networks typically employed in inverter
power supplies.6) The use of precalculated optimized programmed PWM switching
patterns avoids on line computations and provides straightforward implementation of
a high-performance technique.
With the present-day enhancement in computing power and
calculating procedures, the nonlinear equations associated with selective elimination
of harmonics can be solved for small and large degrees of freedom . Also with the
availability of inexpensive large memory components this approach is now feasible
for power control applications over a wide frequency range. In view of this,
programmed PWM techniques with the choice of eliminating several lower-order
harmonics of any degree in the inverter output spectra have emerged as an important
and viable means of power control.Elimination of several lower-order harmonics
generates high-quality output spectra, which in turn results in minimum current ripple,
reduced torque pulsations, and thereby satisfying several performance criteria and
contributes to overall improved performance. However, several programmed PWM
switching patterns to eliminate harmonics in the output spectra of single-phase and
three-phase inverters are possible . This is due to the fact that the nonlinear equations
for eliminating harmonics can be formulated on a line-to-neutral or line-to-line PWM
waveforms; also, the triplen harmonics can be retained or eliminated. Further,
nonlinear equations exhibit several multiple solutions.
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CHAPTER 2

ABOUT HARMONICS
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Due to a rapid increase in use of switched and non-linear

equipment, harmonics now become omnipresent in distribution systems. This is
because customers’ benefits from using such devices seem to be much more tangible
than the harmful effects caused by harmonics generated by these devices. Moreover,
these harmful effects are usually distributed over the entire system, while the benefits
are distinctively located on the customers’ side.
Power system harmonics are an increasingly serious problem due to
their damaging effects on user loads and on the power network. Power losses due to
harmonics also have an associated energy cost. Harmonics problems can be traced to
two industry trends: (1) a dramatic increase in the use of nonlinear loads, such as
static power converters (rectifiers), switching power supplies, and other electronic
loads, and (2) a significant change in the design philosophy of all power apparatus
and load equipment. Manufacturers are now designing power devices and load
equipment with minimum design margins compared to those margins used only a few
years ago. In iron core devices, for example, the operating points exhibit more
nonlinear characteristics, resulting in a substantial increase in harmonics.
Considerable attention has been paid to the higher harmonic frequencies that cause
interference with communication and
telephone circuits, but very little attention has been paid to lower-frequency bands
that cause heating in electrical devices and apparatus.
Huge amounts of electronic equipment (e.g.,computers,
microprocessor-based communications systems, safety and security systems, and
facsimile equipment) are being used in new and existing facilities. Most of this
equipment is affected by harmonics because these power systems are not designed for
nonlinear loads. These problems range from overloading of the phase and neutral
conductors of the power distribution system to premature failure of electrical
equipment because of overheating.

2.1 What are HARMONICS?

Harmonics are voltages and currents present on an electrical system

at some multiple of the fundamental frequency (60 Hz). such as the 2nd (120 Hz), 3rd
(180 Hz), and 5th (300 Hz).
To understand harmonics, it is important to understand the nature of
"clean" power. Clean power implies that the current and voltage waveforms of the
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power system are pure sine waves. Electrical waveforms are either linear (sinusoidal)
or nonlinear (non-sinusoidal). A linear waveform is commonly referred to as a “sine
wave”, and is simple to describe mathematically; a non-linear waveform is not.

FIG.1 LINEAR AND NONLINEAR WAVEFORMS

The objective of the electric utility is to deliver sinusoidal voltage at

fairly constant magnitude throughout their system. This objective is complicated by
the fact that there are loads on the system that produce harmonic currents. These
currents result in distorted voltages and currents that can adversely impact the system
performance in different ways. As the number of harmonic producing loads has
increased over the years, it has become increasingly necessary to address their
influence when making any additions or changes to an Installation.
To fully appreciate the impact of this phenomena, there are two
important concepts to bear in mind with regard to power system harmonics. The first
is the nature of harmonic-current producing loads (non-linear loads) and the second is
the way in which harmonic currents flow and how the resulting harmonic voltages
develop.

2.1.1 Linear systems

A linear element in a power system is a component in which the
current is proportional to the voltage. In general, this means that the current wave
shape will be the same as the voltage . Typical examples of linear loads include
motors, heaters and incandescent lamps.On the other hand, the current wave shape on
a non-linear load is not the same as the voltage .Typical examples of non-linear loads
include rectifiers (power supplies, UPS units, discharge lighting), adjustable speed
motor drives, ferromagnetic devices, DC motor drives and arcing equipment.The
current drawn by non-linear loads is not sinusoidal but it is periodic, meaning that the
current wave looks the same from cycle to cycle. Periodic waveforms can be
described mathematically as a series of sinusoidal waveforms that have been summed
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together The sinusoidal components are integer multiples of the fundamental where
the fundamental is 50 Hz. There are basically two types of non-linear loads: single-
phase and three-phase. Single-phase non-linear loads are prevalent in modern office
buildings while three-phase non-linear loads are widespread in factories and industrial
plants.
Ohm’s law states that when a voltage is applied across a resistance,
current will flow.The utilities do a wonderful job of generating this voltage sinewave.
It has (relatively) constant amplitude and constant frequency. Once this voltage is
applied to a device, Ohm’s Law kicks in. Ohm’s Law states that current equals
voltage divided by resistance. Expressed mathematically:
I=V/R
Expressed graphically, the current ends up being another sinewave, since the
resistance is a constant number.

FIG.2 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS IN A LINEAR

SYSTEM

Since an applied voltage sinewave will cause a sinusoidal current to be drawn,

systems which exhibit this behavior are called linear systems. Incandescent lamps,
heaters and, to a great extent, motors are linear systems. Some of our modem
equipment, however does not fit this category. Computers, variable frequency drives,
electronic ballasts and uninterruptable power supply systems are non-linear systems.
In these systems, the resistance is not a constant and in fact, varies during each
sinewave. This occurs because the resistance of the device is not a constant. The
resistance in fact, changes during each sinewave. The “front end” or power supply of
these systems contain solid state devices such as power transistors, Thyristors or
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs). These devices draw current in pulses.
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2.1.2 Non-linear systems

As we apply a voltage to a solid state power supply, the current

drawn is (approximately) zero until a critical “firing voltage” is reached on the
sinewave. At this firing voltage, the transistor (or other device) gates or allows current
to be conducted. This current typically increases over time until the peak of the
sinewave and decreases until the critical firing voltage is reached on the “downward
side” of the sinewave. The device then shuts off and current goes to zero. The same
thing occurs on the negative side of the sinewave with a second negative pulse of
current being drawn. The current drawn then is a series of positive and negative
pulses, and not the sinewave drawn by linear systems. Some systems have different
shaped waveforms such as square waves. These types of systems are often called non-
linear systems.

FIG.3 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS IN A NON LINEAR

SYSTEM

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies

that are integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to
operate, that combine with the fundamental voltage or current, and produce waveform
distortion. The harmonics sum with the fundamental resulting in waveform distortion.
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FIG.4 DISTORTED WAVEFORM

Symmetrical waves contain only odd harmonics and un-

symmetrical waves contain even and odd harmonics. A symmetrical wave is one in
which the positive portion of the wave is identical to the negative portion of the wave.
An un-symmetrical wave contains a DC component (or offset) or the load is such that
the positive portion of the wave is different than the negative portion. An example of
un-symmetrical wave would be a half wave rectifier. Most power system elements are
symmetrical. They produce only odd harmonics and have no DC offset. There are
exceptions, of course, and normally-symmetrical devices may produce even
harmonics due to component mismatches or failures. Arc furnaces are another
common source of even harmonics but they are notorious for producing both even and
odd harmonics at different stages of the process.

2.1.3 Harmonic current flow

When a non-linear load draws current, that current passes through all
of the impedance that is between the load and the system source .As a result of the
current flow, harmonic voltages are produced by impedance in the system for each
harmonic. When harmonic currents flow through the impedances of the power system
they cause corresponding voltage drops and introduce harmonics onto the voltage
waveform. This causes the system voltage waveform to become distortedand since
this voltage is distributed to other users on the power system it causes harmonic
currents to flow through otherwise linear loads. For example, if the system voltage
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has a 5th harmonic component and it is applied to an induction motor then some 5th
harmonic current will flow into the motor. These voltages sum and when added to the
nominal voltage produce voltage distortion. The magnitude of the voltage distortion
depends on the source impedance and the harmonic voltages produced. If the
source impedance is low then the voltage distortion will be low. If a significant
portion of the load becomes non-linear (harmonic currents increase) and/or when a
resonant condition prevails (system impedance increases), the voltage can increase
dramatically.

FIG.5 DISTORTED CURRENT INDUCED VOLTAGE DISTORTION

Normally, current distortions produce voltage distortions. However,

when there is a stiff sinusoidal voltage source (when there is a low impedance path
from the power source, which has sufficient capacity so that loads placed upon it will
not effect the voltage), one need not be concerned about current distortions producing
voltage distortions. . As nonlinear currents flow through a facility's electrical system
and the distribution-transmission lines, additional voltage distortions are produced due
to the impedance associated with the electrical network. Thus, as electrical power is
generated, distributed, and utilized, voltage and current waveform distortions are
produced.
Power systems designed to function at the fundamental frequency,
which is 50-Hz, are prone to unsatisfactory operation and, at times, failure when
subjected to voltages and currents that contain substantial harmonic frequency
elements. Very often, the operation of electrical equipment may seem normal, but
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under a certain combination of conditions, the impact of harmonics is enhanced, with

damaging results.

2.1.4 Resonance

To improve the load-power factor of the electrical power system,

the common practice is to add shunt-connected capacitors at the main substation to
correct for the inductive loads (transformers, motors,etc.). Although shunt-connected
capacitors may improve the power factor, they may also create serious problems,
particularly when harmonics are present. Any capacitance and inductance forms a
circuit tuned(capacitance and inductive reactance are equal) to what is called the
"resonant" frequency. If enough harmonic energy is present and its frequency matches
that of the resonant circuit, then a very large current (many times the original
harmonic current) will flow. This current will produce extreme voltage drops across
all circuit elements, blowing fuses, damaging components, and deflecting an
excessively high harmonic level back into the power system. Resonance often occurs
when shunt capacitors are located near a harmonic current source and, thus, create a
parallel resonant circuit with the equivalent system impedance of the power system.

FIG.6 RESONANCE DUE TO POWER FACTOR CORRECTING

CAPACITORS
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Customer is responsible for limiting the amount of harmonic currents injected into the
power system.Utility is responsible for avoiding resonance conditions which could
create undesirable voltage distortion levels.

2.2. Total Harmonic Distortion

The total harmonic distortion (THD) is defined as the square root of

the sum of the squares of amplitude of all harmonic voltages or current divided by the
amplitude of the fundamental voltage or current, expressed in percent. It is calculated
as follows:

where: Vk = voltage at the kth harmonic

V1 = fundamental frequency voltage
n = order of harmonics.
The THD is used to quantify the effect of the harmonics on the power system voltage
or current. The
THD is a rough measure of how distorted the waveform is compared to a pure sine
waveform.

FIG.7 SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND DISTORTED CURRENT

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The easiest way to define a distorted waveform is by breaking it down into its
component frequencies. Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a series of
sinewaves with varying frequencies and amplitudes .The Fourier Transform breaks
down a periodic wave into its component frequencies.

The current total harmonic distortion ITHD is given by:

2.3 Types of Harmonics

There are three main types of harmonics that flow in three phase power systems these
are :-
1. Positive Sequence
2. Negative sequence
3. Zero sequence

In the simplest terms, zero sequence currents are in phase with each
other in all three phases and therefore add into the neutral wire return path. The worst
of these are the 3rd harmonic (150Hz at 50Hz)Positive and negative sequence currents
have opposite rotational directions and do not flow in the neutral wire. The harmonics
generated will also depend on the type of load. A 6 pulse rectifier will produce
typically 30% to 60% (5th and 7th) current distortion whereas a 12 pulse will product
only 15% (11th and 13th). Single phase power supply loads will produce a very high
3rd harmonic value typically 80% and can cause harmonic subtraction.

Harmonics such as the 7th, which “rotate” with the same sequence
as the fundamental, are called positive sequence. Harmonics such as the 5th, which
“rotate” in the opposite sequence as the fundamental, are called negative sequence.
Triplen harmonics (3rd and 9th shown in this table) which don't “rotate” at all because
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they're in phase with each other, are called zero sequence.This pattern of positive-
zero-negative-positive continues indefinitely for all odd-numbered harmonics.

TABLE 1 POSITIVE ,NEGATIVE AND ZERO SEQUENCE HARMONICS

The 3rd harmonic and all of its integer multiples (collectively called triplen
harmonics) generated by 120o phase-shifted fundamental waveforms are actually in
phase with each other. In a 50 Hz three-phase power system, where phases A, B, and
C are 120o apart, the third-harmonic multiples of those frequencies fall perfectly into
phase with each other.

FIG.8 FIGURE SHOWING THE COINCIDENCE OF ZERO SEQUENCE

CURRENTS IN ALL PHASES

Harmonic Currents Of Phases A, B, C all coincide, that is, no rotation

TABLE 2 PHASES OF ZERO SEQUENCE HARMONICS

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Zero sequence currents are important for several reasons:

• they flow only in 3-phase, 4-wire systems, and because they are in phase in all three
phases,they add together in the neutral conductor
• they are trapped circulating in the transformer primary delta windings causing
additional heating
• they flow through the system impedance causing voltage distortion

Zero sequence impedance is of particular importance:

• zero sequence impedance of a delta-wye transformer is equal to its positive and
negative sequence impedance (the nameplate value). This is important because the
overwhelming majority of distribution transformers have this type of connection,
which means the delta-wye transformer is a reasonably high impedance for 3rd
harmonic current thus contributing significantly to high voltage distortion at 3rd
harmonic .
• zero sequence impedance of a cable can be several times higher than its positive and
negative sequence values or at least equal to them. This means that any significant
cable run feeding phase-neutral loads will result in high 3rd harmonic voltage
distortion at these loads.
Neutral to ground voltage, sometimes referred to as common mode noise, is a
direct product of the neutral current and zero phase sequence impedance of the cables.

2.4 Harmonic Limits

The criteria on which the harmonic limits are based can be classified into the
following three groups:

1. Voltage distortions are limited to a maximum value. This method of harmonic

limitation is used primarily to protect electronic loads, instrumentation, and electrical
power distribution equipment against the harmful effects of harmonics. Maintaining
the THD factor in the range of 3 to 10 percent is a first step in protecting performance
and ensuring the long lifespan of a wide range of electrical equipment.
2. Injected current harmonics are limited to maximum values that depend on the
"stiffness" of the power system. The usual cause of voltage distortion is the flow of
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non sinusoidal currents. Current harmonics also upset communication systems.

Therefore, it is important to set limits on current harmonics to keep the
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and the active losses within tolerable limits.
3. Both voltage and injected current are limited to minimize the effects of the
harmonics on load equipment and power distribution equipment. In summary, limiting
both the voltage and the current harmonics will minimize their harmful effects.
Industry standards are being formulated which are intended to limit
harmonic currents in electric power systems. In the United States, IEEE 519
establishes recommended limits on the level of harmonic currents that users can inject
into the public power system. Until these and other standards take hold and
successfully encourage the availability of computers and other electronic loads that do
not generate significant levels of harmonic currents,users and building system
designers must employ remedial harmonic current reduction methods.

TABLE 3 IEEE VOLTAGE LIMITS

TABLE 4 IEEE CURRENT LIMITS

where
Isc = Maximum short-circuit current at PCC(point of common coupling)
IL = Maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency components) at PCC.