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The Sciences
An Integrated Approach
Sixth Edition
JAMES TREFIL
ROBERT M. HAZEN
George Mason University
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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SENIOR EDITOR Rachel Falk

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Preface
S cientific advances touch our lives every day. We benefit from new materials in the
form of cosmetics, appliances, clothing, and sports equipment. We rely on new sources
of energy and more efficient ways to use that energy for transportation, communication,
heating, and lighting. We call upon science to find new ways to treat disease and to allow
people to lead longer, healthier lives. Science represents our best hope in solving the
many pressing problems related to a growing global population, limited resources, and
sometimes our fragile environment.
In spite of the central role that science plays in modern life, most Americans are
poorly equipped to deal with basic scientific principles and methods. Surveys routinely
show that large numbers of Americans are unaware that Earth orbits Sun or that human
beings and dinosaurs didn’t live at the same time. At a time when molecular biology is
making breakthrough discoveries almost daily, only a little over a quarter of Americans
understand the term “DNA,” and only about 10% understand the term “molecule.”
There can be little doubt that we are faced with a generation of students who complete
their education without learning even the most basic concepts about science. They lack
the critical knowledge to make informed personal and professional decisions regarding
health, safety, resources, and the environment.
Science Education Today

Science education has always been a problem in the United States. As far back as 1983,
a widely circulated report titled A Nation at Risk issued a stern warning that our system
of science education was failing to produce enough scientists and engineers to drive our
economy forward. And as recently as 2006, in a report by the National Academy of Sci-
ences titled A Gathering Storm, the authors argued that in the years since 1983, not
much had been done to rectify this situation.
In fact, we can define two problems with science education. The first is the aspect
on which national reports tend to spend most of their time—the need to produce a tech-
nologically skilled workforce. For the relatively small number of students pursuing these
sorts of careers, specialized courses are vital, as they must learn an appropriate vocabu-
lary and develop skills in experimental method and mathematical manipulations to solve
problems.
The second important task of university education, however, is to deal with the fact
that most students are not on track to become scientists or engineers. For them, the
kind of specialized courses taken by students who major in the sciences tends to divorce
science from its familiar day-to-day context. All too often, these courses leave the uni-
versity setting seeing science as difficult, uninteresting, and irrelevant.
Yet these students will live in a world increasingly dominated by science and tech-
nology. The Internet, stem cells, global warming, and cloning are just a few examples of
the issues that these students will have to deal with as citizens. Considering how today’s
students will use science in their lives, it is easy to see that there is another problem with
the way the subject is taught in our universities. Science rarely presents itself in neat,
compartmentalized form in public discussions. Instead, specific problems arise, and these
problems typically cut across the lines set up between science departments at universities.
v
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vi | PREFACE
Take global warming as an example: it involves the mining of fossil fuels (geology),
burning those fuels (chemistry), and the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
where it can affect Earth’s heat balance (physics). As a result, there is the possibility that
our climate may change (Earth sciences) with serious consequences for living things
(biology, ecology).
It is clear that to equip students to deal with these sorts of issues those students
need to acquire a broad base in all branches of the sciences. The problem with most
introductory science courses at the college level, even among those science courses
specifically designed for nonscientists, is that they rarely integrate physics, astronomy,
chemistry, Earth science, and biology. Such departmentally based courses cannot pro-
duce graduates who are broadly literate in science. Those students who take introduc-
tory geology learn nothing about lasers or nuclear reactions, while those who take physics
courses for nonmajors remain uninformed about the underlying causes of earthquakes
and volcanoes. Neither physics nor geology classes touch on such vital modern fields as
genetics, environmental chemistry, space exploration, or materials science. Therefore,
students would have to take courses in at least four departments to gain the basic
overview of the sciences they will need to function as informed citizens.
Perhaps what is most disturbing is that few students, science majors or nonmajors,
ever learn how the often arbitrary divisions of specialized knowledge fit into the overall
sweep of the sciences. In short, traditional science curricula of most colleges and univer-
sities fail to provide the basic science education that is necessary to understand the many
scientific and technological issues facing our society.
This situation is slowly changing. Since the preliminary edition of The Sciences: An
Integrated Approach appeared in 1993, hundreds of colleges and universities have begun
the process of instituting new integrated science courses as an option for undergradu-
ates. In the process, we have had the opportunity to interact with hundreds of our col-
leagues across the country, as well as more than 3000 of our own students at George
Mason University, and have received invaluable guidance in preparing this extensively
revised edition.
The Need for a New Science Education

In the coming decades, the 1996 publication of the National Science Education Stan-
dards by the National Research Council may be seen as a pivotal event in American sci-
ence education. The Standards, which represents the collective effort and consensus of
more than 20,000 scientists, educators, administrators, and parents, offers a dramatically
new vision of science education for all of America. The authors of this book were part
of a small team that put together the final version of the Standards, and thus have had
a ring-side seat as the standards have been modified and adopted in states throughout
the country.
The National Science Education Standards calls for reform in both the content and
context of science education. The central goal of science education must be to give every
student the ability to place important public issues such as the environment, energy, and
medical advances in a scientific context.
A central emphasis throughout the Standards is the development of a student’s
understanding of the scientific process, as opposed to just the accumulation of scien-
tific facts. Emphasis is placed on the role of experiments in probing nature and the
importance of mathematics in describing its behavior. Rather than developing esoteric
vocabulary and specialized knowledge, the Standards strives to empower students to
read and appreciate popular accounts of major discoveries in physics, astronomy, chem-
istry, geology, and biology, as well as advances in medicine, information technology, and
new materials. Students should develop an understanding that a few universal laws describe
the behavior of our physical surroundings—laws that operate every day, in every action of
our lives.
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The Goals of This Book | vii
Achieving this kind of scientific proficiency requires a curriculum quite different

from the traditional, departmentally based requirements for majors. Most societal issues
concerning science and technology draw on a broad range of knowledge. For example,
to understand the debate over nuclear waste disposal, one needs to know how nuclei
decay to produce radiation (physics), how radioactive atoms interact with their environ-
ment (chemistry), how radioactive elements from waste can enter the biosphere (Earth sci-
ence), and how the radiation will affect living things (biology). These scientific principles
must be weighed along with other factors such as economics, energy demand, perceptions
of risk, and demographics. Other important public issues, such as global warming, space
research, alternative energy sources, and AIDS prevention, also depend on a spectrum of
scientific concepts as well as other social concerns.
The Goals of This Book

This text, based on our course “Great Ideas in Science,” which has been developed at
George Mason University, is an attempt to respond to the future needs of today’s stu-
dents. Our approach recognizes that science forms a seamless web of knowledge about
the universe. Our integrated course encompasses physics, chemistry, astronomy, Earth
sciences, and biology, and emphasizes general principles and their application to real-
world situations rather than esoteric detail.
Having set as our goal providing education for people who will not be scientists but
who need some knowledge of science to function as citizens, we have to address another
issue. There is no question that anyone who actually does science will be required to use
high levels of mathematics to carry out his or her work. We would argue, however, that
this same level of mathematics is not required by the average person confronting politi-
cal issues. It has been our experience that many students come into our class with a fear
of science that is matched only by their fear of mathematics. We would hope that these
students will be able to conquer these fears sometime during their education, but we do
not feel that it is appropriate to tackle both at once. In addition, it is our firm belief that
any scientific concept at the citizen’s level can be understood without mathematics—that
most ideas in science are inherently simple and intuitive at their deepest level. For this
reason, we have kept the mathematics in this book to a minimum. In this way, instructors
who wish to make their courses more mathematically rigorous may do so, while those
who wish to teach concepts will not have to skip large sections of the text.
There are two central features of The Sciences: An Integrated Approach that allow us
to offer a text with the expressed goal of helping students achieve scientific literacy. These
features are (1) organization around Great Ideas, and (2) an explicit integration of the
sciences, starting with the first chapter.
G REAT I DEAS •
One of the best-kept secrets in the world is this: the core ideas of the sciences are really
quite simple. Furthermore, these core ideas form a framework for our understanding
of the universe—they give our ideas structure and form. As we argue in the text, these
Great Ideas represent a hierarchy in the sciences that transcend the boundaries of specific
disciplines. The conservation of energy, for example, is part of the intellectual framework
of sciences from astronomy to zoology.
By organizing our presentation around the central Great Ideas rather than around
specific disciplines, students can deal with the universe as it presents itself to them, rather
than with disciplinary divisions that have little meaning to the citizen, no matter how
important they are to working scientists. The goal, of course, is to give the student the
intellectual framework that will allow him or her to deal with the scientific aspects of
problems that come into public debate.
No one can predict what the major subjects of public concern will be in twenty
years’ time—certainly no one twenty years ago would have guessed that we would be
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viii | PREFACE
arguing about cloning today. What we can guarantee, however, is that whatever those
future issues are, they will present themselves in relation to the Great Ideas.
I NTEGRATION •
Every chapter in this book opens with a list of how the concepts to be discussed relate to
every area of science. In the chapters themselves, we use the Special Features described
below to bring in aspects of science from other areas. Thus, for example, in the chapter
on electricity (normally thought of as the domain of physics) we discuss the workings of
the nerve cell, while in the chapter on electromagnetic radiation we talk about the
design of the human eye and its connection to the evolution of life on Earth.
For us, integration is more than a cosmetic feature—it goes to the very heart of sci-
ence. The universe presents itself to us as a seamless web of interacting phenomena and
our understanding of science should do the same.
The Organization of The Sciences

As authors of substantial segments of the Standards, we continue to revise The Sciences:
An Integrated Approach with the Standards’ mandate in mind. We have increased the
emphasis on the scientific process, reorganized and added text to elucidate the historical
significance of key principles, and underscored the integrated nature of scientific knowl-
edge and its application to everyday experience.
We were, in fact, the first to adopt a distinctive and innovative approach to science
education based on the principle that general science courses are a key to a balanced and
effective college-level science education for nonmajors and future elementary and high
school teachers, and a broadening experience for science majors. We organize the text
around a series of 25 scientific concepts. The most basic principle, the starting point of
all science, is the idea that the universe can be studied by observation and experiment
(Chapter 1). A surprising number of students, even science majors, have no clear idea
of how this central concept sets science apart from religion, philosophy, and the arts as a
way to understand our place in the cosmos.
Once students understand the nature of science and its practice, they can appreciate
some of the basic principles shared by all sciences: Newton’s laws governing force and
motion (Chapter 2); the laws of thermodynamics that govern energy and entropy
(Chapters 3 and 4); the equivalence of electricity and magnetism (Chapters 5 and 6);
and the atomic structure of all matter (Chapters 8–11). These concepts apply to every-
day life explaining, for example, the compelling reasons for wearing seat belts, the circu-
lation of the blood, the dynamics of a pot of soup, the regulation of public airwaves, and
the rationale for dieting. In one form or another, all of these ideas appear in virtually
every elementary science textbook, but often in abstract form. As educators, we must
strive to make them part of every student’s day-to-day experience. An optional chapter
on the theory of relativity (Chapter 7) examines the consequences of a universe in
which all observers discern the same laws of nature.
Having established these general principles, we go on to examine specific natural
systems such as atoms, Earth, or living things. The realm of the nucleus (Chapter 12)
and subatomic particles (Chapter 13), for example, must follow the basic rules govern-
ing all matter and energy.
In sections on astronomy and cosmology (Chapters 14–16), students learn that
stars and planets form and move as predicted by Newton’s laws, that stars eventually
burn up according to the laws of thermodynamics, that nuclear reactions fuel stars by
the conversion of mass into energy, and that stars produce light as a consequence of elec-
tromagnetism.
Plate tectonics (Chapter 17) and the cycles of rocks, water, and the atmosphere
(Chapter 18) unify the Earth sciences. The laws of thermodynamics, which decree that
no feature on Earth’s surface is permanent, can be used to explain geological time,
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Major Changes in the Sixth Edition | ix
gradualism, and the causes of earthquakes and volcanoes. The fact that matter is com-
posed of atoms tells us that individual atoms in Earth, for example in a grain of sand or
a student’s most recent breath, have been recycling for billions of years.
Living things (Chapters 19–25) are arguably the most complex systems that scien-
tists attempt to understand. We identify seven basic principles that apply to all living sys-
tems: interdependent collections of living things (ecosystems) recycle matter while energy
flows through them; living things use many strategies to maintain and reproduce life; all
living things obey the laws of chemistry and physics; all living things incorporate a few
simple molecular building blocks; all living things are made of cells; all living things use
the same genetic code; and all living things evolved by natural selection.
The section covering living things has been extensively revised. Chapter 19 includes
new information on ecosystems and their importance to the environment. One chapter
(20) covers the organization and characteristics of living things. A revised chapter on
biotechnology (24) explores several recent advances in our molecular understanding of
life that helps to cure diseases and to better the human condition. We end the book with
a discussion of evolution (25) that emphasizes observational evidence first. To improve
the book’s integration, we have also added more biological coverage to the early chap-
ters on basic scientific principles.
The text has been designed so that four chapters—relativity (7), quantum mechan-
ics (9), particle physics (13), and cosmology (15)—may be skipped without loss of
continuity.
Major Changes in the Sixth Edition

We are always amazed at how much of the scientific content of this book has to be
updated when we undertake a new edition, and this edition is no exception. It has been
updated to provide the most current scientific coverage and the most useful pedagogical
elements to students taking integrated science courses. Additionally, each chapter has
new end-of-chapter questions to address new material and to provide students with bet-
ter study tools.
Some of the most significant changes to this edition are:
Chapter 1 Science: A Way of Knowing contains significant changes to the section on hypotheses and theories as well as
examples from new fields such as string theory. The section on basic research is updated to include a discus-
sion of the Large Hadron Collider.
Chapter 2 The Ordered Universe contains an expanded discussion of John Snow’s historic proof that cholera in
London was carried in the drinking water as an example of the scientific method in action.
Chapter 3 Energy includes an expanded discussion of renewable energy sources, particularly wind and solar energy, and
the impact they are likely to have on America’s energy future.
Chapter 4 Heat and the Second Law of Thermodynamics contains an expanded discussion of new research in the sci-
ence of aging.
Chapter 7 Theory of Relativity features new information on predicting and testing the theory of relativity, particularly
anticipated new results from Gravity Probe B, as well as a discussion of the role of relativity in the operation
of the GPS system.
Chapter 9 Quantum Mechanics incorporates a new section on quantum entanglement as well as discussions of quan-
tum computing and quantum teleportation.
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x | PREFACE
Chapter 10 Atoms in Combination features many new and revised illustrations related to chemical bonding. Every
atomic-scale illustration is now accompanied by a photograph of a related material to emphasize the con-
nections between the atomic structure and physical properties.
Chapter 11 Properties of Materials also incorporates many new illustrations that underscore the close connection
between micro and macro.
Chapter 12 The Nucleus of the Atom contains an expanded discussion of the effects of radiation on health and a look at
the frontier of fusion research at ITER.
Chapter 13 The Ultimate Structure of Matter includes added material on the new Large Hadron Collider, the standard
model, and the Higgs Boson.
Chapter 14 The Stars contains the updated list of terrestrial and orbiting observatories as well as new material on the field
of neutrino astrophysics and the IceCube Project.
Chapter 15 Cosmology has been completely rewritten to reflect modern thinking about dark energy, dark matter, and
the ultimate fate of the universe.
Chapter 16 Earth and Other Planets has been expanded to include discussions of extrasolar planets, the Cassini Mission
to Saturn, and new discoveries in the Kuiper Belt. A discussion of the reclassification of Pluto has also been
added.
Chapter 17 Plate Tectonics is clarified by our greatly expanded use of illustrations. We have also expanded our discus-
sions of different kinds of convergent boundaries.
Chapter 18 Earth’s Many Cycles contains additional images of varied natural phenomena to clarify the presentation of
Earth cycles.
Chapter 19 Ecology, Ecosystems, and the Environment has been updated with the most recent global warming data.
We have switched the order of acid rain and the ozone hole sections to reflect local-to-global scale
probems.
Chapter 21 The Living Cell, along with Chapter 22 The Molecules of Life, and Chapter 23 Classical and Molecu-
lar Genetics have benefited from a new art program, with a more consistent use of style and color in repre-
sentations of molecular structures.
Chapter 24 The New Science of Life reflects this rapidly evolving area of science with new coverage of genetic engi-
neering, DNA fingerprinting, cloning, stem cells, and cancer. A section on bioterrorism has been added
as well.
Chapter 25 Evolution includes significantly updated and enhanced coverage on the origin of life (especially chemical evo-
lution), creationism and intelligent design, and natural selection.
Special Features
In an effort to aid student learning and underscore the integration of the sciences, we
have attempted to relate scientific principles to each student’s everyday life. To this end,
we have incorporated several distinctive features throughout the book.
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Special Features | xi
G REAT I DEAS •
Each chapter begins with a statement of a great unifying idea or theme in science, so that
students immediately grasp the chief concept of that chapter. These statements are not
intended to be recited or memorized, but rather to provide a framework for placing
everyday experiences into a broad context.
G REAT I DEAS ACROSS THE S CIENCES •

Our theme of integration is reinforced with a radiating diagram that appears at the begin-
ning of every chapter. The diagram ties together some of the examples discussed in the
text and shows how the Great Idea has been applied to different branches of science and
to everyday life.
Science Through the Day
Each chapter begins with a “Science Through the Day” section in which we tie the
chapter’s main theme to common experiences such as eating, driving a car, or suntan-
ning. These 25 vignettes, taken in sequence, tell the story of one student’s day from sun-
rise, through an excursion to the beach, and then to the day’s end. In this way we
emphasize that all the great ideas of science are constantly part of our lives.
THE S CIENCE OF LIFE •

To help show the interdisciplinary nature of the many concepts we introduce, we have
included sections on living things in most chapters. Thus, while chapters emphasizing
principles specifically related to life are at the end of the book, biological examples
appear throughout.
S CIENCE IN THE MAKING •

These historical episodes trace the progress of scientific discovery and portray the lives of
some of the central figures in science. In these episodes, we have tried to illustrate the
process of science, examine the interplay of science and society, and reveal the role of
serendipity in scientific discovery.
THE O NGOING P ROCESS OF S CIENCE •

Science is a never-ending process of asking questions and seeking answers. In these fea-
tures, we examine some of the most exciting questions currently being addressed by
scientists.
Stop and Think!
At various points in each chapter we ask students to pause and think about the implica-
tions of a scientific discovery or principle.
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TECHNOLOGY •
The application of scientific ideas to commerce, industry, and other modern technolog-
ical concerns is perhaps the most immediate way in which students encounter science. In
most chapters, we include examples of these technologies such as petroleum refining,
microwave ovens, and nuclear medicine.
MATHEMATICAL E QUATIONS AND WORKED E XAMPLES •

Unlike the content of many science texts, formulas and mathematical derivations play a
subsidiary role in our treatment of the subject matter. We rely much more on real-world
experiences and on everyday vocabulary. We believe that every student should under-
stand the role of mathematics in science. Therefore, in many chapters, we have included
a few key equations and the appropriate worked examples. Whenever an equation is
introduced, it is presented in three steps: first as an English sentence, second as a word
equation, and finally in its traditional symbolic form. In this way, students can focus on
the meaning rather than the abstraction of the mathematics. We also include an appen-
dix on English and SI units.
S CIENCE BY THE N UMBERS •

We also think that students should understand the importance of simple mathematical
calculations in areas of magnitude. Thus we have incorporated many nontraditional cal-
culations. These include, for example, how much solid waste is generated in the United
States, how long it would take to erode a mountain, and how many people were
required to build Stonehenge.
Thinking More About

Each chapter ends with a section that addresses a social or philosophical issue tied to sci-
ence such as federal funding of the sciences, nuclear waste disposal, the Human Genome
Project, and the priorities in medical research.
D ISCOVERY L ABS
New to the sixth edition, these “kitchen sink” labs contributed by Larry McClellan
and Meena Jagasia provide students with additional real world science applications.
These labs may be conducted in a class or lab or may be assigned for students to
complete at home.
R ETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED S CIENCE Q UESTION

Each chapter of The Sciences opens with an Integrated Science Question which draws
from the many branches of science discussed in the chapter. New to the 6th edition, we
now return to this question at the end of the chapter to illustrate for students how the
material draws together to answer this question and creates a problem-solving frame-
work for students to apply to future questions.
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Other Features | xiii
Other Features
Key Words. Most science texts suffer from too complex a vocabulary. We have tried to
avoid unnecessary jargon. Because the scientifically literate student must be familiar
with many words and concepts that appear regularly in newspaper articles or other
material for general readers, each chapter contains key words for the student that
appear in boldface type. These words are also listed at the end of each chapter. For
example, in Chapter 12 on nuclear physics, key words include proton, neutron, iso-
tope, radioactivity, half-life, radiometric dating, fission, fusion, and nuclear reactor.
These are all terms that are likely to appear in a newspaper. In the back of the book you
will find a glossary of all the key words.
There are many other scientific terms that are more specialized but also important.
We have highlighted these terms in italics. We strongly recommend that students learn
the meaning and context of all the key words but not be expected to memorize the
words that appear in italics. We encourage all adopters of this text to provide their own
lists of key words and other terms, both ones we might have omitted and ones they feel
should be eliminated from our list.
Questions. We feature four levels of end-of-chapter questions. “Review Questions”

test important factual information covered in the text and are provided to emphasize
key points. Many of the Review Questions have been substantially rewritten for this
edition. “Discussion Questions” are also based on material in the text, but they also
examine student comprehension and explore the application and analysis of the scien-
tific concepts. “Problems” are quantitative questions that require students to use
mathematical operations, typically those introduced in worked examples or “Science
by the Numbers.” Finally, “Investigations” require additional research outside the
classroom. Each instructor should decide which level of questions is most appropriate
for his or her students. We welcome suggestions for additional questions which we
will add to the next edition of this text. Finally, we wish to thank Edward Archer of
Florida State University for his extensive revisions of the end of chapter materials.
Illustrations. Students come to any science class with years of experience dealing with
the physical universe. Everyday life provides an invaluable science laboratory. This
includes the physics of sports, the chemistry of cooking, and the biology of just being
alive. This book has been extensively illustrated with color images in an effort to help
amplify the key ideas and principles. All the diagrams and graphs have been designed for
maximum clarity and impact.
Great Ideas in Science: A Reader in the Classic Literature of Science. In conjunction

with University Readers of San Diego, California, Robert Hazen and James Trefil have
edited a collection of 50 excerpts from original sources to illustrate transformational dis-
coveries in science history, such as the work of Copernicus, Newton, Darwin and
Mendel. Other entries, including those of Snow, Cavendish, Van Helmont and Wöhler,
expand on specific topics presented in The Sciences. The readings are grouped into
25 chapters that parallel this volume. Taken together, these readings reveal dramatic
changes in the process and progress of science.
ANCILLARIES FOR THE S CIENCES, 6TH E DITION •

The package accompanying The Sciences, 6th Edition includes assets developed specifically
to augment students’ learning and understanding. Together, these ancillaries provide
instructors and students with interesting and helpful teaching and learning tools and take
full advantage of both electronic and print media.
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xiv | PREFACE
This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook
with the most effective instructor and student resources to fit every learning style.
With WileyPLUS:
• Students achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured environment that’s available 24/7.
• Instructors personalize and manage their course more effectively with assessment,
assignments, grade tracking, and more.
WileyPLUS can complement your current textbook or replace the printed text
altogether.
F OR STUDENTS •
Personalize the learning experience
Different learning styles, different levels of proficiency, different levels of preparation—
each of your students is unique. WileyPLUS empowers them to take advantage of their
individual strengths:
• Students receive timely access to resources that address their demonstrated needs,
and get immediate feedback and remediation when needed.
• Integrated, multimedia resources include:
Virtual Discovery Labs bring select core concepts to life in an online lab
setting.
Animations illustrate select text concepts.

Science in the News Video Clips are linked right into the eBook in WileyPLUS
for easy in-context access and give students a look into how science works in the
real world.
• WileyPLUS includes many opportunities for self-assessment linked to the relevant por-
tions of the text. Students can take control of their own learning and practice until
they master the material.
F OR I NSTRUCTORS •
Personalize the teaching experience
WileyPLUS empowers you with the tools and resources you need to make your teaching
even more effective:
• You can customize your classroom presentation with a wealth of resources and func-
tionality from PowerPoint slides to a database of rich visuals. You can even add your
own materials to your WileyPLUS course.
• With WileyPLUS you can identify those students who are falling behind and inter-
vene accordingly, without having to wait for them to come to office hours.
• WileyPLUS simplifies and automates such tasks as student performance assessment,
making assignments, scoring student work, keeping grades, and more.
Virtual Discovery Labs authored by Brian Shmaefsky of Lone Star College
bring select core concepts to life in an online lab setting. Virtual Discovery
Labs offer students an excellent alternative to hands on lab work with assign-
able lab reports and question assignments.
Test Bank by David King of Auburn University is available on both the instructor
companion site and within WileyPLUS. Containing approximately 50 multiple choice
and essay test items per chapter, this test bank offers assessment of both basic under-
standing and conceptual applications. The Sciences, 6th Edition Test Bank is offered
in two formats: MS Word files and a Computerized Test Bank. The easy-to-use
fpref.qxd 9/15/09 3:52 PM Page xv
Acknowledgments | xv
test-generation program fully supports graphics, print tests, student answer sheets,
and answer keys. The software’s advanced features allow you to create an exam to
your exact specifications.
Instructor’s Manual by Bambi Bailey, Midwestern State University, and prepared by
Sandy Buczynski, San Diego University, contains teaching suggestions, lecture notes,
answers to problems from the textbook, additional problems, and over 70 creative ideas
for in-class activities. Available in WileyPLUS and on the instructor companion site.
Science In the News Video Clips and Lecture Launcher Presentations
provide instructors with a presentation tool to give students a look into how
science works in the real world. Videos can presented in class or assigned with
questions in WileyPLUS.
Animations. Select text concepts are illustrated using flash animation, designed for
use in classroom presentations.
All Line Illustrations and Photos from The Sciences, 6th Edition in jpeg files and
PowerPoint format are available both on the instructor companion site and within
WileyPLUS.
Biology Visual Library containing all of the line illustrations in the textbook in
jpeg format, as well as access to numerous other life science illustrations from
other Wiley texts is available in WileyPLUS and on the instructor companion site.
PowerPoint Presentations by Rita King of the College of New Jersey are tailored
to The Sciences, 6th Edition’s topical coverage and learning objectives. These presen-
tations are designed to convey key text concepts, illustrated by embedded text art. An
effort has been made to reduce the amount of words on each slide and increase the
use of visuals to illustrate concepts. Personal Response System questions are specif-
ically designed to foster student discussion and debate in class.
B OOK C OMPANION S ITE (www.wiley.com/college/trefil) •

For the Student:
• Quizzes for student self-testing
• Biology NewsFinder; Flash Cards; and Animations
For the Instructor:

• Biology Visual Library; all images in jpg and PowerPoint formats.
• Instructor’s Manual; Test Bank; Lecture PowerPoint presentations, Personal Response
System questions Instructor Resources are password protected.
Acknowledgments
The development of this text has benefited immensely from the help and advice of
numerous people. For this sixth edition we would particularly like to thank Edward
Archer who provided invaluable assistance in reviewing and revising our end-of-chapter
questions and Larry McClellan and Meena Jagasia who contributed the end-of-chapter
Discovery Labs.
STUDENT I NVOLVEMENT •
Students in our “Great Ideas in Science” course at George Mason University have
played a central role in designing this text. Approximately 3000 students, the majority of
whom were nonscience majors, have enrolled in the course over the past 15 years. They
represent a diverse cross section of American students: more than half were women, and
many minority, foreign-born, and adult learners were enrolled. Their candid assessments
fpref.qxd 9/15/09 3:52 PM Page xvi
xvi | PREFACE
of course content and objectives, as well as their constructive suggestions for improve-
ments, have helped shape our text.
FACULTY I NPUT •
We are also grateful to members of the Core Science Course Committee at George
Mason University including Richard Diecchio (Earth Systems Science), Don Kelso and
Harold Morowitz (Biology), Minos Kafatos and Jean Toth-Allen (Physics), and Suzanne
Slayden (Chemistry), who helped design many aspects of this treatment.
We thank the many teachers across the country who are developing integrated sci-
ence courses. Their letters to us and responses to our publisher’s survey inspired us to
write this text. In particular we would like to thank Michael Sable of The Massachusetts
College for the Liberal Arts, whose long and thoughtful letter after the first edition was
a tremendous help. We especially thank the professors who used and class-tested the pre-
liminary edition, sharing with us the responses of their students and their own analyses.
Their classroom experience continues to help us shape the book.
P UBLISHER S UPPORT •
Finally, as in the previous editions, we gratefully acknowledge the dedicated people at
John Wiley and Sons who originally proposed this textbook and have helped us in devel-
oping every aspect of its planning and production for all six editions. We thank our Senior
Editor, Rachel Falk for her support and innovative ideas. Associate Editor, Merillat Staat
managed the project and the supplements package, while Alissa Etrheim served with skill
and professionalism as editorial program assistant. Developmental Art Editor, Kathleen
Naylor worked to create a fresh new look for our art program. Executive Marketing Man-
ager Christine Kushner championed the book in her marketing and sales efforts.
We also thank the production team of the sixth edition. The project was ably man-
aged by Patricia McFadden and meticulously produced by Kate Boilard of Laserwords
who dealt with the countless technical details associated with an integrated science book.
Kevin Murphy designed the handsome text while designed the cover. Jennifer MacMil-
lan researched the numerous new photos for the sixth edition. Anna Melhorn coordi-
nated the development of our new illustrations. To all the staff at John Wiley, we owe a
great debt for their enthusiastic support, constant encouragement, and sincere dedica-
tion to science education reform.
R EVIEWERS FOR THE S IXTH E DITION •

Ewa Ciszak Robert M. Hagood Angela A. McKeen
Motlow State Community College Washtenaw Community College Fairmont State University
Danielle Dalafave Rachel Jameton Chris Namovicz
The College of New Jersey Lewis-Clark State College U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Robert G. Dyer Charles Johnson U.S. Department of Energy
Arkansas State University South Georgia College Denice Robertson
Brent A. Elliott Yevgeniy Kontar Northern Kentucky University
Midwestern State University The University of Findlay William L. Schreiber
Jeffrey Fieberg Robin Lopez-Armstrong Monmouth University
Centre College San Joaquin Valley College
Harold Geller Cynthia Maguire
George Mason University Texas Woman’s University
F OCUS G ROUP PARTICIPANTS FOR THE S IXTH E DITION •

Sarah J. Barlow Harry Pylypiw James K. Stringfield
Savannah State University Quinnipiac University Catawba College
Jack Cane Adele M. Register
Edison College Rogers State University
Barbra Maher Clara Toth
Red Rocks Community College St. Thomas Aquinas College
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Acknowledgments | xvii
R EVIEWERS OF P REVIOUS E DITIONS •

Marian Elaine Melby Aanerud E. Alan Dean David Hickey
University of Michigan–Flint University of Texas at El Paso Lansing Community College
C. Brannon Andersen Richard Deslippe Jim Holler
Furman University Texas Tech University University of Kentucky
Bambi L. Bailey David Dimattio Patricia M. Hughey
Midwestern State University St. Bonaventure University Lansing Community College
Felicia Barbieri Normand A. Dion Louis Irwin
Gwynedd-Mercy College Franklin Pierce College University of Texas at El Paso
Debra J. Barnes Robert T. Downs Anthony Jacob
Contra Costa College University of Arizona University of Wisconsin–Madison
Sheila K. Bennett Jerry Easdon Richard C. Jones
University of Maine at Augusta College of the Ozarks Texas Woman’s University
Doug Bingham David Emigh Gerry Karp
West Texas State University Quinebaug Valley Community College University of Florida, Gainesville, Emeritus
Tarun Biswas Raymond L. Ethington Robert Kearney
State University of New York at New Paltz University of Missouri at Columbia University of Idaho
Larry Blair William Faissler William Keller
Berea College Northeastern University St. Petersburg Junior College
Susan Bornstein-Forst Michael F. Farona Patricia Kenyon
Marian College University of North Carolina at Greensboro City College of New York
J.-CI. De Bremaeker Paul Fishbane Larry Kodosky
Rice University University of Virginia Oakland Community College
Linda Brown Maura Flannery Roger Koeppe
Gainesville College St. John’s University Oklahoma State University
Gloria Brown Right John Freeman Diona Koerner
Monmouth University Rice University Marymount College
Virginia R. Bryan Jacek K. Furdyna Mary H. Korte
Southern Illinois University University of Notre Dame Concordia University Wisconsin
Joe C. Burnell William Fyfe Hallie M. Krider
University of Indianapolis University of Western Ontario University of Connecticut
Lauretta Bushar Robert Gannon Albert Kudo
Beaver College Dowling College University of New Mexico
W. Barkley Butler Anthony J. Gaudin Charles J. Kunert
Indiana University of Pennsylvania Ivey Tech State College Concordia College
George Cassiday Harold A. Geller Kathleen H. Lavoie
University of Utah George Mason University University of Michigan–Flint
Tim Champion Biswa Ghosh Joseph E. Ledbetter
Johnson C. Smith College Hudson County College Contra Costa College
Kailash Chandra Marvin Goldberg Jeffrey A. Lee
Savannah State University Syracuse University Texas Tech University
Ben B. Chastain Ben Golden Gary Lewis
Samford University Kennesaw State University Kennesaw State University
LuAnne Clark William Good Robley J. Light
Lansing Community College Suffolk University Florida State University
John Cobley John Graham Robert W. Lind
University of San Francisco Carnegie Institution of Washington University of Wisconsin–Plattesville
Stan Cohn James Grant Sam Littlepage
DePaul University St. Peter’s College University of Findlay
Marjorie Collier Benjamin Grinstein Becky Lovato
St. Peter’s College University of California–San Diego Lansing Community College
Rod Cranson Annette Halpern Bruce MacLaren
Lansing Community College California State University at Bakersfield Eastern Kentucky University
Phillip D. Creighton J. Howard Hargis Lynn Maelia
Salisbury State University Auburn University Mount Saint Mary College
Randy Criss David Hedgepeth Kingshuk Majumdar
University of Saint Leo Valdosta State University Berea College
Whitman Cross II Michael Held David E. Marx
Southern Museum of Flight St Peter’s College University of Scranton
John Cruzan Dennis Hibbert Mark E. Mattson
Geneva College North Seattle Community College James Madison University
fpref.qxd 9/15/09 3:52 PM Page xviii
xviii | PREFACE
Leigh Mazany Richard Petriello Herbert H. Stewart

Dalhousie University St. Peter’s College Florida Atlantic University
Donald Miller Patrick Pfaffle Neal Sumerlin
University of Michigan–Dearborn Carthage College Lychburg College
Jeffrey J. Miller Scott Pinkus Timothy D. Swindle
Metropolitan State College of Denver New Jersey City University University of Arizona
Scott Mohr Ervin Poduska Stephen Taber
Boston University Kirkwood Community College Saginaw Valley State University
Ashraf Mongroo Harry Pylypiw Francis Tam
New York City College of Technology of CUNY Quinnipiac University Frostburg State University
Harold Morowitz Barbara T. Reagor John S. Thompson
George Mason University Monmouth University Texas A&M University at Kingsville
Kevin Morris Denice Robertson John Truedson
Carthage College Northern Kentucky University Bemidji State University
Dr. Kanchana Mudalige Susan Rolke Barry J. Vroeginday
Monmouth University Franklin Pierce College Devry University
Bjorn Mysen Joseph Ruchlin Andrew Wallace
Geophysical Laboratory Lehman College of CUNY Angelo State University
Lynn Narasimhan Joaquin Ruiz Barbara E. Warkentine
DePaul University University of Arizona Lehman College of CUNY
Michael J. Neilson Selwyn Sacks Steven Warren
University of Alabama Carnegie Institution of Washington Andrews University
E. Herbert Newman Rick Saprano Laura A. Whitlock
Coastal Carolina University Contra Costa College Louisiana State University–Shreveport
Charlotte Ovechka Frederick D. Shannon Steven Wiles
University of St. Thomas Houghton College Montana State University–Billings
Reno Parker Paul Simony David Wong
Montana State University Jacksonville University University of California–San Diego
Barry Perlmutter Gail Steehler David P. Wright
New Jersey City University Roanoke College St. Edward’s University
Steven Perry Howard J. Stein Jim Yoder
Monroe Community College Grand Valley State University Hesston College
ftoc.qxd 9/15/09 3:51 PM Page xix
Contents
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 26

Science: A Way of Knowing
1 How do you know what you know?
The Discovery of the Spread of Disease 26
The Birth of Modern Astronomy 28
The Historical Background: Ptolemy and Copernicus 28 /
Great Idea: Science is a way of asking Observations: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler 29
and answering questions about the physical universe.
The Birth of Mechanics 30
Galileo Galilei 31
Science Through the Day: Sunrise •2
The Role of Science 2 The Heresy Trial of Galileo 31
Making Choices 2 / Why Study Science? 3 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration 31 / The Founder
The Scientific Method 4 of Experimental Science 33
Observation 4 / Identifying Patterns and Regularities 4 / THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 36
Mathematics: The Language of Science 5 / Development Experiencing Extreme Acceleration 36
of a Theory 6 / Prediction and Testing 7 / The Scientific Method Isaac Newton and the Universal Laws of Motion 37
in Operation 8 The First Law 37 / The Second Law 38 / The Third Law 39 /
THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 8 Newton’s Laws at Work 39
Biodiversity 8 Momentum 40
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 10 Conservation of Linear Momentum 41 / Angular
Dimitri Mendeleev and the Periodic Table 10 Momentum 41
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 11 TECHNOLOGY • 41
William Harvey and the Blood’s Circulation 11 Inertial Guidance System 41
Other Ways of Knowing 12 The Universal Force of Gravity 42
Different Kinds of Questions 12 / Pseudoscience 12 The Gravitational Constant, G 42 / Weight and Gravity 43 /
Big G and Little g 43
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 13 Thinking More About The Ordered University • 45
Astrology 13
Predictability 45
The Organization of Science 14
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 45
The Divisions of Science 14 / The Branches of Science 15 /
The Web of Knowledge 16 / Basic Research, Applied Research, DISCOVERY LAB • 46
and Technology 16
TECHNOLOGY • 17
Energy
SETI@HOME 17
Funding for Science 18 / Communication Among 3 Why must animals eat to stay alive?
Scientists 19
Thinking More About Basic Research • 19 Great Idea: The many different forms of energy are
How Should Research Funding be Allocated? 19 interchangeable, and the total amount of energy in an isolated
system is conserved.
DISCOVERY LAB • 20 Science Through the Day: Morning Routine • 49
The Great Chain of Energy 49
Scientifically Speaking 50
The Ordered Universe
2 Why do planets appear to wander slowly SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 52
James Watt and the Horsepower 52
across the sky?
Forms of Energy 53
Great Idea: Newton’s laws of motion and gravity predict the Kinetic Energy 53 / Potential Energy 55 / Heat, or Thermal
behavior of objects on Earth and in space. Energy 56
Science Through the Day: Cause and Effect • 24 Discovering the Nature of Heat 56
Wave Energy 57 / Mass as Energy 57
The Night Sky 24
Stonehenge 25 The Interchangeability of Energy 58
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 26 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 60
Ancient Astronauts 26 Energy for Life and Trophic Levels 60
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THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 61

Electricity and Magnetism
How Living Things Use Energy 61
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy Is Conserved 61
5 What is lightning?
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 63 Great Idea: Electricity and magnetism are two different
Energy and the Order of the Universe 63 aspects of one force—the electromagnetic force.
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 63
Diet and Calories 63 Science Through the Day: The Hidden Force • 94
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 64 Nature’s Other Forces 94
Lord Kelvin and Earth’s Age 64
Static Electricity 95
The United States and Its Energy Future 64 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 95
Renewable Energy Sources 65 / Transportation and Energy Use 67 Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Charge 95
Thinking More About Energy • 68 The Movement of Electrons 96 / Coulomb’s Law 96
Fossil Fuels 68 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 97
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 68 Two Forces Compared 97
DISCOVERY LAB • 69 The Electrical Field 98
Magnetism 98
Heat and the Second Law Magnetic Navigation 100
4 of Thermodynamics Pairs of Poles 101
Why is it easier to make an omelet from an egg Batteries and Electric Circuits 101
than to make an egg from an omelet? THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 101
Luigi Galvani and Life’s Electrical Force 101
Great Idea: Heat is a form of energy that flows from warmer Batteries and Electrical Current 102 / Electric Circuits 103
to cooler objects. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 107
The Propagation of Nerve Signals 107
Science Through the Day: A Hot Breakfast • 73 Two Kinds of Electric Circuits 107
Nature’s Direction 73 Connections Between Electricity and Magnetism 107
Coming to Terms with Heat 74 Magnetic Effects from Electricity 108 / The Electromagnet 108
Heat and Temperature 75 / Temperature Conversions 75 TECHNOLOGY • 109
The Electric Motor 109
TECHNOLOGY • 76
Why Magnetic Monopoles Don’t Exist 110
Thermometers 76
Specific Heat Capacity 76 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 110
Magnetic Resonance 110
Heat Transfer 77
Conduction 77 / Convection 78 Electrical Effects from Magnetism 110
TECHNOLOGY • 79 TECHNOLOGY • 111
Home Insulation 79 AC versus DC 111
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 79 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 112
Animal Insulation: Fur and Feathers 79 Michael Faraday 112
Radiation 81 Maxwell’s Equations 112
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 81 Thinking More About Electromagnetism • 112
Temperature Regulation 81 Basic Research 112
The Second Law of Thermodynamics 82 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 113
Heat Will Not Flow Spontaneously from a Cold to a Hot DISCOVERY LAB • 114
Body 82 / You Cannot Construct an Engine That Does
Nothing but Convert Heat to Useful Work 83
SCIENCE N UMBERS • 85 Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation
BY THE
Efficiency 85 6 What is color?
Every Isolated System Becomes More Disordered with Time 86
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 88 Great Idea: Whenever an electrically charged object is
The Heat Death of the Universe 88 accelerated, it produces electromagnetic radiation—waves of
energy that travel at the speed of light.
Consequences of the Second Law 88
The Arrow of Time 88 / Built-in Limitations of the Universe 88
Science Through the Day: The Radio • 118
Does Evolution Violate the Second Law? 89 The Nature of Waves 118
Energy Transfer by Waves 118 / The Properties of Waves 119 /
Thinking More About Entropy • 89 The Relationship Among Wavelength, Frequency, and Velocity 119 /
Aging 89 The Two Kinds of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal 120
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 90 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 121
DISCOVERY LAB • 91 The Sound of Music 121
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THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 122 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 157
Use of Sound by Animals 122 DISCOVERY LAB • 158
Interference 123
The Electromagnetic Wave 124
The Atom
SCIENCE IN THE
The Ether 125
MAKING • 125 8 Why are there so many different materials
The Anatomy of the Electromagnetic Wave 126 / Light 126 / The in the world?
Energy of Electromagnetic Waves 126 / The Doppler Effect 127 /
Transmission, Absorption, and Scattering 129 Great Idea: All of the matter around us is made of atoms,
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 130 the chemical building blocks of our world.
Radio Waves 130
TECHNOLOGY • 132 Science Through the Day: A Deep Breath • 161
AM and FM Radio Transmission 132 The Smallest Pieces 161
Microwaves 132 The Greek Atom 161 / Elements 162 / Are Atoms Real? 162 /
Discovering Chemical Elements 164
TECHNOLOGY • 133
Microwave Ovens 133 The Structure of the Atom 165
Infrared Radiation 133 / Visible Light 133 The Atomic Nucleus 166 / Why the Rutherford Atom Couldn’t
Work 166
The Eye 134 When Matter Meets Light 167
Ultraviolet Radiation 135 / X-rays 135 The Bohr Atom 167 / Photons: Particles of Light 168 /
An Intuitive Leap 170
THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 136
Intense X-ray Sources 136 Spectroscopy 170
Gamma Rays 136 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 172
Thinking More About Electromagnetic Radiation • 137 Spectra of Life’s Chemical Reactions 172
Is ELF Radiation Dangerous? 137 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 172
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 137 The Story of Helium 172
DISCOVERY LAB • 138 TECHNOLOGY • 173
The Laser 173
The Periodic Table of the Elements 174
Albert Einstein and the Theory Periodic Chemical Properties 174 / Why the Periodic Table Works:
7 of Relativity Electron Shells 175
Can a human ever travel faster than the speed Thinking More About Atoms • 177
of light, at “warp speed”? What Do Atoms “Look Like?” 177
Great Idea: All observers, no matter what their frame of DISCOVERY LAB • 178
reference, see the same laws of nature.
Quantum Mechanics
Science Through the Day: Waiting at the Stoplight • 142
Frames of Reference 142
9 How can the electron behave like both
Descriptions in Different Reference Frames 142 / The Principle a particle and a wave?
of Relativity 143 / Relativity and the Speed of Light 144
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 145 Great Idea: At the subatomic scale, everything
is quantized. Any measurement at that scale significantly alters
Einstein and the Streetcar 145
the object being measured.
Special Relativity 145
Time Dilation 145 / The Size of Time Dilation 146 Science Through the Day: Digital Pictures • 182
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 149 The World of the Very Small 182
How Important Is Relativity? 149 Measurement and Observation in the Quantum World 183 /
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 149 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 183
Space Travel and Aging 149 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 185
Distance and Relativity 150 / So What About the Train Uncertainty in the Newtonian World 185
and the Flashlight? 150 / Mass and Relativity 151 / Mass
and Energy 152 Probabilities 186
General Relativity 153 Wave-Particle Duality 187
The Nature of Forces 153 / Predictions of General The Double-Slit Test 187
Relativity 155 TECHNOLOGY • 188
TECHNOLOGY • 156 The Photoelectric Effect 188
The Global Positioning System and Relativity 156 Wave-Particle Duality and the Bohr Atom 189
Who Can Understand Relativity? 156 Quantum Weirdness 190
Thinking More About Relativity • 157 TECHNOLOGY • 190
Was Newton Wrong? 157 Quantum Computing 190
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SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 191 Electrical Properties of Materials 231

A Famous Interchange 191 Conductors 231 / Insulators 231 / Semiconductors 232 /
Superconductors 233
Quantum Entanglement—Weirdness in Action 191
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 192 THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 233
Searching for New Superconductors 233
Science In The Making: Quantum Teleportation 192
Magnetic Properties of Materials 234
Thinking More About Quantum Mechanics • 192
Uncertainty and Human Beings 192 Microchips and the Information Revolution 235
Doped Semiconductors 236 / Diodes 237
DISCOVERY LAB • 194 TECHNOLOGY • 237
Photovoltaic Cells and Solar Energy 237
The Transistor 238 / Microchips 239
Atoms in Combination: TECHNOLOGY • 240
10 The Chemical Bond Jim Trefil Gives His Car a Tune-Up 240
Information 241
How does blood clot?
Is a Picture Really Worth a Thousand
Great Idea: Atoms bind together in chemical reactions by
Words? 242
the rearrangement of electrons.
Computers 243
Science Through the Day: Throwing Things Away • 197 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 244
The Computer and the Brain 244
Our Material World 197
Thinking More About Properties of Materials • 245
Electron Shells and Chemical Bonds 197 Thinking Machines 245
Types of Chemical Bonds 198 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 246
Ionic Bonds 199 / Metallic Bonds 201 / Covalent Bonds 202 /
Polarization and Hydrogen Bonds 203 DISCOVERY LAB • 246
States of Matter 205
Gases 205 / Plasma 206 / Liquids 206 / Solids 206
The Nucleus of the Atom
TECHNOLOGY • 209
Liquid Crystals and Your Hand Calculator 209
12 How do scientists determine the age of the
oldest human fossils?
The Discovery of Nylon 210 Great Idea: Nuclear energy depends on the conversion of
Changes of State 210 mass into energy.
Chemical Reactions and the Formation of Chemical Bonds 211
Chemical Reactions and Energy: Rolling Down the Chemical Science Through the Day:
Hill 212 / Common Chemical Reactions 214 Radioactivity Around Us • 250
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 217 Empty Space, Explosive Energy 250
Antacids 217
Building Molecules: The Hydrocarbons 219
Mass and Energy 251
TECHNOLOGY • 221 The Organization of the Nucleus 252
Refining Petroleum 221
Element Names and Atomic Numbers 252 / Isotopes
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 222 and the Mass Number 253 / The Strong Force 254
The Clotting of Blood 222
Radioactivity 255
Thinking More About Atoms in Combination • 222 What’s Radioactive? 255
Life-Cycle Costs 222
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 223 Becquerel and Curie 255
DISCOVERY LAB • 224 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 256
The CAT Scan 256
The Kinds of Radioactive Decay 256 / Radiation
Materials and Their Properties and Health 259
11 How have computers gotten so much faster? THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 260
Robert Hazen’s Broken Wrist 260
Great Idea: A material’s properties result from its constituent Half-Life 260 / Radiometric Dating 261
atoms and the arrangements of chemical bonds that hold those SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 262
atoms together. Dating a Frozen Mammoth 262
Decay Chains 262 / Indoor Radon 262
Science Through the Day: Hauling Gear • 227 Energy from the Nucleus 263
Materials and the Modern World 227 Nuclear Fission 264 / Fusion 265
The Strengths of Materials 228 TECHNOLOGY • 266
Different Kinds of Strength 229 / Composite Materials 230 ITER: The Future of Fusion 266
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SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 266 The Anatomy of Stars 292

Superheavy Elements 266 The Structure of the Sun 292
Thinking More About The Nucleus • 267 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 294
Nuclear Waste 267 Why Is the Visible Spectrum Visible? 294
The Sun’s Energy Source: Fusion 294
DISCOVERY LAB • 268 The Solar Neutrino Problem 295
TECHNOLOGY • 296
The Ultimate Structure of Matter The IceCube Neutrino Detector 296
13 How can antimatter be used to probe the The Variety of Stars 297
human brain? The Astronomical Distance Scale 297 / The Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram 298
Great Idea: All matter is made of quarks and leptons, which The Life Cycles of Stars 299
are the most fundamental building blocks of the universe that The Birth of Stars 299 / The Main Sequence and the Death of
we know. Stars 299 / Neutron Stars and Pulsars 302 / Black Holes 303
Thinking More About Stars • 304
Science Through the Day: Looking at Sand • 272 Generation of the Chemical Elements 304
Of What Is the Universe Made? 272 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 304
The Library 272 / Reductionism 273 / The Building Blocks DISCOVERY LAB • 305
of Matter 273
Discovering Elementary Particles 274
Cosmology
Cosmic Rays 274
TECHNOLOGY • 275
15 Will the universe end?
Detecting Elementary Particles 275
Particle Accelerators: The Essential Tool 275 Great Idea: The universe began billions of years ago in the
big bang, and it has been expanding ever since.
TECHNOLOGY • 277
The Large Hadron Collider 277
Science Through the Day: A Glowing Charcoal Fire • 309
Accelerators in Medicine 277 Edwin Hubble and the Discovery of Galaxies 309
The Nebula Debate 309 / Kinds of Galaxies 310
The Elementary Particle Zoo 277
Leptons 278 / Hadrons 278 / Antimatter 278 The Redshift and Hubble’s Law 311
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 278 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 313
The Discovery of Antimatter 278 Analyzing Hubble’s Data 313
THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 279 The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 314
How Does the Brain Work? 279 The Big Bang 315
Quarks 280 / Quarks and Leptons 281 / Quark Confinement 281 Some Useful Analogies 316 / Evidence for the Big Bang 317
The Four Fundamental Forces 282 The Evolution of the Universe 319
Force as an Exchange 282 / Unified Field Theories 283 / Some General Characteristics of an Expanding Universe 319
The Standard Model 284 What Is the Universe Made Of? 321
Quantum Gravity, Strings, and Theories of Everything 285 Dark Matter 321 / Dark Energy 323
Thinking More About Particle Physics • 285 Thinking More About Cosmology • 325
Basic Research in Particle Theory 285 The History of the Universe 325
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 286 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 325
DISCOVERY LAB • 286 DISCOVERY LAB • 326
Earth and Other Planets

14 The Stars
How much longer can the Sun sustain life on
16 Is Earth the only planet with life?
Earth?
Great Idea: Earth, one of the planets that orbit the Sun,
formed 4.5 billion years ago from a great cloud of dust.
Great Idea: The Sun and other stars use nuclear
fusion reactions to convert mass into energy. Eventually,
when a star’snuclear fuel is depleted, the star must Science Through the Day: The Sun and the Moon • 329
burn out. The Formation of the Solar System 329
Clues to the Origin of the Solar System 329
Science Through the Day: Sunshine • 289 The Nebular Hypothesis 332
The Nature of Stars 289 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 333
Measuring the Stars with Telescopes and Satellites 290 / Telescopes Gravity and Bones 333
290 / Orbiting Observatories 291 The Formation of Earth 334
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SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 335 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 373
Earth’s Growth 335 DISCOVERY LAB • 373
Differentiation 335
TECHNOLOGY • 336
Earth’s Many Cycles
Producing World-Record High Pressures 336
The Formation of the Moon 337 / Planetary Idiosyncrasies 338 18 Will we ever run out of fresh water?
When Could Life Begin? 338 Great Idea: All matter above and beneath Earth’s surface
The Evolution of Planetary Atmospheres 339 moves in cycles.
Exploring the Solar System 340
The Inner Solar System 340 Science Through the Day: A Seaward Breeze • 377
SCIENCE OF LIFE • 341 Cycles Small and Large 377
Why Look for Life on Mars? 341 Recycling 378 / The Nature of Earth’s Cycles 378
The Outer Solar System 341 / Moons and Rings of the Outer The Hydrologic Cycle 379
Planets 342 / Pluto and the Kuiper Belt 343 Reservoirs of Water 379 / Movements of Water Between
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 344 Reservoirs 380
The Discovery of Pluto 344 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 381
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 345 Sobering Facts About Water 381
The Voyager Satellites 345 Chemical Cycles in the Oceans 382
Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors 345 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 383
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 346 Element Residence Times 383
Comets and Life on Earth 346 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 383
Extrasolar Planets 347 The Ocean’s Gold 383
Ice Ages 384 / Milankovitch Cycles 385
Thinking More About Planets • 349
Human Space Exploration 349 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 386
Milankovitch Decides on His Life’s Work 386
The Atmospheric Cycle 386
DISCOVERY LAB • 350 Air Masses: Reservoirs of the Atmosphere 387 / Weather 387 /
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere 388/ Common Storms
and Weather Patterns 389 / Climate 390
Plate Tectonics
17 Can we predict destructive earthquakes? THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 390
How Steady Is Earth’s Climate? 390
Understanding Climate 391
Great Idea: Earth is changing due to the slow convection of
soft, hot rocks deep within the planet. TECHNOLOGY • 391
Doppler Radar 391
Science Through the Day: Windblown Sand • 354 The Rock Cycle 392
The Dynamic Earth 354 Igneous Rocks 392 / Sedimentary Rocks 393
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 354 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 395
How Long Could a Mountain Last? 354 Coral Reefs 395
The Case of the Disappearing Mountains 355 / Volcanoes Metamorphic Rocks 395 / The Story of Marble 396
and Earthquakes—Evidence of Earth’s Inner Forces 356 / SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 397
The Movement of the Continents 358 / New Support Hutton and the Discovery of “Deep Time” 397
for the Theory 360 The Interdependence of Earth’s Cycles 397
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 361 Thinking More About Cycles • 398
The Age of the Atlantic Ocean 361 Beach Erosion 398
Plate Tectonics: A Unifying View of Earth 361 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 399
The Convecting Mantle 362 DISCOVERY LAB • 400
Reactions to Plate Tectonics 363
Plate Boundaries 364 Ecology, Ecosystems,
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 367 19 and the Environment
Upright Posture 367 Are human activities affecting the global
The Geological History of North America 367
environment?
Another Look at Volcanoes and Earthquakes 368
Plates and Volcanism 369 / Earthquakes 370 / Seismology: Great Idea: Ecosystems are interdependent communities of
Exploring Earth’s Interior with Earthquakes 370 living things that recycle matter while energy flows through.
Seismic Tomography 371 Science Through the Day: Life Under the Sand • 403
TECHNOLOGY • 372 Ecology and Ecosystems 403
The Design of Earthquake-Resistant Buildings 372 Characteristics of Ecosystems 404
Thinking More About Plate Tectonics • 372 The Law of Unintended Consequences 407
Earthquake Prediction 372 The Lake Victoria Disaster 407
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SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 408 How Does a Cell Work? 451

Island Biogeography 408 Cell Membranes 452 / The Nucleus 453 / The Energy Organelles:
Threats to the Global Ecosystem and Environment 409 Chloroplasts and Mitochondria 456 / Cytoskeleton 457
The Problem of Urban Landfills 409 Metabolism: Energy and Life 457
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 410 The Cell’s Energy Currency 457 / Photosynthesis 458 / Glycolysis:
Trash 410 The First Step in Energy Generation in the Cell 459 /
Fermentation: A Way to Keep Glycolysis Going 460 / The Final
TECHNOLOGY • 410 Stages of Respiration 460
The Science in Recycling 410
Acid Rain and Urban Air Pollution 412 / The Ozone Cell Division 461
Problem 413 / The Greenhouse Effect 416 Mitosis 461 / Meiosis 462
Debates About Global Climate Change 417 Thinking More About Cells • 464
THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 419 Biochemical Evidence for Evolution 464
Dealing with the Greenhouse Effect 419 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 464
Thinking More About Global Warming • 420 DISCOVERY LAB • 465
How Certain Do You Have to Be? 420
Molecules of Life
DISCOVERY LAB • 421 22 What constitutes a healthy diet?
Great Idea: A cell’s major parts are constructed from a few

Strategies of Life
20 What is life?
simple molecular building blocks.
Science Through the Day: An Afternoon Snack • 468

Great Idea: Living things use many different strategies to deal
with the problems of acquiring and using matter and energy. Organic Molecules 468
Four Basic Characteristics 468 / Chemical Shorthand 470
Science Through the Day: The Diversity of Life • 424 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 470
The Synthesis of Urea 470
The Organization of Living Things 424
Ways of Thinking about Living Things 424 Proteins: The Workhorses of Life 471
Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins 471 /
What Is Life? 426
The Structure of Proteins 472
The Characteristics of Life 426
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 427 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 473
Measuring Plant Growth 427 How Many Proteins Can You Make? 473
Proteins as Enzymes 473
Classifying Living Things 428
Cataloging Life 428 / A Different Division of Life 431 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE • 475
Proteins and Diet 475
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 432 How Drugs Work 476
How Many Species Are There? 432
Carbohydrates 476
The Encyclopedia of Life 432 Lipids 478
Classifying Human Beings 433 / Implications of Linnaean Saturated and Unsaturated Fats 478
Classification 433 TECHNOLOGY • 480
Survival: A New Look at the Life Around You 434 Nonfattening Fats 480
Strategies of Fungi 434 Cell Membranes 480
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 436 Minerals and Vitamins 481
The Discovery of Penicillin 436 Minerals 481 / Vitamins 481
Strategies of Plants 436 / Strategies of Animals 438 Thinking More About The Molecules of Life • 483
Thinking More About Life’s Strategies • 443 Dietary Fads 483
Eating Through the Phyla 443
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 443 DISCOVERY LAB • 484
DISCOVERY LAB • 444
Classical and Modern Genetics

21 The Living Cell 23 Why do offspring resemble their parents?
What is the smallest living thing?
Great Idea: All living things use the same genetic code to
Great Idea: Life is based on chemistry, and chemistry takes guide the chemical reactions in every cell.
place in cells.
Science Through the Day: A Family Resemblance • 488
Science Through the Day: Sunburn! • 448 Classical Genetics 488
The Nature and Variety of Cells 448 The Rules of Classical Genetics 490 / Qualitative versus
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING 449 Quantitative Genetics 490
The Discovery of Cells 449 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 491
The Cell Theory 449/ Observing Cells: The Microscope 449 Mendel Lost and Found 491
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DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics 492 SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 521
Nucleotides: The Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids 492 / DNA Double-Blind Clinical Trials 521
Structure 493 / RNA Structure 493 / The Replication Gene Therapy 522 / DNA Repair in the Cell 523
of DNA 494
Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA 525
The Genetic Code 495
Transcription of DNA 495 / The Synthesis of Proteins 495 /
Daughtering Out 526
Mutations and DNA Repair 499 / Why Are Genes
Expressed? 499 / Viruses 500 / Viral Epidemics 501 Thinking More About Embryonic Stem Cells • 526
The Human Genome 502 RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 527
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 503 DISCOVERY LAB • 528
Connecting Genes and DNA 503
Evolution
The Human Book of Life 504
TECHNOLOGY • 504
25 How did life emerge on the ancient Earth?
New Ways to Sequence 504
Great Idea: All life on Earth evolved from single-celled
Thinking More About Genetics • 505 organisms by the process of natural selection.
The Ethics of Genes 505
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 505 Science Through the Day: Day’s End • 532
DISCOVERY LAB • 506 The Fact of Evolution 532
The Fossil Record 532 / The Biochemical Evidence 534 /
Evidence from Anatomy: Vestigial Organs 535
The New Science of Life
24 Can we cure cancer? Chemical Evolution 535
Black Smokers 537 / RNA Enzymes 537 / The Window
of Opportunity 538 / The First Cell 538
Great Idea: Our new understanding of genetic mechanisms
is leading to enormous technological advances in medicine and SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 538
other aspects of our lives. Cell Division 538
Science Through the Day: A Break in the Case • 510 Did Life Also Originate on Mars? 539
The Technology of Genes 510 Natural Selection and the Development
Genetic Engineering 510 of Complex Life 541
TECHNOLOGY • 513 Natural Selection 541
Bioterrorism 513 SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 542
TECHNOLOGY • 513 The Reception of Darwin’s Theory 542
The PCR Process 513 The Story of Life 543 / Geological Time 545
SCIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • 514 THE ONGOING PROCESS OF SCIENCE • 546

PCR Multiplication 514 The Evolution of Whales 546
DNA Fingerprinting 514 Mass Extinctions and the Rate of Evolution 547
Stem Cells, Cloning, and Regenerative Medicine 516 The Evolution of Human Beings 549
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING • 517 Thinking More About Evolution • 551

Cloning Dolly the Sheep 517 Young-Earth Creationism and Intelligent
Design 551
The New Face of Medicine 519
Computer-Assisted Drug Design 519 / Cancer—A Different RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION • 552
Kind of Genetic Disease 520 DISCOVERY LAB • 553
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1
Science: A Way of Knowing
How do you know what you know?
PHYSICS
What forces exist

in the universe?
BIOLOGY (Ch. 8) CHEMISTRY
How do complex How can we

organisms develop combine atoms to
from a single cell? form new materials?
(Ch. 25) (Ch. 11)
ENVIRONMENT
Science is a way of
How can we design Do human activities
more efficient power
asking and answering affect Earth’s global
plants? (Ch. 4) questions about the climate? (Ch. 19)
physical universe.
TECHNOLOGY
What dynamic
What will be the
processes occur in
ultimate fate of the
Earth’s deep interior?
universe? (Ch. 15)
(Ch. 17)
ASTRONOMY What causes GEOLOGY

cancer? (Ch. 24)
= applications of the great idea = other applications, some of which

discussed in this chapter are discussed in other chapters
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Sunrise
John Arsenault/Photonica/Getty Images

unlight streams through your east window. As you
S wake up, you remember it’s Saturday. No classes! And
you’re headed to the beach with friends. It looks like it’s
going to be a beautiful day, just like the weather forecast
promised.
We take so much about the natural world for granted.
Every day the Sun rises at a precisely predictable time in
the east. Every day the Sun sets in the west. So, too, the
phases of the Moon and the seasons of the year follow their
familiar repetitive cycles.
Ancient humans took note of these and many other
predictable aspects of nature, and they patterned their
lives and cultures accordingly. Today, we formalize this
search for regularities in nature, and we call the process
science.
The Role of Science

Our lives are filled with choices. What should I eat? Is it safe to cross the street? Should
I bother to recycle an aluminum can, or just throw it in the trash? Every day we have to
make dozens of decisions; each choice is based, in part, on the knowledge that actions in
a physical world have predictable consequences. By what process do you make those
decisions?
MAKING C HOICES •
When you pull into a gas station you have to ask yourself what sort of gasoline to buy for
your car (Figure 1-1). Over a period of time you may try many different types, observ-
ing how your car responds to each. In the end, you may conclude that a particular brand
and grade suits your car best, and you decide to buy that one in the future. You engage
in a similar process of inquiry and experimentation when you buy shampoo, pain reliev-
ers, athletic shoes, and scores of other products.
These simple examples illustrate one way we learn about the universe. First, we look
at the world to see what is there and to learn how it works. Then we generalize, making
rules that seem to fit what we see. Finally, we apply those general rules to new situations
we’ve never encountered before, and we fully expect the rules to work.
There doesn’t seem to be anything earth-shattering about choosing a brand of gaso-
line or shampoo. But the same basic procedure of asking questions, making observa-
tions, and arriving at a conclusion can be applied in a more formal and quantitative way
when we want to understand the workings of a distant star or a living cell. In these cases,
the enterprise is called science, and the people who study these questions for a living are
called scientists.
2
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The Role of Science | 3
AP/Wide World Photos

WHY STUDY S CIENCE? •
Science gives us our most powerful tool to
understand how our world works and how
we interact with our physical surroundings.
Science not only incorporates basic ideas
and theories about how our universe
behaves, but it also provides a framework
for learning more and tackling new ques-
tions and concerns that come our way.
Science represents our best hope for pre-
dicting and coping with natural disasters,
curing diseases, and discovering new mate-
rials and new technologies with which to
shape our world. Science also provides an
unparalleled view of the magnificent order
and symmetry of the universe and its
workings—from the unseen world of the
atomic nucleus to the inconceivable vast-
ness of space.
• Figure 1-1 Even something
Pick up your local newspaper any morning of the week and glance at the headlines. simple like choosing a brand of
On a typical day you’ll see articles about the weather, environmental concerns, and long- gasoline can involve observation
range planning by one of your local utility companies. There might be news about a new and experiment.
treatment for cancer, an earthquake in California, or new advances in biotechnology.
The editorial pages might feature comments on cloning humans, arguments for a NASA
planetary mission, debates about teaching evolution, or perhaps a trial involving DNA
fingerprinting. What do all of these stories have in common? They may affect your life in
one way or another, and they all depend, to a significant degree, on science.
We live in a world of matter and energy, forces and motions. The process of science
is based on the idea that everything we experience in our lives takes place in an ordered
universe with regular and predictable phenomena. You have learned to survive in this
universe, so many of these scientific ideas are second nature to you. When you drive a
car, cook a meal, or play a pickup game of basketball, you instinctively take advantage
of a few simple physical laws. As you eat, sleep, work, or play, you experience the world
as a living biological system and must come to terms with the natural laws governing all
living things.
So why should you study science? Chances are you aren’t going to be a professional
scientist. Even so, your job may well depend on advances in science and technology.
New technologies are a driving force in economics, business, and even many aspects of
law: new semiconductor technology, agricultural methods, and information processing
have altered our world. Biological research and drug development play crucial roles in
the medical professions: genetic diseases, AIDS vaccines, and nutritional information
appear in the news every day. Even professional athletes must constantly evaluate and
use new and improved gear, rely on improved medical treatments and therapies, and
weigh the potential risks of performance-enhancing drugs. By studying science you will
not only be better able to incorporate these advances into your professional life, but you
will also better understand the process by which such advances were made.
Science is no less central to your everyday life away from school or work. As a con-
sumer, you are besieged by new products and processes, not to mention a bewildering
variety of warnings about health and safety. As a taxpayer, you must vote on issues that
directly affect your community—energy taxes, recycling proposals, government spending
on research, and more. As a living being, you must make informed decisions about diet
and lifestyle. And as a parent, you will have to nurture and guide your children through an
ever-more-complex world. A firm grasp of the principles and methods of science will help
you make life’s important decisions in a more informed way. As an extra bonus, you will be
poised to share in the excitement of the scientific discoveries that, week by week, transform
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4 | C HAP TE R 1 | Science: A Way of Knowing
our understanding of the universe and our place in it. Science opens up astonishing,
unimagined worlds—bizarre life forms in deep oceans, exploding stars in deep space, and
aspects of the history of life and our world more wondrous than any fiction.
The Scientific Method

Science is a way of asking and answering questions about the physical universe. It’s not
simply a set of facts or a catalog of answers, but rather a process for conducting an ongo-
ing dialogue with our physical surroundings. Like any human activity, science is enor-
mously varied and rich in subtleties. Nevertheless, a few basic steps taken together can
be said to comprise the scientific method.
O BSERVATION •
If our goal is to learn about the world, then the first thing we have to do is look around
us and see what’s there. This statement may seem obvious to us in our modern techno-
logical age, yet throughout much of history, learned men and women rejected the idea
that you can understand the world simply by observing it.
Some Greek philosophers living during the Golden Age of Athens argued that one
cannot deduce the true nature of the universe by trusting the senses. The senses lie, they
would have said. Only the use of reason and the insights of the human mind can lead us
to true understanding. In his famous book The Republic, Plato compared human beings
to people living in a cave, watching shadows on a wall but unable to see the objects caus-
ing the shadows (Figure 1-2). In just the same way, he argued, observing the physical
world will never put us in contact with reality, but will doom us to a lifetime of wrestling
with shadows. Only with the “eye of the mind” can we break free from illusion and
arrive at the truth, Plato argued.
In the Middle Ages in Europe, a similar frame of mind was to be found, but with a
devout religious trust in received wisdom replacing the use of human reason as the ulti-
mate tool in the search for truth. A story (probably apocryphal) about an Oxford Col-
lege debate on the question “How many teeth does a horse have?” underscores this
point. One learned scholar got up and quoted the Greek scientist Aristotle on the sub-
ject, and another quoted the theologian St. Augustine to put forward a different answer.
Finally, a young man at the back of the hall got up and noted that since there was a horse
outside, they could settle the question by looking in its mouth. At this point, the manu-
script states, the assembled scholars “fell upon him, smote him hip and thigh, and cast
him from the company of educated men.”
As these examples illustrate, many distinguished thinkers have attacked the problem of
learning about the physical world without actually making observations and measurements.
These approaches are perfectly self-consistent and were pursued by people every bit as intel-
ligent as we are. They are not, however, the methods of science, nor did they produce the
kinds of advanced technologies and knowledge that we associate with modern societies.
In the remainder of this book, we differentiate between observations, in which we
• Figure 1-2 Plato argued that
humans observing nature were
observe nature without manipulating it, and experiments, in which we manipulate some
like men watching shadows on aspect of nature and observe the outcome. An astronomer, for example, observes distant
the wall of a cave. stars without changing them, while a chemist may experiment by mixing materials
(School of Athens, detail of the centre showing together and seeing what happens.
Plato and Aristotle with students including
Michelangelo and Diogenes, 1510-11 by Raphael
(Raffaello Sanzio of Urbino) (1483–1520)
©Vatican Museums and Galleries, Vatican City, I DENTIFYING PATTERNS AND R EGULARITIES •
Italy/ The Bridgeman Art Library
When we observe a particular phenomenon over and over again, we begin to get a sense
of how nature behaves. We start to recognize patterns in nature. Eventually, we general-
ize our experience into a synthesis that summarizes what we have learned about the way
the world works. We may, for example, notice that whenever we drop something, it falls.
This statement represents a summary of the results of many observations.
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The Scientific Method | 5
It often happens that at this stage scientists summarize the results of their obser- Table 1-1 Measurements
vations in mathematical form, particularly if they have been making quantitative of Falling Objects
measurements. Every measurement involves a number that is recorded in some stan- Time of Fall Distance of Fall
dard unit of measurement. In the case of a falling object, for example, you might mea- (seconds) (meters)
sure the time (measured in the familiar time unit of seconds) that it takes an object to fall 1 5
a certain distance (measured in the distance unit of meters, for example). More examples
2 20
of units of measurement are given in Appendix B.
Quantitative measurements thus provide a more exact description than just notic- 3 45
ing that the object falls. The standard scientific procedure is to collect careful measure- 4 80
ments in the form of a table of data (see Table 1-1). These data could also be presented 5 125
in the form of a graph, in which distance of the fall (in meters) is plotted against time of
the fall (in seconds; Figure 1-3). As we explore the many different branches of science,
from physics to biology, we’ll see that most scientific measurements require both a
number and a unit of measurement, and we’ll encounter many different units in the 0
coming chapters.
Distance of fall (meters)

After preparing tables and graphs of their data, scientists would notice that the 25
longer something falls, the farther it travels. Furthermore, the distance isn’t simply
50
proportional to the time of fall. If one object falls for twice as long as another, it
will travel four times as far; if it falls three times longer, it will travel nine times as 75
far; and so on. This statement can be summarized in three ways (a format used
100
throughout this book):
125
In words: The distance traveled is proportional to the square of the time of travel. 1 2 3 4 5
In equation form: Time of fall (seconds)
• Figure 1-3 Measurements of a
distance ⫽ constant ⫻ (time)2 falling object can be presented
visually in the form of a graph. Time
of fall in seconds (on the horizontal
In symbols: axis) is plotted versus distance of
d ⫽ k ⫻ t2 fall in meters (on the vertical axis).
The constant, k, has to be determined from the measurements. We’ll return to the
subject of constants in the next chapter.
Identifying a regularity in nature may take a long time, since it requires an accumu-
lation of experience in a particular area. Furthermore, scientists may go through several
phases in their thinking. At first, they may make a hypothesis, a guess as to what the reg-
ularity they are studying will turn out to be—“I think that if I drop things they will fall.”
Given enough confirmation, the hypothesis can be upgraded to a regularity.
MATHEMATICS: THE L ANGUAGE OF S CIENCE •

To many people science brings to mind obscure equations written in strange, undeci-
pherable symbols. The next time you’re in the science area of your college or university,
look into an advanced classroom. Chances are you’ll see a confusing jumble of formulas
on the blackboard. Have you ever wondered why scientists need all those complex
mathematical equations? Science is supposed to help us understand the physical world
around us, so why can’t scientists just use plain English?
Take a stroll outside and look carefully at a favorite tree. Think about how you
might describe the tree in as much detail as possible so that a distant friend could envi-
sion exactly what you see and distinguish that tree from all others.
A cursory description would note the rough brown bark, branching limbs, and
canopy of green leaves, but that description would do little to distinguish your tree from
most others. You might use adjectives like lofty, graceful, or stately to convey an overall
impression of the tree (Figure 1-4). Better yet, you could identify the exact kind of
tree and specify its stage of growth—a sugar maple at the peak of autumn color, for
example—but even then your friend has relatively little to go on.
Your description would be far more accurate by giving exact dimensions of the
tree—measurements expressed in units, such as its height, the distance spanned by its
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branches, or the diameter of the trunk. You could docu-
Ron and Patty Thomas/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images

ment the shape and size of leaves, the thickness and
texture of the bark, the angles and spacing of the branch-
ing limbs, and the tree’s approximate age. You could
approach measuring the tree from other perspectives as
well, by calculating the number of board feet of lumber
the tree could yield (Figure 1-5), or how much life-
supporting oxygen the tree produces every day. Finally,
you could talk about the basic molecular processes that
allow the tree to extract energy from sunlight and carry
out the other chemical tasks we associate with life.
As we move through these descriptions of the tree,
our language becomes more and more quantitative. In
some cases, such as supplying a detailed description of the
tree’s shape or its chemistry, that description could
become quite long and cumbersome. That’s why scien-
tists employ mathematics, which is a concise language
that allows them to communicate their results in compact
form and often, as an added benefit, allows them to make
• Figure 1-4 There are many ways very precise predictions about expected outcomes of
of describing a tree. experiments or observations. But anything that can be said in an equation can also be
said (albeit in a less concise way) in a plain English sentence. When you encounter equa-
tions in your science courses, you should always ask, “What English sentence does this
equation represent?” Learning to “read” equations will keep the mathematics from
obscuring the simple ideas that lie behind most equations.
Science News D EVELOPMENT OF A THEORY •

Once scientists have established a regularity in nature, they can go on to ask an impor-
Theories and the Theory tant question: What must the world be like in order for this regularity to exist? They will,
of Evolution in other words, construct a theory, a mental (and usually mathematical) picture of how
Go to your WileyPLUS course the world operates. In the next chapter, for example, we will see how the English scien-
to view video on this topic tist Isaac Newton formulated a theory about why things fall, a far reaching theory
embodied in what we now call the law of universal gravitation. As we shall see below, a
theory must be tested against nature, but once it has met this test is represents our best
guess as to what the world is like.
We are already encountering terms that we often use when talking about the sci-
entific process, and the way these terms are used are often different from the way
they are used in everyday speech. For the sake of clarity, we define some of these
terms below:
• Figure 1-5 One way of looking at
Fact: A statement of something that happens in nature—“I dropped my keys and
a tree is to think about the lumber it
might produce. they fell.”
Hypothesis: A conjecture, based on past observations or
Photo Disc, Inc./Getty Images
theoretical considerations, about something that will

happen—“If I drop my keys again, they will fall.”
Law and Theory: Scientists, who are normally extremely
careful about data and calculations, don’t pay a lot of
attention to the way they use these terms. In general,
whatever label is applied to a set of ideas when it is first
proposed usually sticks to it, regardless of how well it fares
in making predictions. Thus, “theory” can refer to a fully
fleshed out (but as yet untested) hypothesis like the so-
called string theories we’ll discuss in Chapter 13. It can
also, however, refer to a set of ideas that have met many
experimental tests and are widely accepted by scientists,
such as the theory of general relativity (Chapter 7) and the
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theory of evolution (Chapter 25). The term “law” is generally used to refer to state-
ments that have met many tests, such as the law of universal gravitation which we
will discuss in Chapter 2. It is important to realize, however, that there is no real dis-
tinction in scientific usage between a generally accepted theory and a generally
accepted law, and no implied ranking between them. For example, the law of uni-
versal gravitation is actually part of the much broader and more complete theory of
general relativity.
P REDICTION AND TESTING •

In science, every idea must be tested by using it to make predictions about how a partic-
ular system will behave, then observing nature to see if the system behaves as predicted.
The theory of evolution, for example, makes countless specific testable predictions about
the similarities and differences of modern living organisms, as well as the distribution of
extinct fossil organisms.
Think about the hypothesis that all objects fall when they are dropped. That idea Altrendo Images/Getty Images
can be tested by dropping all sorts of objects (Figure 1-6). Each drop constitutes a test
of our prediction, and the more successful tests we perform, the more confidence we
have that the hypothesis is correct. As long as we restrict our tests to solids or liquids on
Earth’s surface, then the hypothesis is consistently confirmed. Test a helium-filled bal-
loon, however, and we discover a clear exception to the rule. The balloon “falls” up. The
original hypothesis, which worked so well for most objects, fails for certain gases. And
more tests would show there are other limitations. If you were an astronaut in a space
shuttle, every time you held something out and let it go, it would just float in space.
Evidently, our hypothesis is invalid in the orbiting space shuttle as well.
This example illustrates an important aspect about testing ideas in science. Tests do
not necessarily prove or disprove an idea; instead, they often serve to define the range
of situations under which the idea is valid. We may, for example, observe that nature
behaves in a certain way only at high temperatures or only at low velocities. In these
sorts of situations, it usually happens that the original hypothesis is seen to be a special • Figure 1-6 Equations allow us to
case of a deeper, more general theory. In the case of the balloon, for example, the sim- describe with precision the behavior
ple “things fall down” will be replaced by a much more general theory of gravitation, of objects in our physical world. One
based on statements called Newton’s laws of motion and the law of universal gravita- such equation predicts the behavior
of falling objects.
tion—laws we’ll study in the next chapter. These laws of nature describe and predict the
motion of dropped objects both on Earth and in space and, therefore, are a more suc-
cessful set of statements than the original hypothesis. We will discuss them in more
detail in the next chapter.
We will encounter many such laws and theories in this book, all backed by millions
of observations and measurements. Remember, however, where these laws and theories
come from. They are not written on tablets of stone, nor are they simply good ideas that
someone once had. They arise from repeated and rigorous observation and testing.
They represent our best understanding of how nature works.
We never stop questioning the validity of our hypotheses, theories, or laws of
nature. Scientists constantly think up new, more rigorous experiments to test the limits
of our theories. In fact, one of the central tenets of science is this:
Every law and theory of nature is subject to change, based on new

observations.
This is an extremely important statement about science, and one that is often ignored in
public debates. It means that it must be possible, in principle, that every statement in a
scientific model could be false. You should, in other words, be able to imagine an exper-
imental outcome that would prove the statement false, even if that outcome never hap-
pens in the real world.
Consider the theory of evolution (see Chapter 25), which makes countless predic-
tions about the historical sequence of organisms that have lived on Earth. According to
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Scientific method the current model of life’s evolution, for example, dinosaurs
became extinct millions of years before human beings appeared.
Identifying Consequently, if a paleontologist found a human leg bone in the
patterns
same geological formation with a Tyrannosaurus rex, then that
discovery would call into question the theory of evolution.
Observations THE S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD IN O PERATION •

Experiments Preconceptions Theory
Data These elements—observation, regularity, theory, prediction, and
testing—together comprise the scientific method. In practice,
you can think of the method as working as shown in Figure 1-7.
It’s a never-ending cycle in which observations lead to theories,
which lead to more observations.
Prediction If observations confirm a theory, then more tests may be
devised. If the theory fails, then the new observations are used to
• Figure 1-7 The scientific method revise it, after which the revised theory is tested again. Scientists
can be illustrated as an endless cycle continue this process until the limits of existing equipment are reached, in which case
of collecting observations (data), researchers often try to develop better instruments to do even more tests. If and when it
identifying patterns, and regularities appears that there’s just no point to going further, the hypothesis may be elevated to a
in the data, creating theories, making
law of nature.
predictions, and collecting more
observations. It’s important to realize, however, that while the orderly cycle shown in Figure 1-7
provides a useful framework to help us think about science, it shouldn’t be thought of as
a rigid cookbook-style set of steps to follow. Science can be every bit as creative an
endeavor as art or music. Because science is done by human beings, it involves occa-
sional bursts of intuition, sudden leaps, a joyful breaking of the rules, and all the other
characteristics we associate with other human activities.
Several other important points should be made about the scientific method.
1. Scientists are not required to observe nature with an “open mind,” with no precon-
ceptions about what they are going to find. Most experiments and observations are
designed and undertaken with a specific hypothesis in mind, and most researchers
have preconceptions about whether that hypothesis is right or wrong. Nevertheless,
scientists have to believe the results of their experiments and observations, whether or
not they fit preconceived notions. Science demands that whatever our preconcep-
tions, we must be ready to change those ideas if the evidence forces us to do so.
2. There is no “right” place to enter the cycle. Scientists can (and have) started their
work by making extensive observations, but they can also start with a theory and test
it. It makes no difference where you enter the cycle—eventually the scientific process
takes you all the way around.
3. Observations and experiments must be reported in such a way that anyone with the
proper equipment can verify the results. Scientific results, in other words, must be
reproducible, and they must be reproducible by anyone with appropriate equipment
and training, not just the original experimenters.
4. The cycle is continuous; it has no end. Science does not provide final answers, nor is
it a search for ultimate truth. Instead, it is a way of producing successively more
detailed and exact descriptions of wider and wider areas of the physical world—
descriptions that allow us to predict more of the behavior of that world with higher
and higher levels of confidence.

Biodiversity
The dynamic process of scientific research is illustrated by a recent experiment in
ecology—the study of communities of interdependent living things. Many current
public debates focus on possible adverse effects of human activities on biodiversity,
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David Tilman
(a) (b) (c)
• Figure 1-8 These three photos illustrate a nitrogen addition experiment at Cedar Creek
Natural History Area near St. Paul, Minnesota. The aerial photo in (a) shows one of the four
fields at Cedar Creek in 1983, the second year of the experiment. The different colors of the
plots illustrate visually the changes in plant species composition caused by the different
rates of nitrogen (N) addition. The photo in (b) shows a typical control plot at this same field.
This plot has high plant diversity, is dominated by native plant species, and did not receive
any added nitrogen. The photo in (c) shows a plot that received the highest rate of N addi-
tion and has become almost totally dominated by the nonnative perennial weedy grass,
Agropyron repens (quack grass).
which is defined as the number of different species that coexist at a given place.
Before we can identify human influences, however, we must first examine the role
that biodiversity plays in nature. To answer this question, researchers apply the scien-
tific method and design an experiment to study areas that differ only in the number
of species.
Starting in 1982, ecologist David Tilman at the University of Minnesota carried
out just such an experiment. He began by choosing four grassy fields in the Cedar
Creek Natural History Area. These fields had either never been tilled or had lain fal-
low for a minimum of 14 years. First Tilman fenced off the fields, and then he split
them into plots about 12 feet on a side—207 plots in all (Figure 1-8). Different
plots were treated in different ways with nutrients that are known to affect plant
growth.
1. Some plots, called controls, received no treatment.
2. Some plots were given a group of essential nutrients such as phosphorus and potas-
sium, but no nitrogen.
3. Some plots were given the same set of nutrients, but different amounts of nitrogen.
Think for a moment about this experimental design. All of the plots start with the
same soil and receive the same rainfall. The only difference between them is the amount
of nitrogen and other nutrients. In the language of experimental science, we say that the
amounts of nitrogen and other nutrients are the “independent variables,” and results
such as biodiversity or the amount of vegetation on each plot are “dependent variables.”
Thus whatever results we find can be attributed to the presence or absence of nitrogen
and other nutrients.
During each of the 11 years that the experiment ran, the experimenters measured
two things: (1) the amount of vegetation (or biomass) on each plot and (2) the number
of species (or biodiversity). In normal years, there was a clear result: the more nitrogen
added, the more biomass produced, while the amounts of other nutrients had little
effect. Furthermore, the plots with the highest biomass tended to have fewer species,
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and hence lower biodiversity, because when a few species flourished they crowded out
The Granger Collection the others.
By chance, however, the period of the experiment included the years 1987–1988,
which contained the third-worst drought in the last 150 years. In the year of this
drought, adding nitrogen made little difference—all the plots produced very low bio-
mass. But the drought also highlighted the role of biodiversity, because, while the
biomass in plots with low biodiversity dropped to as low as one-eighth of its non-
drought levels, the biomass of plots with high biodiversity fell by only half. (Although
the percentage drop was bigger for plots with more nitrogen, in fact all plots produced
roughly the same biomass in the drought years.)
Thus biodiversity appears to represent a kind of insurance policy for natural ecosys-
tems; it’s not too important in normal years, but it carries the system through periods of
high stress (like droughts). By designing and performing carefully thought-out experi-
ments, scientists are able to arrive at this kind of understanding. •
• Figure 1-9 Dimitri Mendeleev

recognized regular patterns in the
properties of known chemical ele- S CIENCE IN THE MAKING •
ments and thereby devised the
first periodic table of elements. Dimitri Mendeleev and the Periodic Table
Discoveries of previously unrecognized patterns in nature, a key step in the scientific
method, provide scientists with some of their most exhilarating moments. Dimitri
Mendeleev (1834–1907), a popular chemistry professor at the Technological Institute
of St. Petersburg in Russia, experienced such a breakthrough in 1869 as he was tabulat-
ing data for a new chemistry textbook (Figure 1-9).
The mid-nineteenth century was a time of great excitement in chemistry. Almost
every year saw the discovery of one or two new chemical elements, and new apparatus
and processes were greatly expanding the repertoire of laboratory and industrial
chemists. In such a stimulating field, it was no easy job to keep up to date with all the
Atomic number
IA metal metalloid nonmetal VIIIA

(1) 1 (18)
1
H 2
1 H IIA 1.00794 IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.00794 (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.00260
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.01218
Atomic mass 10.811 12.011 14.00674 15.9994 18.99840 20.1797
11 12
VIIIB
13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.98977 24.3050 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98154 28.0855 30.97376 32.066 35.4527 39.948
Periods
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.078 44.95591 47.88 50.9415 51.9961 54.9380 55.847 58.93320 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.92159 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 98.9072 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.82 118.710 121.75 127.60 126.90447 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90543 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.85 186.207 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.96654 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98037 208.9824 209.9871 222.0176
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 Halogens Noble
7 Fr Ra †Ac Rf Ha Sg Ns Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub or Inert
223.0197 226.0254 227.0278 261.11 262.114 263.118 262.12 (265) (266) (269) (272) (277)
Gases
Alkali Alkaline
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metals Earth Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
*
Metals 140.115 140.90765 144.24 144.9127 150.36 151.965 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

† Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 237.0482 244.0642 243.0614 247.0703 247.0703 242.0587 252.083 257.0951 258.10 259.1009 260.105
• Figure 1-10 The periodic table systematizes all known chemical elements.
c01.qxd 9/7/09 5:24 PM Page 11
developments and summarize them in a textbook. In an effort to consolidate the current

state of knowledge about the most basic chemical building blocks, Mendeleev listed var-
ious properties of the 63 known chemical elements (substances that could not be
divided by chemical means). He arranged his list in order of increasing atomic weight
and then noted the distinctive chemical behavior of each element.
Examining his list, Mendeleev realized an extraordinary pattern: elements with sim-
ilar chemical properties appeared at regular, or periodic, intervals. In one group of ele-
ments, including lithium, sodium, potassium, and rubidium (he called them group-one
elements), all were soft, silvery metals that formed compounds with chlorine in a one-
to-one ratio. Immediately following the group-one elements in the list were beryllium,
magnesium, calcium, and barium—group-two elements that form compounds with
chlorine in a one-to-two ratio, and so on.
As other similar patterns emerged from his list, Mendeleev realized that the ele-
ments could be arranged in the form of a table (Figure 1-10). Not only did this so-called
periodic table highlight previously unrecognized relationships among the elements, it
also revealed obvious gaps where as-yet undiscovered elements must lie. The power of
Mendeleev’s periodic table of the elements was underscored when several new elements,
with atomic weights and chemical properties just as he had predicted, were discovered in
the following years.
The discovery of the periodic table ranks as one of the great achievements of sci-
ence. It was so important, in fact, that Mendeleev’s students carried a large poster of it
behind his coffin in his funeral procession. •

William Harvey and the Blood’s Circulation Before
It’s common knowledge that blood circulates in your body, but stop and think for a
moment. How do we know? One of the great puzzles faced by scientists who studied
the human body was deducing the role played by the blood. English physician William
Harvey (1578–1657) gave us our current picture of the pattern of circulation, in which
blood is pumped from the heart to all parts of the body through arteries, and returned
(a)
to the heart through veins. His experiments reveal the scientific method at work.
Prior to Harvey’s work, several competing hypotheses had been proposed. Some
scientists had taught that blood didn’t move at all, but simply pulsed in response to After
pumping of the heart. Others taught that the arteries and veins constituted different sys-
tems, with blood in the veins flowing from the liver to the various parts of the body,
where it was absorbed and its nutrients taken in. Harvey, on the other hand, adopted the
hypothesis that blood circulates through a connected system of arteries and veins. When
confronted with such conflicting hypotheses, a scientist must devise experiments that
test the distinctive predictions of each competing idea.
To establish the circulation of the blood, Harvey first performed careful dissections
of animals to trace out the veins and arteries. Second, he undertook studies of live ani-
mals, often killing them so that he could observe the veins and arteries as the heart
stopped beating. Then, as now, animals were sometimes sacrificed to advance medical (b)
science (see Investigation 7). Finally, Harvey performed a series of experiments to • Figure 1-11 One of William
establish that blood in the veins did indeed flow back to the heart, rather than simply Harvey’s famous experiments on
being absorbed in tissue like a stream of water in the desert. One of those experiments the circulation of the blood tested
is shown in Figure 1-11. A tourniquet was applied to a subject’s arm, and he was asked the hypothesis that blood flows
to squeeze something so that the veins filled with blood and “popped.” (You have from veins to the heart. Harvey first
probably done the same thing when having blood drawn in a doctor’s office.) Harvey applied a tourniquet to a subject’s
would then press down on the vein and note that it would subside (indicating that the arm and had the subject squeeze
something to raise the veins (a). Press-
blood was leaving it) on the side toward the heart. This result is just the opposite of ing down on the vein caused it to
what would occur if blood were flowing from the liver to the extremities. Based on this gradually subside (b), indicating that
experiment, and many others like it, Harvey eventually concluded that blood circulates the blood was indeed flowing back
continuously. • to the heart.
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Other Ways of Knowing

Scientists discover laws that describe how nature works by performing reproducible
observations and measurements. Every idea in science must be subject to this kind of
testing. If an idea cannot be tested in a manner that yields reproducible results, even if
that idea is correct, then it simply isn’t a part of science.
D IFFERENT K INDS OF Q UESTIONS •

The first step in any scientific investigation is to ask a question about the physical world.
A scientist can ask, for example, whether a particular painting was completed in the sev-
enteenth century. Various physical and chemical tests can be used to find the age of the
paint, study the canvas, X-ray the painting, and so on. The question of whether the
painting is old or a modern forgery can indeed be investigated by the scientific method.
But the methods of science cannot answer other equally valid questions. No physi-
cal or chemical test will tell us whether the painting is beautiful or how we are to
respond to it. These questions are simply outside the realm of science.
The scientific method is not the only way to answer questions that matter in our
lives. Science provides us with a powerful way of tackling questions about the physical
world—how it works and how we can shape it to our needs. But many questions lie
beyond the scope of science and scientific methods. Some of these questions are deeply
philosophical: What is the meaning of life? Why does the world hold so much suffering?
Is there a God? Other important personal questions also lie outside of science: What
career should I choose? Whom should I marry? Should I have children? Scientific infor-
mation might influence some of our personal choices, but we cannot answer these ques-
tions fully by the cycle of observation, hypothesis, and testing. For answers, we turn
instead to religion, philosophy, and the arts.
Symphonies, poems, and paintings are created to be enjoyed and are not, in the end,
experiences that need to be analyzed scientifically. This is not a criticism. These art forms
address different human needs than science, and they use different methods. The same
can be said about religious faith. Strictly speaking, there should be no conflict between
the questions asked by science and religion, because they deal with different aspects of
life. Conflicts arise only when people attempt to apply their methods to questions where
Les Wies/Stone/Getty Images
those methods aren’t applicable.
P SEUDOSCIENCE •
Many claims of natural phenomena, including extrasensory perception (ESP), unidenti-
fied flying objects (UFOs), astrology, crystal power, reincarnation, or many other
notions you see in the tabloids at supermarket checkout counters, fail the elementary
test that defines the sciences. None of these subjects, collectively labeled pseudoscience,
can be tested in the sense that we are using the term (Figure 1-12). There is no repro-
ducible test you can imagine that will convince people who believe in these notions that
their ideas are incorrect. Yet, as we have seen, the central property of scientific ideas is
that they are testable and could be wrong, at least in principle. Pseudoscience lies out-
side the domain of science and falls instead in the realm of belief or dogma.
In the following “Science by the Numbers” section we examine the nature of one
pseudoscience, astrology. When confronted with other kinds of pseudoscience, you can
ask a number of questions to come to your own conclusions:
1. Are the “facts” true as stated?
The first step is to be sure that the facts stated in support of a pseudoscientific claim
• Figure 1-12 Fortune telling, are actually true. For example, the Great Pyramids of Egypt are frequently the subject
astrology, and other activities at of these sorts of arguments. In one version, it is argued that the pyramids must have
this psychic’s shop in Hollywood been built by extraterrestrials because, among other things, their bases are perfect
are examples of pseudoscience. squares and laying out a perfect square was beyond the capability of Egyptian engineers.
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Other Ways of Knowing | 13
In fact, according to modern surveys of the pyramids, the longest side of the Pyramid of
Cheops is 8 inches longer than the shortest side—it is not a perfect square at all. Dig-
ging out the true facts can sometimes be tedious, but it is a necessary first step.
2. Is there an alternative explanation?
In dealing with UFO sightings, it often happens that you can’t prove that the
object seen wasn’t a UFO, but there exists a “normal” explanation for the same event.
For example, a light in the sky could be an extraterrestrial spaceship, but it could also
be the planet Venus (the most commonly reported UFO). In this case, it is necessary
to invoke a doctrine called the “burden of proof.” If someone makes a claim, it is up
to that person to establish the claim: it is not up to you to disprove it. Furthermore,
the more far-reaching the claim, the higher the standard of proof becomes. In the
words of the noted planetary astronomer and public television science educator Carl
Sagan (1934–1996), “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proofs.”
3. Is the claim falsifiable?
As we stated above, a central aspect of the scientific method is that every scientific
statement is subject to experimental or observational tests, so that it is possible to
imagine an experimental result that would prove the statement wrong (although
whether that result will ever actually be seen is a separate question). Such statements
are said to be falsifiable. Statements that are not falsifiable are simply not part of sci-
ence. For example, some creationists talk about the doctrine of “created antiquity,”
by which they mean that the universe was created to look exactly as if it were billions
of years old, even though it was really created by God a few thousand years ago. This
statement is not falsifiable, and therefore this doctrine is not part of science.
Stop and Think! Can any experiment or observation (in principle) show
created antiquity to be false?
4. Have the claims been rigorously tested?

Many pseudoscientific claims are based on anecdotes and stories. An example is
provided by the practice known as “dowsing” or “water witching,” in which someone
walking on the surface (usually holding a forked stick) can detect the presence of
underground water. Stories about this practice can be found in almost any rural area
of the United States. Yet when the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of
Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP; now Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) con-
ducted controlled tests in which water pipes were buried beneath a plowed surface,
dowsers did no better than chance at locating the water. Tests like these are difficult
to arrange, and often do not get much publicity, but they are worth looking for (see,
for example, http://www.csicop.org).
5. Do the claims require unreasonable changes in accepted ideas?
Often a pseudoscientific claim will seem to explain a small set of facts but at the
same time will require that a much wider assortment of facts be ignored. The psychi-
atrist Immanuel Velikovsky, for example, looked at stories in ancient texts and tried to
alter astronomy (violating most of the laws of physics in the process) in order to pre-
serve the texts as literal statements of fact, rather than as allegory or metaphor. From
a scientific perspective, it is much more reasonable to accept the well-verified laws of
physics and give up the literal reading of the text.

Astrology
Astrology is a very old system of beliefs that most modern scientists would call a pseu-
doscience. The central belief of astrology is that the positions of objects in the sky at a
given time (a person’s birth, for example) influence a person’s future (Figure 1-13).
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The Art Archive /Real biblioteca de lo Escorial/Dagli Orti/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.
Astrology as it has been practiced in the Western world developed as
part of a complex set of omen systems used by the Babylonians, and it
was practiced by many famous astronomers well into modern times.
As Earth travels around the Sun, the stars in the night sky change.
The band of background stars through which the Sun, the Moon, and
the planets appear to move is called the zodiac. The stars of the zodiac
are customarily divided into 12 constellations, which are called “signs”
or “houses.” If you could block out the light of the Sun, these stars
would appear (as they do during a total solar eclipse). You would then
notice the Sun’s position to lie within a certain zodiac constellation,
just as the Moon and planets do at night. Furthermore, if you watched
the Moon and planets from night to night, you would see them appear
to move through these constellations.
At any time, the Sun, the Moon, and the planets all appear in one
of these constellations, and a diagram showing these positions is called
a horoscope. Astrologers have a complex (and far from unified) system
in which each combination of heavenly bodies and signs is believed to
signify particular things. The Sun, for example, is thought to indicate
the outgoing, expressive aspects of one’s character, the Moon the
• Figure 1-13 Astrology is a pseu- inner-directed ones, and so on. When this system was first introduced,
doscience that is based on the belief the constellation in which the Sun appeared at the time of your birth was said to be your
that the positions of astronomical “Sun sign,” or, simply, your “sign.” Today, the position of the Sun in the sky has shifted
objects influence our personal lives. due to the motion of Earth’s axis, but the original dates for the “signs” are still used.
Scientists reject astrology for two reasons. First, there is no known way that planets
and stars could exert a significant influence on a child at birth. It is true, as we shall learn
in Chapter 2, that they exert a miniscule gravitational force on the infant, but the gravi-
tational force exerted by the delivering physician (who is smaller but much closer) is
much greater than that exerted by any celestial object.
More importantly, scientists reject astrology because it just doesn’t work. Over the
millennia, there has been no evidence at all that the stars can predict the future.
You can test the ideas of astrology for yourself, if you like. Try this: Have a member
of the class take the horoscopes from yesterday’s newspaper and type them on a sheet of
paper without indicating which horoscope goes with which sign. Then ask members of
your class to indicate the horoscope that best matches the day they actually had. Have
them write their birthday (or sign) on the paper as well.
If people just picked horoscopes at random, you would expect about 1 person in 12
to pick the horoscope corresponding to his or her sign. Are the results of your survey
any better than that? What does this tell you about the predictive power of astrology? •
The Organization of Science

Scientists investigate all sorts of natural objects and phenomena: the tiniest elementary par-
ticles, microscopic living cells, the human body, forests, Earth, stars, and the entire cosmos.
Throughout this vast sweep, the same scientific method can be applied. Men and women
have been carrying out this task for hundreds of years, and by now we have a pretty good
idea about how the many parts of our universe work. In the process, scientists have also
developed a social structure that provides unity to the pursuit of scientific knowledge, as well
as recognition of important disciplinary differences within the larger scientific framework.
THE D IVISIONS OF S CIENCE •

Science is a human endeavor, and humans invariably form themselves into groups with
shared interests. When modern science first started in the seventeenth century, it was pos-
sible for one person to know almost all there was to know about the physical world and
the “three kingdoms” of animals, vegetables, and minerals. In the seventeenth century,
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The Organization of Science | 15
Isaac Newton could do forefront research in astronomy, in the physics of moving objects, Gary Buss/Taxi/Getty Images
in the behavior of light, and in mathematics. Thus, for a time prior to the mid-nineteenth
century, scholars who studied the workings of the physical universe formed a more or less
cohesive group, calling themselves “natural philosophers.” But as human understanding
expanded and knowledge of nature became more detailed and technical, science began to
fragment into increasingly specialized disciplines and subdisciplines.
Today, our knowledge and understanding of the world is so much more sophisti-
cated and complex that no one person could possibly be at the frontier in such a wide
variety of fields. Today most scientists choose a major field—biology, chemistry, physics,
and so on—and study one small part of the subject at great length (Figure 1-14). Each
of these broad disciplines boasts hundreds of different subspecialties. In physics, for
example, a student may elect to study the behavior of light, the properties of materials,
the nucleus of the atom, elementary particles, or the origin of the universe. The amount
of information and expertise required to get to the frontier in any of these fields is so
large that most students have to ignore almost everything else to learn their specialty.
Even so, many of the most interesting problems in science, from the origin of life to the
properties of matter to curing cancer, are interdisciplinary, and require the collective
efforts of many scientists with different specialties.
Science is further divided because scientists within each subspecialty approach problems
in different ways. Some scientists are field researchers, who go into natural settings to observe
nature at work. Other scientists are experimentalists, who manipulate nature with controlled
experiments. Still other scientists, called theorists, spend their time imagining universes that
might exist. These different kinds of scientists need to work together to make progress.
The fragmentation of science into disciplines was formalized by a peculiar aspect of
the European university system. In Europe, each academic department traditionally had • Figure 1-14 Scientists work at
only one “professor.” All other teachers, no matter how famous and distinguished, had many different tasks.
to settle for less prestigious titles. And so, as the number of outstanding scientists grew
in the nineteenth century, universities were forced to create new departments to attract
new professors. A number of German universities, for example, supported separate
departments of theoretical and experimental physics. And Cambridge University in Eng-
land at one point had seven different specialized departments of chemistry!
In North America, each academic department generally has many professors. Never-
theless, American science faculties are often divided into several departments, including
physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology—the so-called branches of science.
THE B RANCHES OF S CIENCE •

Several branches of science are distinguished by the scope and content of the questions
they address:
Physics is the search for laws that describe the most fundamental aspects of nature:
matter, energy, forces, motion, heat, light, and other phenomena. All natural sys-
tems, including planets, stars, cells, and people, display these basic phenomena, so
physics is the starting point for almost any study of how nature works.
Chemistry is the study of atoms in combination. Chemicals form every material
object of our world, while chemical reactions initiate vital changes in our environment
and our bodies. Chemistry is thus an immensely practical (and profitable) science.
Astronomy is the study of stars, planets, and other objects in space. We are living in
an era of unprecedented astronomical discovery thanks to the development of pow-
erful new telescopes and robotic space exploration.
Geology is the study of the origin, evolution, and present state of our home, planet
Earth. Many geology departments also emphasize the study of other planets as a
way to understand the unique character of our own world. At many universities, this
sort of study is carried out in departments with names like “Planetary Science” or
“Earth Systems Science.”
Biology is the study of living systems. Biologists document life at many scales, from
individual microscopic molecules and cells to expansive ecosystems.
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In spite of this practical division of science into separate disci-

plines, all branches of science are interconnected in a single web of
knowledge. Most natural processes can only be studied by resorting
to an integrated approach. Understanding such diverse topics as
changes in the global climate, the availability of natural resources,
the safe storage of nuclear waste, and the discovery of alternative
sources of energy requires expertise in physics, chemistry, geology,
and biology. All of the sciences are integrated in the natural world.
Laws
of THE WEB OF K NOWLEDGE •
Nature The organization of science can be compared to an intricate spider
web (Figure 1-15). Around the periphery of the web are all the
objects and phenomena examined by scientists, from atoms to trees
to comets. Moving toward the web’s center, we find the cross-linking
hypotheses that scientists have developed to explain how these phe-
nomena work. The farther in we move, the more general these
hypotheses become and the more they explain. Radiating out from
the center of the web, connecting all the parts and holding the entire
• Figure 1-15 The interconnected structure together, we find a small number of very general principles
web of scientific knowledge. that have attained the rank of laws of nature.
No matter where you start on the web, no matter what part of nature you investi-
gate, you will eventually come to one of the fundamental overarching ideas that intersect
at the central core. Everything that happens in the universe happens because one or
more of these physical laws is operating.
The hierarchical organization of scientific knowledge provides an ideal way to
approach the study of science. At the center of any scientific question are a few laws of
nature. We begin by looking at those laws that describe everyday forces and motions in
the universe. These overarching principles of science are accepted and shared by all sci-
entists, no matter what their field of research. These ideas recur over and over again as
we study different parts of the world. You will find that many of these ideas and their
consequences seem quite simple—perhaps even obvious—because you are intimately
familiar with the physical world in which these laws of nature constantly operate.
After introducing these general principles, we look at how the scientific method is
applied to specific physical systems in nature. We examine the nature of materials and the
atoms that make them, for example, and look at the chemical reactions that form them.
We explore the planet on which we live and discover how mountains and oceans, rivers
and plains are formed and evolve over time. And we examine living organisms at the
scale of molecules, cells, organisms, and ecosystems.
By the time you have finished this journey, you will have touched on many of the
great discoveries about the physical universe that scientists have deduced over the cen-
turies. You will explore how the different parts of our universe operate and how all the
parts fit together, and you will know that there are still great unanswered questions that
drive scientists today. You will understand some of the great scientific and technological
challenges that face our society, and more importantly, you will know enough about how
the world works to deal with many of the new problems that will arise in the future.
BASIC R ESEARCH, APPLIED R ESEARCH, AND TECHNOLOGY •

The physical universe can be studied in many ways, and many reasons exist for doing so.
Many scientists are simply interested in finding out how the world works—in knowledge
for its own sake. They are engaged in basic research and may be found studying the
behavior of distant stars, obscure life forms, rare minerals, or subatomic particles.
Although discoveries made by basic researchers may have profound effects on society
(see the discussion of the discovery of the electric generator in Chapter 5, for example),
that is not the primary personal goal of most of these scientists.
Many other scientists approach their work with specific practical goals in mind.
They wish to develop technology, in which they apply the results of science to specific
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Table 1-2 Major Research Laboratories

Facility Type Location
Argonne National Laboratory Govt/Univ Near Chicago, IL
AT&T Bell Laboratories Industrial Murray Hill, NJ
Brookhaven National Laboratory Government Long Island, NY
Carnegie Institution Private California, Maryland,
and DC
Dupont R&D Center Industrial Wilmington, DE
Fermi National Accelerator Lab Govt/Univ Near Chicago, IL
IBM Watson Research Laboratory Industrial Yorktown Heights, NY
Keck Telescope University Mauna Kea, HI
Los Alamos National Laboratory Government Los Alamos, NM
National Institutes of Health Government Bethesda, MD
National Institutes of Standards and Technology Government Gaithersburg, MD
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Government Oak Ridge, TN
Stanford Linear Accelerator Govt/Univ Stanford, CA
Texas Center for Superconductivity University Houston, TX
United States Geological Survey Government Reston, VA
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution University Woods Hole, MA
commercial or industrial goals. These scientists are said to be doing applied research,
and their ideas are often translated into practical systems by large-scale research and
development (R&D) projects.
Government laboratories, colleges and universities, and private industries all support
both basic and applied research; however, most large-scale R&D (as well as most applied
research) is done in government laboratories and private industry (Table 1-2).
TECHNOLOGY •
SETI@HOME
The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) has had a long and somewhat varied his-
tory. Scientists in the early 1960s realized that radio telescopes then in operation could
detect signals from other civilizations (provided, of course, that the signals were being sent).
Since that time, astronomers have looked for these signals without success. Nevertheless, the
importance of finding even one extraterrestrial civilization is so great that the search goes on.
Hunting for a signal is a little like looking for a radio station in an unfamiliar city. You
dial across the frequencies, listening for a moment to each station, until you find what you • Figure 1-16 The radio telescope
are looking for. In the same way, SETI astronomers point their telescope at a small region at Arecibo, in Puerto Rico, is one
of the sky, dial through the frequencies, then move on to the instrument used in SETI.
next region. Because there is a lot of sky and many frequencies,
Seth Shostak/Photo Researchers
the sheer volume of data that has to be analyzed has been the
primary roadblock in the search.
Recently, scientists at the University of California at
Berkeley have harnessed the Internet to attack this problem.
Radio data from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico
(Figure 1-16) are sent to Berkeley, where they are sorted into
small chunks. These data chunks are then sent out to partici-
pants in the SETI@home project—over a million participants
in hundreds of countries worldwide. Typically, these partici-
pants use downloaded software to let their personal comput-
ers analyze the data when the machine isn’t doing anything
else (a typical setup uses the SETI program as a screen saver).
When the chunk of data is analyzed, it is sent back to Berkeley
and new data are returned.
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Several million computers connected in this way form perhaps the largest comput-
ing project on Earth. More importantly, they are probably a taste of things to come,
when distributed computers, working part-time, will help scientists analyze massive data
sets that are being developed in all sorts of fields. If you want to join, the address is
http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu. •
F UNDING FOR S CIENCE •

An overwhelming proportion of funding for American scientific research comes from
various agencies of the federal government—your tax dollars at work (see Table 1-3). In
2008, the U.S. government’s total research and development budget was about 130 bil-
lion dollars. The National Science Foundation, with an annual budget of about 4 billion
dollars, supports research and education in all areas of science. Other agencies, including
the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Energy, the Department of
Defense, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, fund research and science education in their own particular areas of
interest, while Congress may appropriate additional money for special projects.
An individual scientist seeking funding for research will usually submit a grant pro-
posal to the appropriate federal agency. Such a proposal will include an outline of the
planned research together with a statement about why the work is important. The
agency evaluating the proposals asks panels of independent scientists to rank them in
order of importance, and funds as many as it can. Depending on the field, a proposal has
anywhere from about a 10–40% chance of being successful. This money from federal
grants buys experimental equipment and computer time, pays the salaries of researchers,
and supports advanced graduate students. Without this support, much of the scientific
research in the United States would come to a halt. The funding of science by the fed-
eral government is one place where the opinions and ideas of the citizen, through his or
her elected representatives, have a direct effect on the development of science.
As you might expect, scientists and politicians engage in many debates about how
this research money should be spent. One constant point of contention, for example,
concerns the question of basic versus applied research. How much money should we put
into applied research, which can be expected to show a quick payoff, as opposed to basic
research, which may not have a payoff for years (if at all)?
Table 1-3 Your Tax Dollars: 2008 Federal Science Funding

Total Federal Research and Development Funding by Agency for 2008
Agency Amount in Millions of Dollars
Department of Defense 82,379
Department of Health and Human Services 29,816
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 12,188
Department of Energy 9,661
National Science Foundation 4,479
Department of Agriculture 2,412
Department of Commerce 1,138
Department of Homeland Security 1,085
Department of Transportation 820
Department of the Interior 676
Department of Education 321
Agency for International Development 223
Department of Veterans Affairs 952
Smithsonian Institution 203
Nuclear Regulatory Commission 71
All Other 322
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C OMMUNICATION AMONG S CIENTISTS •

Sometimes it’s easier to do your homework with other students than by yourself, and
the same is true of the work that scientists do. Working in isolation can be very hard, and
scientists often seek out other people with whom to converse and collaborate. The pop-
ular stereotype of the lonely genius changing the course of history seldom describes the
world of the working scientist. The next time you walk down the hall of a science
department at your university, you will probably see faculty and students deep in con-
versation, talking and scribbling on blackboards. This direct contact between colleagues
is the simplest type of scientific communication.
Scientific meetings provide a more formal and structured forum for communication.
Every week of the year, at conference retreats and convention centers across the country,
groups of scientists gather to trade ideas. You may notice that science stories in your news-
papers often originate in the largest of these meetings, where thousands of scientists con-
verge at one time, and a cadre of science reporters with their own special briefing room is
poised to publicize exciting results. Scientists often hold off announcing important discov-
eries until they can make a splash at such a well-attended meeting and press conference.
Finally, scientists communicate with each other in writing. In addition to rapid com-
munications such as letters, fax, and e-mail, almost all scientific fields have specialized jour-
nals to publish the results of research. The system works like this: When a group of scientists
finishes a piece of research and wants to communicate their results, they write a concise
paper describing exactly what they’ve done, giving the technical details of their method so
that others can reproduce the data and stating their results and conclusions. The journal
editor sends the submitted manuscript to one or more knowledgeable scientists who act as
referees. These reviewers, whose identities are not usually revealed to the authors, read the
paper carefully, checking for mistakes, misstatements, or shoddy procedures. Each reviewer
then sends the editor a list of necessary modifications and corrections. If they tell the editor
that the work passes muster, it will probably be published. In many fields papers are pub-
lished online almost immediately, with archival paper copies following some weeks later.
This system, called peer review, is one of the cornerstones of modern science.
Peer review provides a clear protocol for entering new results into the scientific litera-
ture. Little wonder then that scientists get so upset when one of their colleagues tries to
bypass the system and announces results at a press conference. Such work has not been
subject to the thorough review process, and no one can be sure that it meets established
standards. When the results turn out to be irreproducible, overstated, or just plain wrong,
it damages the credibility of the entire scientific community. So, if you read about a new
discovery in the newspaper or on the Internet and you can’t track the story back to a pub-
lished, peer-reviewed journal article, then you should question the veracity of that finding.
Thinking More About Basic Research
HOW SHOULD RESEARCH FUNDING BE ALLOCATED? Those who oppose large expenditures on basic research
argue that the world faces many serious problems that have to
Modern science can be very expensive. The kind of orbiting be solved right now, and that the benefits of basic research are
astronomical observatories described in Chapter 14 and the too tenuous and too far in the future to justify spending money
Large Hadron Collider discussed in Chapter 13 can cost many now. Those who support these expenditures argue that basic
billions of dollars. These sorts of machines are devoted to basic research has always provided the foundation from which practi-
research, to discovering the fundamental laws that govern the cal benefits flow, and that not funding it now will impoverish
operation of the universe. We simply don’t know whether those future generations.
discoveries will ever have a practical benefit for humanity at What proportion of the money spent on scientific research
some time in the future. This is a feature of basic research. do you think ought to be directed toward work that will have
It’s not hard to justify spending money on research no immediate benefits? How do you balance the immediate
when there is an obvious benefit in the offing—a new drug benefit of working on current problems against the long term
or a faster computer. But how do you justify spending that benefit that have always flowed from basic research? Who do
money when there is no obvious and immediate benefit? you think ought to make decisions like this?
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RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION •

How do you know what you know? º All scientific laws and theories are subject to change with
• There are many ways to obtain knowledge of our world: experi- improved observation and measurement. This advances
ence, received wisdom, scientific observations and experiments, our scientific understanding of our world.
or as Plato suggested a reliance on reason and intuition. All of º Researchers communicate their results via peer-reviewed
these methods have limitations. publications. The process of publication codifies our knowl-
edge while disseminating valuable information to the world
º The scientific method was developed to overcome the
inherent limitations in our attempts to gain knowledge of at large.
the world. • Science consists of testable hypotheses, observable facts, and
º Science uses mathematics to quantify observations so reproducible predictions. Nevertheless, there are many questions
that patterns and regularities may be systematically that science cannot answer (e.g., is there a God?).
indentified. º Additionally, there are some “ways of knowing” that improve
º Prediction and testing develop and refine scientific our world without any scientific basis (e.g., believing that one
knowledge. is loved).
º Competition between rival theories and hypotheses fuel º Science is not the only method for gaining an understanding
scientific progress, while communication between researchers of the world in which we live. Nevertheless, it is an invaluable
leads to a greater knowledge and understanding of our tool that provides an unparalleled framework for the acquisition
world. of knowledge of our physical world.
S UMMARY •
Science is a way of learning about our physical universe. The differ from other ways of knowing, including religion, philosophy,
scientific method relies on making reproducible observations and and the arts, and differ from pseudosciences.
experiments based on careful measurements of the natural world. Science is organized around a hierarchy of fundamental princi-
Once scientists have collected a number of facts, which are con- ples. Overarching concepts about forces, motion, matter, and energy
firmed observations about the natural world, then they can form a apply to all scientific disciplines, including physics, chemistry, astron-
hypothesis—a tentative educated guess about how the world works. omy, geology, and biology. Additional great ideas relate to specific
Hypotheses, in turn, lead to predictions that can be tested with more systems—molecules, cells, planets, or stars. This body of scientific
observations and experiments. A scientific law arises when numerous knowledge forms a seamless web, in which every detail fits into a
measurements point to a regular, predictable pattern of behavior in larger, integrated picture of our universe.
nature, whereas a scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation Scientists engage in basic research to acquire fundamental knowl-
of the natural world based on a large number of independently veri- edge, as well as applied research and research and development (R&D),
fied observational and experimental tests. Laws and theories, no which are aimed at specific problems. Technology is developed by this
matter how successful, are always subject to further testing. Experi- process. Scientific results are communicated in peer-reviewed publica-
mental analyses and the development of theories are often guided tions. The federal government plays the important role of funding most
by the language of mathematics. Science and the scientific method scientific research and advanced science education in the United States.
K EY TERMS •
scientific method hypothesis physics technology
observation law chemistry applied research
experiment theory astronomy research and development
measurement prediction geology (R&D)
mathematics reproducible biology peer review
fact pseudoscience basic research
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Collect several aluminum soda cans, 2 meters of fishing line, a puncture one smaller nail hole near the bottom of a soda can with
drinking straw, a black permanent marker, two different-sized nails, the hammer. Then, with the nail still in the can, push the nail side-
a stopwatch, a hammer, a large extra-wide plastic container, a large ways, perpendicular to the can at a 90-degree angle. Pull the nail
coffee can filled with water and a large plastic sheet or newspaper. straight out from there. Proceed to do the same exact thing on the
You will be conducting a rendition of a Hero’s turbine experiment. opposite side of the can. Now take another can and follow the same
First, mark the end of the straw with a heavy black mark, so that exact procedure using the larger, wider nail. Proceed to attach one
you can count the number of spins of the can much easier. Next, end of the fishing line to the can’s tab and then slip the straw
c01.qxd 9/7/09 5:25 PM Page 21
Discussion Questions | 21
Fishing absorb any misdirected water spray, and place the water-filled coffee
line can inside of the large plastic tub.
Make a hypothesis about how fast the can will spin around in
one minute with a particular nail hole size. What do you think? If
Water Straw you place larger holes in a can (can “A”), will the can spin around
faster with water than can “B” with smaller holes?
Coffee Place the coffee can with water inside the large plastic con-
can
CAN A
tainer. Now immerse can “A” in the container of water and let it
fill up completely. Get the stopwatch ready—pull the can straight
up by the fishing line and start the stopwatch. Count the revolu-
Water tions the can makes in ten seconds and multiply by six (revolutions
per minute). Do this several times. Finally, repeat this procedure
Plastic with can “B.” Again, run your experiment several times and
container record the rpms of each can. Was your hypothesis correct? Can
you place your quantitative data in both a table and a broken-line
through the tab hole about 5 centimeters deep. Finally, place the graph? Did you find agreement with your hypothesis or what it
plastic sheet or newspaper underneath the large plastic container to disproved?
R EVIEW Q UESTIONS •
1. What is the goal of science? 10. Describe the steps of the scientific method.
2. How does science play a role in your everyday life? 11. Describe the roles of hypotheses, theories, and predictions in
3. How might the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, a medieval the scientific method.
scholar at Oxford, and the Italian scientist Galileo have differed in 12. Describe the difference between an observation and an
the importance each placed on the role of rational processes, obser- experiment.
vations, and received wisdom in the study of nature? 13. Why might the term scientific cycle be a good substitute for
4. How is observation different from imagination? scientific method?
5. What are the roles of observation and measurement in the iden- 14. By what criteria might you determine whether a question
tification of the patterns in nature? might be answered using the scientific method?
6. Why is mathematics considered the “language of science”? 15. What “overarching principles” are accepted by all scientists?
7. Write an equation in words and then in symbols for the follow- 16. Describe the difference between basic and applied research.
ing sentence: The price of coffee beans is equal to the weight of the Give examples of basic and applied research that might be under-
beans times the price of the beans per pound. taken in the fields of transportation and health.
8. Write an equation in words and then in symbols for the fol- 17. In what ways do scientists communicate with their colleagues?
lowing sentence: The change in the number of individuals in a Why is peer review and communication amongst researchers an
population is equal to the difference between the number of essential ingredient in scientific progress?
births and deaths. 18. Describe the steps a scientist would take to obtain funding for
9. What are the branches of science? How do they relate to the a research project. What sources of funds might be available? What
“web of knowledge?” role would peer review play in the process?
D ISCUSSION Q UESTIONS •
1. Why is research in astronomy considered science but the study of 3. What role did observation play in the creation of the periodic
astrology regarded as psuedoscience? What evidence (i.e., predictions table by Dimitri Mendeleev?
and observations) might change scientists’ minds about astrology? 4. How do competing theories and hypotheses advance science?
2. Which of the following statements could be tested scientifically 5. Scientists are currently investigating whether certain microscopic
to determine whether it is true or false? organisms can clean up toxic wastes. How might you set up an
a. Women are shorter than men. experiment to determine that you had found such an organism?
b. Most of the Sun’s energy is in the form of heat energy. 6. Categorize the following examples as basic research or applied
c. Unicorns are now extinct. research.
d. Beethoven wrote beautiful music. a. the discovery of a new species of bird
e. Earth was created over 4 billion years ago. b. the development of a more fuel-efficient vehicle
f. Earth was created in a miraculous event. c. the breeding of a new variety of disease-resistant wheat
g. Diamond is harder than steel. d. a study of the ecological role of grizzly bears in Yellowstone `
h. Baseball is a better sport than football. National Park
i. God exists. e. the identification of a new chemical compound
j. Vanilla ice cream tastes better than chocolate pudding. f. the development of a new drug for cancer or AIDS patients
k. Men are better scientists than women. g. the improvement of wind turbines for energy production
c01.qxd 9/7/09 5:25 PM Page 22
7. The claim is sometimes made that the cycle of the scientific 10. With respect to science, what did Isaac Newton mean when
method produces closer and closer approximations to “reality.” Is he said, “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders
this a scientific statement? Why or why not? of giants.”
8. Many products claim to “lower cholesterol” and promote a 11. If you were a research scientist, what would you study? Would
“healthy heart.” How might you test these statements in a labora- your research be basic or applied?
tory? Would this be a form of basic or applied research? 12. Are both basic and applied research necessary? Which should
9. Should religious and/or moral beliefs have a role in determining get more funding from the federal government?
the funding of scientific research? What criteria would you use to 13. What are the characteristics of a good scientist or researcher?
decide on funding research projects?
P ROBLEMS •
1. Marcus kept a record of the average daily temperature in his of presentation makes it easiest to quickly identify important trends?
town for one month. He noted that on the 1st of May the average Does class attendance correlate with exam performance?
temperature was 20º Celsius; between the 2nd and the 15th, the 3. Pick a favorite food and write down at least 10 adjectives to
average for each day was 22ºC; between the 16th and the 30th, the describe this food. Then cite at least five ways in which you might
average was 24ºC; and on the 31st the average was 25ºC. Describe use numbers to describe this food (e.g., weight, temperature, fat
and illustrate some of the ways you might present these data. What content) more precisely than using just words. Make one or more
additional data or information would you like to obtain to improve of these measurements on your chosen food. What laboratory
your description? equipment will you need to carry out your investigation?
2. Students with better attendance tend to perform better on 4. Someone says to you, “I was thinking about Aunt Maria the other
exams. Tabulate the number of absences of your classmates prior to day, and she called me on the phone. Doesn’t that prove ESP exists?”
the first exam and their exam scores. Present these data in a simple What other information would you need to know to investigate this
table, in two different types of graphs, and in text. Which method claim? How would you design an experiment to test this sort of claim?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. What is the closest major government research laboratory to are the national standards regarding animal research? What national
your school? What is the closest industrial laboratory? Describe one organizations are involved in this debate? What specific drugs, medi-
research project that is now underway at one of these laboratories. cines, and procedures were developed using animal research?
2. What are the major science departments at your school? How 8. Design an experiment to test the relative strengths of three dif-
many professors are performing research in each department? Are ferent kinds of aluminum can. What data would you need to col-
these professors doing basic or applied research? Describe a pro- lect? What laboratory equipment would you need? How might you
gram of scientific research carried out by a member of your school’s present these data in tables and graphically?
faculty. How is the scientific method employed in this research? 9. Malaria, the deadliest infectious disease in the world, kills more
3. Identify a current piece of legislation relating to science or tech- than 2 million people (mostly children in poor countries) every year.
nology (perhaps an environmental or energy bill). How did your The annual malaria research budget in the United States is less than a
representatives in Congress vote on this issue? Did they use scien- million dollars, a minuscule fraction of the spending on cancer, heart
tific knowledge or received wisdom to arrive at their decision? disease, and AIDS. Should the United States devote more research
4. Look at a recent newspaper article about science funding. What funds to this disease, which does not occur in North America? Why or
is the funding agency? Is the proposed research basic or applied? why not? Can we use the scientific method to answer this question?
5. Find a science story in a newspaper or popular magazine. Who 10. Look at a carefully tended lawn at a golf course or ball field
were the scientists who conducted the research? Where did they do and compare it with a patch of wild ground. Do your observations
the work? How was the research funded? match those of the Minnesota biodiversity experiment? Why or why
6. How were scientists depicted in the novel and film versions of not? What hypotheses might you derive from your observations?
Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton? Were you convinced by these 11. Does your school recycle? If so, why? What are the benefits of
portrayals? Why? How do these portrayals compare with the faculty recycling paper, metal, or plastic? Is there a benefit to recycling
doing research at your school? paper since we can always grow more trees?
7. Was Harvey justified in his use of animals in studies of the circula- 12. Think of an idea or a topic in which you are interested. Go to
tory system? What limits should scientists accept in research using ani- Google Scholar: http://scholar.google.com/ and search peer-
mals? What organizations (e.g., institutional animal control and review reviewed journals to read about how research scientists with your
boards) at your school protect animals from unnecessary harm? What interests have studied the idea.
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2
The Ordered Universe
Why do planets appear to wander slowly across the sky?
PHYSICS
A launch of the
Space Shuttle
illustrates the laws of CHEMISTRY
BIOLOGY motion.
Land plants and

A force different
animals must
from gravity must be
develop strong
responsible for the
supportive structures
chemical bonding of
to counteract the
atoms to each other.
force of gravity.
(Ch. 10)
(Ch. 20)
ENVIRONMENT
Newton’s laws of Gravity may cause

The laws of motion
allow us to design motion and gravity land to collapse in
regions where too
cars that will predict the behavior of much groundwater is
protect drivers
during accidents
objects on Earth and pumped out of the
ground. (Ch. 18)
in space.
TECHNOLOGY
The universal law Gravity controls

of gravitation can the flow of water
tell you why the Moon through vast systems
orbits Earth and Earth of streams and rivers.
orbits the Sun. (Ch. 18)
Air bags reduce

ASTRONOMY injuries from high- GEOLOGY
speed automobile
collisions.

HEALTH & SAFETY
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 24
Science Through the Day Cause and Effect
ou jump out of bed, eager to start the day. The air

Y
Scott Barrow/Solus-Veer/© Corbis

smells fresh and cool, but the Sun’s rays already feel
warm. It should be perfect beach weather.
When the Sun comes up in the morning you expect tem-
peratures to become warmer; in the evening, as the Sun goes
down, you expect temperatures to fall. When you turn the
key in the ignition in your car you expect it to start. When
you flip a light switch, you expect a light to go on.
Our world is filled with ordinary events like these—events
we take so much for granted that we scarcely notice them. Yet
they set the background for the way we think about the world.
We believe in cause and effect because it’s so much a part of
our lives.
The regular passage of seasons, with the shortening and
lengthening of days and gradual changes in temperature,
provides a template for our lives. We plant and harvest crops,
purchase wardrobes, and even schedule vacations around this
predictable cycle, with the knowledge that we must adapt and
prepare for nature’s cycles. Indeed, the predictability of our
physical world has become the central principle of science—an
idea so important that science could never have developed
had it not been true.
The Night Sky

Among the most predictable objects in the universe are the lights we see in the sky at
night—the stars and planets. Modern men and women, living in large metropolitan
areas, are no longer very conscious of the richness of the night sky’s shifting patterns.
But think about the last time you were out in the country on a clear moonless night, far
from the lights of town. There, the stars seem very close, very real. Before the nineteenth-
century development of artificial lighting, human beings often experienced jet-black
skies filled with brilliant pinpoint stars.
The sky changes; it’s never quite the same from one night to the next. Living with this
display all the time, our ancestors noticed regularities in the arrangement and movements
of stars and planets, and they wove these almost lifelike patterns into their religion and
mythology. They learned that when the Sun rose in a certain place, it was time to plant
crops because spring was on its way. They learned that at certain times of the month a full
Moon would illuminate the ground, allowing them to continue harvesting and hunting
after sunset. To these people, knowing the behavior of the sky was not an intellectual game
or an educational frill, it was an essential part of their lives. It is no wonder then that
astronomy, the study of objects in the heavens, was one of the first sciences to develop.
By relying on their observations and records of the regular motions of the stars and
planets, ancient observers of the sky were perhaps the first humans to accept the most
basic tenet of science:
24
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The Night Sky | 25
Physical events are quantifiable and therefore predictable.
Without the predictability of physical events the scientific method could not proceed.
STONEHENGE •
No symbol of humankind’s early preoccupation with astronomy is more dramatic than
Stonehenge, the great prehistoric stone monument on Salisbury Plain in southern England.
The structure consists of a large circular bank of earth surrounding a ring of single upright
stones, which in turn encircle a horseshoe-shaped structure of five giant stone archways.
Each arch is constructed from three massive blocks—two vertical supports several meters • Figure 2-1 (a) The ancient monu-
tall capped by a great stone lintel. The open end of the horseshoe aligns with an avenue that ment at Stonehenge in Southern
leads northeast to another large stone, called the “heel stone” (see Figure 2-1). England is now thought to have
Stonehenge was built in spurts over a long period of time, starting in about 2800 BC. served as a calendar. (b) The layout
Despite various legends assigning it to the Druids, Julius Caesar, the magician Merlin (who of the structures at Stonehenge.
was supposed to have levitated the stones from Ire-
Jeremy Walker/Getty Images

land), or other mysterious unknown races, archae-
ologists have shown that Stonehenge was built by
several groups of people, none of whom had a
written language and some of whom even lacked
metal tools. Why would these people expend such
a great effort to erect one of the world’s great
monuments?
Stonehenge, like many similar structures
scattered around the world, was built to mark the
passage of time. It served as a giant calendar
based on the movement of objects in the sky. The
most famous astronomical function of Stone-
henge was to mark the passage of the seasons. In
an agricultural society, after all, you have to know
when it’s time to plant the crops, and you can’t
always tell by looking at the weather. At Stone-
henge, this job was done by sighting through the
stones. On midsummer’s morning, for example, (a)
someone standing in the center of the monu-
Midsummer Sun
ment will see the Sun rising directly over the heel
stone.
Building a structure like Stonehenge required Bank
accumulation of a great deal of knowledge about Ditch
the sky—knowledge that could have been gained Heel stone
only through many years of observation. Without
a written language, people would have had to pass
complex information about the movements of the
Sun, the Moon, and the planets from one genera-
tion to the next. How else could they have
aligned their stones so perfectly that modern-day
Druids in England can still greet the midsummer
sunrise over the heel stone? Upright
stones
If the universe was not regular and pre-
dictable, if repeated observation could not show N
us patterns that occur over and over again, the
very concept of a monument like Stonehenge
would be impossible. And yet, there it stands 10 meters
after almost 5000 years, a testament to human
(b)
ingenuity and to the possibility of predicting the
behavior of the universe we live in.
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26 | C HAP TE R 2 | The Ordered Universe

Ancient Astronauts
Confronted by a monument such as Stonehenge, with its precise orientation and epic
Science News proportions, some people refuse to accept the notion that it could have been built by the
ingenuity and hard work of ancient peoples. Instead, they evoke some outside interven-
The Building of Stonehenge tion, frequently in the form of visitors from other planets whose handiwork survives in
the monument today. Many ancient monuments, including the pyramids of Egypt, the
Go to your WileyPLUS course Mayan temples of Central America, and the giant statues of Easter Island, have been
to view video on this topic
ascribed to these mysterious aliens.
Such conjecture is unconvincing unless you first show that building the monument
was beyond the capabilities of the indigenous people. Suppose, for example, that
Columbus had found a glass-and-steel skyscraper when he landed in America. Both the
ability to produce the materials (steel, glass, and plastic, for example) and the ability to
construct a building dozens of stories tall were beyond the abilities of Native Americans
at that time. A reasonable case could have been made for the intervention of ancient
astronauts or some other advanced intelligence.
Is Stonehenge a similar case? The material, local stone, was certainly available to
anyone who wanted to use it. Working and shaping stone was also a skill, albeit a labori-
ous one, that was available to early civilizations. The key question, then, is whether peo-
ple without steel tools or wheeled vehicles could have moved the stones from the quarry
to the construction site (Figure 2-3).
The largest stone, about 10 meters (more than 30 feet) in length, weighs about
50 metric tons (50,000 kilograms, or about 100,000 pounds) and had to be moved over-
land some 30 kilometers (20 miles) from quarries to the north. Could this massive block
have been moved by primitive people, equipped only with wood and ropes?
While Stonehenge was being built, it snowed frequently in southern England, so the
stones could have been hauled on sleds. A single person can easily haul 100 kilograms on
a sled (think of pulling a couple of your friends). How many people would it take to haul
a 50,000-kilogram stone?
50,000
⫽ 500 people
100 kilograms pulled by each person
Organizing 500 people for the job would have been a major social achievement, of
course, but there’s nothing physically impossible about it. So, while scientists cannot
absolutely disprove the possibility that Stonehenge was constructed by some strange,
forgotten technology, why should we evoke such alien intervention when the concerted
actions of a dedicated, hard-working human society would have sufficed?
When confronted with phenomena in a physical world, we should accept the most
straightforward and reasonable explanation as the most likely. This procedure is called
Ockham’s razor, after William of Ockham, a fourteenth-century English philosopher who
argued that “postulates must not be multiplied without necessity”—that is, given a
choice, the simplest solution to a problem is most likely to be right. Scientists thus reject
the notion of ancient astronauts building Stonehenge, and they relegate such speculation
to the realm of pseudoscience. •

The Discovery of the Spread of Disease
Observing nature is a crucial part of the scientific method. During the nineteenth cen-
tury, for example, Europe experienced an epidemic of cholera, a severe and often fatal
intestinal disease. No one knew the cause of the disease—the discovery of the germ the-
ory of disease was still decades in the future. The very name of the disease is derived
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The Night Sky | 27
(a)
Dirt ramp
Initial ground level
(b)
Lintel
stone
(c)
• Figure 2-3 One puzzling aspect of the construction of Stonehenge is the raising of the
giant lintel stones. Three steps in the process were probably (a) to dig a pit for each of the
upright stones and then to tip the stone into the pit as shown; (b) to pile dirt into a long
sloping ramp up to the level of the two uprights so that the lintel stones could be rolled into
place; and (c) to cart away the dirt, thus leaving the stone archway.
from the early days of medicine, when “choler” was seen as one of the “humors” that
governed human health. But even without knowing the cause of the disease, physicians
and scientists could observe the places and times when it occurred.
John Snow (1823–1858) was a distinguished London physician. He is remembered
in medicine as one of the pioneers in the new field of anesthesiology. He even attended
the birth of Queen Victoria’s last children, administering chloroform during labor. For
many years, he had been convinced that the incidence of cholera was connected in some
way to London’s water supply. At that time, many people got their water from public
pumps, and even water delivered to private homes came through a chaotic maze of
pipes, so that water delivered to neighboring buildings could come from very different
sources. Over the years, Snow patiently catalogued data on water sources and the fre-
quent cholera outbreaks in the city.
In 1854, Snow made a dramatic discovery. He noticed that the incidence of cholera that
year seemed to be concentrated around a place called Golden Square, a poor neighborhood
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where people drew their water from a place called

Number of Fatal Attacks Beginning on a Particular Day
the Broad Street pump. Upon investigation,
Snow found that the square was surrounded by a
150
large number of homes where human waste was
dumped into backyard pits. He argued that these
120 findings suggested the disease was somehow
related to contamination of the water supply
(Figure 2-2).
90 Driven by the accumulation of data like this,
the city of London (and soon all major population
centers) eventually began to require that human
60
waste be carried away from dwellings into sewers
Pump handle removed and not just dumped into a river upstream of the
30 intakes for the drinking water supply. Thus,
Snow’s discovery of a regularity in nature (in this
case between disease and polluted water) was the
0 foundation on which modern sanitation and pub-
31 1 5 10 15 20
August September lic health systems are based.
Just as the builders of Stonehenge had no
• Figure 2-2 John Snow plotted
the number of cases of cholera ver- idea of the structure of the solar system or why the heavens behave as they do, Snow
sus the date for residents in the vicin- had no idea why keeping human waste out of the drinking water supply should elimi-
ity of the Broad Street pump. The nate a disease such as cholera. It wasn’t until the early 1890s, in fact, that the German
number of cases declined in early scientist Robert Koch first suggested that the disease was caused by a particular bac-
September because most residents terium, Vibrio cholerae, that is carried in human waste. •
fled the area, but few new cases
occurred after the pump handle was
removed on September 8.
The Birth of Modern Astronomy

Far from the city, when you look up at the night sky you see a dazzling array of objects.
Thousands of visible stars fill the heavens and appear to move each night in stately circu-
lar arcs centered on the North Star. The relative positions of these stars never seem to
change, and closely spaced groups of stars called constellations have been given names
such as the Big Dipper and Leo the Lion. Moving across this fixed starry background are
Earth’s Moon, with its regular succession of phases, and a half-dozen planets that wan-
der through the zodiac. You might also see swift streaking meteors or long-tailed
comets—transient objects that grace the night sky from time to time.
What causes these objects to move, and what do those motions tell us about the
universe in which we live?
THE H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND: PTOLEMY AND COPERNICUS •

Since before recorded history people have observed the distinctive motions of objects
in the sky and have tried to explain them. Most societies created legends and myths tied
to these movements, and some (the Babylonians, for example) had long records of
sophisticated astronomical observations. It was the Greeks, however, who devised the
first astronomical explanations that incorporated elements of modern science.
Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian-born Greek astronomer and geographer who lived in
Alexandria in the second century AD—proposed the first widely accepted explanation for
complex celestial motions. Working with the accumulated observations of earlier Babylonian
and Greek astronomers, he put together a singularly successful model—a theory, to use the
modern term, about how the heavens had to be arranged to produce the display we see
every night. In the Ptolemaic description of the universe, Earth sat unmoved at the center.
Around it, on a concentric series of rotating spheres, moved the stars and planets. The model
was carefully crafted to take account of observations. The planets, for example, were attached
to small spheres rolling inside of the larger spheres so that their uneven motion across the sky
could be understood.
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The Birth of Modern Astronomy | 29
Ptolemaic system Copernican system
Venus Earth
Mercury
Earth Mercury
Mars
Sun Mars Venus Sun
Moon
Jupiter Saturn Jupiter Saturn
(a) (b)
• Figure 2-4 The Ptolemaic (a) and Copernican (b) systems both assumed that all orbits
are circular. The fundamental difference is that Copernicus placed the Sun at the center.
This system remained the best explanation of the universe for almost 1500 years. It
successfully predicted planetary motions, eclipses, and a host of other heavenly phenom-
ena, and was one of the longest-lived scientific theories ever devised.
During the first decades of the sixteenth century, however, a Polish cleric by the name
of Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543) considered a competing hypothesis that was to herald
the end of Ptolemy’s crystal spheres. His ideas were published in 1543 under the title On
the Revolutions of the Spheres. Copernicus retained the notions of a spherical universe with
circular orbits, and even kept the ideas of spheres rolling within a sphere, but he asked a
simple and extraordinary question: “Is it possible to construct a model of the heavens
whose predictions are as accurate as Ptolemy’s, but in which the Sun, rather than Earth, is
at the center?” We do not know how Copernicus, a busy man of affairs in medieval Poland,
conceived this question, nor do we know why he devoted his spare time for most of his
adult life to answering it. We do know, however, that in 1543, for the first time in over a
millennium, the Ptolemaic system was faced by a serious challenger (see Figure 2-4).
O BSERVATIONS: T YCHO B RAHE AND J OHANNES K EPLER •

With the publication of the Copernican theory, astronomers were confronted by two
competing models of the universe. The Ptolemaic and Copernican systems differed in a
fundamental way that had far-reaching implications about the place of humanity in the
cosmos. They both described possible universes, but in one Earth, and by implication
humankind, was no longer at the center. The astronomers’ task was to decide which
model best describes the universe we actually live in.
To resolve the question, astronomers had to compare the predictions of the two com-
peting hypotheses to the observations of what was actually seen in the sky. When they per-
formed these observations, a fundamental problem became apparent. Although the two
models made different predictions about the position of a planet at midnight, for example,
or the time of moonrise, the differences were too small to be measured with equipment
available at the time. The telescope had not yet been invented, but astronomers were
skilled in recording planetary positions by depending entirely on naked-eye measurements
with awkward instruments. Until the accuracy of measurement was improved, the ques-
tion of whether Earth was at the center of the universe couldn’t be decided.
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The Danish nobleman Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) showed

the way out of this impasse. Tycho, as he was known, is one of
Planet those people who, in addition to making important contributions
to knowledge, led a truly bizarre life. As a young man, for exam-
ple, he lost the end of his nose in a duel with a fellow student over
who was the better mathematician; for the rest of his life he had to
wear a silver and gold prosthesis.
Sun Tycho’s scientific reputation was firmly established at the age
Focus 2 of 25, when he observed and described a new star in the sky (in
Focus 1 fact, a supernova—see Chapter 14). This dramatic discovery chal-
Minor axis lenged the prevailing wisdom that the heavens are unchanging.
Within the next five years, the Danish king had given him the
island of Hveen off the coast of Denmark and funds to construct
a royal observatory there.
Tycho built his career on the design and use of vastly
improved observational instruments. He determined the position
Ellipse
of each star or planet with a “quadrant,” a large sloping device
• Figure 2-5 Kepler’s first law, something like a gun sight, recording each position as two angles. If you were to do this
shown schematically, states that the today, you might, for example, measure one angle up from the horizon and a second
orbit of every planet is an ellipse, a angle around from due north. Tycho constructed his sighting device of carefully selected
geometrical figure in which the sum
of the distances to two fixed points
materials, and he learned to correct his measurements for thermal contraction—the
(each of which is called a focus) is slight shrinkage of brass and iron components that occurred during the cold Danish
always the same. For planetary orbits nights. Over a period of 25 years, he used these instruments to accumulate extremely
in the solar system, the Sun is at one accurate data on the positions of the planets.
focus of the ellipse (greatly exagger- When Tycho died in 1601, his data passed into the hands of his assistant, Johannes
ated in this figure). Kepler (1571–1630), a skilled German mathematician who had joined Tycho two years
before. Kepler analyzed Tycho Brahe’s decades of planetary data in new ways, and he
found that the data could be summarized in three mathematical statements about the
solar system. Kepler’s first and most important law (shown in Figure 2-5) states that all
planets, including Earth, orbit the Sun in elliptical, not circular, paths. In this picture,
the spheres-within-spheres are gone, because ellipses fully account for the observed
planetary motions. Not only do Kepler’s laws give a better description of what is
observed in the sky, but they present a simpler picture of the solar system as well.
Previous astronomers had assumed that planetary orbits must be perfect circles, and
many believed on theological or philosophical grounds that Earth had to be the center
of a spherical universe. In science, such assumptions of ideality may guide thinking, but
they must be replaced when observations prove them wrong.
The work of Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler firmly established that Earth is not at
the center of the universe, that planetary orbits are not circular, and that the answer to the
contest between the Ptolemaic and Copernican universes is “neither of the above.” This
research also illustrates a recurrent point about scientific progress. The ability to answer
scientific questions, even questions dealing with the most fundamental aspects of human
existence, often depends on the kinds of instruments scientists have at their disposal, and
the ability of scientists to apply advanced mathematical reasoning to their data.
At the end of this historical episode, astronomers had Kepler’s laws that describe
how the planets in the solar system move, but they had no idea why planets behave the
way they do. The answer to that question was to come from an unexpected source.
The Birth of Mechanics

Mechanics is an old word for the branch of science that deals with the motions of mate-
rial objects. A rock rolling down a hill, a ball thrown into the air, and a sailboat skim-
ming over the waves are all fit subjects for this science. Since ancient times, philosophers
had speculated on why things move the way they do, but it wasn’t until the seventeenth
century that our modern understanding of the subject began to emerge.
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The Birth of Mechanics | 31
Uffizi,Florence, Italy /Scala/Art Resource

GALILEO GALILEI •
The Italian physicist and philosopher Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was, in many ways,
a forerunner of the modern scientist (Figure 2-6). A professor of mathematics at the
University of Padua, he quickly became an advisor to the powerful court of the
Medici at Florence as well as a consultant at the Arsenal of Venice, the most advanced
naval construction center in the world. He invented many practical devices, such as
the first thermometer, the pendulum clock, and the proportional compass that crafts-
men still use today. Galileo is also famous as the first person to record observations of
the heavens with a telescope, which he built after hearing of the instrument from
others (Figure 2-7). His astronomical writings, which supported the Sun-centered
Copernican model of the universe, led to his trial, conviction, and eventual house
arrest by the Inquisition.
S CIENCE IN THE MAKING • • Figure 2-6 Galileo Galilei

(1564–1642).
The Heresy Trial of Galileo
In spite of his great scientific advances, Galileo is remembered primarily because of his
Museo della Scienza, Florence, Italy/Art Resource

heresy trial in 1633. In 1610, Galileo had published a summary of his telescopic obser-
vations in The Starry Messenger, a book written in everyday Italian rather than scholarly
Latin. Some readers complained that these ideas violated Catholic Church doctrine, and
in 1616 Galileo was called before the College of Cardinals. The Catholic Church sup-
posedly warned Galileo not to discuss Copernican ideas unless he treated them as an
unproven hypothesis.
In spite of these instructions, in 1632 Galileo published A Dialogue Concerning
Two World Systems, which was a long defense of the Copernican system. This action led
to the famous trial, at which Galileo purged himself of suspicion of heresy by denying
that he held the views in his book. He was already an old man by this time, and he spent
his last few years under house arrest in his villa near Florence.
The legend of Galileo’s trial, in which an earnest seeker of truth is crushed by a rigid
hierarchy, bears little resemblance to the historical events. The Catholic Church had not
banned Copernican ideas. Copernicus, after all, was a savvy Church politician who knew
how to get his ideas across without ruffling feathers. But Galileo’s confrontational tactics—
notably putting the Pope’s favorite arguments into the mouth of a foolish character in
the book—brought the predictable reaction.
A footnote: In 1992, the Catholic Church reopened the case of Galileo and, in
effect, issued a retroactive “not guilty.” The grounds for the reversal were that the orig-
inal judges had not separated questions of faith from questions of scientific fact. •
• Figure 2-7 Telescopes used by
S PEED, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION • Galileo Galilei in his astronomical
studies.
To lay the groundwork for understanding Galileo’s study of moving objects (and ulti-
mately to understand the workings of the solar system), we have to begin with precise
definitions of three familiar terms: speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Speed and Velocity
Speed and velocity are everyday words that have precise scientific meanings. Speed is the
distance an object travels divided by the time it takes to travel that distance. Velocity has
the same numerical value as speed, but it is a quantity that also includes information on the
direction of travel. The speed of a car might be 40 miles per hour, for example, while
the velocity is 40 miles per hour due west. Quantities like velocity that involve both a
speed and a direction are called vectors. Velocity and speed are both measured in units
of distance per time, such as meters per second, feet per second, or miles per hour.
In equation form:
distance traveled (m)
velocity or speed ( m/s) ⫽
time of travel (s)
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In symbols:
d
V⫽
t
Thus, if you know the distance traveled and the time elapsed during the travel, you can
calculate the speed.
EXAMPLE 2-1
D RIVI NG
If your car travels 30 miles per hour, how many miles will you go in 15 minutes?
Reasoning and Solution: This question involves changing units, as well as applying
the equation that relates time, speed, and distance. First, we must know the travel
time in hours:
15 minutes
⫽ 1 ⁄4 hour
(60 minutes Ⲑ hour )
Then, rearranging the relationship between speed, distance, and time given above,
we find:
distance ⫽ speed ⫻ time
distance ⫽ 30 miles/hour ⫻ 1 ⁄4 hour
⫽ 7.5 miles
It would take the average person about two hours to walk this far.
A word about units: You may have noticed that in the example we put 1⁄4 hour into the
equation for the time instead of 15 minutes. The reason we did this was that we needed to
be consistent with the units in which an automobile speedometer measures speed. Since the
automobile dial reads in miles per hour, we also put the time in hours to make the equation
balance. A useful way to deal with situations like this is to imagine that the units are quan-
tities that can be canceled in fractions, just like numbers. In this case, we would have:
distance ⫽ (miles/hour ) ⫻ hour

⫽ miles
If, however, we put the time in minutes, we’d have:
distance ⫽ (miles/hour ) ⫻ minutes

and there would be no cancellation.
Whenever you do a problem like this, it’s a good idea to check to make sure the
units come out correctly. This important process is known as dimensional analysis.
Acceleration
Acceleration is a measure of the rate of change of velocity. Whenever an object changes
speed or direction, it accelerates. When you step on the gas pedal in your car, for exam-
ple, the car accelerates forward. When you slam on the brakes, the car accelerates back-
ward (what is sometimes called deceleration). When you go around a curve in your car,
even if the car’s speed stays exactly the same, the car is still accelerating because the
direction of motion is changing. The most thrilling amusement park rides combine
these different kinds of acceleration—speeding up, slowing down, and changing direc-
tion in bumps, tight turns, and rapid spins.
In words:
Acceleration is the amount of change in velocity divided by the time it takes that
change to occur.
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In equation form:
final velocity ⫺ initial velocity
Acceleration (m/s2 ) ⫽
time
In symbols:
(vf ⫺ v i )
a⫽ t
Like velocity, acceleration requires information about the direction, and it is therefore
a vector.
When velocity changes, it may be by a certain number of feet per second or meters
per second in each second. Consequently, the units of acceleration are meters per second
squared, usually described as “meters per second per second” (and abbreviated m/s2),
where the first “meters per second” refers to the velocity, and the last “per second” to
the time it takes for the velocity to change.
To understand the difference between acceleration and velocity, think about the last
time you were behind the wheel of a car driving down a long straight road. You glance
at your speedometer. If the needle is unmoving (at 30 miles per hour, for example), you
are moving at a constant speed. Suppose, however, that the needle isn’t stationary on
the speedometer scale (perhaps because you have your foot on the gas or on the brake).
Your speed is changing and, by the definition above, you are accelerating. The higher
the acceleration, the faster the needle moves. If the needle doesn’t move, however, this
doesn’t mean you and the car aren’t moving. As we saw above, an unmoving needle sim-
ply means that you are traveling at a constant speed without acceleration. Motion at a
constant speed in a single direction is called uniform motion.
THE F OUNDER OF E XPERIMENTAL S CIENCE •

Galileo devised an ingenious experiment to determine the relationships among distance,
time, velocity, and acceleration. Many scientists now view Galileo’s greatest achievement
as this experimental work on the behavior of objects thrown or dropped on the surface
of Earth. Greek philosophers, using pure reason, had taught that heavier objects must
fall faster than light ones. In a series of classic experiments, Galileo showed that this was
not the case—that at Earth’s surface all objects accelerate at the same rate as they fall
downward. Ironically, Galileo probably never performed the one experiment for which
he is most famous—dropping two different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to
see which would land first.
To describe falling objects, it’s necessary to make precise measurements of two
variables: distance and time. Distance was easily measured by Galileo and his contem-
poraries using rulers, but their timepieces were not precise enough to measure the brief
times it took objects to fall straight down. While previous workers had simply observed
the behavior of falling objects, Galileo constructed a special apparatus designed purely • Figure 2-8 Galileo’s falling-ball
to measure acceleration (see Figure 2-8). He slowed down the time of fall by rolling apparatus with a table of measure-
large balls down an inclined plane crafted of brass and hard wood, and measured the ments and a graph of distance
versus time.
Galileo's apparatus inclined plane
0
Time Distance
0 0
Distance (meters)
12 1 1
2 4
3 9
24
4 16
5 25
36 6 36
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (seconds)
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Harold & Esther Edgerton Foundation, 2003, courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.
time of descent by listening to the “ping” as the ball rolled over wires stretched along
its path. (The human ear is quite good at hearing equal time intervals.) The balls accel-
erated as they moved down the plane, and by increasing the angle of elevation of the
plane, he could increase that acceleration. At an elevation of 90 degrees, of course, the
ball would fall freely.
Galileo’s experiments convinced him that any object accelerating toward Earth’s
surface, no matter how heavy or light, falls with exactly the same constant acceleration.
For balls on his plane, his results can be summarized in a simple equation:
In words: The velocity of an accelerating object that starts from rest is proportional
to the length of time that it has been falling.
In equation form:
velocity (m/s ) ⫽ constant a (m/s2 ) ⫻ time (s)
In symbols:
v⫽a⫻t
The velocity of Galileo’s objects, of course, was always directed downward.
This equation tells us that an object that falls for 2 seconds achieves a velocity twice
that of an object that falls for only 1 second, while one that falls for 3 seconds will be
moving three times as fast as one that falls for only 1 second, and so on. The exact value
of the velocity depends on the acceleration, which, in Galileo’s experiment, depended
• Figure 2-9 The accelerated on the angle of elevation of the plane.
motion of a falling apple is captured
by a multiple-exposure photograph. In the special case where the ball is falling freely (i.e., when the plane is at 90
In each successive time interval the degrees), the acceleration is such an important number that it is given a specific let-
apple falls farther. ter of the alphabet, g. This value is the acceleration that all objects experience at
Earth’s surface. (Note that the Moon and other planets have their own very differ-
ent surface accelerations; g applies only to Earth’s surface.) The value of g can be
determined by measuring the fall rate of objects in a laboratory (Figure 2-9) and
turns out to be
g ⫽ 9.8 m/s2 ⫽ 32 feet/s2
This equation tells us that in the first second a falling object accelerates from a stationary
position to a velocity of 9.8 meters per second (about 22 miles per hour), straight down.
After 2 seconds the velocity doubles to 19.6 meters per second, after three seconds it
triples to 29.4 meters per second, and so on.
Galileo’s work also demonstrated that the distance covered by an accelerating object
depends on the square of the travel time.
In equation form:
Table 2-1 Equations Relating
d, v, a, and t distance traveled (m) ⫽ 1/2 ⫻ acceleration (m/s2 ) ⫻ time 2 (s2 )
d
v⫽ d⫽v⫻t In symbols:
t
d ( vf ⫺ vi ) d ⫽ 1/2 ⫻ a ⫻ t 2
t⫽ a⫽
v t
Armed with the several equations that relate distance, velocity, acceleration, and time
v⫽a⫻t d ⫽ 冫2 ⫻ a ⫻ t 2
1
(Table 2-1), scientists were poised to study motions throughout the cosmos.
EXAMPLE 2-2
O UT OF TH E B LOCKS
A sprinter accelerates from the starting blocks to a speed of 10 meters per second in one
second. Answer the following questions about the sprinter’s speed, acceleration, time,
and distance run. In each case, answer the question by substituting into the appropriate
motion equation.
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 35
1. What is his acceleration?

(final velocity ⫺ initial velocity)
acceleration ⫽
time
In this case, the sprinter starts at rest at the beginning of the race, so his initial velocity is 0.
(10 m/s )
acceleration ⫽
1s
⫽ 10 m/s2
2. How far does the sprinter travel during this 1 second of acceleration?
distance ⫽ 1/2 ⫻ acceleration ⫻ time 2
⫽ 1/2 ⫻ (10 m/s2) ⫻ (s) 2
⫽ 5 meters
3. Assuming the sprinter covers the remaining 95 meters at a speed of 10 m/s, what
will be his time for the event? We have already calculated that the time to cover the first
5 meters is 1 s. The time required to cover the remaining 95 meters at a constant veloc-
ity of 10 m/s is:
distance
time ⫽
velocity
⫽ 95 m/(10 m/s)
⫽ 9.5 s
Thus,
total time ⫽ 1 s ⫹ 9.5 s ⫽ 10.5 seconds
For reference, the world’s record for the 100-meter dash, set by Usain Bolt of Jamaica in
2008, is 9.69 seconds.
EXAMPLE 2-3
D ROPPING A P ENNY FROM THE S EARS TOWER
The tallest building in the United States is the Sears Tower in Chicago, with a height of
1454 feet. Ignoring wind resistance, how fast would a penny dropped from the top be
moving when it hit the ground?
Reasoning: The penny is dropped with zero initial velocity. We first need to calculate
the time it takes to fall 1454 feet. From this time we can calculate the velocity at
impact.
Step 1—Time of fall: The distance traveled by an accelerating object is:
distance ⫽ 1/2 ⫻ acceleration ⫻ time 2
⫽ 1/2 ⫻ 32 ft/s2 ⫻ t 2 ⫽ 16 ft/s2 ⫻ t 2
Recall that distance equals 1454 feet, so rearranging gives:
1454 ft
t2 ⫽
16 ft/s2
⫽ 90.88 s2
Taking the square root of both sides gives time:
t ⫽ 9.5 s
Step 2- Speed at Impact: The speed of an acceleration object is:

Velocity ⫽ acceleration ⫻ time
⫽ 32 ft/s2 ⫻ 9.5 s ⫽ 304 ft/s
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 36
This high speed, about 200 miles per hour, could easily kill a person, so don’t try this
experiment! In fact, most objects dropped in air will not accelerate indefinitely. Because
of air resistance an object will accelerate until it reaches its terminal velocity; then it will
continue falling at a constant speed after that point. The terminal velocity of a falling
penny would be considerably less than 200 miles an hour. In addition, it would depend
on whether the penny was falling face down or on edge, because the air resistance would
be different in those two cases.
Experiencing Extreme Acceleration

You experience accelerations every day of your life. Just lying in bed you feel accelera-
tion equal to g, due to Earth’s gravitational pull. When you travel in a car or plane, ride
an elevator, and especially when you enjoy amusement park rides, your body is sub-
jected to additional accelerations, though rarely exceeding 2 g. But jet pilots and astro-
nauts experience accelerations many times that caused by Earth’s gravitational pull
during takeoffs, sharp turns, and emergency ejections. What happens to the human
body under extreme acceleration, and how can equipment be designed to reduce the
risk of injury? In the early days of rocket flights and high-speed jet design, government
scientists had to know.
Controlled laboratory accelerations were produced by rocket sleds (Figure 2-10)
or centrifuges, which may reach accelerations exceeding 10 g. Researchers quickly
Acceleration
discovered that muscles and bones behave as an effectively rigid framework. Sudden
extreme acceleration, such as that experienced in a car crash, may cause damage,
but these parts can withstand the more gradual changes in acceleration associated
with flight.
The body’s fluids, on the other hand, shift and flow under sustained acceleration. A
pilot in a sharp curve will be pushed down into the seat and
Courtesy Department of Defense/Still Media Record Center
experience something like the feeling you get when an ele-

vator starts upward. The blood in the arteries leading up to
the brain will also be pushed down, and, if the acceleration is
big enough, the net effect will be to drain blood temporarily
from the brain. The heart simply can’t push the blood
upward hard enough to overcome the downward pull. As a
result, a pilot may experience a blackout, followed by
unconsciousness. Greater accelerations could be tolerated in
the prone position adopted by the first astronauts, who had
to endure sustained 8 g conditions during takeoffs.
One of the authors (J.T.) once rode in a centrifuge and
experienced an 8 g acceleration. The machine itself was a
gray, egg-shaped capsule located at the end of a long steel
arm. When in operation, the arm moved in a horizontal cir-
cle. Funny things happen at 8 g. For example, the skin of
your face is pulled down, so that it’s hard to keep your
mouth open to breathe. The added weight feels like a very
heavy person sitting on your chest.
There is, however, one advantage to having had this
particular experience. Now, whenever he encounters the
question, “What is the most you have ever weighed?” on a
medical form, the author can write “1600 pounds.” •
• Figure 2-10 Colonel John Stapp experienced extreme

acceleration in rocket sled experiments. The severe contortion
of soft facial tissues was recorded by a movie camera.
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Isaac Newton and the Universal Laws of Motion | 37
Isaac Newton and the Universal Laws of Motion

With Galileo’s work, scientists began to isolate and observe the motion of material
objects in nature, and to summarize their results into mathematical relationships. As to
why bodies should behave this way, however, they had no suggestions. And there was
certainly little reason to believe that the measurements of falling objects at Earth’s sur-
face had anything at all to do with motions of planets and stars in the heavens.
The English scientist Isaac Newton (1642–1727), arguably the most brilliant scien-
tist who ever lived (Figure 2-11), synthesized the work of Galileo and others into a state-
ment of the basic principles that govern the motion of everything in the universe, from
stars and planets to clouds, cannonballs, and the muscles in your body. These results,
called Newton’s laws of motion, sound so simple and obvious that it’s hard to realize
they represent the results of centuries of experiment and observation, and even harder to
appreciate what an extraordinary effect they had on the development of science.
The young Newton was interested in mechanical devices and eventually enrolled as
a student at Cambridge University. For most of the 1665–1666 school year the Univer-
sity was closed due to the Great Plague that devastated much of Europe. Isaac Newton
spent the time at a family farm in Lincolnshire, reading and thinking about the physical • Figure 2-11 Isaac Newton
world. There he began thinking through his extraordinary discoveries in the nature of (1642–1727).
motion, as well as pivotal advances in optics and mathematics.
Three laws summarize Newton’s description of motions.
THE F IRST L AW •
A moving object will continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed, and a
stationary object will remain at rest, unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s first law seems to state the obvious: if you leave an object alone, it won’t change
its state of motion. In order to change it, you have to push it or pull it, thus applying a
force. Yet virtually all scientists from the Greeks to Copernicus would have argued that the
first law is wrong. They believed that because the circle is the most perfect geometrical
shape, objects will move in circles unless something interferes. They believed that heavenly
objects would keep turning without any outside force acting (indeed, they had to believe
this or face the question of why the heavens didn’t slow down and stop).
Newton, basing his arguments on observations and the work of his predecessors,
turned this notion around. An object left to itself will move in a straight line, and if you • Figure 2-12 This hammer
want to get it to move in a circle, you have to apply a force (Figure 2-12). You know this thrower is applying a force to keep
is true—if you swing something around your head, the weight moving in a circle.
it will move in a circle only as long as you hold on
Mark A. Leman/Stone/Getty Images

to it. Let go, and off it goes in a straight line.
This simple observation led Newton to recog-
nize two different kinds of motion. An object is in
uniform motion if it travels in a straight line at
constant speed. All other motions are called acceler-
ation. Accelerations can involve changes of speed,
changes of direction, or both.
Newton’s first law tells us that when we see
acceleration, something must have acted to produce
that change. We define a force as something that
produces a change in the state of motion of an object.
In fact, we will use the first law of motion extensively
in this book to tell us how to recognize when a force,
particularly a new kind of force, is acting.
The tendency of an object to remain in uni-
form motion is called inertia. A body at rest
tends to stay at rest because of its inertia, while a
moving body tends to keep moving because of its
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 38
inertia. We often use this idea in everyday speech; for example, we may talk about the
inertia in a company or government organization that is resistant to change.
THE S ECOND L AW •
The acceleration produced on a body by a force is proportional to the magnitude of the
force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
If Newton’s first law of motion tells you when a force is acting, then the second law of
motion tells you what the force does when it acts. This law conforms to our everyday
experience: it’s easier to lift a child than an adult, and easier to move a ballerina than a
defensive tackle.
Newton’s second law is often expressed as an equation.
In words: The greater the force, the greater the acceleration; but the more massive
the object being acted on by a given force, the smaller the acceleration.
In equation form:
force ⫽ mass (kg) ⫻ acceleration (m/s2 )
In symbols:
F⫽m⫻a
This equation, well known to generations of physics majors, tells us that if we know the
forces acting on a system of known mass, we can predict its future motion. The equation
conforms to our experience that an object’s acceleration is a balance between two fac-
tors: force and mass, which is related to the amount of matter in an object.
A force causes the acceleration. The greater the force, the greater the acceleration.
The harder you throw a ball, the faster it goes. Mass measures the amount of matter in
any object. The greater the object’s mass, the more “stuff” you have to accelerate, the
less effect a given force is going to have. A given force will accelerate a golf ball more
than a bowling ball, for example. Newton’s second law of motion thus defines the bal-
ance between force and mass in producing an acceleration.
Newton’s first law defines the concept of force as something that causes a mass to
accelerate, but the second law goes much further. It tells us the exact magnitude of the
force necessary to cause a given mass to achieve a given acceleration. Because force equals
mass times acceleration, the units of force must be the same as mass times acceleration.
Mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and acceleration in meters per second per second
(m/s2), so the unit of force is the “kilogram-meter-per-second-squared” (kg-m/s2). One
kg-m/s2 is called the “newton.” The symbol for the newton is N.
EXAMPLE 2-4
F ROM Z ERO TO T EN IN L ESS T HAN A S ECON D
What is the force needed to accelerate a 75-kilogram sprinter from rest to a speed of 10
meters per second (a very fast run) in a half second?
Reasoning and Solution: We must first find the acceleration, and then use Newton’s
second law to find the force.
冤final velocity ⫺ initial velocity (m/s)冥
acceleration (ms/s 2 ) ⫽
time (s)
(10 m/s ⫺ 0 m/s)
⫽
0.5 s
⫽ 20 m/s2
What force is needed to produce this acceleration? From Newton’s second law,
force (N) ⫽ mass (kg) ⫻ acceleration (m/s2 )
⫽ 75 kg ⫻ 20 m/s2
⫽ 1500 newtons
c02.qxd 9/2/09 3:39 PM Page 39
Isaac Newton and the Universal Laws of Motion | 39
The second law of motion does not imply that every time a force
Jim Cornfield/© Corbis

acts, motion must result. A book placed on a table still feels the force
of gravity, and you can push against a wall without moving it. In these
situations, the atoms in the table or the wall shift around and exert
their own force that balances the one that acts on them. It is only the
net, or unbalanced, force that actually gives rise to acceleration.
THE THIRD L AW •
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton’s third law of motion tells us that whenever a force is applied
to an object, that object simultaneously exerts an equal and opposite
force. When you push on a wall, for example, it instantaneously pushes
back on you; you can feel the force on the palm of your hand. In fact,
the force the wall exerts on you is equal in magnitude (but opposite in
direction) to the force you exert on it.
The third law of motion is perhaps the least intuitive of the three.
We tend to think of our world in terms of causes and effects, in which
big or fast objects exert forces on smaller, slower ones: a car slams into
a tree, a batter drives the ball into deep left field, a boxer hits a punch-
ing bag (Figure 2-13). But in terms of Newton’s third law it is equally • Figure 2-13 This boxer demon-
strates Newton’s laws of motion.
valid to think of these events the “other way around.” The tree stops the car’s motion,
the baseball alters the swing of the bat, and the punching bag blocks the thrust of the
boxer’s glove, thus exerting a force and changing the direction and
Colin Anderson/Blend Images/ © Corbis

speed of the punch.
Forces always act simultaneously in pairs. You can convince yourself Forces act
of this fact by thinking about any of your day’s myriad activities. As you simultaneously
in pairs
recline on a sofa reading this book, your weight exerts a force on the
sofa, but the sofa exerts an equal and opposite force (called a contact
force) on you, preventing you from falling to the floor (Figure 2-14).
The book feels heavy in your hands as it presses down, but your hands
hold the book up, exerting an equal and opposite force. You may feel a Air exerts force
slight draft from an open window or fan, but as the air exerts that gen- on the skin
tle force on you, your skin just as surely exerts an equal and opposite
force on the air, causing it to change its path.
N EWTON’S L AWS AT WORK •

Every motion in your life—indeed, every motion in the universe—involves
the constant interplay of all three of Newton’s laws. The laws of motion
Sofa exerts
never occur in isolation but rather are interlocking aspects of every contact force
object’s behavior. The interdependence of Newton’s three laws of motion
can be envisioned by a simple example. Imagine a boy standing on roller
skates holding a stack of baseballs. He throws the balls, one by one. Each time he throws a • Figure 2-14 Newton’s laws of
baseball, the first law tells us that he has to exert a force so that the ball accelerates. The third motion can be seen in operation in
law tells us that the baseball will exert an equal and opposite force on the boy. This force many places, including while reading
acting on the boy will, according to the second law, cause him to recoil backward. this book.
While the example of the boy and the baseballs may seem a bit contrived, it exactly
illustrates the principle by which fish swim and rockets fly. As a fish moves its tail, it
applies a force against the water. The water, in turn, pushes back on the fish and propels
it forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted on hot gases, accelerating them out the
tail end (Figure 2-15). By the argument just presented, this means that an equal and
opposite force must be exerted on the rocket by the gases, propelling it forward. Every
rocket, from simple fireworks to a space shuttle, works this way.
Stop and Think! It is sometimes argued that rockets propel themselves

by pushing on the air around them. Can this be right? (HINT: Think
about how rockets can move in the vacuum of space).
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 40
• Figure 2-15 The space shuttle Isaac Newton’s three laws

Discovery rises from its launch pad at of motion form a comprehen-
Cape Canaveral, Florida. As hot gases sive description of all possible
accelerate violently out the rocket’s
motions, as well as the forces
engine, the shuttle experiences an
equal and opposite acceleration that that lead to them. In and of
lifts it into orbit. themselves, however, Newton’s
laws do not say anything about
the nature of those forces. In
fact, much of the progress of sci-
ence since Newton’s time has
been associated with the discov-
ery and elucidation of the forces
of nature.
Courtesy NASA
Momentum
Newton’s laws tell us that the only way to change the motion of an object is to apply a
force. We all have an intuitive understanding of this tendency. We sense, for example, that
a massive object like a large train, even if it is moving slowly, is very hard to stop. This
knowledge is often used by people who make science fiction movies. It’s almost a cliché
now that when a spaceship is huge and bulky, the filmmakers supply a deep, rumbling
soundtrack that mimics a slowly moving train. (In this case artistic truth conflicts with the
laws of nature, because in the vacuum of space there can be no sound waves.)
At the same time, a small object moving very fast—a rifle bullet, for example—is
very hard to stop as well. Thus, our everyday experience tells us that the tendency of a
moving object to remain in motion depends both on the mass of the object and on its
speed. The higher the mass and the higher the speed, the more difficult it is to stop the
object or change its direction of motion.
Physicists encapsulate these notions in a quantity called linear momentum, which
equals the product of an object’s mass times its velocity.
In equation form:
momentum ( kg-m/s ) ⫽ mass (kg ) ⫻ velocity (m/s)
In symbols:
p⫽m⫻v
EXAMPLE 2-5
P LAY B ALL
A baseball with mass 0.3 kilograms moves to the right with a velocity of 30 meters/
second (about the speed of a good fastball). What is its momentum?
Solution: The momentum is defined to be
p⫽m⫻v
If we substitute the numbers for mass and velocity, we find that
p ⫽ 0.3 kg ⫻ 30 m/s ⫽ 9 kg-m/s
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Momentum | 41
Milton Heiberg/Photo Reseachers
C ONSERVATION OF LINEAR M OMENTUM •
We can derive a very important consequence from Newton’s laws. If no external forces
act on a system, then Newton’s second law says that the change in the total momentum
of a system is zero. When physicists find a quantity that does not change, they say that
the quantity is conserved. The conclusion we have just reached, therefore, is called the
law of conservation of linear momentum.
It’s important to keep in mind that the law of conservation of momentum doesn’t
say that momentum can never change. It just says that it won’t change unless an outside
force is applied. If a soccer ball is rolling across a field and a player kicks it, a force is
applied to the ball as soon as her foot touches it. At that moment, the momentum of the
ball changes, and that change is reflected in its change of direction and speed. • Figure 2-16 This symmetrical
You saw the consequences of the conservation of momentum the last time you fireworks display illustrates the law of
watched a fireworks display (Figure 2-16). The rocket arches up and explodes just at the conservation of linear momentum.
moment that the rocket is stationary at the top of its path, at the instant when its total
momentum is zero. After the explosion, brightly colored burning bits of material fly out
in all directions. Each of these pieces has a mass and a velocity, so each has some momen-
tum. Conservation of momentum, however, tells us that when we add up all the
momenta of the pieces, they should cancel each other out and give a total momentum of
zero. Thus, for example, if there is a 1-gram piece moving to the right at 10 meters per
second, there has to be the equivalent of a 1-gram piece moving to the left at the same
velocity. Thus conservation of momentum gives fireworks their characteristic symmetric
starburst pattern.
ANGULAR M OMENTUM •
Just as an object moving in a straight line will keep moving unless a force acts, an object
that is rotating will keep rotating unless a twisting force called a torque acts to make it
stop. A spinning top will keep spinning until the friction between its point of contact
and the floor slows it down. A wheel will keep turning until friction in its bearing stops
it. This tendency to keep rotating is called angular momentum.
Think about some common experiences with spinning objects. Two factors increase
an object’s angular momentum, and thus make it more difficult to slow down and stop
the rotating object. The first factor is simply the rate of spin; the faster an object spins,
the harder it is to stop. The second, more subtle factor relates to the distribution of
Paul Sutton/Duomo Photography, Inc.

mass. Objects with more mass, or with mass located farther away from the central axis of
rotation, have greater angular momentum. Thus, a solid metal wheel has more angular
momentum than an air-filled tire of the same diameter and rate of spin.
The consequences of the conservation of angular momentum you’re most likely to
experience occur when something happens to change a spinning object’s distribution of
mass. A striking illustration of this point can be seen in figure skating competitions. As a
skater goes into a spin with her arms spread, she spins slowly. As she pulls her arms in
tight to her body, her angular momentum must remain constant, since no outside forces
are acting (Figure 2-17). Her rate of spin must increase.
TECHNOLOGY •
Inertial Guidance System

The conservation of angular momentum plays an important role in so-called inertial
guidance systems for navigation in airplanes and satellites. The idea behind such systems
is very simple. A massive object like a sphere or a flat circular disk is set into rotation
inside a device in which very little resistance (that is, almost no torque) is exerted by the
bearings. Once such an object is set into rotation, its angular momentum continues to • Figure 2-17 When the skater
point in the same direction, regardless of how the spaceship moves around it. By sensing spins faster as she pulls in her arms,
the constant rotation and seeing how it is related to the orientation of the satellite, engi- she is demonstrating the conserva-
neers can tell which way the satellite is pointed. • tion of angular momentum.
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 42
The Universal Force of Gravity

Gravity is the most obvious force in our daily lives. It holds you down in your chair and
keeps you from floating off into space. It guarantees that when you drop things they fall.
The effects of what we call gravity were known to the ancients, and its quantitative prop-
erties were studied by Galileo and many of his contemporaries, but Isaac Newton
revealed its universality.
By Newton’s account, he experienced his great insight in an apple orchard. He saw
an apple fall and, at the same time, saw the Moon in the sky behind it. He knew that in
order for the Moon to keep moving in a circular path, a force had to be acting on it. He
wondered whether the gravity that caused the apple to move downward could extend far
outward to the Moon, supplying the force that kept it from flying off.
Look at the problem this way: If the Moon goes around Earth, then it isn’t moving
in a straight line. From the first law of motion it follows that a force must be acting on
it. Newton hypothesized that this was the same force that made the apple fall—the
familiar force of gravity (see Figure 2-18).
Eventually, he realized that the orbits of all the planets could be understood if grav-
ity was not restricted to the surface of Earth but was a force found throughout the uni-
verse. He formulated this insight (an insight that has been overwhelmingly confirmed by
observations) in what is called Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
In words: Between any two objects in the universe there is an attractive force (grav-
ity) that is proportional to the masses of the objects and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
In equation form:
冤G ⫻ mass 1 (kg ) ⫻ mass2 (kg )冥
force of gravity (newtons ) ⫽
冤distance (m)冥2
In symbols:
(G ⫻ m 1 ⫻ m 2 )
• Figure 2-18 An apple falling, a F⫽
d2
ball being thrown, a space shuttle
orbiting Earth, and the orbiting
where G is a number known as the gravitational constant (see below).
Moon, all display the influence of In everyday words, this law tells us that the more massive two objects are, the greater
the force of gravity. the force between them will be; the farther apart they are, the less the force will be.
THE G RAVITATIONAL C ONSTANT, G •

When we say that A is directly proportional to B, we mean
that if A increases, B must increase by the same propor-
tion. If A doubles then B must double as well. We can
state this idea in mathematical form by writing
Gravity
A⫽k⫻B
Gravity
where k is a number known as the constant of proportion-
Moon
ality between A and B. This equation tells us that if we
Gravity
know the constant k and either A or B, then we can calcu-
late the exact value of the other. Thus the constant of pro-
portionality in a relationship is a useful thing to know.
The gravitational constant, G, is a constant of direct
proportionality; it expresses the exact numerical relation
between the masses of two objects and their separation, on
Gravity
the one hand, and the force between them on the other.
(G ⫻ m 1 ⫻ m 2 )
F⫽
d2
Unlike g, however, which applies only to Earth’s surface,
Space
shuttle G is a universal constant that applies to any two masses
anywhere in the universe.
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 43
The Universal Force of Gravity | 43
Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), a scientist at Oxford University in

England, first measured G in 1798 by using the experimental apparatus Twisted wire
shown in Figure 2-19. Cavendish suspended a dumbbell made of two small
lead balls by a stiff wire and fixed two larger lead spheres near the sus- A Fixed lead sphere
pended balls. The gravitational attraction between the hanging lead balls m Suspended ball
M
and the fixed spheres caused the wire to twist slightly. By measuring the
amount of twisting force, or torque, on the wire, Cavendish could calculate
the gravitational force on the dumbbells. This force, together with knowl-
edge of the masses of the dumbbells (m2 in the equation) and the heavy
spheres (m2), as well as their final separation (d), gave him the numerical
value of everything in Newton’s law of universal gravitation except G, Suspended ball
which he then calculated using simple arithmetic. In metric units, the value
of G is 6.67 ⫻ 10–11m3/s2-kg, or 6.67 ⫻ 10–11N-m2/kg2 (recall that N is M
m
the symbol for a newton, the unit of force). This constant appears to be uni- A
versal, holding true everywhere in our universe. Fixed lead sphere
WEIGHT AND G RAVITY • • Figure 2-19 The Cavendish bal-

ance measures the universal gravita-
The law of universal gravitation says that there is a force between any two objects in the
tional constant G. This experimental
universe: two dancers, two stars, this book and you—all exert forces on each other. The device balances the gravitational
gravitational attraction between you and Earth would pull you down if you weren’t attractive force between the sus-
standing on the ground. As it is, the ground exerts a force equal and opposite to that of pended balls and fixed spheres,
gravity, a force you can feel in the soles of your feet. If you were standing on a scale, the against the force exerted by a
gravitational pull of Earth would pull you down until a spring or other mechanism in the twisted wire.
scale exerted the opposing force. In this case, the size of that counterbalancing force
registers on a display and you call it your weight.
Weight, in fact, is just the force of gravity on an object located at a particular point.
Weight depends on where you are; on the surface of Earth you weigh one thing, on the
surface of the Moon another, and in the depths of interstellar space you would weigh
next to nothing. You even weigh a little less on a high mountaintop than you do at sea
level, because you are farther from Earth’s center. Weight contrasts with your mass (the
amount of matter), which stays the same no matter where you go.
B IG G AND LITTLE g •
The law of universal gravitation, coupled with the experimental results on bodies falling
near Earth, can be used to reveal a close relationship between the universal constant G
and Earth’s gravitational acceleration g. According to the law of universal gravitation,
the gravitational force on an object of any mass at Earth’s surface is
(G ⫻ mass ⫻ M E )
force ⫽
R E2
where ME and RE are Earth’s mass and radius, respectively. On the other hand, New-
ton’s second law says that
force ⫽ mass ⫻ g
Equating the right sides of these two equations,
(G ⫻mass ⫻ M E )
mass ⫻ g ⫽
R E2
Dividing both sides by mass,
(G ⫻ M E )
g⫽
R E2
But the values of G, ME, and RE have been measured:
冤(6.67 ⫻ 10-11 N-m2/kg 2 ) ⫻ (6.02 ⫻ 1024 kg )冥
g⫽
(6.40 ⫻ 106 m )2
(4.015 ⫻ 10 N-m2/kg)
14
⫽
(4.10 ⫻ 1013 m2 )
⫽ 9.8 N-kg ⫽ 9.8 m/s2
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 44
Thus the value of Earth’s gravitational acceleration, g, can be calculated from Newton’s
universal equation for gravity.
This result is extremely important. For Galileo, g was a number to be measured,
but whose value he could not predict. For Newton, on the other hand, g was a num-
ber that could be calculated purely from Earth’s size and mass. Because we understand
where g comes from, we can now predict the appropriate value of gravitational accel-
eration not only for Earth, but for any body in the universe, provided we know its
mass and radius.
Stop and Think! Can the gravitational force between two objects in the
universe ever be equal to zero? Why or why not?
EXAMPLE 2-6
W EIGHT ON TH E M OON
The mass of the Moon is MM=7.18 ⫻ 1022kg, and its radius RM is 1738km. If your mass
is 100 kilograms, what would you weigh on the Moon?
Reasoning: We have to calculate the force exerted on an object at the surface of an
astronomical body. This time both the mass and the radius of the body are different from
that of Earth, although G is the same.
Solution: From the equation that defines weight, we have
(G ⫻ mass1 ⫻ mass2 )
weight ⫽
distance 2
(G ⫻ 100 kg ⫻ M M )
⫽
RM2
冤(6.67 ⫻ 10⫺11 N-m2/kg 2 ) ⫻ 100 kg ⫻ (7.18 ⫻ 1022 kg) 冥
⫽
(1.738 ⫻ 106 m )2
⫺11
冤(6.67 ⫻ 10 N-m /k g 2) ⫻ (7.18 ⫻ 1024 kg 2 )冥
2
⫽
(3.02 ⫻1012 m2)
(4.79 ⫻ 10 N-m2 )
14
⫽
(3.02 ⫻ 1012 m2 )
⫽ 159 newtons
This weight is about one-sixth of the weight that the same object would have on
• Figure 2-20 Halley’s comet as it Earth, even though its mass is the same in both places.
appeared on its last visit to Earth, in
1985.
Roe, D. Malin/AAO/Photo Researchers
Newton bequeathed a picture of the universe that is beautiful and ordered. The planets
orbit the Sun in stately paths, forever trying to move off in straight lines, forever pre-
vented from doing so by the inward tug of gravity. The same laws that operate in the
cosmos operate on Earth, and these laws were discovered by the application of the sci-
entific method. To a Newtonian observer, the universe was like a clock. It had been
wound up and was ticking along according to God’s laws. Newton and his followers
were persuaded that in carrying out their work, they were discovering what was in the
mind of God when the universe was created.
Of all celestial phenomena, none seemed more portentous and magical than comets,
yet even these chance wanderers were subject to Newton’s laws. In 1682, British
astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742) used Newtonian logic to compute the orbit of
the comet that bears his name, and he predicted its return in 1758 (Figure 2-20). The
“recovery” of Halley’s Comet on Christmas Eve of that year was celebrated around the
world as a triumph for the Newtonian system.
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 45
Summary | 45
Thinking More About The Ordered Universe
P REDICTABILITY are called chaotic systems, and their field of study is called
chaos.
The Newtonian universe seemed regular and predictable in the Whitewater in a mountain stream is a familiar chaotic system.
extreme. Indeed, from the point of view of the Newtonians, if If you put two chips of wood down on the upstream side of the
you knew the present state of a system and the forces acting on rapids, those chips (and the water on which they ride) will be
it, the laws of motion would allow you to predict its entire widely separated by the time they get to the end. This is true no
future. This notion was taken to the extreme by the French matter how small you make the chips, or how close together they
mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827), who pro- are at the beginning. If you know the exact initial position of a
posed the notion of the Divine Calculator. His argument (in chip and every aspect of the waterway in such a system with com-
modern language) was this: If we knew the position and veloc- plete mathematical precision, you can in principle predict where it
ity of every atom in the universe and we had infinite computa- will come out downstream. But if there is the slightest error in
tional power, then we could predict the position and velocity of your initial description, no matter how small, the actual position
every atom in the universe for all future times. There is no dis- of the chip and your prediction may differ significantly. Every
tinction in this argument between an atom in a rock and an measurement in the real world has some error associated with it,
atom in your hand. Thus Laplace would say that all of your so it is never possible to determine the exact position of the chip
movements are completely determined by the laws of physics at the start of its trip. Therefore you cannot predict exactly where
to the end of time. You cannot choose your future. What is to it will come out even if you know all the forces acting on it.
be was determined from the very beginning. The existence of chaos, then, tells us that the philosophical
This idea has been negated by two modern developments conclusions drawn from the Newtonian vision of the universe
in science. One of these, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle don’t apply to some systems in nature. The flow of Earth’s
(see Chapter 8), tells us that at the level of the atom it is impos- atmosphere and the long-term development of weather, for
sible to know simultaneously and exactly both the position example, appear to be chaotic, and it may turn out that ecosys-
and velocity of any particle. Thus you can never get the infor- tems (see Chapter 19) behave this way as well. If this is true,
mation the Divine Calculator needs to begin working. what implications might there be when governments have to
Furthermore, scientists working with computer models deal with issues such as global warming (see Chapter 19) and
have recently discovered that many systems in nature can be the preservation of endangered species? How confident do you
described in simple Newtonian terms, but have futures that have to be that something bad is going to happen before you
are, to all intents and purposes, unpredictable. These situations start taking steps to avoid it?
R ETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED S CIENCE Q UESTION •

Why do planets appear to wander slowly across the sky? Ptolemy’s earlier work by placing the Sun, rather than Earth at
the center of the solar system.
• Since before recorded history, people have observed the move-
• Sir Issac Newton synthesized the work of the early astronomers
ment of the lights in the evening and night sky (i.e., the planets
and Galileo Galilei into a simple and elegant statement of the basic
and stars).
principles of mechanics that govern the motion of everything in
º Some of the most predictable objects in the universe are the the universe, from stars and planets, to cannonballs and clouds.
stars and planets that we see each night.
Newton realized that if gravity was not restricted to the surface
º From an Earthly vantage point, the planets appear to wander of Earth, then his laws of motion could explain the movements
across the nighttime sky as Earth rotates around its axis and
of the planets in their orbits as they appear to wander across the
revolves around the Sun.
nighttime sky.
• Ptolemy and other early astronomers constructed theories placing
Earth at the center of the universe. Copernicus improved
S UMMARY •
Since before recorded history, people have observed regularities in Kepler to propose his laws of planetary motion, which state that plan-
the heavens and have built monuments such as Stonehenge to help ets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits, not circular orbits as had been
order their lives. Models such as the Earth-centered system of previously assumed.
Ptolemy and the Sun-centered system of Copernicus attempted to Meanwhile, Galileo Galilei and other scientists investigated the
explain these regular motions of stars and planets. New, more precise science of mechanics—the way things move near Earth’s surface.
astronomical data by Tycho Brahe led mathematician Johannes These investigators recognized two fundamentally different kinds of
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 46
motion: uniform motion, which involves a constant speed and direc- inversely proportional to the mass. He also pointed out that forces
tion (velocity), and acceleration, which entails a change in either speed always act in pairs.
or direction of travel. Galileo’s experiments revealed that all objects This understanding of forces and motions led Newton to describe
fall the same way, at the constant acceleration of 9.8 meters/second2. gravity, the most obvious force in our daily lives. An object’s weight is
Isaac Newton combined the work of Kepler, Galileo, and others in his the force it exerts due to gravity. He demonstrated that the same force
sweeping laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Newton that pulls a falling apple to Earth causes the Moon to curve around
realized that nothing accelerates without a force acting on it, and that Earth in its elliptical orbit. Indeed, the force of gravity operates every-
the amount of acceleration is proportional to the force applied, but where, with pairs of forces between every pair of masses in the universe.
K EY TERMS •
mechanics acceleration force Newton’s law of universal
speed Newton’s laws of motion mass gravitation
velocity uniform motion gravity weight
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Isaac Newton’s third law of motion tells us that “for every action vertically (lid down) on the
there is an equal and opposite reaction.” Whether we walk forward cement. Stand back and
by pushing backward, or a bird’s wings push back and down to fly watch it for at least 30 sec-
forward, Newton’s third law of motion is all around us. Even when onds. What do you predict
you push against a wall, the wall exerts an equal force back on you, will happen? What law(s) of Film
canister
with an equal and opposite magnitude to the force you have exerted Newton are operative here
on the wall. In this experiment gather these items: two seltzer and can you explain why?
Seltzer tablet
tablets, goggles, a teaspoon, water in a short cup, and a 35mm film What are the variables in
canister from your local photo shop. Next, find a safe cement area this experiment and how Water
Canister
outside to perform the experiment. After placing your goggles on, can you change the results? lid
put one-half teaspoon of water inside the film canister. Ask a friend How can any of these vari-
to drop a tablet of seltzer in the canister, as you quickly place the ables change the reaction time or propel the canister to a higher alti-
lid on. Rapidly shake the canister 10 times and then quickly place it tude? Is this experiment measurable and can you graph the results?
1. With what ancient science is Stonehenge associated? 7. A hockey player hits a puck at one end of an empty skating rink.
2. Would Stonehenge have been of value if the universe was The puck travels across the ice in a straight line until it is stopped by
unpredictable? the goal at the other end. Explain how each of Newton’s laws of
3. Why was the Ptolemaic system accepted as an explanation of motion applies to this situation.
celestial motion for over a thousand years? What did it explain? 8. According to Newton, what are the two kinds of motion in the
What system challenged the idea that Earth was the center of the universe? How did this view differ from those of previous scholars?
universe? 9. Why is gravity called a universal force?
4. What were Tycho Brahe’s principal contributions to science? 10. What is the difference between the constants g and G?
How did he try to resolve the question of the structure of the 11. What similarities did Newton see between the Moon and an
universe? apple?
5. What was Kepler’s role in interpreting Tycho Brahe’s data? 12. What is the difference between weight and mass?
6. How did Galileo apply the scientific method to his study of 13. How does velocity differ from speed? What are quantities that
falling objects? involve both speed and direction called?
1. What role did observation and the regularity of nature play 4. Can you give an everyday example that illustrates the difference
in the development of modern sanitation? (Hint: John Snow between acceleration and velocity?
[1823-1858]). 5. Which of the following is in uniform motion, and which is in
2. Can scientists prove that Stonehenge was not built by ancient accelerated motion?
astronauts? a. a car heading west at 55 mph on a level road
3. Why was Earth at the center of the universe in Ptolemy’s system? b. a car heading west at 55 mph on a hill
c02.qxd 9/2/09 2:17 PM Page 47
Investigations | 47
c. a car going around a curve at 55 mph 8. Why can we feel Earth’s gravity but not the gravitational force of
d. a dolphin leaping out of the water the Sun or Moon?
e. a tennis ball tossed into the air; the same ball as it bounces off 9. What was the role of mathematics in the science of mechanics?
the ground 10. In what sense is the Newtonian universe simpler than
f. an apple sitting on your kitchen table Ptolemy’s? Suppose observations had shown that the two did
6. Which, if any, of the following objects does not exert a gravita- equally well at explaining the data. Construct an argument to say
tional force on you? that Newton’s universe should still be preferred.
a. this book 11. Why don’t the planets just fly off into space? What keeps them
in their orbits?
b. the Sun
12. How did Henry Cavendish’s experiment fit into the scientific
c. the nearest star
method?
d. a distant galaxy
13. What did Edmund Halley predict? How was his prediction
e. the Atlantic ocean confirmed?
7. What pairs of forces act in the following situations? 14. Why are observatories built as far away from major cities as possible?
a. a pitcher throws a baseball 15. Why is it possible for a rocket to travel in space? Which of
b. a batter hits a baseball out of the park Newton’s laws of motion explain an accelerating rocket?
c. a leaf falls to the ground 16. What forces keep a pendulum swinging back and forth?
d. the Moon orbits Earth 17. Why does the existence of chaotic systems limit our predictions
e. you sit in a chair of some natural phenomena (e.g., long-term weather development)?
P ROBLEMS •
1. If a person weighs 150 pounds, what does he weigh in newtons? 3. How much force are you exerting when you lift a 50-pound
2. If your car goes from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 6 seconds, what dumbbell? What units will you use to describe this force?
is your acceleration? If you step on the brake and your car goes 4. What would you weigh on Venus? On Saturn?
from 60 miles per hour to 0 in 3 seconds, what is your acceleration?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Galileo was arrested and imprisoned for his studies and publica- are still called the “Galilean” moons. Why did this discovery cast
tions. Discuss the dilemma faced by scientists whose discoveries doubt on the Ptolemaic system? What else did Galileo see through
offend conventional ideas. What scientific research does today’s his telescope?
society find offensive or immoral? Why? 9. How does gravity affect the flow of blood in your body? and the
2. Do you believe in fate? Is there free will? The concept of predes- flow of sap in trees? How have organisms evolved to counteract the
tination plays an important role in some kinds of theology. What is force of gravity?
it? How does it relate to Laplace? to chaos? 10. Galileo built his own telescope after learning about it from
3. What other kinds of models of the universe did old civilizations others. Search the web for links that would help you build your
develop? Look up those of the Mayans, the Chinese, and the Indi- own telescope. What materials will you need? Where did Galileo
ans of the American Southwest. get his materials?
4. Investigate the scientific contributions of Galileo. What other exper- 11. Try to build a sundial. What information do you need for your
iments did he design? What instrumentation did he use? How was sundial to work? What observations do you need to make in order
this research funded? Was he engaging in basic or applied research? for your sundial to be more accurate? How does a sundial make use
5. The gravitational constant is now known to one part in 10,000, of the movement of celestial bodies?
yet physicists are still trying to measure this constant. Why? 12. What role does momentum play in bowling? in billiards or pool?
6. People have claimed that the Great Pyramids of Egypt had to have 13. What role does torque play in using a yo-yo? What other forces
been built by ancient astronauts because the Egyptians were too are at work as the yo-yo goes up and down the string?
primitive to have built them. Look up the weight of the largest stones 14. Newton made a number of contributions to the field of mathe-
in the pyramids and estimate the number of people it would take to matics. What were they, and why are they important?
move them. Then comment on the ancient astronaut argument. 15. Find a plastic or paper cup. Drill or punch two holes (approxi-
7. Throw a frisbee to a friend. Describe the path that the frisbee mately one-quarter inch in diameter) on opposite sides of the cup.
takes as it travels from one person to another. What forces cause the Fill the cup to the rim with water. The water will flow from the cup
frisbee to travel the way it does? Can you describe that path using through the holes. Now refill the cup, cover the holes with your
mathematics as well as words? fingers, and drop the cup from an elevated position. The water
8. Galileo was one of the first people to look at the planets through won’t flow out of the holes during this free fall. Why? What force or
a telescope. He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, which forces are keeping the water in the cup?
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 48
3
Energy
Why must animals eat to stay alive?
PHYSICS
When a bowler
bowls a strike, some
of the bowling ball’s
BIOLOGY kinetic energy is CHEMISTRY
transferred to scatter
the pins.
Plants convert
Stored chemical
the radiant energy
energy in fossil
of sunlight into the
fuels (coal, gas, and
chemical energy
oil) is converted to
necessary to sustain
heat energy during
life for organisms at
the process of
every trophic
burning.
level.
ENVIRONMENT
A new
generation of
The many different
powerful and forms of energy are Wind and rain obtain
lightweight batteries interchangeable, and the their energy through
that convert chemical the conservation of
potential energy into total amount of energy the Sun’s radiant
electricity is needed in an isolated system energy. (Ch. 18)
to power electric
cars. (Ch. 15) is conserved.
TECHNOLOGY
During an
Stars convert the
earthquake,
element hydrogen
elastic potential
into helium and
energy stored in rock
radiate energy
is suddenly converted
through the process
to kinetic energy as
of nuclear fusion.
the rock breaks.
(Ch. 14)
(Ch. 17)
Vigorous exercise
converts the body’s
ASTRONOMY stored chemical
GEOLOGY
energy into kinetic
energy and heat.

HEALTH & SAFETY
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 49
Science Through the Day Morning Routine
he daily routine begins.
SUPERSTOCK
T You turn on the over-
head light, squinting as your
eyes adjust to the brightness.
Then you take your morning
shower; it feels great to just
stand there and let the hot
water wash over you.
Soon you’ll boil water
for coffee, eat a hearty break-
fast, and then drive to the
beach.
During every one of
these ordinary actions—
indeed, every moment of
every day—you use energy
in its many varied and inter-
changeable forms.
The Great Chain of Energy

Hundreds of millions of years ago, a bit of energy was generated in the core of the Sun.
For thousands of years, that energy percolated outward to the Sun’s surface; then, in a
mere eight minutes, it made the trip through empty space to Earth in the form of sun-
light. Unlike other bits of energy that were reflected back into space by clouds or simply
served to warm Earth’s soil, this particular energy was absorbed by organisms known as
algae floating on the warm ocean surface.
Through the process of photosynthesis (see Chapter 22), these algae transformed
the Sun’s energy into the chemical energy needed to hold together its complex mole- • Figure 3-1 This oil pump in
cules. Eventually these algae died and sank to the bottom of the ocean, where, over long Colorado is bringing up solar energy
stored millions of years ago.
eons, they were buried deeper and deeper. Under the influence of
Lowell Georgia/Photo Researchers

pressure and heat, the dead algae were eventually transformed into
fossil fuel—petroleum.
Then, a short while ago, engineers pumped that petroleum
with its stored energy up out of the ground (Figure 3-1). At a
refinery, the large molecules were broken down into gasoline,
and the gasoline was shipped to your town. A few days ago you
put it into the tank of your car. The last time you drove you
burned that gasoline, converting the stored energy into the
engine’s mechanical energy that moved your car. When you
parked the car, the hot engine slowly cooled, and that bit of heat,
after having been delayed for a few hundred million years, was
radiated out into space to continue its voyage away from the
solar system. As you read these words, the energy you freed yes-
terday has long since left the solar system and is out in the depths
of interstellar space.
49
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 50
50 | C HAP TE R 3 | Energy
S CIENTIFICALLY S PEAKING •
At this moment, trillions of cells in your body are hard at work turning the chemical
energy of the food you ate yesterday into the chemical energy that will keep you alive
today. Energy in the atmosphere generates sweeping winds and powerful storms, while
the ocean’s energy drives mighty currents and incessant tides. Meanwhile, deep within
Earth, energy in the form of heat is moving the continent on which you are standing.
All situations where energy is expended have one thing in common. If you look at
the event closely enough, you will find that, in accord with Newton’s laws of motion
(Chapter 2), a force is being exerted on an object to make it move. When your car burns
gasoline, the fuel’s energy ultimately turns the wheels of your car, which then exert a
force on the road; the road exerts an equal and opposite force on the car, pushing it for-
ward. When you climb the stairs, your muscles exert a force that lifts you upward against
gravity. Even in your body’s cells, a force is exerted on molecules in chemical reactions.
Energy thus is intimately connected with the application of a force.
In everyday conversation we speak of someone having lots of energy, but in science
the term energy has a precise definition that is somewhat different from the ordinary
meaning. To see what scientists mean when they talk about energy, we must first intro-
duce the familiar concept of work.
Work
Scientists say that work is done whenever a force is exerted over a distance. Pick up this
book and raise it a foot. Your muscles applied a force equal to the weight of the book
over a distance of a foot. You did work.
This definition of work differs considerably from everyday usage. From a physi-
cist’s point of view, if you accidentally drive into a tree and smash your fender, work
has been done because a force deformed the car’s metal a measurable distance. On
the other hand, a physicist would say that you haven’t done any work if you spend an
hour in a futile effort to move a large boulder, no matter how tired you get. Even
though you have exerted a considerable force, the distance over which you exerted it
is negligible.
Physicists provide an exact mathematical definition of their notion of work.
In words: Work is equal to the force that is exerted times the distance over which it
is exerted.
In equation form:
work 1joules2 force 1newtons2 distance 1meters2
where a joule is the unit of work, as defined in the following paragraph.
In symbols:
WFd
In practical terms, even a small force can do a lot of work if it is exerted over a long
distance.
As you might expect from this equation, units of work are equal to a force unit
times a distance unit (Figure 3-2). In the metric system of units, where force is mea-
sured in newtons (abbreviated N), work is measured in newton-meters (N-m). For ref-
erence, a newton is roughly equal to the force exerted on your hand by a baseball (or
by seven Fig Newtons!).
This unit is given the special name “joule,” after the English scientist James Prescott
Joule (1818–1889), one of the first people to understand the properties of energy. One
joule is defined as the amount of work done when a force of one newton is exerted over
a distance of one meter.
1 joule of work 1 N of force 1 m of distance
In the English system of units (see Appendix B), where force is measured in pounds,
work is measured in a unit called the foot-pound (usually abbreviated ft-lb).
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 51
The Great Chain of Energy | 51
Matthias Turner/Stone/Getty Images

d(m)
F(N)
• Figure 3-2 A weightlifter applies a force (in newtons) over a distance (in meters).
EXAMPLE 3-1
W ORKI NG A GAI NST G R AVITY
How much work do you do when you carry a 20-kilogram television set up a flight of
stairs (about 4 meters)?
Reasoning: We must first calculate the force exerted by a 20-kilogram mass before we
can determine work. From the previous chapter, we know that to lift a 20-kilogram mass
against the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2) requires a force given by
force mass g
20 kg 9.8 m>s2
196 newtons
Solution: Then, from the equation for work,
work force distance

196 N 4 m
784 joules
Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. If a system is capable of exerting a force over
a distance, then that system possesses energy. The amount of a system’s energy, which
can be recorded in joules or foot-pounds (the same units used for work), is a measure of
how much work the system might do. When a system runs out of energy, it simply can’t
do any more work.
Power
Power provides a measure of both the amount of work done (or, equivalently, the amount
of energy expended) and the time it takes to do that work. In order to complete a physical
task quickly, you must generate more power than if you do the same task slowly. If you run
up a flight of stairs, your muscles need to generate more power than they would if you
walked up the same flight, even though you expend the same amount of energy in either
case. A power hitter in baseball swings the bat faster, converting the chemical energy in his
muscles to kinetic energy more quickly than most other players (Figure 3-3).
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 52
Mark Costantini/San Francisco Chronicle/© Corbis
Scientists define power as the rate at which work is done, or the rate
at which energy is expended.
In words: Power is the amount of work done divided by the time it takes
to do that work.
In equation form:
where the watt is the unit of power, as defined in the following paragraph.
work 1joules 2
power 1watts2
time 1seconds2
In symbols:
W
P
t
• Figure 3-3 Athletes strive to If you do more work in a given span of time, or do a task in a shorter
generate maximum power—that is, time, you use more power.
to release their energy as quickly as In the metric system, power is measured in watts, after James Watt (1736–1819), the
possible—to succeed in sports such Scottish inventor who developed the modern steam engine that powered the Industrial
as professional baseball. Revolution (Figure 3-4). The watt, a unit of measurement that you probably encounter
every day, is defined as the expenditure of 1 joule of energy in 1 second:
11 joule of energy 2
1 watt of power
11 second of time2
Bettman/© Corbis
The unit of 1000 watts (corresponding to an expenditure of 1000 joules

per second) is called a kilowatt and is a commonly used measurement of
electrical power. The English system, on the other hand, uses the more
colorful unit horsepower, which is defined as 550 foot-pounds per second.
The familiar rating of a lightbulb (60 watts or 100 watts, for exam-
ple) is a measure of the rate of energy that the lightbulb consumes when
it is operating. As another familiar example, most electric hand tools or
appliances in your home will be labeled with a power rating in watts.
The equation we have introduced defining power as energy divided
by time may be rewritten as follows:
energy 1joules2 power 1watts2 time 1seconds2

This important equation allows you (and the electric company) to calculate
• Figure 3-4 James Watt’s first
”Sun and Planet” steam engine, now how much energy you consume (and how much you have to pay for).
in the Science Museum in London, Note from this equation that, while the joule is the standard scientific unit for energy,
England, transformed heat energy energy can also be measured in units of power time, such as the familiar kilowatt-hour
into kinetic energy. (often abbreviated kWh) that appears on your electric bill. Table 3-1 summarizes the
important terms we’ve used for force, work, energy, and power.
James Watt and the Horsepower

Table 3-1 Important Terms The horsepower, a unit of power with a colorful history, was devised by James Watt so
Quantity Definition Units that he could sell his steam engines. Watt knew that the main use of his engines would
Force mass acceleration newtons be in mines, where owners traditionally used horses to drive pumps that removed water.
The easiest way to promote his new engines was to tell the mining engineers how many
Work force distance joules
horses each engine would replace. Consequently, he did a series of experiments to deter-
Energy ability to do work joules mine how much energy a horse could generate over a given amount of time. Watt found
Energy power time joules that an average, healthy horse can do 550 foot-pounds of work every second over an
work energy average working day—a unit he defined to be the horsepower, and so he rated his
Power –—— ——— watts engines accordingly. We still use this unit (the engines of virtually all cars and trucks are
time time
rated in horsepower), although we seldom build engines to replace horses these days. •
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Forms of Energy | 53
EXAMPLE 3-2
PAYI NG TH E P I PER
A typical CD system uses 250 watts of electrical power. If you play your system for three
hours in an evening, how much energy do you use? If energy costs 12 cents per kilowatt-
hour, how much do you owe the electrical company?
Reasoning and Solution: The total amount of energy you use will be given by
energy power time

250 W 3 h
750 Wh
Because 750 watts equals 0.75 kilowatt,
energy 0.75 kWh
The cost will be as follows:
cost 12 cents per kWh 0.75 kWh

9 cents
Forms of Energy
Energy, the ability to do work, appears in all natural systems, and it comes in many
forms. The identification of these forms posed a great challenge to scientists in the nine-
teenth century. Ultimately, they recognized two very broad categories. Kinetic energy
is energy associated with moving objects, whereas stored or potential energy is energy
waiting to be released.
K INETIC E NERGY •
Think about a cannonball flying through the air. When it hits a wooden target, the ball
exerts a force on the fibers in the wood, splintering and pushing them apart and creating
a hole. Work has to be done to make that hole; fibers have to be moved aside, which
means that a force must be exerted over the distance they move. When the cannonball
hits the wood, it does work, and so a cannonball in flight clearly has the ability to do
work—that is, it has energy—because of its motion. This energy of motion is what we • Figure 3-5 This breaching
call kinetic energy. humpback whale has kinetic energy
You can find countless examples of kinetic energy in nature. A because he is moving.
Francois Gohier/Photo Researchers

whale moving through water (Figure 3-5), a bird flying, and a preda-
tor catching its prey all have kinetic energy. So do a speeding car, a fly-
ing Frisbee, a falling leaf, and anything else that is moving.
Our intuition tells us that two factors govern the amount of
kinetic energy contained in any moving object. First, heavier objects
that are moving have more kinetic energy than lighter ones: a bowling
ball traveling 10 m/s (a very fast sprint) carries a lot more kinetic
energy than a golf ball traveling at the same speed. In fact, kinetic
energy is directly proportional to mass: if you double the mass, then
you double the kinetic energy.
Second, the faster something is moving, the greater the force it is
capable of exerting and the greater energy it possesses. A high-speed
collision causes much more damage than a fender bender in a parking
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lot. It turns out that an object’s kinetic energy increases as the square of its speed. A car
moving 40 miles per hour has four times as much kinetic energy as one moving 20
miles per hour, while at 60 miles per hour a car carries nine times as much kinetic
energy as at 20 miles per hour. Thus a modest increase in speed can cause a large
increase in kinetic energy.
These ideas are combined in the equation for kinetic energy.
In words: Kinetic energy equals the mass of the moving object times the square of
1
that object’s speed, times the constant 2
.
In equation form:
kinetic energy 1joules2 mass 1kg 2 3speed 1m>s 2 4 2

1
2
In symbols:
1
EK 2
m v2
EXAMPLE 3-3
B OWLI NG B ALLS AN D B ASEBALLS
What is the kinetic energy of a 4-kilogram (about 8-pound) bowling ball rolling down
a bowling lane at 10 meters per second (about 22 mph)? Compare this energy with
that of a 250-gram (about half a pound) baseball traveling 50 meters per second
(almost 110 mph). Which object would hurt more if it hit you (i.e., which object has
the greater kinetic energy)?
Reasoning: We have to substitute numbers into the equation for kinetic energy.
Solution: For the 4-kilogram bowling ball traveling at 10 meters/second:
kinetic energy 1joules2 mass 1kg 2 3 speed 1m>s 2 4 2

1
2
4 kg 110 m>s 2 2
1
2
4 kg 100 m2>s2
1
2
200 kg-m2>s2
Note that
200 kg-m2>s2 200 1kg-m>s2 2 m

200 N m
200 joules
For the 250-gram baseball traveling at 50 meters/second:
kinetic energy 1joules2 mass 1kg2 3 speed 1m>s2 4 2

1
2
A gram is a thousandth of a kilogram, so 250g 0.25kg:
kinetic energy 1joules2 0.25 kg 2500 m2>s2

1
2
312.5 kg-m2>s2
312.5 joules
Even though the bowling ball is much more massive than the baseball, a hard-hit
baseball carries more kinetic energy than a typical bowling ball because of its high
speed.
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P OTENTIAL E NERGY •
Almost every mountain range in the country has a “balancing rock”—a boulder precar-
iously perched on top of a hill so that it looks as if a little push would send it tumbling
down the slope (Figure 3-6a). If the balancing rock were to fall, it would clearly acquire
kinetic energy, and it would do “work” on anything it smashed. The balancing rock has
the ability to do work even though it’s not doing work right now, and even though it’s
not necessarily going to be doing work any time in the near future. The boulder pos-
sesses energy just by virtue of its position.
This kind of energy, which could result in the exertion of a force over distance but is
not doing so now, is called potential energy. In the case of the balancing rock, it is called
gravitational potential energy because the force of gravity gives the rock the capability of
exerting its own force. An object that has been lifted above Earth’s surface possesses an
amount of gravitational potential energy exactly equal to the total amount of work you
would have to do to lift it from the ground to its present position.
In words: The gravitational potential energy of any object equals its weight (the grav-
itational force exerted downward by the object) times its height above the ground.
In equation form:
gravitational potential energy 1joules2 mass 1kg2 g 1m>s2 2 height 1m 2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s surface (see Chapter 2).
In symbols:
EP m g h
In Example 3-1 we saw that it requires 784 joules of energy to carry a 20-kilogram tele-
vision set 4 meters distance up the stairs. Thus 784 joules is the amount of work that
would be done if the television set were allowed to fall, and it is the amount of gravita-
tional potential energy stored in the elevated television set.
We encounter many other kinds of potential energy besides the gravitational kind in
our daily lives. Chemical potential energy is stored in the gasoline that moves your car,
the batteries that power your radio, a stick of dynamite (Figure 3-6b), and the food you
eat. All animals depend on the chemical potential energy of food, and all living things
rely on molecules that store chemical energy for future use. In each of these situations,
potential energy is stored in the chemical bonds between atoms (see Chapter 9).
Jack Hollingsworth /PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images Dennis Galante/Taxi/Getty Images Vladimir Pcholkin/Taxi/Getty Images
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 3-6 Potential energy comes in many forms: a precariously perched boulder (a) has gravitational potential energy, sticks of
dynamite (b) store chemical potential energy, and a tautly drawn bow (c) holds elastic potential energy.
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Wall outlets in your home and at work provide a means to tap into electrical potential
energy, waiting to turn a fan or drive a vacuum cleaner. A tightly coiled spring, a flexed
bow (Figure 3-6c), and a stretched rubber band contain elastic potential energy, while a
refrigerator magnet carries magnetic potential energy. In every case, energy is stored,
ready to do work.
H EAT, OR THERMAL E NERGY •

Two centuries ago, scientists understood the basic behavior of kinetic and potential energy,
but the nature of heat was far more mysterious. It’s easy to feel and measure the effects of
heat, but what are the physical causes underlying the behavior of hot and cold objects?
We now know that all matter is made of minute objects called atoms, which often
clump together into discrete collections of two or more atoms called molecules. We’ll
examine details of the structure and behavior of atoms and molecules, which are much
too small to be seen with an ordinary light microscope, in Chapters 8 through 10. A key
discovery regarding these minute particles is that the properties of all the materials in our
environment depend on their constituent atoms and how they’re linked together. The
contrast between solid ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam, all of which are made from
molecules of three atoms (two hydrogen atoms linked to one oxygen atom, or H2O), for
example, is a consequence of how strongly adjacent atoms or molecules interact with each
other (Chapter 10).
The key to understanding the nature of heat is that all atoms and molecules are in
constant random motion. These particles that make up all matter move around and
vibrate, and therefore these particles possess kinetic energy. The tiny forces that they
exert are experienced only by other atoms and molecules, but the small scale doesn’t
make the forces any less real. If molecules in a material begin to move more rapidly, then
they have more kinetic energy and are capable of exerting greater forces on each other in
collisions. If you touch an object whose molecules are moving fast, then the collisions of
those molecules with molecules in your hand will exert greater force, and you will per-
ceive the object to be hot. By contrast, if the molecules in your hand are moving faster
than those of the object you touch, then you will perceive the object to be cold. What
we normally call heat, therefore, is simply thermal energy—the random kinetic energy
of atoms and molecules.
Discovering the Nature of Heat

What is heat? How would you apply the scientific method to determine its origins? That
was the problem facing scientists 200 years ago.
In many respects, they realized, heat behaves like a fluid. It flows from place to place,
and it seems to spread out evenly like water that has been spilled on the floor. Some
objects soak up heat faster than others, and many materials seem to swell up when heated,
just like waterlogged wood. Thus, in 1800, after years of observations and experiments,
many physicists mistakenly accepted the theory that heat is an invisible fluid—they called
it “caloric.” According to the caloric theory of heat, the best fuels, such as coal, are satu-
rated with caloric, while ice is virtually devoid of the substance.
One of the most influential investigators of heat was the Massachusetts-born Ben-
jamin Thompson (1752–1814), who led a remarkably adventurous life. At the age of 19
he married an extremely wealthy widow, 14 years his senior. He sided with the British
during the Revolutionary War, first working as a spy, then as an officer in the British
Army of Occupation in New York. After the Americans won the war, Thompson aban-
doned his wife and infant daughter and fled to Europe, where he was knighted by King
George III. Later in his turbulent life he was forced to flee England on suspicion of spy-
ing for the French, and he eventually wound up in the employ of the Elector of Bavaria,
where his duties included the manufacture and machining of cannons.
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If heat is a fluid, then each object must contain a fixed quantity of that substance.
Granger Collection
But Thompson noted that the increase in temperature that accompanies boring a can-
non had nothing at all to do with the quantity of brass to be drilled (Figure 3-7). Sharp
tools, he found, cut brass quickly with minimum heat generation, while dull tools made
slow progress and produced prodigious amounts of heat.
Thompson proposed an alternative hypothesis. He suggested that the increase in
temperature in the brass was a consequence of the mechanical energy of friction, not
some theoretical, invisible fluid. He proved his point by immersing an entire cannon-
boring machine in water, turning it on, and watching the heat that was generated turn
the water to steam. British chemist and popular science lecturer Sir Humphry Davy
(1778–1829) further dramatized Thompson’s point when he generated heat by rubbing
pieces of ice together on a cold London day.
The work of Thompson, Davy, and others inspired English researcher James
Prescott Joule to devise a special experiment to test the predictions of the rival theories.
As shown in Figure 3-8, Joule’s apparatus employed a weight that was lifted up and
attached to a rope. The rope turned a paddle wheel immersed in a tub of water. The
weight had gravitational potential energy, and, as it fell, that energy was converted into
kinetic energy of the rotating paddle. The paddle wheel’s kinetic energy, in turn, was
transferred to kinetic energy of water molecules. As Joule suspected, the water heated up
by an amount equal to the gravitational potential energy released by the weights. Heat,
he declared, is just another form of energy. •
WAVE E NERGY • • Figure 3-7 Benjamin Thompson,

Count Rumford, in a Bavarian cannon
Anyone who has watched surf battering a seashore has firsthand knowledge of wave foundry in 1798, calling attention to
energy. In the case of water waves, the type of energy involved is obvious. Large amounts the transformation of mechanical
of water are in rapid motion and therefore possess kinetic energy. It is this energy that we energy into heat.
see released when waves hit the shore.
Other kinds of waves possess energy, as well. For example, when a sound wave is
generated, molecules in the air are set in motion and the energy of the sound wave is
associated with the kinetic energy of those molecules. Similar sound waves traveling
through the solid earth, called seismic waves, can carry the potentially destructive energy
that is unleashed in earthquakes (see Chapter 17). In Chapter 6 we will meet another
important kind of wave, the kind associated with electromagnetic radiation, such as the
radiant energy (light) that streams from the Sun. This kind of wave stores its energy in
changing electrical and magnetic fields. Thus, each type of wave possesses one of the
forms of energy that we have been discussing. Because different types of waves have
many similarities, as we shall discuss in Chapter 6, we group them together here.
MASS AS E NERGY •
The discovery that certain atoms, such as uranium, spontaneously release energy as they
disintegrate—the phenomenon of radioactivity—led to the realization in the early twen-
tieth century that mass is a form of energy. This principle is the focus of Chapter 7, but
the main idea is summarized in Albert Einstein’s most famous equation.
In words: Every object at rest contains potential energy equivalent to the product of
its mass times a constant, which is the speed of light squared. • Figure 3-8 Joule’s experiment
demonstrated that heat is another
In equation form: form of energy by showing that the
kinetic energy of a paddle wheel is
energy 1joules2 mass 1kg 2 3speed of light 1m>s2 4 2 transferred to thermal energy of the
agitated water.
In symbols:
E mc 2
where c is the symbol for the speed of light, a constant equal to 300,000,000 meters per
second (3 108 m/s).
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This equation, which has achieved the rank of a cultural icon, tells us that it is possi-
ble to transform mass into energy and to use energy to create mass. (Note: This equa-
tion does not mean the mass has to be traveling at the speed of light; the mass is assumed
to be at rest.) Furthermore, because the speed of light is so great, the energy stored in
even a tiny amount of mass is enormous.
EXAMPLE 3-4
LOTS OF P OTENTIAL
According to Einstein’s equation, how much potential energy is contained in the mass of
a grain of sand with a mass of 0.001 gram?
Reasoning and Solution: Substitute the mass, 0.001 gram, into Einstein’s famous
equation. Remember that 1 gram is a thousandth of a kilogram, so a thousandth of
a gram equals a millionth of a kilogram (10–6 kg). Also, the speed of light is a constant,
3 108 m/s.
energy 1joules2 mass 1kg 2 3 speed of light 1m>s 2 4 2

106 kg 13 108 m>s 2 2
106 9 11016 kg-m2>s2 2
9 1010 joules
The energy contained in the mass of a single grain of sand is prodigious: almost
100 billion joules, which is 25,000 kilowatt-hours. The average American family
uses about 1000 kilowatt-hours of electricity per month, so a sand grain—if we had
the means to convert its mass entirely to electrical energy (which we don’t)—could
satisfy your home’s energy needs for the next two years!
In practical terms, Einstein’s equation showed that mass could be used to gen-
erate electricity in nuclear power plants, in which a few pounds of nuclear fuel is
enough to power an entire city.
The Interchangeability of Energy

You know from everyday experience that energy can be changed from one form to
another (Table 3-2 and Figure 3-9). Plants absorb light streaming from the Sun and con-
vert that radiant energy into the stored chemical energy of cells and plant tissues. You eat
Table 3-2 Some Forms of Energy

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Other
Gravitational Moving objects Mass
Chemical Heat
Elastic Sound and other waves
Electromagnetic
• Figure 3-9 A Slinky provides a dramatic example

of energy changing from one form to another. Can
you identify some of the kinds of energy changes
involved?
Andy Washnik
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The Interchangeability of Energy | 59
plants and convert the chemical energy into the kinetic energy of your muscles—energy
of motion that in turn can be converted into gravitational potential energy when you
climb a flight of stairs, elastic potential energy when you stretch a rubber band, or heat
when you rub your hands together. The lesson from these examples is clear.
The many different forms of energy are interchangeable.
Energy in one form can be converted into others.

Bungee jumping provides a dramatic illustration of this rule (Figure 3-10). Bungee
jumpers climb to a high bridge or platform, where elastic cords are attached to their
ankles. Then they launch themselves into space and fall toward the ground until the
cords stretch, slow them down, and stop their fall.
From an energy point of view, a bungee jumper uses the chemical potential energy
generated from food to walk up to the launching platform. The work that had been
done against gravity provides the jumper with gravitational potential energy. During the
long descent, the gravitational potential energy diminishes, while the jumper’s kinetic
energy simultaneously increases. As the cords begin to stretch, the jumper slows down
and kinetic energy gradually is converted to stored elastic potential energy in the cords.
Eventually, the gravitational potential energy that the jumper had at the beginning is
completely transferred to the stretched elastic cords, which then rebound, converting
some of the stored elastic energy back into kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy. All the time, some of the energy is also converted to thermal energy: increased
temperature in the stressed cord, on the jumper’s ankles, and the air as it is pushed aside.
One of the most fundamental properties of the universe in which we live is that
every form of energy on our list can be converted to every other form of energy.
• Figure 3-10 Energy changes

form during a bungee jump,
though the total energy is
constant. Histograms display the
distribution of energy among
gravitational potential (G),
kinetic (K), elastic potential (E),
and thermal (T). Initially (a), all of
Falling the energy to be used in the
Fully At rest jump is stored as gravitational
stretched after
cord jump potential energy. During the
descent (b), the gravitational
potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy. At the bottom of
the jump, the bungee cord
stretches (c), so that most energy
is in the form of elastic potential.
At the end of the jump (d) most
of the energy winds up as heat.
G K E T G K E T G K E T G K E T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Key:
G = gravitational
K = kinetic
E = elastic potential
T = thermal
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Energy for Life and Trophic Levels

All of Earth’s systems, both living and nonliving, transform the Sun’s radiant energy into
other forms. Just how much energy is available, and how is it used by living organisms?
At the top of Earth’s atmosphere, the Sun’s incoming energy is 1400 watts per
square meter. To calculate the total energy of this solar power, we first need to calculate
Earth’s cross-sectional area in square meters. Earth’s radius is 6375 kilometers
(6,375,000 meters), and so the cross-sectional area is
area of a circle pi 1radius2 2

3.14 16,375,000 m2 2
1.28 1014 m2
Thus the total power received at the top of Earth’s atmosphere is
,
power solar energy per m2 Earth s cross-sectional area
1400 watts>m2 1.28 1014 m2
1.79 1017 watts
Each second, the top of Earth’s atmosphere receives 1.79 1017 joules of energy, but
that is more than twice the amount that reaches the ground. When solar radiation
encounters the top of the atmosphere, about 25% of it is immediately reflected back into
space. Another 25% is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, and Earth’s surface reflects
an additional 5% back into space. These processes leave about 45% of the initial amount
to be absorbed at Earth’s surface.
All living systems take their energy from this 45% but absorb only a small portion of this
amount—only about 4% to run photosynthesis and supply the entire food chain. A much
larger portion heats the ground or air, or evaporates water from lakes, rivers, and oceans.
The concept of the food chain and its trophic levels is particularly useful when track-
ing the many changes of energy as it flows through living systems of Earth. A trophic
level consists of all organisms that get their energy from the same source (Figure 3-11).
In this ranking scheme, all plants that produce energy from photosynthesis are in the
first trophic level. These plants all absorb energy from sunlight and use it to drive chem-
ical reactions that make plant tissues and other complex molecules subsequently used as
energy sources by organisms in higher trophic levels.
The second trophic level includes all herbivores—animals that get their energy by eat-
ing plants of the first trophic level. Cows, rabbits, and many insects occupy this level.
The third trophic level, as you might expect, consists of carnivores—animals that get their
energy by eating organisms in the second trophic level. This third level includes such
familiar animals as wolves, eagles, and lions, as well as insect-eating birds, blood-sucking
ticks and mosquitoes, and many other organisms.
A few more groups of organisms fill out the scheme of trophic levels on Earth. Car-
nivores that eat other carnivores, such as killer whales, occupy the fourth trophic level.
Termites, vultures, and a host of bacteria and fungi get their energy from feeding on
dead organisms and are generally placed in a trophic level separate from the four we have
just described. (The usual convention is that this trophic level is not given a number
because the dead organisms can come from any of the other trophic levels.)
• Figure 3-11 The food chain. Fourth trophic level Big Carnivores
Living organisms are arranged in Third trophic level Carnivores
trophic levels according to how they
Second trophic level Herbivores
obtain energy. The first trophic level
consists of plants that produce First trophic level Producers – Photosynthetic Organisms
energy from photosynthesis. In the
higher trophic levels, animals get
their energy by feeding on organ- Mass of living materials per unit of area
isms from the next lowest level.
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The First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy Is Conserved | 61
A number of animals and plants span the trophic levels. Human beings, raccoons,
and bears, for example, are omnivores that gain energy from plants and from organisms
in other trophic levels, while the Venus flytrap is a green plant that supplements its diet
with trapped insects. •
Stop and Think! From which trophic levels did you obtain energy during
the past 24 hours?
How Living Things Use Energy

Although you might expect it to be otherwise, the efficiency with which solar energy is
used by Earth’s organisms is very low, despite the struggle by all these organisms to use
energy efficiently. When sunlight falls, for example, on a cornfield in the middle of Iowa
in August—arguably one of the best situations in the world for plant growth—only a
small percentage of the solar energy striking the field is actually transformed as chemical
energy in the plants. All the rest of the energy is reflected, heats up the soil, evaporates
water, or performs some other function. It is a general rule that no plants anywhere
transform as much as 10% of solar energy available to them.
The same situation applies to trophic levels above the first. Typically, less than 10%
of a plant’s chemical potential energy winds up as tissue in the animal of the second
trophic level that eats the plants. That is, less than about 1% (10% of 10%) of the origi-
nal energy in sunlight is transformed into chemical energy of the second trophic level.
Continuing with the same pattern, animals in the third trophic level also use less than
10% of the energy available from the second level.
You can do a rough verification of this statement in your supermarket. Whole grains
(those that have not been processed heavily) typically cost about one-tenth as much per
pound as fresh meat. Examined from an energy point of view, this cost differential is not
surprising. It takes 10 times as much energy to make a pound of beef as it does to make
a pound of wheat or rice, and this fact is reflected in the price.
One of the most interesting examples of energy flow through trophic levels can be
seen in the fossils of dinosaurs. In many museum exhibits, the most dramatic and memo-
rable specimen is a giant carnivore—a Tyrannosaurus or Allosaurus with 6-inch dagger
teeth and powerful claws. So often are these impressive skeletons illustrated that you
might get the impression that these finds are common. In fact, fossil carnivores are
extremely rare and represent only a small fraction of known dinosaur specimens. Our
knowledge of the fearsome Tyrannosaurus, for example, is based on only about a dozen
skeletons, and most of those are quite fragmentary. By contrast, paleontologists have
found hundreds of skeletons of plant-eating dinosaurs. This distribution is hardly chance.
Carnivorous dinosaurs, like modern lions and tigers, were relatively scarce compared to
their herbivorous victims. In fact, statistical studies of all dinosaur skeletons reveal a
roughly ten-to-one herbivore-to-carnivore ratio, a value approaching what we find today
for the ratio of warm-blooded herbivores to warm-blooded carnivores, and much higher
than the herbivore-to-carnivore ratio observed in modern cold-blooded reptiles. This pat-
tern is cited by many paleontologists as evidence that dinosaurs were warm-blooded. •
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy Is Conserved

Scientists are always on the lookout for attributes of the ever-changing universe that are
constant and unchanging. If the total number of atoms, electrons, or electrical charges is
constant, then that attribute is said to be conserved. Any statement that an attribute is
conserved is called a conservation law. (Note that these meanings of “conserved” and
“conservation” are different from the more common uses of the words associated with
modest consumption and recycling.)
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Before describing the conservation law that relates to energy, we must first intro-
duce the idea of a system. You can think of a system as an imaginary box into which you
put some matter and some energy that you would like to study. Scientists might want to
study a system containing only a pan of water, or one consisting of a forest, or even the
entire planet Earth. Doctors examine your nervous system, astronomers explore the
solar system, and biologists observe a variety of ecosystems. In each case, the investiga-
tion of nature is simplified by focusing on one small part of the universe.
If the system under study can exchange matter and energy with its surroundings—a pan
full of water that is heated on a stove and gradually evaporates, for example—then it is
an open system (Figure 3-12a). An open system is like an open box where you can take
things out and put things back in. Alternatively, if matter and energy in a system do not
freely exchange with their surroundings, as in a tightly shut box, then the system is said
to be closed or isolated. Earth and its primary source of energy, the Sun, together make a
system that may be thought of for most purposes as closed, because there are no signifi-
cant amounts of matter or energy being added from outside sources (Figure 3-12b).
The most important conservation law in the sciences is the law of conservation of
energy. This law is also called the first law of thermodynamics. (Thermodynamics—
literally the study of the movement of heat—is a term used for the science of heat,
energy, and work.) The law can be stated as follows:
In an isolated system the total amount of energy, including heat, is conserved.
This law tells us that, although the kind of energy in a given system can change, the total
amount cannot. For example, when a bungee jumper hurls herself into space, the gravi-
tational potential energy she had at the beginning of the fall is converted to an equal
amount of other kinds of energy. When she’s moving, some of the gravitational poten-
tial energy changes into kinetic energy, some into elastic potential energy, and some into
Open system Closed system
No matter or
energy in
Matter out
Matter in
Energy in
Energy out
No matter or
energy out
(a) (b)
• Figure 3-12 An open system is like an open box (a) where heat energy and matter can be added or removed.
Alternatively, if matter and energy in a system do not freely exchange with their surroundings, as in a tightly shut box
(b), then the system is said to be closed or isolated.
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The First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy Is Conserved | 63
the increased temperature of the surroundings. At each point during the fall, however, the
sum of kinetic, elastic potential, gravitational potential, and heat energies has to be the same
as the gravitational energy at the beginning.
Energy is something like an economy with an absolutely fixed amount of money. You
can earn it, store it in a bank or under your pillow, and spend it here and there when you
want to. But the total amount of money doesn’t change just because it passes through
your hands. Likewise, in any physical situation you can shuffle energy from one place to
another. You could take it out of the account labeled “kinetic” and put it into the account
labeled “potential”; you could spread it around into accounts labeled “chemical poten-
tial,” “elastic potential,” “heat,” and so on; but the first law of thermodynamics tells us
that, in a closed system, you can never have more or less energy than you started with.
Energy and the Order of the Universe

To many scientists of the nineteenth century the first law of thermodynamics represented
more than just a useful statement about energy. For them it carried a profound significance
about the underlying symmetry—even beauty—of the natural order. Joule described the
first law in the following poetic way: “Nothing is destroyed, nothing is ever lost, but the
entire machinery, complicated as it is, works smoothly and harmoniously. Á Everything
may appear complicated in the apparent confusion and intricacy of an almost endless vari-
ety of causes, effects, conversions, and arrangements, yet is the most perfect regularity pre-
served—the whole being governed by the sovereign will of God.” To Joule, the first law
was nothing less than proof of the beneficence of the Creator —a natural law analogous to
the immortality of the soul. •
Diet and Calories

The first law of thermodynamics has a great deal to say about the American obsession with
weight and diet. Human beings take in energy with their food, energy we usually measure
in calories. (Note that the calorie we talk about in foods is defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water by 1º Celsius, a unit we will later
call a kilocalorie.) When a certain amount of energy is taken in, the first law says that only
one of two things can happen to it: it can be converted into work and increased tempera-
ture of the surroundings, or it can be stored. If we take in more energy than we expend,
the excess is stored in fat. If, on the other hand, we take in less than we expend, energy
must be removed from storage to meet the deficit, and the amount of body fat decreases.
Here are a couple of rough rules you can use to calculate calories in your diet:
1. Under most circumstances, normal body maintenance uses up about 15 calories per
day for each pound of body weight.
2. You must consume about 3500 calories to gain a pound of fat.
Suppose you weigh 150 pounds. To keep your weight constant, you have to take in
150 pounds 15 calories>pound 2250 calories per day

If you wanted to lose one pound (3500 calories) a week (7 days), you would have to
reduce your daily calorie intake by
3500 calories
500 calories per day
7 days
Another way of saying this is that you would have to reduce your calorie intake to 1750
calories—the equivalent of skipping dessert every day.
Alternatively, the first law says you can increase your energy use through exercise.
Roughly speaking, to burn off 500 calories you would have to run 5 miles, bike 15 miles,
or swim for an hour.
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It’s a whole lot easier to refrain from eating than to burn off the weight by exercise.
In fact, most researchers now say that the main benefit of exercise in weight control has
to do with its ability to help people control their appetites. •
Lord Kelvin and Earth’s Age

The first law of thermodynamics provided physicists with a powerful tool for describing
and analyzing their universe. Every isolated system, the law tells us, has a fixed amount of
energy. Naturally, one of the first systems that scientists considered was the Sun and Earth.
British physicist William Thomson (1824–1907), ennobled as Lord Kelvin
• Figure 3-13 William Thomson, (Figure 3-13), asked a simple question: How much energy could be stored inside Earth?
Lord Kelvin (1824–1907).
And, given the present rate at which energy radiates out into space, how old might Earth
be? Though simple, these questions had profound implications for philosophers and
theologians who had their own ideas about Earth’s relative antiquity. Some biblical
scholars believed that Earth could be no more than a few thousand years old. Most geol-
ogists, on the other hand, saw evidence in layered rocks to suggest an Earth at least hun-
dreds of millions of years old. Biologists also required vast amounts of time to account
for the gradual evolution of life on Earth. Who was correct?
Kelvin assumed, as did most of his contemporaries, that Earth had formed from a
contracting cloud of interstellar dust (see Chapter 16). He thought that Earth began as
a hot body because impacts of large objects on it early in its history must have converted
huge amounts of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy. He used new devel-
opments in mathematics to calculate how long it took for a hot Earth to cool to its pre-
sent temperature. He assumed that there were no sources of energy inside Earth, and
found that Earth’s age had to be less than about 100 million years. He soundly rejected
the geologists’ and biologists’ claims of an older Earth because these claims seemed to
violate the first law of thermodynamics.
Seldom have scientists come to such a bitter impasse. Two competing theories
about Earth’s age, each supported by seemingly sound observations, were at odds. The
calculations of the physicist seemed unassailable, yet the observations of biologists and
geologists in the field were equally meticulous. What could possibly resolve the
dilemma? Had the scientific method failed? The solution came from a totally unexpected
source when scientists discovered in the 1890s that rocks hold a previously unknown
source of energy, radioactivity (see Chapter 11), in which thermal energy is generated by
the conversion of mass. Lord Kelvin’s rigorous age calculations were in error only
because he and his contemporaries were unaware of this critical component of Earth’s
energy budget. Earth’s deep interior, we now know, gains approximately half of its ther-
mal energy from radioactive decay. Revised calculations suggest an Earth several billions
of years old, in conformity with geological and biological observations. •
The United States and Its Energy Future

The growth of modern technological societies since the Industrial Revolution has been
driven by the availability of cheap, high-grade sources of energy. When fuel wood
became expensive and scarce at the end of the eighteenth century, men like James Watt
figured out how to tap into the solar energy stored in coal. In the early twentieth cen-
tury, the development of the internal combustion engine and other new technologies
made petroleum the fuel of choice. Both of these transitions took about 30 years.
Fuels like oil (petroleum), coal, and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they are the
result of processes that happened long ago. As you can see from Figure 3-14, the economy
of the United States today depends almost completely on the burning of fossil fuels. This
state of affairs leads to two difficult problems. One characteristic of fossil fuels is that they are
not replaceable—once you burn a ton of coal or a barrel of oil, it is gone as far as any
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The United States and Its Energy Future | 65
timescale meaningful to human beings is concerned. Another characteristic, as we shall

discuss in Chapter 19, is that an inevitable result of burning fossil fuels is the addition of car-
bon dioxide to the atmosphere. This, in turn, may well lead to long-term climate change. Oil (38%)
Thus, the search for alternate energy sources to drive our economy is well under way.
Coal (30%)
R ENEWABLE E NERGY S OURCES • Natural gas
(20%)
The two most important alternate energy sources being considered are solar energy and
wind. Because they are constantly being replaced, solar energy and wind are usually
classed as renewable energy sources. Neither contributes to global warming, and both are
considered to be part of the process of weaning ourselves from fossil fuels.
The question of when these energy sources will be available in commercially useful Nuclear (5%) Hydroelectric (7%)
quantities is a complicated mix of technology and economics. As an example, think about • Figure 3-14 Sources of energy
generating electricity from these sources. Commercial electrical generation in the United for the United States and other
States can be divided into two types—base load and peak load. Base load is electricity that has industrial nations. Note that most of
our energy comes from fossil fuels.
to be delivered day in and day out to run essential services like lighting and manufacturing.
Peak load refers to the extra electricity that has to be delivered on, for example, a hot day
when everyone turns on his or her air conditioner. Typically, base load power is delivered by
Lester Lefkowitz/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images

large coal or nuclear plants. These plants are expensive to build, but since the construction
cost is spread out over a long time period, the net cost per kilowatt-hour is low. Peak load,
on the other hand, is typically delivered by systems such as gas turbines. These plants are
cheap to build but expensive to operate because they typically use more expensive fuels.
Thus, peak load electricity is usually more expensive than base load. (You probably don’t see
this difference in your electricity bill because the costs are folded together.) Thus, the best
place for alternate energy sources to enter the economy is in the peak load market.
Wind Energy
The United States has a huge wind resource. The “wind belt” stretching from the Dako-
tas south to New Mexico is one place where strong, steady winds blow, but there are oth-
ers. Mountain passes and offshore locations like Cape Cod and the eastern shore of Lake
Michigan have all been proposed as sites for wind farms. As we shall see in Chapter 18,
the energy sources for winds on Earth’s surface are incoming sunlight and the rotation of
the planet, so the energy in the wind is, for all practical purposes, inexhaustible.
When modern windmills began being erected in the 1970s and 1980s, the electricity
they generated was quite expensive—as much as 10 to 20 times as expensive as electricity
generated by coal. Over the years, however, improvements in design and engineering
have brought this cost down to the point that today the cost of wind-generated electric-
ity is comparable to peak load costs for electricity generated by conventional means. This
improvement in engineering, as well as government support for renewable energy, is why
you are seeing wind farms going up all over the place (Figure 3-15).
Calculations indicate that it would be theoretically possible to produce all of Amer- • Figure 3-15 Electricity generated
ica’s electrical energy from wind. It would, however, require that a windmill be built from this sort of wind turbine is start-
every quarter mile across the entire states of North and South Dakota. Most analysts ing to become economically com-
argue that a much more likely scenario is that wind farms will be built in many places, petitive in the United States.
but that other forms of energy generation will continue to play a role in the future.
Solar Energy
Just as the United States has a huge wind resource, it also has a huge solar resource—just
think of the deserts of the American Southwest. Enormous amounts of energy in the
form of sunlight fall on these places, and the problem is to find ways to tap that energy at
a reasonable cost. There are two different methods being developed for converting the
energy of sunlight into electricity. One of these, termed solar photovoltaic, involves the use
of semiconductors to convert sunlight directly into electric current (the details of how
this works will be discussed in Chapter 11). This is the process that produced the familiar
racks of black circles we see on solar installations. Photovoltaic cells can be used for small
installations, like traffic signs, on rooftops, or in large arrays (Figure 3-16).
The other technique being developed is called thermal solar energy (Figure 3-17). In
these systems, sunlight is collected and focused by mirrors, then used to heat a fluid.
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Eunice Harris/Photo Reseachers, Inc. Wolfram Steinberg/dpa/© Corbis Frank May/epa/© Corbis
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 3-16 Solar photovoltaic panels can be used in many ways. Relatively small panels can be used to power traffic signs (a),
while larger arrays of panels can be put on a roof to provide energy for an individual house (b). Finally, extensive arrays of solar
panels can be used to generate electricity at the commercial level (c).
Work of the United States Department of Energy
Science News
Solar Panel Use on the Rise
Go to your WileyPLUS course
• Figure 3-17 In this solar thermal facility in Barstow, California, mirrors reflect
sunlight to a tall tower, where the concentrated energy is used to create steam to
run an electrical generator.
This heated fluid is used to run a large electrical generator of the type we will describe in
Chapter 5, typically by producing steam. An electrical generating plant of this type has
been run in the California desert for many years.
The cost of solar energy depends, to a certain extent, on the location of the solar
collector, since the farther north you go the less sunlight is available. Roughly speaking,
today solar electricity costs at least five times more than that generated by coal, and ana-
lysts do not expect either form of solar energy to become competitive with large-scale
conventional generating plants before 2030. What scientists call “end use” solar energy
(on individual rooftops, for example) may expand before that time, however. As was the
case with wind, solar energy will most likely enter the market to supply peak load power
on days when the sun is hot and all those air conditioners are on.
It is estimated that we could generate all of America’s electricity needs by covering
an area roughly the size of Massachusetts with solar panels. As is the case with wind,
though, most analysts think that the sun will be one of many different energy sources in
our country’s future.
Stop and Think! You often see highway signs and traffic counters being
powered by solar cells. Given the high cost of solar energy, why do you
suppose these devices are used even in areas where it would be easy to
hook up to the ordinary electrical power grid?
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The United States and Its Energy Future | 67
To understand why this practice makes sense, you have to realize that the cost of
electricity is only a small portion of the cost of maintaining something like a traffic
counter. Typically, the major expense is the installation itself. As one engineer told the
authors, “You can just drop these in place where you want them. You don’t have to
bring in electricians to connect them, and that makes them a lot cheaper.”
Problems with Renewable Energy Systems
Solar energy (and, to a lesser extent, wind energy) is by its nature intermittent—that is,
the sun doesn’t always shine and the wind doesn’t always blow. In particular, solar
energy is not available at night, and it is often the case that peak wind speeds at a given
site to not coincide with peak load electricity use. This means that any system that
derives a large part of its electricity from capturing these types of energy will have to
include some sort of storage mechanism, so that energy collected during a sunny day
(for example) can be used the next night or during cloudy days. There is, for example, a
pilot solar plant in Spain in which solar electricity is used to pump compressed air into an
underground cavern, and the air is then released to run turbines during the night. The
need for storage will obviously increase the cost of both solar and wind energy. This is a
problem that is just starting to be addressed by engineers.
TRANSPORTATION AND E NERGY U SE •

A major area of energy use in the United States is in transportation, which consumes about
a third of the country’s energy budget. Much of this energy is used to run gasoline-powered
internal combustion engines (ICE) in cars and trucks. There is at the moment a tremendous
technological ferment as engineers advocating different ways of replacing ICE work hard to
make their systems as good as they can be. Some leading contenders are as follows.
Electric cars
Batteries power these cars, so that their energy actually derives from the electrical power grid.
There are many small electric vehicles in the United States (think of golf carts) and a number
of prototype passenger cars. The problem with electric cars is primarily technological because
the best current batteries don’t store a lot of energy per pound of weight. It would, for
example, take about 800 pounds of ordinary car batteries to store as much energy as is found
in a gallon of gasoline. Because of this problem, the distance that electric cars can go (a quan-
tity referred to as “range”) is significantly less than cars with ICE. As new, high-efficiency,
lightweight batteries are developed, however, you can expect to see electric cars play a bigger
role in the country’s transportation system.
Mario Tama/Getty Images
Hybrids
A hybrid vehicle is one in which a small gasoline motor
operates a generator that charges a bank of batteries that,
in turn, power the electric motor that drives the car.
Because the batteries are constantly being recharged, the
car can operate with fewer batteries than are required in a
fully electric vehicle. Because the drive system can take the
energy of motion of the car during deceleration and use it
to generate electricity, a hybrid vehicle uses much less
gasoline than a conventional ICE. The first hybrid to enter
the American market was the Toyota Prius, which was fol-
lowed by many other models, including the newest hybrid,
the Chevrolet Volt (Figure 3-18).
The next step in the development of this type of vehi-
cle will be the plug-in hybrid, a car whose batteries can be
recharged each night through a cable plugged into an • Figure 3-18 Hybrid cars, like this
ordinary electrical outlet. Such a car would be capable of traveling about 40 miles Chevy Volt, are starting to become
before it had to switch over to using gasoline, and hence would be extremely useful popular in the United States. They use a
for most commuters. gasoline engine to charge the batteries
that run the electric motor that drives
Fuel Cell Cars the car. These cars have superior gas
A fuel cell is a device in which hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water, pro- mileage and similar ranges compared to
ducing heat energy in the process. This process is very efficient, and since the only ordinary internal combustion cars.
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exhaust product is water, it’s very clean as well. Engineers consider two approaches to a
fuel cell transportation system: one in which pure hydrogen is fed into the fuel cell and
one in which the hydrogen is carried into the engine as part of a larger molecule like
methanol. In both cases, energy has to be expended to provide the hydrogen. In the case
of pure hydrogen fuel, this energy is usually in the form of the electricity needed to sepa-
rate hydrogen from water molecules. In the case of methanol, it’s the energy needed to
run the farms that grow the plants (often corn) from which the molecule is made. In both
cases, a new distribution system would be needed for the new fuel.
Stop and Think! Where does the energy used to recharge an electric car
or a plug-in hybrid come from? What are the environmental consequences
of using that energy?
Thinking More About Energy
F OSSIL F UELS that float near the ocean’s surface. While these natural
processes continue today, the rate of coal and petroleum
All life is rich in the element carbon, which plays a key role in formation in Earth’s crust is only a small fraction of the fos-
virtually all the chemicals that make up our cells. Life uses the sil fuels being consumed. For this reason, fossil fuels are
Sun’s energy, directly through photosynthesis or indirectly classified as nonrenewable resources.
through food, to form these carbon-based substances that One consequence of this situation is clear. Humans cannot
store chemical potential energy. When living things die, they continue to rely on fossil fuels forever. Reserves of high-grade
may collect in layers at the bottoms of ponds, lakes, or oceans. crude oil and the cleanest-burning varieties of coal may last less
Over time, as the layers become buried, Earth’s temperature than 100 more years. Less efficient forms of fossil fuels, includ-
and pressure may alter the chemicals of life into deposits of ing lower grades of coal and oil shales in which petroleum is dis-
fossil fuels. persed through solid rock, could be depleted within a few
Geologists estimate that it takes tens of millions of centuries. All the energy now locked up in those valuable energy
years of gradual burial under layers of sediments, combined reserves will still exist, but in the form of unusable heat radiat-
with the transforming effects of temperature and pressure, ing far into space. Given the irreversibility of burning up our
to form a coal seam or petroleum deposit. Coal forms from fossil fuel reserves, what steps should we take to promote
layer upon layer of plants that thrived in vast ancient energy conservation? Should energy be taxed at a higher rate?
swamps, while petroleum represents primarily the organic Should we assume that new energy sources will become avail-
matter once contained in plankton, microscopic organisms able as they are needed?

Why must animals eat to stay alive? • Herbivores obtain their energy by eating the plants of the
first trophic level.
• All living organisms need an energy source to fuel their
• Less than 10% the chemical potential energy in the first
metabolic processes, and build and maintain tissues. Plants and
trophic level is transformed into the chemical energy of the
animals acquire the necessary energy from different sources.
second trophic level. This is way it why it requires ten times
• All living systems on Earth ultimately derive their energy from
more energy to produce a pound of beef than to produce a
the Sun.
pound of wheat or rice.
º The first trophic level is comprised of photosynthetic plants
that use sunlight to drive the metabolic processes necessary º The third trophic level consists of carnivores. Organisms in
this level eat other animals to obtain the energy necessary for
for survival.
survival.
• Since plant obtains their energy from the Sun, they do not
• Animals cannot use sunlight to synthesize energy, so they must
need to eat.
eat in order to obtain the chemical energy necessary to drive the
• All the energy that supports life in the other trophic levels
metabolic processes that support life.
is provided by the first trophic level (i.e., photosynthetic
plants).
º The second trophic level includes animals known as herbivores.
These animals cannot use sunlight as an energy source.
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Discovery Lab | 69
S UMMARY •
Work, measured in joules (or foot-pounds), is defined as a force form of energy. All around us energy constantly shifts from one form
applied over a distance. You do work every time you move an object. to another, and all of these kinds of energy are interchangeable.
Every action of our lives requires energy (also measured in joules), Energy from the Sun is used by photosynthetic plants in the first
which is the ability to do work. Power, measured in watts or kilo- trophic level; these plants provide the energy for animals in higher
watts, indicates the rate at which energy is expended. trophic levels. Roughly speaking, only about 10% of the energy avail-
Energy comes in several forms. Kinetic energy is the energy asso- able at one trophic level finds its way to the next.
ciated with moving objects such as cars or cannonballs. Potential The most fundamental idea about energy, expressed in the first
energy, on the other hand, is stored, ready-to-use energy, such as the law of thermodynamics, is that it is conserved: the total amount of
chemical energy of coal, the elastic energy of a coiled spring, the energy in an isolated system never changes. Energy can shift back
gravitational energy of dammed-up water, or the electrical energy in and forth between the different kinds, but the sum of all energy is
your wall socket. Thermal energy or heat is the form of kinetic energy constant.
associated with vibrating atoms and molecules. Energy can also take At present, most industrialized countries use fossil fuels to run
the form of wave energy, such as sound waves or light waves. And their economies. Alternative sources for the future include solar and
early in the twentieth century it was discovered that mass is also a wind energy and, for transportation, electric and fuel cell cars.
K EY TERMS •
work (measured in joules) watt thermal energy (heat) system
energy (measured in joules) kilowatt wave energy first law of thermodynamics
power (measured in watts or kinetic energy trophic level fuel cell
kilowatts) potential energy conservation law
K EY E QUATIONS •
work (joules) force (newtons) distance (meters)
energy (joules) power (watts) time (seconds)
kinetic energy (joules) 1/2 mass (kg) [speed (m/s)]2
gravitational potential energy (joules) g mass (kg) height (m)
energy associated with mass at rest (joules) mass (kg) [speed of light (m/s)]2
Constant
c 3 108 m/s speed of light
D ISCOVERY L AB •
You know that chemical energy can be transferred into mechanical tin. (You may have to make another indentation later by looking from
energy to make objects move. Here we will do an experiment to the bottom as the tin balances on the nail point.) Place the scented
demonstrate at least three energy transfers, namely: chemical, ther- candle on top of the inside of the other pie tin and place the empty
mal, and mechanical energy. Can you identify the kinetic and poten- steak sauce bottle near the center of the tin. Slowly pound the casing
tial energy in all of the energy transfers? nail straight through the thick cork with a hammer, from top to bot-
Obtain two pie tins (or comparable lightweight tins). Set one, tom. Put some clay over the uncapped top of the bottle and firmly
bottom side down, on flat cardboard (or cake board). Next, take a place the cork, with the nail head down, over the top of the bottle.
snap-off knife (or something similar) and very carefully cut 7 to 15 Flip the tin with fins over the nail so it balances horizontally over the
triangular fins so that only one small and one large side are cut all the base. Make sure the nail tip is in the indentation you made earlier
way through. (See Figure A.) Now carefully fold back the fins slightly with the pen. Finally, take a long-nose fireplace lighter and light the
to a 30-degree angle toward the outside of the tin. Obtain a large wick of the candle. Do you observe the pie tins revolving? How could
scented candle, a medium-sized cork, a small 3-inch casing nail, and you make it go faster? Follow the transfer of energy as you discover
an empty steak sauce bottle (or comparable). Place your index finger the variables that can make it spin faster. Are the results measurable?
inside the tin and balance the tin with your finger. Mark that point, Figure out a way to graph your observations and quantitative data.
then make a small indention there from the inside, by pressing the tip Can you explain the potential and kinetic energy involved in this
of a bold ink pen over that spot. Be careful NOT to go through the experiment?
c03.qxd 6/25/09 1:53 PM Page 70
Cut pie tin
3-inch nail
Cork
Empty Candle
bottle
Pie tin
Cut pie tin
• Figure A • Figure B
1. What is the scientific definition of work? How does it differ from 8. Give an example of change of energy from potential to kinetic;
ordinary English usage? from kinetic to potential.
2. What is a joule? What is the English system of units equivalent of 9. What is a trophic level? Give some examples. How much energy
a joule? is lost at each trophic level?
3. What is the difference between energy and power? What is a unit 10. Does the total amount of energy in an isolated system change
of power? How does speed relate to power? over time? Why or why not?
4. How do mass and speed relate to kinetic energy? 11. How did the discovery that mass is a form of energy resolve the
5. What is the relationship between heat, energy, and motion? debate over Earth’s age?
6. Explain how a sound is actually a form of energy. In what 12. Explain what it means to say, “Energy flows through
medium do sound waves travel? Earth.”
7. What does it mean to say that different forms of energy are
interchangeable?
1. How does the scientific meaning of the words “energy” and 5. What forms of energy are you using when you start your car?
“power” differ from their common usage? When you use an air conditioner? When you dry your clothes?
2. What forms of energy are used in the following sports: When you run up a flight of stairs?
a. surfing 6. Where does geothermal energy come from? Is it a renewable
source of energy? Is hydroelectricity a renewable form of energy?
b. NASCAR racing
7. Is it possible to use alternative energy sources to meet the current
b. hang gliding
energy demands of the United States? What are some of the environ-
d. skiing mental costs for different forms of alternative energy sources?
e. golf 8. What are fossil fuels? How are coal and oil forms of solar energy?
f. mountain climbing 9. Plants and animals are still dying and falling to the ocean bottom
3. Would it be energy efficient to use a solar water heating system today. Why then, do we not classify fossil fuels as renewable resources?
in Alaska? Why or why not? What would be a more efficient energy 10. Ancient human societies are described as labor intensive, while
choice to heat water in cold climates? modern society is said to be energy intensive. What is meant by
4. Think about your energy intake today. Pick one food and iden- these terms?
tify the chain of energy that led to it. What trophic level do you 11. How do “warm-blooded” animals warm their blood? What
eat from most? Where will the energy that you ingest eventually form of energy do “cold-blooded” animals use to warm their blood
wind up? and bodies?
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Investigations | 71
P ROBLEMS •
1. How much work against gravity do you perform when you walk 4. According to Einstein’s famous equation, E mc , how much
2
up a flight of stairs five meters high (assuming that your body mass is energy would be released if a pound of feathers was converted
75 kilograms)? Compare this work to that done by a 100-watt light- entirely into energy? a pound of lead? (Note: You will first need to
bulb in an hour. How many times would you have to walk up those convert pounds into kilograms.)
stairs to equal the work of the light bulb in one hour? What if the
5. If you eat 600 calories per day (roughly one large order of fries)
light bulb was an energy-efficient 15-watt compact fluorescent bulb?
above your energy needs, how long will it take to gain 20 pounds?
2. Which has more gravitational potential energy: a 200-kilogram How long would you have to walk (assuming 80 calories burned
boulder 1 meter off the ground, a 50-kilogram boulder 4 meters off per mile walked) to burn off those 20 pounds?
the ground, or a 1-kilogram rock 200 meters off the ground?
Which of these can do the most work if all the potential energy was 6. Joules and kilowatt-hours are both units of energy. How many
converted into kinetic energy? joules are equal to 1 kilowatt-hour?
3. Compared to a car moving at 10 miles per hour, how much 7. If the price of beef is $2.50 per pound, estimate what the price
kinetic energy does that same car have when it moves at 20 miles per of lion meat might be, and give reasons for your prediction. Why
hour? 50? 75? Graph your results. What does your graph suggest to are both forms of meat more expensive, pound for pound, than
you about the difficulty of stopping a car as its speed increases? carrots?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Look at your most recent electric bill and find the cost of one d. Draft a plan by which you reduce your energy consumption
kilowatt-hour in your area. Then, by 10%. About how much money might this save you per year?
a. Look at the back of your CD player or an appliance and find 6. Investigate the history of the controversy between Lord Kelvin
the power rating in watts. How much does it cost for you to and his contemporaries regarding Earth’s age. When did the debate
operate the device for one hour? begin? How long did it last? What kinds of evidence did biologists,
b. If you leave a 100-watt light bulb on all the time, how much geologists, and physicists use to support their differing calculations
will you pay in a year of electric bills? of Earth’s age? Is there still a debate as to the age of the Earth?
c. If you had to pay $10 for a high-efficiency bulb that provided 7. Investigate and find out how your household hot water is
the same light as the 100-watt bulb with only 10 watts of power, heated. Do you use oil, natural gas, solar, or electricity? What is the
how much would you save per year of electric bills, assuming most efficient way to heat water in your area? Why?
you used the light five hours per day? Would it be worth your 8. Rub your hands together. What conversion of energy is occurring?
while to buy the energy-efficient bulb if the ordinary bulb cost 9. The geyser “Old Faithful” in Yellowstone National Park sprays
$1 and each bulb lasts three years? water and steam hundreds of feet into the air. What form of energy
2. In this chapter we introduced several energy units: the joule, the is being used? Will “Old Faithful” ever run out of energy?
foot-pound, the kilowatt-hour, and the calorie. There are other
10. Why do electric and hybrid cars cost more than other compact
energy units as well, including the BTU, the erg, the electron-volt,
cars? What is the environmental impact of disposing of large num-
and many more. Look in a science reference book for conversion
bers of batteries? Do you think that the government should offer
factors between different pairs of energy units; you may find more
more incentives for people to buy hybrid and other fuel-efficient
than a dozen different units. Who uses each of these different units?
vehicles?
Why are there so many different units for the same phenomenon—
energy? 11. If you work out on a stationary bike at a power output of
100 watts for 30 minutes, does this energy output compensate for
3. What kind of fuel is used at your local power plant? What are the
eating a 250-calorie jelly-filled doughnut? (Assume that the body
implications of the first law of thermodynamics regarding our use of
coverts 20% of the energy input to work and the other 80% is lost as
fossil fuels? our use of solar energy?
heat and extraneous movements.) 1 food “calorie” 1 kilocalorie;
4. Keep a record of the calorie content of the food you eat and the and 1 calorie 4.2 kilojoules.
amount of exercise you do for a few days. If you wanted to gain a
12. The next time you are in an appliance store, check out the effi-
pound per month for the next year, how might you change your
ciency ratings of major appliances such as dryers and dishwashers. If
current habits?
you were going to buy one of these appliances, would energy con-
5. Check your household’s electric bills for the past year and calcu- sumption be a factor in your purchase? If one machine is cheaper to
late your total electric consumption for the year. run but more expensive to buy, how would you calculate which
a. How many 50-kilogram weights would you have to bench- machine is a better buy?
press 1 meter to produce a gravitational potential energy equal 13. Different parts of the United States receive varying amounts of
to this consumption? sunshine. How much solar energy reaches the ground in your part
b. How much mass is equal to this consumption (E mc2)? of the country on an average summer day and an average winter
c. Identify five ways that you might reduce your energy con- day? Is solar power a possibility in your area during the summer?
sumption without drastically changing your lifestyle. During the winter?
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4
Heat and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Why is it easier to make an omelet from
an egg than to make an egg from an omelet?
PHYSICS
A pot of boiling
water gradually
cools as heat energy
BIOLOGY dissipates into the CHEMISTRY
surroundings.
All living things grow The chemical

old and die, as energy of gasoline,
molecular defects in once released by
cells increase. burning, cannot be
(Ch. 22) reused.
ENVIRONMENT
Violent weather,
Modern high-
efficiency appliances
Heat is a form of including
thunderstorms and
are designed to energy that flows from tornadoes, occurs
minimize the warmer to cooler when warmer and
production of waste
heat. objects. cooler air masses
collide. (Ch. 18)
TECHNOLOGY
Heat energy from

the Sun flows
Volcanoes transfer
outward from its core,
heat energy from
first by conduction,
Earth’s interior.
then convection,
(Ch. 17)
then radiation.
(Ch. 14)
Living organisms
have different
ASTRONOMY strategies for GEOLOGY
controlling the
flow of heat
in their bodies.
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day A Hot Breakfast
FoodCollection/Age fotostock America, Inc.

ime for a hearty breakfast. You scramble eggs, squeeze
T some fresh juice, toast a muffin, and brew a pot of cof-
fee. As you prepare the meal, you notice an obvious but
extraordinary fact: nature seems to have a direction. Many
events in daily life progress only one way in time. It’s easy to
scramble eggs but impossible to unscramble them. You can
squeeze juice from a piece of fruit, but never unsqueeze it.
Toast can’t be untoasted and coffee can’t be unbrewed.
But why should this be? Nothing in Newton’s laws of
motion or the law of gravity suggests that events work only
in one way. Nothing that we have learned about energy
explains the directionality of nature.
As you drink your cold juice and hot coffee, you real-
ize that food and drinks that are very hot or very cold dis-
play a similar kind of direction. A glass of ice-cold juice
gradually gets warmer, while a cup of steaming hot coffee
cools. Heat spreads out uniformly.
These everyday events are so familiar that we take them
for granted, yet underlying the scrambling of an egg and
the cooling of a hot drink is one of nature’s most subtle and
fascinating laws: the second law of thermodynamics.
Nature’s Direction
Think about the dozens of directional events that happen every day. A drop of perfume
quickly pervades an entire room with scent, but you’d be hard pressed to collect all
those perfume molecules into a single drop again. Your dorm room seems to get messy
in the course of the week all by itself, but it takes time and effort to clean it up. And you
constantly experience the inevitable, irreversible process of aging.
The first law of thermodynamics, conservation of energy, in no way prohibits
events from progressing in the “wrong” direction. For example, when you cook a
hard-boiled egg, heat energy from your stove is converted into the chemical poten-
tial energy of the cooked egg. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the
energy that was added to cook the egg is exactly the same as the energy that would
be released if you could uncook the egg. The energy of a room with perfume mole-
cules dispersed throughout is the same as the energy of the room with those mole-
cules tightly bottled. And the energy that went into strewing things about your room
is exactly the same energy it takes to reverse the process and put everything back
again. Yet there seems to be some natural tendency for things to become less orderly
with time.
This directionality in nature can be traced, ultimately, to the behavior of the minute
particles called atoms and molecules that form all materials. If you hold an object in your
hand, for example, its atoms are moving at more or less the same average speed. If you
introduce one more atom into this collection, an atom that is moving much faster than
any of its neighbors, you will have a situation in which many atoms move slowly and one
atom moves rapidly.
73
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74 | C HAP TE R 4 | Heat and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Alain Denantes/Gamma-Presse, Inc.
• Figure 4-1 The second law of thermodynamics tells us that it is easier to tear something
down than to build it. This law is shown dramatically in this sequence of photos showing the
demolition of an apartment building.
Over the course of time, the fast atom will collide again and again with the others.
In each collision it will probably lose some of its energy, much as a fast-moving billiard
ball slows down after it collides with a couple of other billiard balls. If you wait long
enough, the fast-moving atom will share its energy with all the other atoms. Conse-
quently, every atom in the collection will be moving slightly faster than those in the orig-
inal collection, and there will be no single fast atom.
If you watch this collection of atoms for a long period of time, it’s extremely
unlikely that the collisions will ever arrange themselves in such a way that one atom
moves very fast in a collection of very slow ones. In the language of the physicists, the
original state with only one fast atom is highly improbable. Over the course of time, any
unlikely initial state will evolve into a more probable state—a situation like the one in
which all the atoms have approximately the same energy.
The tendency of all systems to evolve from improbable to more probable states
accounts for the directionality that we see in the universe around us (Figure 4-1).There’s
no reason from the point of view of energy alone that improbable situations can’t occur.
Fifteen slow-moving billiard balls have enough energy to produce one fast-moving ball.
The fact that this situation doesn’t occur in nature is an important clue as to how things
work at the atomic level.
Nineteenth-century scientists discovered the underlying reasons for nature’s direc-
tionality by studying heat, the motion of atoms and molecules. Before dealing with the
details of these discoveries, as summarized in the second law of thermodynamics, let’s
consider some properties of heat.
Coming to Terms with Heat

Atoms never sit still. They are always moving, and in the process they distribute their
kinetic energy—what we call thermal energy, or internal energy. If you have ever tried to
warm a house during a cold winter day, you have practical experience of this fact. If you
turn off the furnace, the energy in the house gradually leaks away to the outside, and the
house begins to get cold. The only way you can keep the house warm is to keep adding
more thermal energy. Similarly, our bodies constantly produce energy to maintain our
core body temperature close to 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37ºC). Both your furnace and
your body produce energy on the inside—energy that will inevitably flow to the outside
as heat. You use that heat on the fly, as it were.
In order to understand the nature of heat and its movement, we need to define
three closely related terms: heat, temperature, and specific heat capacity.
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Coming to Terms with Heat | 75
H EAT AND TEMPERATURE •

In everyday conversation we often use the words “temperature” and “heat” inter-
changeably, but to scientists the words have different meanings. Heat is a form of energy
that moves from a warmer object to a cooler object; heat is thus energy in motion. Any
object that is hot can transfer its internal energy to the surroundings as heat. A gallon of
boiling water contains more internal energy than a pint of boiling water and it can thus
transfer more heat to its surroundings. Heat is often measured in calories, a common
unit of energy defined as the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of room-temperature
water by 1º Celsius in temperature. (Don’t confuse this calorie, abbreviated cal, with the
calorie unit commonly used in nutrition discussions. The dietary calorie, abbreviated
Cal, equals 1000 calories; see Appendix B.)
Temperature is a term that compares how vigorously atoms in a substance are
moving and colliding in different substances. Two objects are defined to be at the
same temperature if no heat flows spontaneously from one to the other. A gallon of
boiling water, therefore, is at the same temperature as a pint of boiling water. The
difference in temperature between two objects is one of the factors that determine
how quickly heat is transferred between those two objects: the larger the tempera-
ture difference, the more rapidly heat is transferred. You may have seen this phe-
nomenon at work in the summertime when violent winds, often accompanied by a
line of thunderstorms, precede a cold front. The strong winds are the result of con-
vection (see below), which helps to transfer heat between two air masses at very dif-
ferent temperatures. Temperature scales provide a convenient way to compare the
temperatures of two objects. Many different temperature scales have been proposed;
all scales and temperature units are arbitrary, but every scale requires two easily
reproduced temperatures for calibration. The freezing and boiling points of pure
water are commonly used standards today in the Fahrenheit scale (32 and 212
degrees for freezing and boiling, respectively) and the Celsius scale (where 0 and 100
degrees correspond to freezing and boiling water, respectively). The Kelvin temper-
ature scale uses the same degree as the Celsius scale, with 100 increments between
the freezing and boiling points of water. This scale defines 0 Kelvin (abbreviated K)
as absolute zero, which is the coldest attainable temperature—the temperature at
which it is impossible to extract any heat at all from atoms or molecules. The tem-
perature of absolute zero is approximately –273ºC, or –460ºF. It turns out,
therefore, that freezing and boiling occur at about 273 and 373 Kelvins, Boiling
respectively (Figure 4-2). point of 373K 100C 212F
water
TEMPERATURE C ONVERSIONS •
Freezing
It’s often necessary to convert from one temperature scale to another. Amer- point of 273K 0.0C 32F
ican travelers, for example, often have to convert from degrees Celsius (used water
in most of the rest of the world) to degrees Fahrenheit. This conversion
requires the following formula:
°F ⫽ 11.8 ⫻ °C 2 ⫹ 32
The 1.8 in this formula reflects the fact that the Fahrenheit degree is smaller
than the Celsius degree, while the 32 reflects the fact that water freezes at
32ºF but 0ºC. To convert the opposite way, from Fahrenheit to Celsius, the
formula is:
1°F ⫺ 32 2
Absolute
0K –273C –460F
zero
°C ⫽
1.8
• Figure 4-2 The Kelvin, Celsius,
Remember, all temperature scales measure the exact same phenomenon; they and Fahrenheit temperature scales
just use different number scales to do so. compared.
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EXAMPLE 4-1
W HAT TO W EAR ?
You awake in Paris to a forecast high temperature of 32ºC. Should you wear gloves and
an overcoat?
Reasoning and Solution: Apply the equation to convert temperature from Celsius to
Fahrenheit:
°F ⫽ 11.8 ⫻ °C2 ⫹ 32
⫽ 11.8 ⫻ 32 2 ⫹ 32
⫽ 89.6°F
Looks like you won’t be needing your overcoat today!
TECHNOLOGY •
Thermometers
A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature. Most thermometers display
temperature either digitally or on a numbered scale. Thermometers work by incorporat-
ing material whose properties change significantly with temperature. Many materials
expand when heated and contract when cooled, and this behavior can be used to gauge
temperature (Figure 4-3). In the old-style mercury thermometer, for example, a bead of
mercury expands into a thin glass column with increasing temperature; you read the
height of the mercury against a scale marked in degrees. Many other (much safer) ther-
mometers rely on changes in the electrical properties of a temperature sensor. •
Courtesy Torka Inc. www.torka.com
S PECIFIC H EAT CAPACITY •

Specific heat capacity is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb heat and is
defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of that
material by 1ºC. Water displays the largest heat capacity of any common substance; by
definition, one calorie is required to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 1ºC. By
contrast, you know that metals heat up quickly in a fire, so a small amount of absorbed
heat can cause a significant increase in the metal’s temperature.
Think about the last time you boiled water in a copper-bottomed pot. It doesn’t
take long to raise the temperature of a copper pot to above the boiling point of water
because copper, like most other metals, heats up rapidly as it absorbs heat. In fact, one
calorie will raise the temperature of a gram of copper by about 10ºC. But water is a dif-
ferent matter; it must absorb 10 times more heat per gram than copper to raise its tem-
perature. Thus, even at the highest stove setting, it can take several minutes to boil a pot
of water. This ability of water to store thermal energy plays a critical role in Earth’s cli-
mate, which is moderated by the relatively steady temperatures of the oceans.
Stop and Think! Why are the freezing and boiling points of pure water
commonly used as standards for temperature scales? Can you think of other
standards that would be useful for everyday measurements?
• Figure 4-3 One of the most visually intriguing types of thermometers, invented by Galileo
Galilei in the early 1600s, employs changes in liquid density as a function of temperature. The
“Galilean thermometer” consists of a large sealed flask with a liquid that changes density as it is
heated. Suspended in this liquid are dozens of small numbered weights, each of a slightly dif-
ferent density. At low temperature, most of the weights rise to the top of the flask. As tempera-
ture increases, the denser weights sink one-by-one to the bottom. The temperature is read
simply as the lowest number on the weights that remain floating at the top of the thermometer.
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Heat Transfer | 77
Heat Transfer
You can’t prevent heat from moving from an object at high temperature to its cooler
surroundings; you can only slow the rate of movement. In fact, scientists and engineers
have spent many decades studying the phenomenon known as heat transfer—the
process by which heat moves from one place to another. Heat transfers by three basic
mechanisms—conduction, convection, and radiation—each of which is important to
different aspects of everyday experience.
C ONDUCTION •
Have you ever reached for a pan on a hot stove, only to have your fingers burned when
you grasped the metal handle? If so, you have had firsthand experience of conduction,
the movement of heat by atomic-scale collisions.
As shown in Figure 4-4, conduction works through the action of individual atoms
or molecules that are linked together by chemical bonds. If a piece of metal is heated at
one end, the atoms and their electrons at that end begin to move faster. When they
vibrate and collide with atoms farther away from the heat source, they are likely to trans-
fer energy to those atoms, so that the molecules farther away will begin to move faster as
well. A chain of collisions occurs, with atoms progressively farther and farther away from
the heat source moving faster and faster as time goes by.
Conduction of heat is responsible for a large part of the heating bills in homes and
office buildings. The process works like this: The air inside a house in winter is kept
warmer than the air outside, so that the molecules of the air inside are moving faster
than the molecules in the air outside. When the molecules inside collide with materials
in the wall (a windowpane, for example), they impart some of their heat to the mole-
cules in those materials. At that point, conduction takes over and heat is transferred to
the outside of the wall. There the heat is transferred to the outdoors by convection and • Figure 4-4 Heat energy moves
radiation, processes that we will describe in a moment. The key point, however, is that by conduction through the action of
you can think about every part of your house as being a kind of conduit carrying heat atoms or molecules that jostle their
neighbors.
from the interior to the outside.
One way of slowing down the flow
of heat out of a house is to add insulation
to the walls or to use special kinds of
glass for the windows. These processes
work because materials differ in their
thermal conductivity—their ability to
transfer heat from one molecule to the
next by conduction. Have you ever
noticed that a piece of wood at room
temperature feels “normal,” while a
piece of metal at the same temperature
feels cold to the touch? The wood and
metal are at exactly the same tempera-
ture, but the metal feels cold because it is
a good heat conductor—it moves heat
rapidly away from your skin, which is
generally warmer than air temperature. Atoms at
cool end Atoms at
The wood, on the other hand, is a good vibrate hot end
heat insulator—it impedes the flow of slower vibrate
faster
heat, and so it feels comparatively warm.
The insulation in your home is designed to
have especially low thermal conductivity,
so that heat transfer is slowed down (but Atoms collide
never completely stopped). Thus, when in the middle
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Edward Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.
• Figure 4-5 A house appears differently in photographs with infrared (left) and visible
(right) light. The brighter areas on the infrared image, including the door and windows,
reveal surfaces where internal heat is being lost most rapidly to the cold exterior.
you use special insulated windowpanes or put certain kinds of insulation in your walls,
you make it more difficult for heat to flow outside, and thereby allow yourself to use
the heat longer before it ultimately leaks away (Figure 4-5).
C ONVECTION •
Let’s look carefully at a pot of boiling water on a stove. On the surface of the water you
will see a rolling, churning motion as the water moves and mixes. If you put your hand
above the water, you feel heat. Heat has been transferred from the water at the bottom
of the pot to the top by convection, the transfer of heat by the bulk motion of the water
itself, as shown in Figure 4-6.
Water near the bottom of the pan expands as it is heated by the flames. Therefore, it
weighs less per unit volume than the colder water immediately above it. A situation like
this, with colder, denser water above and warmer, less dense water below, is unstable.
The denser fluid tends to descend and displace the less dense fluid, which in turn begins
to rise. Consequently, the warm water from the bottom rises to the top, while the cool
water from the top sinks to the bottom. In convection, masses of water move in bulk
and carry the fast-moving molecules with them.
Convection is a continuous, cyclic process as long as heat is added to the water.
As cool water from the top of a pot arrives at the bottom, it begins to be heated by
the burner. As hot water gets to the top, its heat is sent off into the air. The water on
the top cools and contracts, while the water on the bottom heats and expands. The
Water cools
original situation is repeated continuously, with the less dense fluid on the bottom
always rising and the more dense fluid on the top always sinking. This transfer of flu-
Cooler Cooler
water Hot water water ids results in a kind of a rolling motion, which you see when you look at the surface
sinks rises sinks
of boiling water.
Each of these regions of rising and sinking water is called a convection cell. The
areas of clear water, which seem to be bubbling up, are the places where warm water is
rising. The places where bubbles and scum tend to collect—the places that look rather
• Figure 4-6 Convection. Heat is
transferred by the bulk motion of a
stagnant—are where the cool water is sinking, leaving behind whatever passengers (such
fluid, such as air or water. In the case as minerals) it happened to be carrying at the surface. Heat is carried from the burner
of a boiling pot, hot water rises as through the convection of the water and is eventually transferred to the atmosphere.
cooler water sinks. Convection is thus a very efficient way of transferring heat.
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Heat Transfer | 79
You experience many examples of the convection process, from the small-scale cir-
Brenda Tharp/Photo Researchers

culation of cold water in a glass of iced tea, to air rising above a radiator or toaster, to
large-scale motions of Earth’s atmosphere (Figure 4-7). You may even have seen con-
vection cells in operation in large urban areas. When you’re in the parking lot of a large
shopping mall on a hot summer day, you can probably see the air shimmer. What you are
seeing is air, heated by the hot asphalt, rising upward. Some place farther away, perhaps
out in the countryside, cooler air is falling. The shopping center is called a “heat island”
and is the hot part of a convection cell.
You may also have noticed that the temperature in big cities is usually a few degrees
warmer than in outlying suburbs. Cities help create their own weather because they are
heat islands where convection cells develop. Rainfall is typically higher in cities than in
the surrounding atmosphere because cities set up convection cells that draw in cool
moist air from surrounding areas.
TECHNOLOGY •
Home Insulation
Today’s homebuilders take heat convection and conduction very seriously. An energy-
efficient dwelling has to hold onto its heat in the winter and remain cool in the summer.
A variety of materials provide effective solutions to this insulation problem.
Fiberglass, the most widely used insulation, is made of loosely intertwined strands of
glass. It works by minimizing the opportunities for conduction and convection of heat
out of your home. Solid glass is a rather poor heat insulator, but it takes a long time for
heat to move along a thin, twisted glass fiber, and even longer for heat to transfer across
the occasional contact points between pairs of crossed fibers. Furthermore, a cloth-like
mat of fiberglass disrupts airflow and prevents heat transfer by convection. A thick, con-
tinuous layer of fiberglass in your walls and ceiling thus acts as an ideal barrier to the
flow of heat (Figure 4-8). • Figure 4-7 Convection cells in
the air keep this hang glider in
Windows pose a special insulation problem. Old-style single-pane windows conduct
California aloft.
heat rapidly, so how do we let light in without letting heat out? One solution is double-
pane windows with sealed, airtight spaces between the panes that greatly restrict heat
conduction. In addition, builders employ a variety of caulking and foam insula-
tion to seal any possible leaks around windows and doors.
Getty Images
Recent high-tech materials are providing new types of insulation. Like

fiberglass, most of these new materials depend on the insulating properties of
trapped air for their effectiveness. Older homes are now routinely insulated
by injecting liquid foams between exterior and interior walls, for example.
When the foam hardens, tiny bubbles of trapped air slow down the transfer of
heat. In new construction, sheets of solid Styrofoam, which contain the same
kind of trapped air bubbles, are often used instead of fiberglass, and foams
are sprayed onto the inner surface of concrete to increase its insulating
power.
Even windows can be made into good insulators by using new experimen-
tal window glasses in which microscopic air bubbles are trapped. Although this
distorts the incoming light a bit—the effect is roughly like looking through a
dirty window—a glass pane made from this material has an insulating power
equivalent to 6 inches of fiberglass. •
• Figure 4-8 A thick layer of fiber-
glass insulation will reduce the trans-
fer of heat between your home and
THE S CIENCE OF LIFE • the surroundings, and thus will
reduce your heating bills in the win-
Animal Insulation: Fur and Feathers ter and cooling bills in the summer.
Houses aren’t the only place where insulation can be seen in our world. Two kinds of
animals—birds and mammals—maintain a constant body temperature despite the tem-
perature of their surroundings, and both have evolved methods to control the flow of
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Ray Coleman/Photo Researchers
David E. Meyers/Stone/Getty Images

B & C Alexander/Photo Researchers
• Figure 4-9 Feathers, fur, and fat help animals by providing insulation to keep body heat in.
heat into and out of their bodies. Part of these strategies involves the use of insulating
materials—furs, feathers, and fat—that serve to slow down the heat flow (Figure 4-9).
Because most of the time an animal’s body is warmer than the environment, the most
common situation is one in which the insulation works to keep heat in.
Whales, walruses, and seals are examples of animals that have thick layers of fat to
insulate them from the cold arctic waters in which they swim. Fat is a poor conductor of
heat and plays much the same role in their bodies as the fiberglass insulation in your
attic. Feathers are another kind of insulation; in fact, many biologists suspect that feath-
ers evolved first as a kind of insulation to help birds maintain their body temperature,
and only later were adapted for flight. Feathers are made of light, hollow tubes con-
nected to each other by an array of small interlocking spikes. They have some insulating
properties themselves, but their main effect comes from the fact that they trap air next to
the body, and, as we have pointed out, stationary air is a rather good insulator. Birds
often react to extreme cold by contracting muscles in their skin so that the feathers fluff
out. This has the effect of increasing the thickness (and hence the insulating power) of
the layer of trapped air. (Incidentally, birds need insulation more than we do because
their normal body temperature is 41ºC or 106ºF.)
Hair (or fur) is actually made up of dead cells similar to those in the outer layer of
the skin. Like feathers, hair serves as an insulator in its own right and traps a layer of air
near the body. In some animals (for example, polar bears), the insulating power of the
hair is increased because each hair contains tiny bubbles of trapped air. The reflection of
light from these bubbles makes polar bear fur appear white—the strands of hair are actu-
ally translucent.
Hair grows from follicles in the skin, and small muscles allow animals to make their
hair stand up to increase its insulating power. Human beings, who evolved in a warm cli-
mate, have lost much of their body hair as well as the ability to make most of it stand up.
We have a reminder of our mammalian nature, however, in the phenomenon of “goose-
bumps,” which is the attempt by muscles in the skin to make the hair stand up. •
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Heat Transfer | 81
R ADIATION •
Everyone has had the experience of coming inside on a cold day and finding a fire in the
fireplace or an electric heater glowing red hot. The normal reaction is to walk up to the
source of heat, hold out your hands, and feel the warmth moving into your skin.
How did the heat get from the fire to your hands? It couldn’t have done so by con-
duction; it’s too hard to carry heat through the air that way. It couldn’t have been con-
vection either because you don’t feel a hot breeze.
What you experience is the third kind of heat transfer—radiation, or the transfer of
heat by electromagnetic radiation, which is a form of wave energy that we will discuss in
Chapter 6. A fire or an electric heater radiates energy in the form of infrared radiation.
This radiation travels from the source of heat to your hand, where it is absorbed and
converted into the thermal energy of molecules. You perceive heat because of the energy
that the infrared radiation carries to your hand.
Objects throughout the universe radiate energy in this way. Under normal circum-
stances, as an object gives off radiation to its surroundings, it also receives radiation from
those surroundings. Thus a kind of equilibrium is set up, and there is no net loss of
energy because the object is at the same temperature as its surroundings. If, however,
the object is at a higher temperature than its surroundings, it will radiate more energy
than it receives. Your body, for example, constantly radiates energy into its cooler sur-
roundings. You will continue to radiate this energy as long as your body processes the
food that keeps you alive (see Chapter 20).
Radiation is the only kind of energy that can travel through the emptiness of space.
Conduction requires atoms or molecules that can vibrate and collide with each other. Con-
vection requires atoms or molecules of liquid or gas in bulk, so that they can move. But
radiation, remarkably, doesn’t require any medium to move heat; radiation can even travel
through a vacuum. The energy that falls on Earth in the form of sunlight, which is almost
all of the energy that sustains life on Earth, travels through 93 million miles (150 million
km) of intervening empty space in the form of radiation.
In the real world, all three types of heat transfer—conduction, convection, and
radiation—occur all the time. Any one can occur by itself or in combination with
another, or all three can occur simultaneously. At this moment, heat is being generated
in your body. It travels by conduction through tissues, by convection through blood
circulation, and by radiation from the surface of your skin. In fact, everywhere in the
natural world heat is constantly being transferred by these three mechanisms.
Temperature Regulation
Animals get the energy they need to run their metabolism by “burning” fuels they take in
as food, and the laws of thermodynamics tell us that this process must generate waste heat.
For small animals, this heat can be dumped into the environment by simple conduction,
but the larger an animal is, the more complex the system for disposing waste heat has to be.
By the same token, animals must be able to absorb heat from their environment to
maintain their internal temperature. Some animals (reptiles, for example) absorb energy
directly from radiation. This is why you often see snakes and lizards “sunning” them-
selves on warm days and why they are so sluggish on cold mornings. Other animals, such
as mammals (a group that includes human beings) and birds, have intricate mechanisms
for maintaining a constant body temperature.
Human beings have complex ways of raising and lowering the body’s temperature in
response to changes in the temperature of the environment. If your body temperature
starts to rise, blood vessels near the surface of your skin dilate so that the blood can carry
more heat to the surface by convection. There, the excess heat can be radiated away. This
response is why you often appear flushed after being in the sun for a while. In addition,
you start to sweat. The purpose of sweating is to put water on your skin, then use body
heat to evaporate that water (Figure 4-10).
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Wolf Farenbach/Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images When the temperature falls, the blood vessels near
the surface contract, lowering the ability of the blood
to carry heat to the surface. In extreme cases, this situ-
Sweat droplets ation can lead to frostbite, in which cells die because
they are denied oxygen and other substances normally
carried to them by the blood. Consequently, your
body’s metabolism increases and generates more heat
in response to cold weather. Shivering, for example, is
a response in which the heat generated by involuntary
contractions of the muscles is used to counterbalance
the falling temperature.
Incidentally, you may recall that you often start
shivering at the onset of a fever. This seemingly para-
doxical response occurs because, in response to the
disease, the body’s internal “thermostat” is adjusted to
SM 48X
a higher than normal setting. You shiver and feel cold
• Figure 4-10 A microscopic image
because, when this happens, normal body temperature is below the new setting of the
reveals tiny sweat droplets on a
human fingertip. The purpose of “thermostat” and more heat is needed to raise the body’s temperature. •
sweating is to transfer water to your
skin, and then use body heat to
evaporate that water.
Stop and Think! The ears of an elephant are believed to function partly
to keep the animal from overheating. What properties of the ears would
make them well suited to this function? What types of heat transfer would
be involved?
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Throughout the universe the behavior of energy is regular and predictable. According to
the first law of thermodynamics, the total amount of energy is constant, though energy
may change from one form to another over and over again. Energy in the form of heat
can flow from one place to another by conduction, convection, and radiation. But every-
day experience tells us that there is more to the behavior of energy—that there is a direc-
tion to energy’s flow. Hot things tend to cool off, cold things tend to warm up, and an
egg, once broken, can never be reassembled. These commonsense ideas are the domain
of the second law of thermodynamics, which is one of the most fascinating and pow-
erful ideas in science.
The second law of thermodynamics places restrictions on the way heat and other
forms of energy can be transferred and used to do work. We will explore three different
statements of this law:
1. Heat will not flow spontaneously from a cold to a hot body.
2. You cannot construct an engine that does nothing but convert heat to useful work.
3. Every isolated system becomes more disordered with time.
Although these three statements appear very different, they are actually logically
equivalent—given any one statement, you can derive the other two as a consequence. Given
the statement that heat flows from hot to cold objects, for example, a physicist could pro-
duce a set of mathematical steps that would show that no engine can convert heat to work
with 100% efficiency. In this sense, the three statements of the law all say the same thing.
H EAT WILL N OT F LOW S PONTANEOUSLY

FROM A C OLD TO A H OT B ODY •
The first statement of the second law of thermodynamics describes the behavior of two
objects at different temperatures. If you take an ice cream cone outside on a hot sum-
mer afternoon, it will melt. In the language of energy, heat will flow from the warm
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The Second Law of Thermodynamics | 83
atmosphere to the cold ice cream cone and cause its temperature to rise above the melt-
ing point. By the same token, if you take a cup of hot chocolate outside on a cold day,
it will cool as heat flows from the cup into the surroundings.
From the point of view of energy alone, there is no reason things should work this
way. Energy would be conserved if heat stayed put, or even if heat flowed from an ice
cream cone into the warm atmosphere, making the ice cream cone grow colder. Our
everyday experience (and many experiments) convince us that our universe does not
work this way. In our universe heat flows in only one direction, from hot to cold. This
everyday observation may seem trivial, but in this statement is hidden all the mystery of
those changes that make the future different from the past.
This version of the second law is easy to explain at the molecular level. If two objects
collide and one of them is moving faster than the other, chances are that the slower
object will be speeded up and the faster object slowed down by the collision. It’s
unlikely that events will go the other way. Thus, as we saw in the discussion of heat con-
duction, faster-moving molecules tend to share their energy with slower-moving ones.
On the macroscopic scale, this process is seen as heat flowing from warm regions to
cold ones by conduction. For the second law to be violated, the molecules in a substance
would have to conspire so that collisions would cause slower-moving molecules to slow
down even more, giving up their energy to faster molecules so they could go even faster.
Experience tells us that this doesn’t happen.
The second law does not state that it’s impossible for heat to flow from a cold to a
hot body. When a refrigerator is operating, heat is removed from the colder interior to
the warmer exterior, a fact that you can verify by putting your hand under the refrigera-
tor and feeling the warm air coming off it. The second law merely says that this action
cannot take place spontaneously, of its own accord. If you wish to cool something in this
way, you must supply energy. In fact, an alternative statement of the second law of ther-
modynamics could be: A refrigerator won’t work unless it’s plugged in.
The second law doesn’t tell you that you can’t make ice cubes, only that you can’t
make ice cubes without expending energy. Paying the electric bill, of course, is another
part of our everyday experience.
YOU CANNOT C ONSTRUCT AN E NGINE THAT D OES

N OTHING BUT C ONVERT H EAT TO U SEFUL WORK •
The second statement of the second law of thermodynamics places a severe restriction
on the way we can use energy. At first glance, this statement about heat and work seems
to have very little to do with the idea that heat never flows spontaneously from a cold
object to a hot object. Yet the two statements are logically equivalent—given the one,
the other must follow.
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. This second statement of the sec-
ond law tells us that whenever energy is transformed from heat to another type—from
heat to an electrical current, for example—some of that heat must be dumped into the
environment and is unavailable to do work. This energy is neither lost nor destroyed,
but it can’t be used to make electricity to play your radio or gasoline to drive your car.
Scientists and engineers have defined a specific term, efficiency, to quantify the loss of
useful energy. Efficiency is the amount of work you get from an engine, divided by the
amount of energy you put into it.
In Chapter 3 we discovered that heat and other forms of energy are interchangeable,
and the total amount of energy is conserved. From the point of view of the first law of ther-
modynamics, there is no reason why energy in the form of heat could not be converted to
electrical energy with 100% efficiency. But the second law of thermodynamics predicts that
such a process is not possible. The flow of energy, like time, has a direction. Another way of
stating this law is to say that energy always goes from a more useful to a less useful form.
Your car engine provides a familiar example of this everyday rule of nature. When you
turn on the ignition, an exploding mixture of gasoline and air creates a high-temperature,
high-pressure gas that pushes down on a piston. The piston’s motion is converted into
rotational motion of a series of machine parts that eventually turn the car’s wheels. Some
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of the energy is lost because of friction, but the second law of thermodynamics predicts
that our use of the energy is restricted even if friction did not exist, and even if every
machine in the world was perfectly designed.
Look at the various stages of an engine’s operation (Figure 4-11). There seems to be
no obvious reason why energy in the form of heat in the exploding air-gas mixture could
not be converted with 100% efficiency into energy of motion of the engine’s piston,
which is translated into the motion of the car. But you can’t just think about the down-
ward motion of a piston, what engineers call the power stroke, in the operation of your
car’s engine. If that was all the engine did, then the engine in every car could turn over
only once. The problem is that once you have the piston pushed all the way down—once
you have extracted useful work from the air-gas mixture—you have to return the piston
to the top of the cylinder so that the cycle can be repeated. In other words, in order to
reset the engine to its original position so that more useful work can be done, some
energy has to be expended to lift the piston back up.
Ignore for a moment the fact that a real engine is more complicated than the one we
are discussing (Figure 4-11). Suppose that all you had to do was to lift the piston up after
you had gotten the work from it. The cylinder is full of air, and consequently when you
lift the piston up the air will be compressed and heated. In order to return the engine to
the precise state it was in before the explosion, the heat from this compressed air has to be
taken away. In practice, it is dumped into the atmosphere.
In the language of physics, the exploding hot gas-air mixture is called a high tem-
perature reservoir, and the atmosphere into which the heat of compression is dumped is
called a low-temperature reservoir. The second law of thermodynamics says that any
engine operating between two temperatures must dump some energy in the form of
heat into the low-temperature reservoir. In your car’s engine, for example, heat pro-
duced by moving the piston back up has to be dumped. A similar argument can be made
for any conceivable engine you could build.
Some of the chemical potential energy stored in gasoline can be used to run your
car, but most of the energy must be dumped into the low-temperature reservoir of the
atmosphere. Once that heat has gone into the atmosphere, it can no longer be used to
run the engine. Thus this version of the second law tells us that any real engine operating
Beginnig of Middle of Beginning of Beginning of Beginning of

intake stoke intake stroke compression stroke power stroke exhaust stroke
Intake valve (open)
Spark plug
Exhaust Intake
port port
Exhaust
valve
(closed) Piston
Crankshaft Cylinder
Gasoline–air Cylinder sealed as Spark plug fires, Combustion

mixture enters both intake valve igniting the products are
cylinder through and exhaust compressed mixture swept out of the
open intake port valve are closed of gasoline and air cylinder through
and begins the the open exhaust
power stroke port
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
• Figure 4-11 This figure shows the operation of an engine like the one in your car. (a) The beginning of the intake stroke.
(b) The middle of the intake stroke as a gasoline–air mixture enters the cylinder. (c) The beginning of the compression stroke.
(d) At the beginning of the power stroke the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed mixture of gasoline and air. (e) At the
beginning of the exhaust stroke, combustion products are swept out. Note that each cycle involves two complete rotations of
the crankshaft.
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in the world, even an engine in which there is no friction, must waste some of the energy
that goes into it.
This version of the second law explains why petroleum reserves and coal deposits play
such an important role in the world economy. They are high-grade and nonrenewable
sources of energy that can be used to produce high-temperature reservoirs. They are also
sources of energy that can be used only once. When fossil fuels are burned to produce a
high-temperature reservoir and generate electricity, for example, a large portion of energy
must simply be thrown away.
Although the second law predicts rather stringent limits on engines that work in
cycles, it does not apply to many other uses of energy. No engine is involved if you burn
natural gas to heat your home or use solar energy to heat water, for example. Conse-
quently, these limits needn’t apply. Thus burning fossil fuels or employing solar energy to
supply heat directly can be considerably more efficient than using it to generate electricity.
Efficiency
The second law of thermodynamics can be used to calculate the maximum possible effi-
ciency of an engine. Let’s say that the high-temperature reservoir is at a temperature T hot
and the low-temperature reservoir is at a temperature T cold (temperatures are measured in
the Kelvin scale). The maximum theoretical efficiency—the percentage of energy available
to do useful work—of any engine in the real world can be calculated as follows.
In words: Efficiency is obtained by comparing the temperature difference between
the high-temperature and low-temperature reservoirs with the temperature of the
high-temperature reservoir.
In equation form:
1temperature hot ⫺ temperature cold 2
efficiency 1percent2 ⫽ ⫻ 100
temperature hot
In symbols:
1Thot ⫺ Tcold 2
Thot
Any loss of energy due to friction in pulleys or gears or wheels in a real machine will
make the actual efficiency less than this theoretical maximum. This maximum is actually
a very stringent constraint on real engines.
Consider the efficiency of a normal coal-fired electrical generating plant. The tem-
perature of the high-energy steam (the hot reservoir) is about 500 K, while the temper-
ature of the air into which waste heat must be dumped (the “cold” reservoir) is around
room temperature, or 300 K. The maximum possible efficiency of such a plant is given
by the second law to be:
1Thot – Tcold 2
Thot
1500 ⫺ 3002
⫽ ⫻ 100
500
⫽ 40.0%
In other words, more than half of the energy produced in a typical coal-burning power
plant must be dumped into the atmosphere as waste heat. This fundamental limit is
independent of the engineers’ ability to make the plant operate efficiently. In fact, engi-
neers do very well in this regard—most generating plants operate within a few percent-
age points of the maximum efficiency allowed by the second law of thermodynamics.
This result has important implications for energy policy. It tells us that there are funda-
mental limits to the efficiency with which we can convert heat generated by coal or
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nuclear reactors to electricity. An important question we will have to debate in the future
is whether it is better to use our stocks of coal and petroleum to generate electricity,
thereby converting most of them to waste heat, or retain them for use in the production
of synthetic materials such as plastic (see Chapter 10). •
EVERY I SOLATED SYSTEM B ECOMES

M ORE D ISORDERED WITH TIME •
The third statement of the second law of thermodynamics, in many ways the most pro-
found, describes the familiar tendency of systems all around us to become increasingly
disordered. Your carefully cleaned room gets messy, your brand
Highly ordered Disordered
new car becomes dirty and scratched, and we all age as our bodies
gradually wear out. For physicists, however, this statement of the
This change second law has a very precise and special meaning.
tends to be To understand this statement of the second law, you need to
know what a physicist means by “order” and “disorder.” An
spontaneous ordered system is one in which a number of objects, be they
atoms or automobiles, are positioned in a completely regular and
predictable pattern. A jar filled with colored marbles in two layers
Highly ordered Disordered liquid –
is more ordered than one in which the marbles are jumbled up,
solid – low probability higher probability while a neat stack of bricks is more ordered than an irregular pile
(a)
(Figure 4-12). Similarly, atoms in a perfect crystal or automobiles
in a perfect line, for example, form highly ordered systems. A dis-
ordered system, on the other hand, contains objects that are ran-
domly situated, without any obvious pattern. Atoms in a gas or
automobiles after a multicar pileup on a freeway are examples of
disordered systems.
A mathematical definition of order and disorder requires
considering the number of different ways a system can be
An improbable way A more probable way
for bricks to fall for bricks to fall
arranged. To get a feel for this idea, consider three orange balls
(b) numbered 1, 2, and 3, and three green balls numbered 4, 5, and 6.
• Figure 4-12 Highly ordered, reg- Ask yourself, how many different ways are there to arrange these
ular patterns of objects are less likely six balls in a row (Figure 4-13)? There are six different possibilities for the first ball,
to occur than disordered, irregular then five possibilities for the second, four for the third, and so on. So if you multiply
patterns. Colored marbles that are that out:
layered in a jar (a) will spontaneously
become randomly mixed if you jostle 6 ⫻ 5 ⫻ 4 ⫻ 3 ⫻ 2 ⫻ 1 ⫽ 720
the jar. Bricks that are tossed into a
pile (b) are unlikely to form a neat It turns out that there are 720 ways to arrange these six numbered balls in a row—720
stack. These and many other exam- different possible configurations.
ples illustrate the second law of ther- But how many of those arrangements have the ordered state with three orange
modynamics. balls followed by three green balls? There are exactly six different ways to arrange
three orange balls (3 ⫻ 2⫻ 1), and then six different ways to arrange the
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 1 6 4 2 3
three green balls. Altogether, that’s 6⫻ 6, or 36 different configurations
with three orange balls followed by three green balls out of 720 total
6 4 3 1 5 2 3 4 5 6 2 1 configurations. Only 5% of all possible arrangements (36/720) are
ordered in this way. All of the remaining 684 configurations are differ-
2 6 5 1 4 3 6 1 3 5 2 4 ent. So, by a 19-to-1 margin, these other arrangements are much more
3 2 4 6 5 1 2 5 3 1 4 6 probable because there are many more ways to achieve a disordered
state than an ordered one.
5 2 4 1 6 3 5 6 4 3 1 2 You can repeat this exercise for other numbers of balls (see Problems 4
and 5). For a sequence of 10 balls (five orange and five green), it turns out
• Figure 4-13 There are 720 differ- that there are more than 3.6 million different configurations, but only 120 of those
ent ways to arrange six numbered
balls. If three balls are orange and sequences have five orange followed by five green balls. That’s only 0.003% of all possible
three are green, then only a small arrangements!
fraction of these arrangements are As the number of objects increases from 6 to 10 to trillions of trillions (as we find in
ordered by color. even a very small collection of atoms), the fraction of arrangements that is highly
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ordered becomes infinitesimally small. In other words, highly ordered configurations are
improbable because almost every possible configuration is disordered. This concept of a
system’s state of disorder is described by the term entropy. The second law of thermo-
dynamics can be restated as:
The entropy of an isolated system remains constant or increases.
The word entropy was proposed by the German engineer Rudolf Clausius
(1822–1888), who played a central role in the formulation of the second law of ther-
modynamics. In his own words: “I propose to name the [quantity] entropy p from the
Greek word for a transformation. I have intentionally formed the word entropy so as to
be as similar as possible to the word energy, since both these quantities p are so nearly
related to each other.”
The definition of entropy, as a measure of disorder, may seem a bit fuzzy, but it was
placed on a firm quantitative footing in the late nineteenth century by the German
physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906). Boltzmann used probability theory to
demonstrate that the entropy of any arrangement of atoms is related to the number of
possible ways that you can achieve that arrangement. The numerical value of entropy is
thus related to the number of ways a system like the numbered balls in a row can be
rearranged. If you have a collection of sodium and chlorine atoms, for example, there
are many more ways to mix those atoms randomly in a liquid than there are to have
them strictly alternating, as they do in a salt crystal. That’s why the entropy of sodium
and chlorine atoms dissolved in water is much greater than the entropy of those atoms in
a salt crystal.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, any system left to itself will evolve
toward the most disordered state, the state with the maximum uncertainty in the
arrangement of its parts. Without careful chemical and physical controls, atoms and
molecules will tend to become more intermixed; without careful driving, collections of
automobiles will also tend to become more disordered.
The example we gave at the beginning of the chapter, with the one fast atom in a
collection of slow atoms, shows very clearly how such a process works. In the most
likely situation, when all of the atoms are in the same low-energy state, the entropy is
maximized. A much less probable situation occurs when one of the atoms is in a high-
velocity state. Another way of saying this is that systems tend to avoid states of high
improbability.
While systems tend to become more disordered, the second law does not require
every system to approach a state of lower order. Think about water, a substance of high
disorder because water molecules are arranged at random. If you put water into a freezer
you get an ice cube, a much more ordered state in which water molecules have formed a
regular crystal structure. You have caused a system to evolve to a state of higher order.
How can this be reconciled with our statement of the second law?
The answer to this seeming paradox lies in the simple word “isolated.” The freezer
in which you make the ice cubes is not an isolated system because it has a power cord
plugged into the wall and is ultimately connected to the generating plant. The isolated
system in this case is the freezer plus the generating plant. The second law of thermody-
namics says that the system’s total entropy must increase. It does not say that the
entropy has to increase in all the different parts of the system.
In this example, one part of the system (the ice cube) becomes more ordered, while
another part of the system (the generating plant, its burning fuel, and the surrounding
air) becomes more disordered. All that the second law requires is that the increase of dis-
order at the generating plant be greater than the increase of order at the ice cube. As
long as this requirement is met, the second law is not violated. In fact, in this particular
example, the disorder at the generating plant greatly exceeds any possible order that
could take place inside your refrigerator.
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The Heat Death of the Universe

The nineteenth-century discovery of the second law of thermodynamics was a gloomy
event. The prevailing philosophy of the time was that life, society, and the universe in
general were on a never-ending upward spiral of progress. In this optimistic climate, the
discovery that the energy in the universe was being steadily and irrevocably degraded
was very hard for nineteenth-century scientists and philosophers to accept. The second
law seemed to imply that all the energy in the universe would eventually be degraded
into waste heat and that everything in the universe would eventually come to the same
temperature. This outcome was called the “heat death” of the universe, and some schol-
ars saw it as the ultimate consequence of the laws of thermodynamics.
This notion even affected the literature and music of the time. For example, here is
an excerpt from Algernon Swinburne’s “The Garden of Proserpine”:
From too much love of living
From hope and death set free
We thank with weak thanksgiving
Whatever gods there be
That no man lives forever
That dead men rise up never
That even the weariest river
Flows somewhere safe to sea.
Today, we have a more nuanced view of how the universe will end—a view that will be
discussed in Chapter 15. Suffice to say, however, that Swinburne and his colleagues may
have been premature in their gloom (although one could argue that poets of that period
seemed to grab at any excuse for being gloomy). •
Consequences of the Second Law
THE ARROW OF TIME •

We live in a world of four dimensions. Three of these—the dimensions of space—have
no obvious directionality. You can go east or west, north or south, and up or down in
our universe. But time, the fourth dimension, has direction.
Take one of your favorite home movies or just about any video and play it in reverse.
Chances are that before too long you’ll see something silly—something that couldn’t
possibly happen, that will make you laugh. Springboard divers fly out of the water and
land completely dry on the diving board. From a complete stop golf balls fly off toward
the tee. Ocean spray coalesces into smooth waves that recede from shore. Most physical
laws, such as Newton’s laws of motion or the first law of thermodynamics, say nothing
about time. The motions predicted by Newton and the conservation of energy are inde-
pendent of time. They work just as well if you play a video forward or backward.
The second law of thermodynamics is different. By defining a sequence of events—heat
flows from hot to cold; concentrated fuels burn to produce waste heat; the disorder of iso-
lated systems never spontaneously decreases; you get older—we have established a direction
to time. We experience the passage of events as dictated by the second law. Scientists cannot
answer the deeper philosophical question of why we perceive the arrow of time in only one
direction, but through the second law they can describe the effects of that directionality.
B UILT-IN LIMITATIONS OF THE U NIVERSE •

The second law of thermodynamics has both practical and philosophical consequences. It
poses severe limits on the way that human beings can manipulate nature and on the way
that nature itself operates. It tells us that some things cannot happen in our universe.
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Consequences of the Second Law | 89
At the practical level, the second law tells us that if we continue to generate electric-
ity by burning fossil fuels or by nuclear fission, we are using up energy that is locked in
those concentrated nonrenewable resources. These limitations are not a question of
sloppy engineering or poor design; they’re simply built into the laws of nature. If you
could design an engine or other device that would extract energy from coal and oil with
higher efficiency than the second law limits, then you could also design a refrigerator
that would work when it wasn’t plugged in.
At the philosophical level, the second law tells us that nature has a built-in hierarchy
of more useful and less useful forms of energy. The lowest or least useful state of energy
is the low-temperature reservoir into which all energy eventually gets dumped. Once the
energy is in that lowest-energy reservoir, it can no longer be used to do work. For Earth,
energy passes through the region that supports life, the biosphere, but is eventually lost
as it is radiated into the black void of space.
Does Evolution Violate the Second Law?

Creationists, who argue that life on Earth was created in a single miraculous event, often
use the second law of thermodynamics to argue against theories of life’s gradual evolu-
tion. These arguments reflect a common misunderstanding of the second law.
Creationists point out that because life is a highly ordered system, in which tril-
lions of atoms and molecules must occur in exactly the right sequence, it could not
possibly have arisen spontaneously without violating the second law. What they
neglect to consider, however, is that the energy that drives living systems is sunlight,
so that the “isolated system” that the second law speaks of is Earth’s biosphere plus
the Sun. All that you need to make the evolution of life consistent with the second
law is that the order observed in living things must be offset by a greater amount of
disorder in the Sun. Once again, as with the earlier example of the ice cube, this
requirement is easily met by the Sun and the biosphere taken together. Science can- Science News
not yet give a complete, detailed description of how life arose on our planet, but it
can show that this development is in no way inconsistent with the universal laws of Slowing the Aging Process?
thermodynamics. •
䉯
Thinking More About Entropy
AGING Two general types of theory attempt to explain why aging

occurs. The first we can call planned obsolescence. It suggests that
Nothing in our experience better illustrates the directionality of the human body is actually designed to self-destruct after a cer-
nature than human aging. It’s all very well to talk about colli- tain time, perhaps to ensure that more food and other resources
sions of atoms and the making of ice cubes, but when we see the are available for children. The second, which we can call the
inevitable effects of aging in ourselves and those around us, we accumulated accident school, holds that the general wear and
come to realize that the second law of thermodynamics has a tear of existence eventually overcomes the body’s ability to make
very real meaning for each of us. In fact, there is probably no repairs, and the system just runs down. In modern language,
older dream in human history than that somehow, someday, scientists talk of accumulated damage to DNA (see Chapter 23),
someone will find out how to reverse the aging process. Mod- the molecule that contains the cell’s operating instructions.
ern biologists approach the problem of aging by noting that the As with all scientific questions, the choice between these
process of evolution (see Chapter 25) acts to preserve those two alternatives has to be made on the basis of experiment.
traits that help an organism survive until it has offspring to which Given the nature of the question, these experiments will be
those traits can be transmitted. After that, no particular reason done on animals rather than on humans, of course, but, as we
exists from the point of view of a species’ survival for an individ- shall see in Chapter 23 many of the same genetic and chemical
ual to live any longer. Indeed, throughout most of the history of processes operate in animals as in us. Right now, most scientists
the human race, few individuals lived past the age of 40, so aging favor the accumulated accident school, pointing to numerous
was not perceived to be significant problem until recently. experiments that identify specific chemicals in the cells of fruit
c04.qxd 9/2/09 3:53 PM Page 90
flies and microscopic worms that can extend their lifetime by as It is, of course, a long way from worms to humans, but it
much as a factor of two. On the other hand, other scientists is reasonable to suppose that before too long we will under-
have shown that the aging process in those same worms seems stand why our bodies age, and from there it is a small step to
to be controlled by a relatively small number of genes that being able to do something about it.
seem to act as “master controls” that govern other kinds of cel- What sort of problems do you think would arise if
lular processes, a finding that seems to support the planned human life expectancy suddenly doubled? What kinds of
obsolescence explanation. Given this situation, we should also changes in education, work habits, and government would
bear in mind that the final answer to the aging question may you expect to see? Do you think this sort of research should
well turn out to be a combination of the two types of theories. be pursued?

Why is it easier to make an omelet from an egg than to make an egg º According to the first law of thermodynamics, the heat energy
from an omelet? that was used to cook the egg is the same as the energy that
would be released if you could uncook the egg. Nevertheless, the
• Nature has a direction in time, as manifest in many everyday
uncooking of an egg is a highly unlikely event due to the natural
experiences.
tendency of all systems to evolve from improbable states to states
º When you make an omelet by cooking an egg, heat energy that are more probable.
from your stove is converted into the chemical potential
• The relative irreversibility of your omelet making process is there-
energy of your cooked egg.
fore due to the inherent directionality of nature as expressed in
º The process of heating dramatically alters the structure of the
the second law of thermodynamics.
protein molecules of the egg, creating a change in viscosity (i.e.,
resistance to flow) of the egg white. The translucent and viscous
egg white becomes opaque and firm as the cooking progresses.
S UMMARY •
All objects in the universe are at a temperature above absolute zero, 1. Heat will not flow spontaneously from a colder to a hotter body.
and thus they hold some internal energy—the kinetic energy of mov- This first statement places a restriction on the transfer of heat; for
ing atoms. Heat is energy that moves spontaneously from a warmer example, you have to supply an external source of energy to a refrig-
to a cooler object. Specific heat capacity defines how much energy is erator before it will work.
required to raise 1 gram of a substance by 1ºC.
2. It is impossible to construct a machine that does nothing but
Heat transfer between two objects that are at different temper-
convert heat into useful work. This different but equivalent state-
atures may occur in three ways. Conduction involves the transfer of
heat through collisions at the scale of atoms and electrons. Thermal ment of the second law precludes the construction of an engine
conductivity is a measure of how easily this energy transfer occurs. that operates with 100% efficiency. All engines operate on a cycle,
Convection involves the motion of a mass of fluid in a convection cell, and every engine must expend some of its energy returning to its
in which warmer atoms are physically transported from one place to initial state.
another. Heat can also be transferred by radiation—infrared energy 3. The entropy of an isolated system always increases. The third
and other forms of light that travel across a room or across the vast- statement of the second law of thermodynamics introduces the
ness of space until they are absorbed. concept of entropy—the tendency of isolated systems to become
The first law of thermodynamics promises that the amount of
more disordered with time. This directionality of energy flow in the
energy never changes, no matter how it shifts from one form to
universe defines our sense of the direction of time.
another, but the second law of thermodynamics restricts how you can
shift energy. Three different but equivalent statements of the second
law underscore these restrictions.
K EY TERMS •
temperature heat transfer convection second law of thermodynamics
absolute zero conduction convection cell efficiency
specific heat capacity thermal conductivity radiation entropy
K EY E QUATION •
1Thot – Tcold 2
Efficiency 1percent2 ⫽ ⫻ 100
Thot
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D ISCOVERY L AB •
Conduction is the direct transfer of heat moving
through solid materials by the collision of vibrat-
ing atoms or molecules. In this experiment the
vibrating particles move from the warmer part of
a heat source to a cooler part through a metal
rod. For this experiment you will need a gas fire- 1/2"
place lighter, a metal coat hanger, one taper can-
dle, three birthday candles, an 11.5 oz. metal
Coffee can
coffee can, and pliers. Taper candle
First, open up the coat hanger, bending
and cutting it with pliers. Measure it to fit
around the outside length of the coffee can
as shown below in Figure A. Then take the Bent coat hanger
hanger and place it inside the can, leaning it
so that it snaps into place under the top lip. • Figure A • Figure B
Next, take the tapered candle and carefully
cut the candle so that it will stand upright in
the can. The wick of this candle should be one inch below the Place the candle very close to the edge of the lid near the heat
hanger rod. Position it close to the edge of the lid where the rod source. Similarly, do the same with the other two birthday candles,
extends outward. Heat the bottom of the candle so the melted spacing them 1/2 inch apart from each other. Now light the taper
wax sticks to the can at its base. (Or you can stick a small ball of candle in the can, so the tip of the candle (the hottest part) hits the
clay at its base to make it stick.) Then melt the bottom of the rod directly. Observe the order in which the birthday candles fall
birthday candle and place its base on the top of the hanger rod. from the hanger rod (Figure B). Is that what you expected? Can you
Make sure you hold it perfectly still while the wax solidifies! explain this in scientific terms?
1. What does the term “Nature’s direction” mean? What accounts 9. State the second law of thermodynamics in three different ways.
for the directionality that we see in the universe around us? In what ways are these three statements equivalent?
2. What is specific heat capacity? Which heats more quickly, a kilo- 10. What is the high-temperature reservoir in your car’s engine?
gram of water or a kilogram of copper? Why? What is the low-temperature reservoir?
3. What are the three different ways by which heat is transferred? 11. What is entropy? Give an example of a situation in which
How are these three phenomena occurring while you are reading entropy increases. Can the entropy of an isolated system decrease? If
this book? so, how?
4. What is the difference between temperature and heat? 12. Why is it impossible to construct an engine that does nothing
5. What is thermal conductivity? What makes a good conductor of but convert heat to useful work?
heat? a good insulator? 13. In what way is aging an example of the second law of thermo-
6. Is there a directionality to the flow of heat? dynamics?
7. What forms of energy can travel across the vastness of space? 14. What is meant by the “heat death” of the universe?
8. Describe three common temperature scales. What fixed points
are used to calibrate them?
1. Why is it possible to briefly touch a loaf of bread that is baking 5. Why is it easier to demolish a building than it was to build it?
without being burned but not the metal pan that it is in? 6. Imagine lying on a hot beach on a sunny summer day. In what
2. What kind of heat transfer warms your hands when you hold different ways is heat transferred to your body? In each case what
them by a fire? was the original source of the energy? What happens to some of
3. Generally, the first thing you see when you approach an electri- that thermal energy if you jump into the ocean?
cal generating plant is the big cooling stacks. Given what you 7. Why is it more efficient to burn fossil fuels to supply heat than
know about efficiency, what do you think the function of these to generate electricity?
stacks might be? 8. Cogeneration is a term used to describe systems in which waste
4. Give three examples of the directionality of nature that you have heat from electrical generating plants is used to heat nearby homes
experienced since you woke up this morning. How do these exam- and businesses with efficiencies much greater than 50%. Does
ples relate to the second law of thermodynamics? cogeneration violate the second law? Why or why not?
c04.qxd 9/2/09 3:53 PM Page 92
9. Why is it not possible to construct a perpetual-motion survive in near-freezing water? What role does fat play in the main-
machine—a machine that runs forever without any energy input? Is tenance of body heat?
the energy loss due to friction the only reason a perpetual-motion 13. Why does a cool breeze feel so refreshing on a hot day? Why
machine is impossible? does the same breeze feel colder when it is raining and you are
10. Does a block of ice have thermal energy? Why or why not? soaking wet?
11. Describe at least three examples of heat transfer that occur 14. If you were going to heat a brick building so that it would stay
when you go for a long walk on a cold day. In each instance, state warm overnight, would you want to heat the air inside or would
whether the heat transfer is by conduction, convection, or radiation. you want to heat the bricks and cement that make up the walls and
Where does the energy come from? Where does it end up? floor? Why?
12. What methods have animals evolved to control the flow of heat 15. Why does the handle of a metal spoon heat up rapidly when
into and out of their bodies? Why can penguins, whales, and seals placed in a cup of hot coffee, but a plastic spoon does not?
P ROBLEMS •
1. Calculate the maximum possible efficiency of a power plant that 3. Calculate how much energy would be needed to raise the tem-
burns natural gas at a temperature of 600 K, with low-temperature perature of 10 kilograms of water from 273 to 373 K. What is the
surroundings at 300 K. How much more efficient would the plant temperature of the water in degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius after the
be if it were built in the Arctic where the low-temperature reservoir water is heated? What state will the water be in? How much energy
is at 250 K? Why don’t we build all power plants in the Arctic? would be needed to raise 1 kilogram of copper from 273 to 373 K?
2. The Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion system (OTEC) is a kind In what state will it be?
of a high-tech electric generator. It takes advantage of the fact that in 4. You have a collection of six numbered balls; 1 through 3 are
the tropics, deep ocean water is at a temperature of 4ºC, while the blue and 4 through 6 are green. How many different arrangements
water at the surface is at a temperature around 25ºC. The idea is to of these balls in a line are possible? What percentage of those
find a material that boils between these temperatures. The material in arrangements have three blue balls followed by three green balls?
fluid form is brought up through a large pipe from the depths, and 5. Repeat Problem 4 for a collection of 12 numbered balls (six blue
the expansion associated with its boiling is used to drive an electric and six green). What happens to the probability of an ordered con-
turbine. The gas is then pumped back to the depths, where it configuration as the total number of balls doubles?
denses back to a liquid and the whole process repeats itself. 6. The temperature in Washington, DC is 80ºF on Monday, 70ºF
a. What is the maximum efficiency with which OTEC can pro- on Tuesday and Wednesday, 65ºF on Thursday through Saturday,
duce electricity? (Hint: Remember to convert all temperatures to and 75ºF on Sunday. What is the average temperature for that week
the Kelvin scale.) in both Kelvin and Celsius? Graph your data and results using both a
b. Why do you suppose engineers are willing to pursue the line graph and a bar graph. Which graph better represents your data?
scheme, given your answer in part (a)? 7. What is your body temperature in degrees Celsius? If you had a
c. What is the ultimate source of the energy generated by OTEC? fever of 102.5º in Fahrenheit, what would it be in Kelvin and Celsius?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Investigate the daily high and low temperatures for the past 5. What does the term green building mean? Is energy efficiency a
week in a coastal city like New York or San Diego, a city in the U.S. major consideration in new construction?
Midwest such as Kansas City or St. Louis, and a city in the desert 6. Play a videotape of a favorite movie backward. How many viola-
such as Las Vegas or Tucson. On average, what is the difference in tions of the second law of thermodynamics can you spot?
temperature? What causes this difference? What part does the ocean 7. Boil a pan of water on your stove. Can you identify the convec-
play in the regulation of temperature? tion cells in the pan? How hot does the water have to be before
2. How are your home’s walls, windows, and doors insulated? convection starts? (Hint: A small amount of food coloring can
What could you do to improve your home’s insulation? What form reveal the formation of convection cells.)
of energy transfer is most important with regard to energy loss in 8. Research how night vision equipment, including video cam-
home heating? conduction? convection? or radiation? eras, works. What forms of energy are used in the production of
3. Fill a glass, an aluminum cup, a coffee mug, and a plastic drink- these images?
ing cup with hot water. Which transfers the heat to your hand the 9. Draw a line. Now measure that line using a metal ruler. Place that
most quickly? Which holds the heat longest? What does this mean ruler in the freezer for 15 minutes. How are your measurements
in terms of heat capacities and conductivity? affected by the temperature of the ruler? What would happen to your
4. Propose an experiment that you could perform at home to mea- measurements if you heated your ruler? Name the scientist men-
sure the relative heat capacities of different substances such as soap, tioned in an earlier chapter who had to understand thermal expansion
wood, and glass. and contraction for his detailed astronomical observations.
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5
Electricity and Magnetism
What is lightning?
PHYSICS
Electricity can be
generated by rotating
BIOLOGY coils of wire in the CHEMISTRY
vicinity of a magnet.
Nerve impulses are

electrical signals that Chemical energy
travel along stored in batteries
conducting fibers can be used to supply
(nerves) to and from electrical energy.
the brain.
ENVIRONMENT
Electricity and
Photocopiers rely on magnetism are two Emissions from
static electricity to electrical generating
transfer black
different aspects of one plants may be a
particles to white force—the major source of
air pollution.
paper. electromagnetic
force.
TECHNOLOGY
Lightning
conducts electricity
Earth and other
between negative
planets behave like
charges in a cloud and
giant magnets.
positive charges on
Doctors the ground.
use magnetic
resonance imaging
(MRI) machines, which
ASTRONOMY employ strong magnetic GEOLOGY
fields, to probe the body’s
internal structures
without potentially
dangerous
= applications of the great idea radiation.
= other applications, some of which
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day The Hidden Force
ime to clean up from breakfast. You rinse off your dishes and turn
SUPERSTOCK
T on the garbage disposal; the powerful motor whirs into action. As
you open the refrigerator to put away the milk and butter, the light
comes on and the refrigerator’s compressor hums. On the refrigera-
tor door you see the magnet that holds the note reminding you to
renew your driver’s license. Then your digital watch beeps the hour;
8 a.m.—better get moving.
All of these familiar objects—lights, motors, magnets, beepers,
and dozens of other essential technologies—owe their existence to
the pervasive, invisible force called electromagnetism.
Nature’s Other Forces

According to Newton’s laws of motion, nothing happens without a force, but the law
of gravity that Newton discussed cannot explain many everyday events. How does a
refrigerator magnet cling to metal, defying gravity? How does a compass needle swing
around to the north? How can static cling wrinkle your shirt, or lightning shatter an
old tree? These phenomena point to the existence of some underlying force that is dif-
ferent from gravity.
Newton may not have known about these forces, but he did give us a method for
studying them. First observe natural phenomena and learn how they behave, then orga-
nize those observations into a series of natural laws, and finally use those laws to predict
future behavior of the physical world. This is the process we have called the scientific
method.
In particular, we will find Newton’s first law of motion (see Chapter 2) to be very
useful in our investigation of nature’s other forces. According to this law, whenever we
see a change in the state of motion of any material object, we know that a force has acted
to produce that change. Thus, whenever we see such a change and can rule out the
action of known forces such as gravity, we can conclude that the change must have been
caused by a hitherto unknown force. We shall use this line of reasoning to show that
electrical and magnetic forces exist in the natural world.
Our understanding of the phenomena associated with static electricity and magnet-
ism began in the eighteenth century with a group of scientists in Europe and North
America who called themselves “electricians.” These researchers were fascinated by the
many curious phenomena associated with nature’s unseen forces. Their thoughts were
not focused on practical applications, nor could they have imagined how their work
would transform the world.
94
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Static Electricity | 95
Static Electricity
Have you ever noticed how your hair tends to stand on end and your clothes stick
together on dry winter days? Such phenomena related to static electricity have been
known since ancient times. The Greeks knew that if you rub a piece of amber with cat’s
fur and then touch other objects with the amber, those other objects are repelled from
each other. The same thing happens, they found, if you rub a piece of glass with silk:
objects touched with the glass are repelled from each other. On the other hand, if you
bring objects that have been touched with the amber near objects touched with the
glass, they are attracted toward each other. Objects that behave in this way are said to
possess electrical charge, or to be “charged.”
The force that moves objects toward and away from each other in these simple
demonstrations was named electricity (from electro, the Greek word for amber). In
these simple experiments, the electrical charge doesn’t move once it has been placed on
an object, so the force is also called static electricity.
The electrical force is clearly different from gravity. Unlike the electrical force,
gravity can never be repulsive: when a gravitational force acts between two objects,
it always pulls them together. The electrical force, on the other hand, can attract
some objects toward each other and push other objects apart (Figure 5-1). Further-
more, the electrical force is vastly more powerful than gravity. A pocket comb
charged with static electricity easily lifts a piece of paper against the gravitational pull
of the entire Earth.
Today, we understand that the properties of the electrical force arise from the exis-
tence of two kinds of electrical charges (Figure 5-2). We say that objects touched with • Figure 5-1 When the girl
touched the electrically charged
the same source, be it amber or glass, have the same electrical charge and are repelled sphere, her hair became electrically
from each other. On the other hand, one object touched with amber will have a differ- charged as well. Individual hairs
ent electrical charge than a second object touched with glass. This difference is reflected repel each other and thus “stand
in their behavior— they attract each other. on end.”
Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Charge

The most famous North American “electrician” was
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), one of the pioneers of
electrical science as well as a central figure in the found-
ing of the United States of America. Franklin, who had + – + +
retired from a successful career as a printer and publisher,
began his electrical experiments in 1746 with a study of
Metal spheres with Metal spheres with
electricity generated by friction. Most scientists of the opposite charges the same charge are
time thought that electrical effects resulted from the are attracted to repelled from
each other. each other.
interaction of two different “electrical fluids.” Franklin,
however, became convinced that all electrical phenomena (a) (b)
could be explained by the transfer of a single electrical fluid from one object to another. • Figure 5-2 The two kinds of
He realized that objects could have an excess or a deficiency of this fluid, and he applied electrical charges. Opposite charges
the names “negative” and “positive” to these two situations. attract, while like charges repel.
Following this work, Franklin is said to have demonstrated the electrical nature of
lightning in June 1752 with his famous (and extremely dangerous) kite experiment
(Figure 5-3). A mild lightning strike hit his kite and passed along the wet string to pro-
duce sparks and an electrical shock. Not content with acquiring experimental knowl-
edge, Franklin followed his discovery of the electrical nature of lightning with the
invention of the lightning rod, a metal rod with one end in the ground and the other
end sticking up above the roof of a building. It carries the electrical charge of lightning
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96 | C HAP TE R 5 | Electricity and Magnetism
into Earth’s surface, diverting it away from the building. Lightning rods caught on
quickly in the wooden cities of North America and Europe, preventing countless
deadly fires. They are still widely used. •
THE M OVEMENT OF E LECTRONS •

We now understand that there are two kinds of electrical charge, so observations of both
attractive and repulsive behavior of charged objects are easy to understand. In modern
language, we say that all objects are made up of minute building blocks called atoms,
and all atoms are made up of still smaller particles that have electrical charge. As we shall
see in Chapter 8, negatively charged electrons move around a heavy, positively charged
nucleus at the center of every atom. Electrons and the nucleus have opposite electrical
charges, so an attractive force exists between them. This force in atoms plays a role sim-
ilar to that played by gravity in keeping the solar system together. Most atoms are elec-
trically neutral, because the positive charge of the nucleus cancels the negative charge of
the electrons.
Electrons, particularly those in outer orbits far from the nucleus, tend to be rather
loosely bound to their atoms. These electrons can be removed from the atom (for
example, by friction) and, once removed, can move freely in metals or can react with
other elements.
• Figure 5-3 Benjamin Franklin
engaged in his famous (and When negative electrons are stripped off of a material, they no longer cancel the
potentially lethal) kite experiment. positive charges in the nucleus. The result is a net excess of positive charge in the object,
(Painting by Benjamin West, c. 1805, Mr. and Mrs. Wharton and we say that the object as a whole has acquired a positive electrical charge. Similarly,
Sinkler Collection, courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art.) an object acquires a negative electrical charge when extra electrons are added to it.
This addition of electrons happens when you run a comb through your hair on a dry
day; electrons are stripped from your hair and added to the comb, so the comb acquires
a negative charge (Figure 5-4). Simultaneously, your hair loses electrons, so individual
strands become positively charged.
During a thunderstorm, the same phenomenon occurs on a much larger scale, as wind
and rain disrupt the normal distribution of electrons in clouds. When a charged cloud
passes over a tall tree or tower, the violent electrical discharge called lightning may result
from the attraction of the positive charges on the ground and negative charges in the
• Figure 5-4 When a plastic comb
is drawn through your hair, electrons cloud (although in the case of lightning, both the positive and negative charges move).
move from your hair to the comb, Although historical investigations of electrical charge tended to concentrate on
leaving both with an electrical somewhat artificial experiments, we have come to know that electrically charged parti-
charge. cles play important roles in many natural systems. Virtually
all of the atoms in the Sun, for example, have lost electrons;
Sunset/Peter Arnold, Inc.
the Sun is thus made of a turbulent mixture of positive

Electrons atoms and negative electrons. In all advanced life forms
removed from (including human beings), charged atoms constantly move
the hair
into and out of cells to maintain the processes of life. As you
– read these words, for example, positively charged potassium
Electrons
– added to and sodium atoms are moving across the membranes of
the comb cells in your optic nerve to carry signals to your brain.
– – –
– –
C OULOMB’S L AW •
The phenomenon of electricity remained something of a
mild curiosity until the mid-eighteenth century, when sci-
entists began applying the scientific method to investigate
it. One of the first tasks was to develop a precise state-
ment about the nature of the electrical force. The French
scientist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) was
most responsible for this work. During the 1780s, at the
same time the U.S. Constitution was being written by
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Static Electricity | 97
Benjamin Franklin and others, Coulomb devised a series of experiments in which he

passed different amounts of electrical charge onto objects and then measured the
force between them.
After repeated measurements Coulomb discovered that the electrical force was in
some ways very similar to the gravitational force that Isaac Newton had discovered a
century earlier. He observed that if two electrically charged objects are moved farther
away from each other, the force between them gets smaller, just like gravity. In fact, if the
distance between two objects is doubled, the force decreases by a factor of four—the famil-
iar 1/distance2, or inverse-square relationship, that we saw in the law of universal gravita-
tion in Chapter 2. Coulomb also discovered that the size of the force depends on the
product of the charges of the two objects—double the charge on one object and the force
doubles; double the charge on both objects and the force increases by a factor of four.
Coulomb summarized his discoveries in a simple relationship known as Coulomb’s
law:
In words: The force between any two electrically charged objects is proportional to
the product of their charges divided by the square of the distance between them.
In equation form:
1st charge 2nd charge
force 1newtons2 k
distance 2
In symbols:
q1 q2
Fk
d2
where distance d is measured in meters, charge q is measured in a unit called the
coulomb (see the following explanation), and k is the coulomb constant, a number that
plays the same role in electricity that the gravitational constant G plays in gravity. Like G,
k is a number (9.00 109 newton-meter2/coulomb2 in one common system of units)
that can be determined experimentally and that turns out to be the same for all charges
and all separations of those charges anywhere in the universe.
Coulomb’s law is a summary of a large number of experiments done on stationary
electrical charges, or static electricity. In order to come to a result like this, scientists had to
define a unit of electrical charge, called the coulomb (abbreviated C) after the scientist who
did so much of this important work. Today, we define the coulomb as the charge on
6.31018 electrons, a very large number. When this many electrons have been added to
or subtracted from an object, that object will have one coulomb of electrical charge.
Two Forces Compared

In Chapter 8 we will examine compelling evidence that the atoms that compose all the
materials in our physical surroundings have a definite internal structure. Tiny negatively
charged particles called electrons circle in orbits around a positively charged nucleus.
Thus, inside an atom, two forces act between the nucleus and an electron: the force of
gravity and the electrical force. We can use this fact to get a sense of the relative strength
of the two forces.
The simplest atom is hydrogen, in which a single electron circles a single positively
charged particle known as a proton (see Chapter 12). The masses of the electron and
proton are 910–31 kg and 1.7 10–27 kg, respectively. The charge on the proton is
1.610–19 C, and the charge on the electron has the same magnitude but is negative. A
typical separation of these two particles in an atom is 10–10 m.
Given these numbers, what are the values of the electrical and gravitational attrac-
tions between these two particles?
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Gravity: The force of gravity between the two particles is given by Newton’s law of gravity:
force of gravity 1in newtons2

mass1 1kg2 mass2 1kg2
G
distance 1m2 2
19 1031 kg 2
+q
16.7 1011 m3>kgs2 2
11010 m 2 2
1.0 1047 N
Electricity: The electrical force, on the other hand, is given by Coulomb’s law:
• Figure 5-5 An electrical field force of static electricity 1in newtons2
charge 1 1C2 charge 2 1C2
surrounding a positive charge, q,
may be represented by lines of k
force radiating outward. Any distance 1m2 2
11.6 1019 C 2 11.6 1019 C 2
charged object that approaches q
experiences a greater and greater 19 109 Nm2>C 2 2
electrical force the closer it gets. 11010 m 2 2
Positively charged objects will be
repelled, while negatively charged
2.6 108 N
objects will be attracted.
From this simple calculation we can see that, in the atom, the electrical force (2.610–8 N)
is many orders of magnitude (factors of 10) larger than the gravitational force
(1.010–47 N). This is why our discussion of the atom in subsequent chapters ignores the
effects of gravity completely. •
THE E LECTRICAL F IELD •

Imagine that you have an electrical charge sitting at a point (Figure 5-5). The charged
object could be a piece of lint, an electron, or one of your hairs. If you brought a second
charged object to a spot near the first, the second object would feel a force. If you then
moved the second object to another spot near the lint, it would still feel a force, but the
force would, in general, be a different magnitude and point in a different direction than
at the first spot. In fact, the second charged object would feel a force at every point in
space around the first.
Every charged object exerts forces on its surroundings to create an electric field. The
electric field at a point is defined to be the force that would be felt by a positive 1-coulomb
charge if it were brought to that point. The field is usually drawn so that the directions of
the arrows correspond to the direction of the force, and the lengths of the arrows corre-
spond to its magnitude. In this way you can make a picture that represents the electric field
around the charged object, as shown in Figure 5-5. Notice that the electrical field is
defined as the force that would be felt by another charge if that charge were located at a
particular point, so that the field is present even if no other charge is in the region.
Magnetism
Just as electrical phenomena were known to the ancient philosophers, so too were the
phenomena we place under the title of magnetism. The first known magnets were natu-
rally occurring iron minerals. If you bring one of these minerals (a common one is mag-
netite or “lodestone”) near a piece of iron, the iron will be attracted to it. You have
undoubtedly seen experiments in which magnets were placed near nails, which jumped
up and hung from them.
The fact that the nails behave in this way tells you that there must be yet another
force in nature, a force seemingly different from both electricity and gravity. Electrical
attraction doesn’t make the nails move, nor is it gravity that causes the nails to jump up.
The simple experiment of picking up a nail with a magnet illustrates beyond a shadow
of a doubt that there is a magnetic force in the universe—a force that can be identified
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Magnetism | 99
and described by the same methods we used to investigate North magnetic pole North geographic pole
gravity and electricity. Whereas electricity remained a
curiosity until well into modern times, magnetism was put
to practical use very early. The compass, invented in China
and used by Europeans to navigate the oceans during the
age of exploration, is the first magnetic device on record. A N
sliver of lodestone, left free to rotate, will align itself in a S
north–south direction. We use compasses so often these N
days that it’s easy to forget how important it was for early
travelers to know directions, particularly travelers who
ventured out of sight of land in sailing ships.
In the late sixteenth century, the English scientist
William Gilbert (1544–1603) conducted the first serious S
study of magnets. Though revered in his day as a doctor Rotational axis
(he was physician to both Queen Elizabeth I and King • Figure 5-6 A compass needle
James I), his most lasting fame came from his discovery that every magnet can be char- and Earth. Any magnet will twist
acterized by what he called poles. If you take a piece of naturally occurring magnet and because of the forces between its
let it rotate, one end of the magnet points north and the other end points south. These poles and those of Earth. Note that
Earth’s north and south magnetic
two ends of the magnet are called poles. The two poles of a magnet are given the labels poles don’t quite line up with Earth’s
north and south, and the resulting magnet is called a dipole magnet. axis of rotation.
In the course of his research, Gilbert discovered many important properties of mag-
nets. He learned to magnetize iron and steel rods by stroking them with a lodestone. He
discovered that hammered iron becomes magnetic and found that iron’s magnetism can
be destroyed by heating. He realized that planet Earth itself is a giant dipole magnet, a
fact that, as we shall see, explains the operation of the compass. Gilbert found that if two
magnets are brought near each other so that the north poles are close together, a repul-
sive force develops between the magnets and they are forced apart. The same thing hap-
pens if two south poles are brought together. If, however, the north pole of one magnet
is brought near the south pole of another magnet, the resulting force is attractive. In this
respect, magnetism seems to mimic the eighteenth century studies of static electricity.
William Gilbert’s results can be summarized in two simple statements.
1. Every magnet has two poles.

2. Like magnetic poles repel each other, while unlike poles attract.
Once you know that a magnet has two poles, you can understand how a compass
behaves. Earth itself is a giant dipole magnet, with one pole in Canada and the other pole
in Antarctica. If a piece of magnetized iron (for example, a compass needle) is allowed to
rotate freely, one of its poles will be attracted to and twist around toward Canada in the
north, and the other end will point to Antarctica in the south (see Figure 5-6).
Recall that an electrical force can be represented by an electric field, with arrows that Compass
represent the direction and strength of the field at every point (Figure 5-5). So, too, can
the magnetic force be represented in terms of a magnetic field. Magnets display a curving
field pattern, with arrows that indicate the direction and strength of magnetic forces at any
point around the magnet. If many small compass needles are brought near the magnet, as
shown in Figure 5-7, the forces exerted by the magnet will twist the needles around paral-
lel to the magnetic field at each point. Taken together, these compass needles will follow N S
curving lines that start and end at the north and south poles of the dipole magnet.
Just as we can imagine any collection of electrical charges as being surrounded by
the imaginary lines of force of an electric field, we can imagine every magnet as being
surrounded by an imaginary set of lines of the magnetic field (Figure 5-8). These lines
are drawn so that if a compass were brought to a point in space, the needle would turn • Figure 5-7 The curving lines of a
and point along the line. The number of lines in a given area is a measure of the strength magnetic field are revealed by an
of the forces exerted on the compass. You can see one consequence of this effect in the array of small compass needles that
northern lights, or aurora borealis (Figure 5-9). Charged particles streaming from the surround a bar magnet.
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Andy Washnik
Magnetic
field lines
N S
(a) (b)
• Figure 5-8 (a) A bar magnet and its magnetic dipole field. (b) Iron filings placed near a
bar magnet align themselves along the field.
Carson Ganci/Age Fotostock America, Inc.

• Figure 5-9 A spectacular example of the aurora borealis, caused by particles from the
Sun interacting with Earth’s magnetic field.
D. Blackwill & D. Maratez/Visuals Unlimited
Sun can emit light when they interact with a magnetic field. The convergence of mag-
netic field lines near Earth’s North and South Poles enhances this effect and produces
the colorful display.
Magnetic Navigation
Many living things in addition to humans use Earth’s magnetic field for navigation. This
ability was demonstrated by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
1975, when they were studying a single-celled bacterium that lived in the ooze at the
bottom of nearby swamps. They found that the bacteria incorporate about 20 micro-
scopic crystals of the mineral magnetite into their bodies (Figure 5-10). These minute
Magnification = X5 crystals are strung out in a line, in effect forming a microscopic compass needle.
• Figure 5-10 Grains of iron miner- Because Earth’s magnetic field dips into the surface in the Northern Hemisphere
als in this bacterium allow it to tell up and rises up out of it in the Southern, the Massachusetts bacteria have a built-in “up”
from down. and “down” indicator. This internal magnet allows the bacteria to navigate down into
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Batteries and Electric Circuits | 101
the nutrient-rich ooze at the bottom of the pond. Interestingly enough, related bacteria
in the Southern Hemisphere follow the field lines in the opposite direction to get to the N S
bottom of their ponds.
Since 1975, similar internal magnets have been discovered in many animals. Some
migratory birds, for example, use internal magnets as one of several cues to guide them N S N S
on flights thousands of miles in length. In the case of the Australian silvereye, evidence
suggests that the bird can “see” Earth’s magnetic field, through a process involving N S N S N S N S
modification of molecules normally involved in color vision. •
• Figure 5-11 Cut magnets. If you
break a dipole magnet in two, you
PAIRS OF P OLES • get two smaller dipole magnets, not
an isolated north or south pole.
The dipole magnetic field shown in Figure 5-8 plays a very important role in nature.
All magnets found in nature have both north and south poles—you never find one
without the other. Even if you take an ordinary bar magnet and cut it in two, you
don’t get a north and a south pole in isolation, but rather two small magnets each with
a north and a south pole (Figure 5-11). If you took each of those halves and cut them
in half, you would continue to get smaller and smaller dipole magnets. In fact, it seems
to be a general rule of nature that
There are no isolated magnetic poles in nature.
In the language of physicists, a single isolated north or south magnetic pole would be
called a magnetic monopole. Although physicists have conducted extensive searches for
monopoles, no experiment has yet found unequivocal evidence for their existence.
Batteries and Electric Circuits

Discovery of the surprising connection between electricity and magnetism had to await
the invention of two familiar devices—the battery and the electric circuit. Remarkably, Bettmann/Corbis Images
these commonplace technologies were inspired by the study of frogs.
Luigi Galvani and Life’s Electrical Force

Scientists of the eighteenth century discovered unexpected links between life and elec-
tricity. Of all the phenomena in nature, none fascinated these scientists more than the
mysterious “life force,” which seemed to allow animals to move and grow. An old doc-
trine called vitalism held that this force was found only in living organisms, and not in
the rest of nature. Luigi Galvani (1737–1798), an Italian physician and anatomist,
added fuel to the debate about the nature of life with a series of classic experiments
demonstrating the effects of electricity on living things.
Galvani’s most famous investigations employed an electric spark to induce convul-
sive twitching in amputated frogs’ legs—a phenomenon not unlike a person’s involun-
tary reaction to a jolt of electricity. Later he was able to produce a similar effect simply
by poking a frog’s leg simultaneously with one fork of copper and one of iron. In mod-
ern language, we would say that the electrical charge and the presence of the two metals
in the salty fluid in the frog’s leg led to a flow of electrical charge in the frog’s nerves, a
process that caused contractions of the muscles (Figure 5-12). Galvani, however, argued • Figure 5-12 Luigi Galvani showed
that the frog’s legs would twitch when
that his experiments showed that there was a vital force in living systems, something he stimulated by electrical current, a
called “animal electricity,” which made them different from inanimate matter. This idea phenomenon that eventually led to
gained some acceptance among the scientific community but provoked a long debate the invention of the battery (as well
between Galvani and the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827). Volta argued as the novel Frankenstein).
c05.qxd 9/11/09 11:11 AM Page 102
that Galvani’s effects were caused by chemical reactions between the metals and the salty
fluids of the frogs’ legs. In retrospect, both of these scientists had part of the truth. Mus-
cle contractions are indeed initiated by electrical signals, even if there is no such thing as
animal electricity, and electrical charges can be induced to flow by chemical reactions.
The controversy that surrounded Galvani’s experiments had many surprising effects.
On the practical side, as we discuss in the text, Volta’s work on chemical reactions led to
the development of the battery and, indirectly to our modern understanding of electricity.
The notion of animal electricity proved a great boon to medical quacks and con men, and
for centuries various kinds of electrical devices were palmed off on the public as cures for
almost every known disease. Some of these devices can be seen on sale today, in the form
of magnets that, when strapped to the body, are supposed to cure various illnesses.
Finally, in a bizarre epilogue to Galvani’s research, other researchers used batteries
to study the effects of electrical currents on human cadavers. In one famous public
demonstration, a corpse was made to sit up and kick its legs by electrical stimulation.
Such unorthodox experiments helped to inspire Mary Shelley’s famous novel, Franken-
stein (Figure 5-13). •
BATTERIES AND E LECTRICAL C URRENT •

Although we encounter static electricity in our everyday lives, most of our contact with
electricity comes from moving charges. In your home, for example, negatively charged
electrons move through wires to run all of your electric appliances. A flow of charged
particles is called an electrical current.
Until the work of Alessandro Volta, scientists could not produce persistent electrical
currents in their laboratories and therefore knew little about them. As a result of his
investigations into Galvani’s work, Volta developed the first battery, a device that con-
verts stored chemical energy in the battery materials into kinetic energy of electrons run-
ning through an outside wire.
The first battery was a crude affair, but we now use its descendants to start our cars
and run all sorts of portable electrical equipment. Your car battery, a reliable and beauti-
fully engineered device, routinely performs for years before it needs replacing. It is made
of alternating plates of two kinds of material, lead and lead oxide, immersed in a bath of
Jerry Ohlinger’s Movie Material Store
• Figure 5-13 The idea behind the legend of Frankenstein may have been suggested by
early experiments on animal electricity.
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dilute sulfuric acid. When the battery is being discharged, the lead plate interacts with
the acid, producing lead sulphate (the white crud that collects around the posts of old
batteries) and some free electrons. These electrons run through an external wire to the
other plates, where they interact with the lead oxide and sulfuric acid to form more lead
sulphate. The electrons running through the outside wire are what start your car.
When the battery is completely discharged, it consists of plates of lead sulphate
immersed in water, a configuration from which no energy can be obtained. Running a cur-
rent backward through the battery, however, runs all the chemical reactions in reverse and
restores the original configuration. We say that the battery has been recharged. Once
recharged, the whole cycle can proceed again. In your car, the generator constantly
recharges the battery whenever the engine is running, so that it’s always ready to use.
E LECTRIC C IRCUITS •
Most people come into contact with electrical phenomena through electric circuits in
their homes and cars. An electric circuit is an unbroken path of material that carries
electricity. Such materials are called electrical conductors. Copper wire is an example of
a conductor. The fluorescent light that you use to read this book, for example, is part
of an electric circuit that begins at a power plant that generates electricity, many miles
away. That electricity continues through power lines into your town and is distributed
on overhead or underground wires until it finally gets to where you live. There the cir-
cuit, of which the light is a part, is made up of wires that run through the walls of your
home. One set of these wires goes first to a circuit breaker (to break the circuit in case
of a dangerous overload of too much current), then to a switch, and finally to the bulb.
When you turn on the switch, you complete an unbroken path that runs all the way
from the generating plant to the bulb. When electricity flows through the gas in the
fluorescent bulb, it excites the atoms and causes them to give off light. When you put
the switch in the “off” position, it’s like raising a drawbridge: the current is blocked
from flowing into this part of the circuit, and none reaches the light. The room
becomes dark.
Every circuit consists of three parts: a source of energy like a battery, a closed path
usually made of metal wire through which the current can flow, and a device such as a
motor or a lightbulb that uses the electrical energy (Figure 5-14).
Ohm’s Law
One way to think about electric circuits is to draw an analogy between electrons flowing
through a wire and water flowing through a pipe. In the case of water, we use two quan-
tities to characterize the flow: the amount of water that passes a point each second, and
the pressure behind that water. The numbers we use to describe the flow of electrons in
an electric circuit are exactly the same.
The amount of current (the number of electrons) that actually flows in a wire is mea-
sured in a unit called the ampere or amp, named after French physicist Andre-Marie
Ampere (1775–1836). One amp corresponds to a flow of one coulomb (the unit of elec-
trical charge) per second past a point in the wire: • Figure 5-14 Every electrical cir-
cuit incorporates a source of energy
1 amp of current 1 coulomb of charge per second
(1), a loop of wire (2), and a device
Electrical current, therefore, is analogous to the current of a river such as a lightbulb (3).
or stream. Typical household appliances use anywhere from about
1 amp (a 100-watt bulb) to 40 amps (an electric range with all 2 Wire
burners and the oven blazing away). 3 Device
We call the pressure produced by the energy source in a circuit (lightbulb)
the voltage, measured in volts (abbreviated V) and named after
Alessandro Volta, the Italian scientist who invented the chemical
battery. You can think of voltage in circuits much the same way you
think of water pressure in your plumbing system. More volts in a 1 Battery
circuit mean more “oomph” to the current, just as more water
pressure makes the water flow faster. Typically, a new flashlight
battery produces 1.5 volts, a fully charged car battery produces
c05.qxd 9/11/09 11:11 AM Page 104
about 15 volts (even though they are called 12-volt batteries), and ordinary household
circuits operate on either 115 or 230 volts.
Wires through which the current (electrons) flows are analogous to pipes carrying
water: the smaller the pipe, the harder it is to push water through it. Similarly, it is
harder to push electrons through some wires than others. The quantity that measures
how hard it is to push electrons through wires is called electrical resistance, and it is
measured in a unit called the ohm (Figure 5-15). The higher the resistance (i.e., the
lower the efficiency), the more electron energy that is converted into heat. Ordinary
copper wire, for example, has a low resistance, which explains why we use it to carry
electricity around our homes. Toasters and space heaters, on the other hand, employ
high-resistance wires so that they will produce large amounts of heat when current
flows through them. In transmission lines, it’s important that as much energy as possi-
ble gets from one end of the line to the other; thus we use very thick low-resistance
(high-efficiency) wires.
The relationship between the resistance in a circuit, the current that flows, and
the voltage is called Ohm’s law, after German scientist Georg Ohm (1787–1854). It
states:
In words: The current in circuits is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance. The higher the electrical “pressure,” the higher the
flow of charge. The higher the resistance to flow, the smaller the flow.
In equation form:
voltage 1volts2 current 1amps2 resistance 1ohms2
In symbols:
VIR
Every electric circuit can be characterized by its voltage, current, and resistance, so
Ohm’s law comes into play whenever electricity flows through a circuit. You can under-
stand the behavior of lightning, for example, in terms of Ohm’s law. In a thunderstorm,
Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Resistor
• Figure 5-15 A multimeter is an instrument that measures the current flowing in a circuit,
the voltage in the circuit, and the resistance. Here it is being used to measure the resistance
of a small commercial resistor.
c05.qxd 9/11/09 11:11 AM Page 105
collisions between particles in the clouds produce a buildup of negative charge at the bot-
tom of the cloud and a corresponding buildup of positive charge in objects on the ground
underneath the cloud. This buildup creates a voltage between cloud and ground, and the
lightning stroke is the electrical current that runs between the two when the voltage is
high enough. Lightning, like any other electrical current, will flow along the path of least
resistance. Lightning normally strikes tall objects like buildings and trees because the resis-
tance of the building is lower than the resistance of the air (Figure 5-16). As we mentioned
earlier, the lightning rod, invented by Benjamin Franklin, uses this principle by allowing
the lightning to flow through a low-resistance bar of metal instead of the building.
Stop and Think! In Franklin’s time, some people believed that one way
to prevent lightning damage was to climb into church steeples and ring
the bells. Was this a good idea?
The load in any electric circuit is the “business end”— the place where useful work
gets done. The fluorescent bulb, the heating element in your hair dryer, or an electro-
magnetic coil of wire in an electric motor are typical loads in household circuits. The
power used by the load depends both on how much current flows through it and the
size of the voltage. The greater the current or voltage, the more power is used. A simple
equation allows us to calculate the amount of electrical power used.
In words: The power consumed by an electric appliance is equal to the product of
the current and the voltage.
In equation form:
power 1watts 2 current 1amps 2 voltage 1volts2
In symbols:
PIV
This equation tells us that both the current and the voltage have to be high for a device
to consume high levels of electrical power. Table 5-1 summarizes some key terms about
electric circuits.
PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images
• Figure 5-16 These lightning strikes over Seattle are examples of electrical currents in nature.
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Table 5-1 Terms Related to Electric Circuits

Term Definition Unit Plumbing Analogy
Voltage Electrical pressure volt Water pressure
Resistance Resistance to electron flow ohm Pipe diameter
Current Flow rate of electrons amp Flow rate
Power Current voltage watt Rate of work done by moving
water
EXAMPLE 5-1
S TARTI NG YOU R C AR
When you turn on the ignition of your automobile, your 15-volt car battery must turn a
400-amp starter motor. What is the resistance of this circuit, and how much power is
required to start your car?
Reasoning and Solution: In order to calculate resistance, we need to rearrange Ohm’s law:
voltage 1volts2
Resistance 1ohms2
current 1amps 2
15 volts

400 amps
0.0375 ohms
That’s a very low resistance, less than a thousandth of the resistance of a typical lightbulb.
In order to calculate electrical power, we need to multiply current times voltage:
power 1watts 2 current 1amps 2 voltage 1volts2
400 amps 15 volts
6000 watts 6 kilowatts
Most early automobiles were started by a hand crank, which might have required 100 watts
of power, a reasonable amount for an adult. Modern, high-compression automobile
engines require much more starting power than could be generated by one person.
EXAMPLE 5-2
T H E P OWER OF S OU N D
A typical compact disc system has a resistance of 50 ohms. Assuming that this system is
plugged into a normal household outlet rated at 115 volts, how much current will flow
through the stereo, and what is the power consumption?
Reasoning and Solution: The current can be calculated by rearranging Ohm’s law:
voltage 1volts2
current 1amps 2
resistance 1ohms2
115 volts

50 ohms
2.3 amps
The power consumption can then be calculated:
power 1watts 2 current 1amps2 voltage 1volts2
2.3 amps 115 volts
264.5 watts
That’s similar to the power consumption of three ordinary lightbulbs.
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Connections Between Electricity and Magnetism | 107
Dendrites
The Propagation of Nerve Signals

All of your body’s movements, from the beating of your heart to the
blinking of your eyes, are controlled by nerve impulses. Although nerve
signals in the human body are electrical in nature, they bear little resem-
blance to the movement of electrons through a wire. Nerve cells of the
type illustrated in Figure 5-17 form the fundamental element of the ner- Cell body
vous system. A nerve cell consists of a central body with a large number Nucleus
of filaments going out from it. These filaments connect one nerve cell to
others. The branched filament that carries signals away from the central
nerve body and delivers those signals to other cells is called the axon.
The membrane surrounding the axon is a complex structure, full
of channels through which atoms and molecules can move. When the
nerve cell is resting, positively charged objects tend to be outside the
membrane, negatively charged ones inside. When an electrical signal
triggers the axon, however, the membrane is distorted, and, for a
short time, positive charges (mainly sodium atoms) pour into the cell.
When the inside becomes more positively charged, the membrane
changes again and positive charges (this time mainly potassium) move
back outside to restore the original charge. This charge disturbance
moves down the filament as a nerve signal. When the signal reaches
the end of one of the filaments, it is transferred to the next cell by a Nerve
impulse
group of molecules called neurotransmitters that are sprayed out from
the end of the “upstream” cell, and received by special structures on Axon
the “downstream” cell. The reception of neurotransmitters initiates a
complex and poorly understood process by which the nerve cell
decides whether to send a signal down its axon to other cells. Thus,
although the human nervous system is not an ordinary electric circuit,
it does operate by electrical signals. •
Myelin
sheath
T WO K INDS OF E LECTRIC C IRCUITS • cells
Common household circuits come in two different types, depending

on the arrangement of wires and loads. In series circuits (Figure 5-18a),
two or more loads are linked along a single loop of wire. In parallel
circuits (Figure 5-18b), by contrast, different loads are situated on
different wire loops.
The differences between these two types of circuits can become Axon
terminal
obvious around Christmastime. Many older strands of Christmas buttons
lights were linked by a single series circuit. If any one light burned out,
the entire strand went dark because the electric circuit was broken
• Figure 5-17 A nerve cell consists of a central body
(and it could be a frustrating experience trying to find the one bad and a number of filaments. The dendrites receive incom-
bulb). Most modern light strands, on the other hand, feature several ing signals, and the axon conducts outgoing signals away
parallel loops, each with just a few lights. So today, if one light burns from the cell body. The myelin sheath helps insulate the
out, only a few bulbs along the strand will go dark. axon from neighboring electrical interference.
Connections Between Electricity and Magnetism

In our everyday experience, static electricity and magnetism seem to be two unrelated
phenomena. Yet scientists in the nineteenth century, probing deeper into the electrical
and magnetic forces, discovered remarkable connections between the two—a discovery
that transformed every aspect of technology.
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• Figure 5-18 Two kinds of electric (a) Series circuit (b) Parallel circuit
circuits. (a) In a series circuit more
than one device lies on the same
loop of wire. (b) In a parallel circuit
devices lie on separate loops.
Loop 2
Loop 1
Battery Battery
MAGNETIC E FFECTS FROM E LECTRICITY •

In the spring of 1820, a strange thing happened during a physics lecture in Denmark.
The lecturer, Professor Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851), was using a battery to
demonstrate some properties of electricity. By chance he noticed that whenever he con-
nected the battery (so that an electrical current began to flow through a circuit), a com-
pass needle on a nearby table began to twitch and move. When he disconnected the
battery, the needle went back to pointing north. This accidental discovery led the way to
one of the most profound insights in the history of science. Oersted had discovered that
electricity and magnetism—two forces that seem as different from each other as night and
day—are in fact intimately related to each other. They are two sides of the same coin. In
subsequent studies, Oersted and his colleagues established that whenever electrical charge
flows through a wire, a magnetic field will appear around that wire. A compass brought
near the wire will twist around until it points along the direction of that field. This leads
to an important experimental finding in electricity and magnetism.
Magnetic fields can be created by motions of electrical charges.
Like all fundamental discoveries, the discovery of this law of nature has important prac-
tical consequences. Perhaps most importantly, it led to the development of the elec-
tromagnet, a device composed of a coil of wire that produces a magnetic field whenever
an electrical charge runs through the wire. Almost every electric appliance in modern
technology uses this device.
THE E LECTROMAGNET •
– + Electromagnets work on a simple principle, as illustrated in Figure 5-19. If an electrical
current flows in a loop of wire, then a magnetic field will be created around the wire, just
as Oersted discovered in 1820. That magnetic field will have the shape sketched in the
figure, a shape familiar to you as the dipole magnetic field shown in Figure 5-8.
• Figure 5-19 A schematic drawing In other words, we can create the equivalent of a magnetized piece of iron simply by
of an electromagnet reveals the
running electrical current around a loop of wire. The stronger the current (i.e., the more
principal components—a loop of wire
and a source of electrical current. electrical charge we push through the wire), the stronger the magnetic field will be. But
When a current flows through the unlike a bar magnet, an electromagnet can be turned on and off. To differentiate between
wire loop, a magnetic field is created these two sorts of magnets, we often refer to magnets made from materials such as iron as
around it. permanent magnets.
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Connections Between Electricity and Magnetism | 109
The electromagnet can be used in all sorts of practical ways, including buzzers,
switches, and electric motors. In each of these devices a piece of iron is placed near the
magnet. When a current flows in the loops of wire, the iron is pulled toward the magnet.
In some cases, the electromagnet can be used to complete an electrical circuit by pulling
a switch closed. As soon as the current is turned off in the electromagnet, a spring
pushes the iron back, and the current in the larger circuit also shuts off.
You use electromagnetic switches in many household appliances. For example,
your home is probably heated by a furnace that is linked to a thermostat on the wall in
your living room or hallway. You set the thermostat to a specific temperature. If the
temperature in the room falls below the desired temperature, the thermostat responds
by using an electromagnet to close a switch, allowing a small current to flow. While
the current flows, the switch is closed and the furnace operates, heating the rooms in
your house. When the temperature reaches the level you have set, the thermostat stops
the current that flows to the electromagnet, the switch opens, and the furnace shuts
off. In this way, you can adjust the temperature of your house without having to run
to the basement every time you need to turn on the furnace.
TECHNOLOGY •
The Electric Motor

Look around your room and try to count the number of electric motors that you use every
day. They’re in fans, clocks, disk drives (Figure 5-20), CD players, hair dryers, electric
razors, and dozens of other familiar objects. Electromagnets are crucial components in
every one of those electric motors.
The simplest electric motors, as shown in Figure 5-21, employ a pair of perma-
nent magnets and a rotating loop of wire inside the poles of the magnets. The cur-
rent in the rotating loop adjusts so that when it is oriented as shown in Figure
5-21a, the south pole of the electromagnet lies just past the south pole of the • Figure 5-20 A magnified view of
permanent magnet, and the north pole of the electromagnet lies just past the north electromagnets inside the disk drive
pole of the permanent magnet. The repulsive forces between like magnetic south of a computer. The six coils of wire are
poles cause the wire loop to spin. As soon as the loop gets to the position shown in electromagnets that interact with per-
Figure 5-21b, the current reverses so that the south manent magnets on a turntable (not
pole of the electromagnet lies near the north pole shown), causing the turntable to spin.
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/Photo Researchers, Inc.

of the permanent magnet, and the north pole of
the electromagnet lies near the south pole of the
permanent magnet. The attractive forces between
opposite magnetic poles act to continue the rota-
tion. By alternating the current in the loop, a con-
tinuous rotational force is kept on the wire, and
thus the wire keeps turning.
This simple diagram contains all the essential fea-
tures of an electric motor, but most electric motors
are much more complex. Typically, they have three or
more different electromagnets and at least three per-
manent magnets, and the alternation of the current
direction is somewhat more complicated than we
have indicated. By artfully juxtaposing electromag-
nets and permanent magnets, inventors have pro-
duced an astonishing variety of electric motors:
fixed-speed for your CD player, variable-speed for
your food processor, reversible motors for power
screwdrivers and drills, and specialized motors for
many industrial uses. • SM 11X
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• Figure 5-21 An electric motor. Permanent magnet

The simplest motors work by
placing an electromagnet that can N N N N
rotate between two permanent
magnets. (a) When the current is Coil
N N
turned on, the north and south Rotating
S
electromagnet Direction
poles of the electromagnet are of rotation
S S
N
attracted to the south and north
poles of the permanent magnets.
(b)–(d) As the electromagnet rotates, S S S S
the current direction is switched, Current
causing the electromagnet to
continue rotating. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Wires to coil
Split
ring
Brushes
Close-up of split ring and brushes
Scott Camazine/Photo Researchers
WHY MAGNETIC M ONOPOLES D ON’T E XIST •

Earlier we stated that isolated north or south magnetic poles don’t exist in nature. Elec-
tromagnets provide a basis for understanding where this law comes from. At the atomic
scale, an electron in motion around an atom constitutes a “current,” analogous to the
circle of wire in an electromagnet. As we shall see in Chapter 10, the magnetism in per-
manent magnets can be traced ultimately to the summation of the behavior of countless
electrons, each in motion about an atom’s nucleus. This fact explains why ordinary mag-
nets can never be broken down into magnetic monopoles. If you break a magnet down
to one last individual atom, you still have a dipole field because of the atomic-scale cur-
rent loop. If you try to break the atom down further, the dipole field will disappear and
there will be no magnetism except that associated with the particles themselves. Thus
magnetism in nature is ultimately related to the arrangement of electrical charges rather
than to anything intrinsic to matter itself.
• Figure 5-22 Magnetic resonance
image (MRI) of the human head and
shoulders, showing the ability of this THE S CIENCE OF LIFE •
technique to produce visualizations
of soft tissue. Magnetic Resonance
Just as the motion of electrons in atoms creates a current that produces a magnetic field,
so too does the rotation of the nucleus of the atom. In fact, the nucleus of most atoms
can be pictured as a microscopic dipole magnet. This fact gives rise to one of the most
useful tools in modern medicine—magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
In this technique, the patient is placed between the poles of a strong magnet. The
magnetic field that permeates the patient’s tissue causes the tiny nucleus-scale magnets in
those tissues to rotate at frequencies characteristic of each kind of atom. Because of this
effect, the nuclei absorb radio waves whose frequency is timed to coincide with the rota-
Science News tion. By sending radio waves into the patient’s tissue and seeing which frequencies are
absorbed by rotating nuclei, doctors can determine what sorts of atoms are present at each
Understanding MRI place in the body, and hence form detailed images of the body’s tissues (Figure 5-22).
Go to your WileyPLUS course Unlike X-rays, which have difficulty distinguishing between different kinds of soft tissue,
to view video on this topic MRI can provide detailed cross-sectional images of any part of the body. •
Electrical Effects from Magnetism

Once Oersted and others demonstrated that magnetic effects arise from electricity, it did
not take long for scientists to realize that electrical effects arise from magnetism. Several
scientists contributed to this insight, but British physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867)
is most directly associated with this discovery.
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Electrical Effects from Magnetism | 111
Faraday’s key experiment took place on August 29, Current

flow detected
1831, when he placed two coils of wire—in effect, two Ammeter
electromagnets—side by side in his laboratory. He used a bat-
tery to pass an electrical current through one of the coils of
wire, and he watched what happened to the other coil. Aston-
ishingly, even though the second coil of wire was not con-
nected to a battery, a strong electrical current developed in it.
S N
We now know what happened in Faraday’s experiment: the
loop of wire through which current was running produced a Bar
Coil magnet
magnetic field in the neighborhood of the second loop. This
changing magnetic field, in turn, produced a current in the (a) (b)
second loop by means of a process called electromagnetic induction (see Figure 5-23). • Figure 5-23 Electromagnetic
An identical effect was observed when Faraday waved a permanent magnet in the vicin- induction. (a) When a current flows in
ity of his wire coil. He produced an electrical current without a battery. the circuit on the left, a current is
Michael Faraday’s research can be summarized by a simple law: observed to flow in the circuit on the
right, even though there is no bat-
tery or power source in that circuit.
Electrical fields and electrical currents can be produced by changing (b) Moving a magnet into the region
magnetic fields. of a coil of wire causes a current to
flow in the circuit, even in the
absence of a battery or other source
Figure 5-24 illustrates the electric generator, or dynamo, a vital tool of modern technol- of power.
ogy that demonstrates this effect. Place a loop of electrical wire with no batteries or other
power source between the north and south poles of a strong magnet. As long as the loop
of wire stands still, no current flows in the wire, but as soon as we begin to rotate the loop,
a current flows in the wire. This current flows in spite of the fact that there is no battery or
other power source in the wire.
From the point of view of the electrons in the wire, any rotation changes the orien-
tation of the magnetic field. The electrons sense a changing magnetic field and hence, by
Faraday’s findings, a current flows in the loop. If we spin the loop continuously, then a
continuous current flows in it. The current flows in one direction for half of the rota-
tion, then flows in the opposite direction for the other half of the rotation. This vitally
important device, the electric generator, followed immediately from Faraday’s discovery
of electromagnetic induction.
In an electric generator, some source of energy, such as water passing over a dam,
Carbon
steam produced by a nuclear reactor or coal-burning furnace, or wind-driven propeller brush
blades, turns a shaft. In your car, the energy to turn the coils in a magnetic field comes Metal Carbon
rings brush
from the gasoline that is burned in the engine. In every generator the rotating shaft links
to coils of wire that spin in a magnetic field. Because of the rotation, electrical current
flows in the wire, and that electricity can be tapped off onto external lines. Almost all the
electricity used in the United States and elsewhere in the world is generated in this way.
You may have noticed a curious fact about electric motors and generators. In an N S
electric motor, electrical energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the spinning
Coil rotated by
shaft, while in a generator, the kinetic energy of the spinning shaft is converted into elec- mechanical means
trical energy. Thus motors and generators are, in a sense, exact opposites in the world of
electromagnetism.
• Figure 5-24 An electric gen-

TECHNOLOGY • erator. As long as the loop of wire
rotates, there is a changing mag-
AC versus DC netic field near the loop and a
Because the current in the generating coils flows first one way and then the other, it will current flows in the wire.
do the same thing in the wires in your home. This kind of current, the kind used in
household appliances and cars, is called alternating current, or AC, because the direc-
tion keeps alternating. In contrast, chemical reactions in a battery cause electrons to flow
in only one direction and thus produce what is called direct current, or DC.
On a historical note, a major debate raged in the United States in the late nineteenth
century about whether to use AC or DC as the commercial standard. Some very famous
people—Thomas Edison, for example—were on the losing side. •
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Michael Faraday
Time Life Pictures/Getty Images News and Sprot Services
Michael Faraday, one of the most honored scientists of the nineteenth century, did not
come easily to his profession (Figure 5-25). The son of a blacksmith, he received only a
rudimentary education as a member of a small Christian sect. Faraday was apprenticed at
the age of 14 to a London book merchant, and he became a voracious reader as well as
a skilled bookbinder. Chancing upon the Encyclopedia Britannica, he was fascinated by
scientific articles, and he determined then and there to make science his life.
The young Faraday pursued his scientific career in style. He attended a series of pub-
lic lectures at the Royal Institution by London’s most famous scientist, Sir Humphry
Davy, a world leader in physical and chemical research. Then, in a bold and flamboyant
move, Faraday transcribed his lecture notes into beautiful script, bound the manuscript
in the finest tooled leather, and presented the volume to Davy as his calling card.
Michael Faraday soon found himself working as Davy’s laboratory assistant.
After a decade of work with Davy, Faraday had developed into a creative scientist in
his own right. He discovered many new chemical compounds, including liquid benzene,
and enjoyed great success with his own lectures for the general London public at the
Royal Institution. But his most lasting claim to fame was a series of classic experiments
• Figure 5-25 Michael Faraday through which he discovered a central idea that helped link electricity and magnetism. •
(1791–1867).
MAXWELL’S E QUATIONS •
Electricity and magnetism are not distinct phenomena at all, but are simply different
manifestations of one underlying fundamental entity—the electromagnetic force. In
the 1860s, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) realized that the four
very different statements about electricity and magnetism that we have talked about
constitute a single coherent description of electricity and magnetism. He was also able
to add a technical detail to the third law listed below, a detail that completed the
mathematical picture.
The four mathematical statements that he wrote down have come to be known as
Maxwell’s equations, because he was the first to realize their true import. Maxwell manip-
ulated the mathematics to make important predictions, which we will discuss in detail in
the next chapter. For reference, the four fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism
known as Maxwell’s equations (even though we present them here in statement form) are:
1. Coulomb’s law: like charges repel, unlike attract.
2. There are no magnetic monopoles in nature.
3. Magnetic phenomena can be produced by electrical effects.
4. Electrical phenomena can be produced by magnetic effects.
Thinking More About Electromagnetism
B ASIC R ESEARCH study of electricity by their research on frog muscles that con-
tracted by jolts of electrical charge. Volta’s first battery was built
It’s hard to imagine modern American society without electric- to duplicate the organs found in electric fish. Scientific discover-
ity. We use it for transportation, communication, heat, light, and ies, even those that bring enormous practical benefit to human-
many other necessities and amenities of life. Yet the men who ity, can come from unexpected sources.
gave us this marvelous gift were not primarily concerned with What does this tell you about the problem of allocating
developing better lamps or modes of transportation. In terms of government funds for research? Can you imagine trying to
the categories we introduced in Chapter 1, they were doing basic justify funding Galvani’s experiments on frogs’ legs to a govern-
research. Galvani and Volta, for example, were drawn to the ment panel on the grounds that it would lead to something
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Summary | 113
useful? Would a federal research grant designed to produce better While you’re thinking about these issues, you might want
lighting systems have produced the battery (and, eventually, the to keep in mind Michael Faraday’s response to a question.
electric light), or would it more likely have led to an improve- When asked by a political leader what good his electric motor
ment in the oil lamp? How much funding do you think should go was, he is supposed to have answered, “What good is it? Why,
to offbeat areas (on the chance that they may produce a large pay- Mr. Prime Minister, someday you will be able to tax it!”
off) as compared to projects that have a good chance of produc-
ing small but immediate improvements in the quality of life?

What is lightning? º Similarly, an object acquires a negative electrical charge when
extra electrons are added to it. This addition of electrons hap-
• Lightning is an atmospheric release of an electrical charge.
pens when you run a comb through your hair on a dry day;
º A lightning bolt (i.e., a discharge or release of an electrical electrons are stripped from your hair and added to the comb,
force) can travel at speeds well in excess of 200,000 km/h and
so the comb acquires a negative charge. Simultaneously, your
reach temperatures of 30,000ºC.
hair loses electrons, so individual strands become positively
º The high temperature associated with the discharge of the charged.
electrical force violently heats the surrounding air and causes a
• During a thunderstorm, the same phenomenon occurs on a
pressure wave that we hear as thunder.
much larger scale. Wind and rain disrupt the normal distribu-
• The electrical charge that results in lightning and thunder is
tion of electrons in clouds and create positive and negative
caused by the same process that causes your hair to “stand on
charges within the cloud. Lightning results from the attrac-
end” when you comb it on a dry day.
tion of charges on the ground and the opposing charges in
º Electrons in orbits that are far from the nucleus are very the cloud.
loosely bound to their atoms. These electrons can be removed
from the atom by a number of processes, including mechanical º When a charged cloud passes over a tall tree or tower, the vio-
lent electrical discharge we call lightning may result.
processes such as friction.
º Despite the dramatic danger associated with lightning, your
º When electrons that carry a negative charge are stripped from chances of being struck and killed by a lightning bolt is about
a material, they no longer cancel the positive charges in the
1 in 2 million.
nucleus. The result is the acquisition of a positive electrical
charge in the object.
S UMMARY •
The forces of electricity and magnetism are quite different from Both electrical and magnetic forces can be described in terms of force
the universal gravitational force that Newton described in the sev- fields—imaginary lines that reveal directions of forces that would be
enteenth century. Nevertheless, Newton’s laws of motion pro- experienced in the vicinity of electrically charged or magnetic
vided eighteenth- and nineteenth-century scientists with a way to objects.
describe and quantify a range of intriguing electromagnetic Batteries provide a continuous source of electricity. All electrical
behavior. currents (measured in amperes or amps) are characterized by an elec-
The phenomena of static electricity, including lightning and sta- tric “push” or voltage (measured in volts) and electrical resistance
tic cling, are caused by electrical charges, which arise from the trans- (measured in ohms). An electric circuit is a closed loop of material
fer of electrons between objects. An excess of electrons imparts a that carries electricity.
negative charge, while a deficiency causes an object to have a positive Nineteenth-century scientists discovered that the seemingly
charge. Objects with like charge experience a repulsive force, while unrelated phenomena of electricity and magnetism are actually two
oppositely charged objects attract each other. These observations aspects of one electromagnetic force. Hans Oersted found that an
were quantified in Coulomb’s law, which states that the magnitude of electrical current passing through a coil of wire produces a magnetic
electrostatic force between any two objects is proportional to the field. The electromagnet and electric motor were direct results of his
charges of the two objects and inversely proportional to the square work. Michael Faraday discovered the opposite effect when he
of the distance between them. induced an electrical current by placing a wire coil near a magnetic
Scientists investigating the very different phenomenon of mag- field, thus designing the first electric generator, which produced an
netism observed that every magnet has a north and south pole and alternating current (AC). Batteries, on the other hand, develop a
that magnets exert forces on each other. No matter how many times direct current (DC).
a magnet is divided, each of its pieces will have two poles—there are James Clerk Maxwell realized that the many independent observa-
no isolated magnetic poles. Like magnetic poles repel each other, tions about electricity and magnetism constitute a complete description
while opposite poles attract. A compass is a needle-shaped magnet of electromagnetism.
that is designed to point at the poles of Earth’s dipole magnetic field.
c05.qxd 9/11/09 11:11 AM Page 114
K EY TERMS •
electrical charge magnet electric circuit alternating current (AC)
electricity magnetic force voltage (measured in volts) direct current (DC)
static electricity poles (north and south) electrical resistance (measured electromagnetic force
positive electrical charge magnetic field in ohms)
negative electrical charge electrical current (measured in electromagnet
Coulomb’s law amperes or amps) electric motor
electric field battery electric generator
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Obtain two 6-volt dry cells, two large 10-penny steel nails, a 3-meter Now do precisely the same thing with the second nail, but do it
and a 6-meter length of insulated bell wire, wire strippers, some col- with the 6-meter length of bell wire; wrap a full layer of wire around
ored electrical tape, a box of small steel paper clips, and a pair of scis- the nail and then a second layer over the first layer. When done,
sors. Four alligator clips would be helpful for ease of connections, as count the paper clips that are picked up like you did the first time.
well as a single-blade knife switch. Nearly all of these items can be Do everything the same in both cases EXCEPT the second nail will
obtained from your local Radio Shack store. have two layers of wire. How many more paper clips were picked up
Strip both ends of the wire, leaving one inch of bare wire. Take the with a second layer of wire? What if you tried three layers?
3-meter bell wire and wrap a loop around the head of the nail, closing For even more fun, try two dry cells hooked up together
the loop with about 40 centimeters of wire hanging to one side. With ( to – terminal connection alternation) both with one layer of wire,
one hand holding the nail carefully, and the other hand holding the and then try two dry cells with two layers of wire. Note the dif-
longer side of the bell wire, begin to tightly wrap the bell wire—slowly ferences in the force of magnetism with the paper clip attraction.
moving toward the tip of the nail. Leave about 1.5 inches of nail show- Write your observations and make a broken line graph to visually
ing and then tie that loop off near the tip. Connect both bare ends of demonstrate your quantitative data. (Later attach the alligator
the wires to a different dry cell terminal. Wrap some electrical tape clips to the wire ends and hook up the knife switch to open and
completely around the wire layer. Next, stick the nail into the box of close the circuit, making the attraction and release of paper clips a
paper clips and dig down to the bottom, counting to three. Count how little more dramatic.) Where are these electromagnetic principles
many paper clips can be lifted out of the box. used in our world?
ⴙ ⴚ
Ray-o-Vac
6 volt
Paper Cilps
Bare
wire
Steel Wrapped
nail wire
Knife
switch
1. How might you demonstrate the existence of an electrical force? 4. How can the movement of negative charges such as the electron
2. How are electrical charges produced? What charge does an produce a material that has a positive charge?
excess of electrons produce? 5. What roles did frog’s legs and “animal electricity” play in the
3. What observations led Coulomb to the conclusion that electrical development of the battery?
forces were in some ways similar to the gravitational force discov- 6. How might you demonstrate the existence of a magnetic
ered by Newton? Compare and contrast the behavior of an electrical force?
force and gravity. 7. Why do magnets have dipole fields and not monopole fields?
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Problems | 115
8. What observation lead Hans Christian Oersted to conclude that a 16. Which of Maxwell’s four equations was derived from observa-
fundamental relationship exists between magnetism and electricity? tions of each the following:
9. Under what circumstances can electrical charges produce a a. bar magnets
magnetic field? b. wire loops carrying electrical current
10. Describe the components of an electromagnet. c. two different materials being rubbed together
11. How does an electromagnet differ from a permanent magnet? d. the effects of a current-carrying wire coil on a nearby coil
12. Explain how electromagnets can be used in the design of an 17. What properties of electrical currents are measured by amperes,
electric motor. volts, and ohms? Where do you run across each of these terms in
13. Identify two different ways that a single atom might produce a your everyday experience?
magnetic field. 18. Explain how medical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
14. Under what circumstances can a magnetic field produce an exploits the magnetic properties of the nucleus.
electrical current? 19. What is the relation between the power an appliance consumes,
15. Explain why electric motors and electric generators are oppo- the voltage across it, and the current through it?
sites. Under what conditions is each type of device useful?
1. Why can you start your car and drive around town many times 8. How does the first law of thermodynamics apply to electric circuits?
without draining the battery, but if you leave the lights on when the 9. How does the second law of thermodynamics apply to electric
engine is off, the battery is drained? circuits?
2. If you took an electric motor and turned it by hand, what do 10. There is an old saying that lightning never strikes the same
you think would happen in the coils of wire? place twice. Given what you know about electrical charge, is this
3. If you rub a balloon on your head, the balloon will then adhere statement likely to be true? Why or why not?
to the ceiling. Why? What does this observation tell you about the 11. Why does a lightning rod work? Why does the electrical energy
relative strengths of attraction of electricity and gravity? travel through the rod and not the building? Why should you never
4. When you run a comb through your hair on a dry day, why does seek the shelter of a tree if you get caught out in a thunderstorm?
your hair stand on end? 12. Why should you never operate an electrical appliance (e.g., a
5. How did Benjamin Franklin discover that lightning had an elec- hair dryer) while you are in a bathtub filled with water?
trical nature? How did he apply this understanding? Why did he use 13. Why are there signs at gas stations that suggest that you should
a wet string? ground yourself (i.e., touch a metal object) prior to refueling your
6. What is produced when particles from the Sun interact with the vehicle? To what hazards and forms of energy are the signs referring?
north and south poles of Earth’s magnetic field? 14. The novel Frankenstein may have been inspired by nineteenth-
7. Identify five things in the room where you are sitting that would century experiments examining “animal electricity.” Can you give
not have been possible without the discoveries in electromagnetism examples of twenty-first-century science inspiring the popular
discussed in this chapter. media?
P ROBLEMS •
1. Many bonds between atoms result from the attraction of posi- 4. When a video camera’s nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad) or nickel metal
tively and negatively charged atoms. Based on electrical charges and hydride (Ni-MH) battery runs down, it is recharged by running
separations, which of the following atomic bonds is strongest? current through it backward. Typically, you might run 4mAh
(Hint: You are interested only in the relative strengths, which (Milliampere-hour) at 6 volts for an hour. How much energy does it
depend only on the relative charges and distances.) take to recharge this battery?
a. a 1 sodium atom separated by 4.0 distance units from a 1 5. Most household circuits have fuses or circuit breakers that open
chlorine atom in table salt a switch when the current in the circuit exceeds 15 amps. Would
b. a 1 hydrogen atom separated by 2.0 distance units from a 2 the lights go off when you plug in an air conditioner (2 kilowatts),
oxygen atom in water a TV (450 watts), and four 60-watt lightbulbs? Why?
c. a 4 silicon atom separated by 3 distance units from a 2 6. Find the energy usage of five electrical appliances in watts, and
oxygen atom in glass graph the data using a bar graph. What can you tell from the graph
2. A current of 20 amps flows through a wire with a resistance of about the energy consumption of these appliances?
20 ohms. What is the voltage of this circuit? 7. An energy-efficient water heater draws 4 amps in a
3. A flashlight uses two 1.5-volt batteries to light a 5-watt bulb. 220-volt circuit. It costs $175 more than a standard water
What is the current when the flashlight is on? What is the resistance heater that draws 18 amps in a standard 115-volt circuit. If
of the circuit? What current and resistance values would you get if electricity costs 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, how long would you
you replaced the 5-watt incandescent bulb with a 2.5-watt light have to run the efficient water heater to recoup the difference
emitting diode (LED)? in price?
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I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Make an inventory of all your electric appliances. Which ones 8. Take an old appliance with a small electric motor (a razor,
use electromagnets? How many watts does each use? coffee grinder, or fan, for example) and dissect the motor. How
2. Most household circuits have fuses or circuit breakers that open many permanent magnets are inside? How many electromagnets
a switch when the current in the circuit exceeds 15 amps. How (i.e., separate coils of wire)?
many of the appliances in the previous question could you run on 9. Identify the major electric-circuit components in your automo-
the same circuit without overloading it? bile. Which require the greatest power?
3. Michael Faraday presented a hand-tooled, leather-bound manu- 10. Investigate how electric eels generate electrical shocks. Do any
script to Sir Humphry Davy to obtain a position in his lab. What other living things create electrical currents?
do you have to do to earn a research assistanship with one of your 11. How does an electroencephalogram (EEG) work? How does it
professors? differ from an electrocardiogram (EKG)?
4. Imagine that you were stranded on a mineral-rich island. 12. Many kinds of living things, from bacteria to vertebrates, incor-
What steps would you take to develop basic electrical devices? porate small magnetic particles. Investigate the ways in which living
What reference books would you want to have with you on the things use magnetism.
island?
13. Read the novel Frankenstein (or see the classic 1931 movie
5. Examine carefully your most recent electric bill. How much with Boris Karloff and Colin Clive, which is admittedly only loosely
power did you use? How much did it cost? Is there a discount for based on the novel). Discuss the ideas about the nature of life that
electricity used at off-peak hours? Examine your use of electricity are implicit in the story. Does it represent a realistic picture of scien-
and plan a strategy for reducing your electric bill by 10% next tific research? Why or why not?
month. You can reduce consumption by turning off lights and
14. How long is the average commute between home and work for
appliances when not in use, installing lower-wattage bulbs, or using
people in your area? Might electric cars be of use in the future?
electricity during low-rate times.
15. If you place the north poles of two magnets next to each other,
6. Find out where your electrical power is generated. Does your
what happens? Can you explain the result in terms of Newton’s laws
local utility buy additional power from some other place? What
of motion?
kind of fuel or energy is used to drive the turbines? Are there pol-
lution controls that restrict the use of certain kinds of fuels at 16. Are there any lightning rods on the buildings on your campus?
your local power plant? See if you can arrange a tour of the power Why does a building need more than one?
plant. 17. Look at a camera, watch, or calculator battery. Where are the
7. How many kilowatts of electrical power does a typical commer- negative and positive poles?
cial power plant generate? How much electricity does the United 18. Use the Internet to find out how to make a battery with a
States use each year? Is this amount going up or down? potato or a lemon.
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6
Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation
What is color?
PHYSICS
Radio and television

signals are
transmitted by
BIOLOGY electromagnetic CHEMISTRY
waves.
Through a series
of processes, the X-rays are used
eye converts to determine the
electromagnetic atomic structure
radiation into images of minerals.
and colors.
ENVIRONMENT
Whenever an A
electrically charged trace amount
Microwave ovens
rely on the fact that
object is accelerated, it of the gas ozone
in Earth’s upper
foods absorb produces electromagnetic atmosphere protects
microwave energy, radiation—waves of life by absorbing much
while the walls of the of the sun’s harmful
oven reflect it. energy that travel at ultraviolet radiation.
the speed of (Ch. 19)
light.
TECHNOLOGY
Stars
give off all Doppler radar
wavelengths of units track the
electromagnetic movement of
radiation, from radio dangerous storms by
waves to gamma rays, measuring the
which can be frequency of
detected by orbiting electromagnetic
telescopes. waves. (Ch. 18)
(Ch. 14) Laser scalpels
have created
ASTRONOMY opportunities for GEOLOGY
precise microscopic
eye surgery.
(Ch. 8)
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day The Radio
he car is packed and ready to go. As you begin the 90-minute drive to the
T
SUPERSTOCK
beach, you tune the radio to a favorite FM music station and turn up the
volume to feel the beat. From time to time, though, you check an AM station
that features traffic and weather reports, just to avoid any problems. The radio is
so familiar and essential, yet still it’s somewhat magical. How can music and news
travel invisibly through air from the radio station? How can so many different
stations broadcast at the same time without interfering with each other? The
answers, surprisingly, are intimately tied to the behavior of waves and the elec-
tromagnetic force.
The Nature of Waves

Waves are all around us. Waves of water travel across the surface of the ocean and crash
against the land. Waves of sound travel through the air when we listen to music. Some
parts of the United States suffer from mighty waves of rock and soil called earthquakes.
All of these waves must move through matter.
But the most remarkable waves of all can travel through an absolute vacuum at
the speed of light. The sunlight that warms you at the beach and provides virtually all
of the energy necessary for life on Earth is transmitted through space by just such a
Energy wave. The radio waves that carry your favorite music, the microwaves that heat your
dinner, and the X-rays your dentist uses to check for cavities are also types of electro-
Domino magnetic waves—invisible waves that carry energy and travel at the speed of light. In this
chapter, we will look at waves in general, then focus on electromagnetic waves, which
play an enormous role in our everyday life.
Waves are fascinating, at once familiar and yet somewhat odd. Waves, unlike flying
(a) cannonballs or speeding automobiles, have the ability to transfer energy without trans-
Energy ferring mass.
E NERGY TRANSFER BY WAVES •

Energy can be transferred in two forms in our everyday world: the particle and the wave.
(b) Suppose you have a domino sitting on a table and you want to knock it over, a process that
requires transferring energy from you to the domino. One way to proceed would be to
• Figure 6-1 You can use a domino
to knock over other dominoes in two take another domino and throw it. From the standpoint of energy, you would say that the
different ways: (a) you can throw a muscles in your arms impart kinetic energy to the moving domino, which, in turn, would
domino, or (b) you can trigger a impart enough of that energy to the standing domino to knock it over (Figure 6-1a). We
wave of dominoes. say that the energy transfers by the motion of a solid piece of matter.
Alternatively, you could line up a row of standing dominoes, knock over the first,
which would then knock over the second, which in turn would knock over the third, and
so on (Figure 6-1b). Eventually the falling chain of dominoes would hit the last one, and
you would have achieved the same goal. In the case of the lined-up dominoes, however,
118
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The Nature of Waves | 119
no single object traveled from you to the most distant domino. In the language of
physics, we say that you started a wave of falling dominoes and the wave is what knocked
over the final, domino. A wave, then, is a traveling disturbance; it carries energy from
place to place without requiring matter to travel across the intervening distance.
Remember in Chapter 4 when we examined the flow of heat from a campfire to your
hand by the process of radiation? Radiation now reenters our story as the way that light
waves transfer energy from one object to another.
THE P ROPERTIES OF WAVES •

Think about a familiar example of waves. You are standing on the banks of a quiet pond
on a crisp autumn afternoon. There’s no breeze and the pond in front of you is still and
smooth. You pick up a pebble and toss it into the middle of the pond. As soon as the
pebble hits the water, a series of ripples moves outward from the point of impact. In
cross section, the ripples have the familiar wave shape shown in Figure 6-2. You can use
four measurements to characterize the ripples.
1. Wavelength is the distance between crests, or the highest points of adjacent waves.
On a pond the wavelength might be only a centimeter or two, while ocean waves may
be tens or hundreds of meters between crests.
2. Frequency is the number of wave crests
that go by a given point every second. A Frequency of wave crests
wave that sends one crest by every sec- 4 3 2 1
Crest Amplitude
ond (completing one cycle) is said to
Wavelength Undisturbed
have a frequency of one cycle per sec- position
ond or one hertz (abbreviated 1Hz).
Small ripples on a pond might have a
frequency of several hertz, while large
ocean waves might arrive only once
every few seconds.
3. Velocity is the speed and direction of Trough
Velocity of the wave
the wave crest itself. Water waves typi-
cally travel a few meters per second,
about the speed of walking or jogging,
11 12 1
whereas sound waves in air travel about 10 2
340 meters (1100 feet) per second. 9 3
4. Amplitude is the height of the wave 8 4
7 6 5
crest above the undisturbed position, for
example, the undisturbed water level. • Figure 6-2 A cross section of a
wave reveals the characteristics of
wavelength, velocity, and amplitude.
THE R ELATIONSHIP AMONG WAVELENGTH, Successive wave crests are numbered
1, 2, 3, and 4. An observer at the posi-
F REQUENCY, AND VELOCITY • tion of the clock records the number
A simple relationship exists among wavelength, frequency, and velocity. In fact, if we of crests that pass by in a second. This
is the frequency, which is measured in
know any two of the three, we can calculate the third from a simple equation.
cycles per second, or hertz.
To understand why this is so, think about waves on water. Suppose you are sitting on
a sailboat, watching a series of wave crests passing by. You can count the number of wave
crests going by every second (the frequency) and measure the distance between the crests
(the wavelength). From these two numbers, the speed of the wave can be calculated.
If, for example, one wave arrives every two seconds and the wave crests are 6 meters
apart, then the waves must be traveling 6 meters every 2 seconds—a velocity of 3 meters
per second. You might look out across the water and see a particularly large wave crest that
will arrive at the boat after four intervening smaller waves. You would predict that the big
wave is 30 meters away (five times the wavelength) and that it will arrive in 10 seconds.
That kind of information can be very helpful if you are plotting the best course for an
America’s Cup yacht race or estimating the path of potentially destructive ocean waves.
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120 | C HAP TE R 6 | Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation
This relationship among wavelength, velocity, and frequency can be written in equa-
John Lund/©Corbis
tion form:
In words: The velocity of a wave is equal to the length of each wave times the num-
ber of waves that pass by each second.
In equation form:
wave velocity 1m>s2 wavelength 1m2 frequency 1Hz 2
In symbols:
vlf
where l (the Greek letter lambda) and f are common symbols for wavelength and wave
frequency. This simple equation holds for all kinds of waves (Figure 6-3).
EXAMPLE 6-1
AT TH E B EACH
On a relatively calm day at the beach, ocean waves traveling 2 meters per second hit the
• Figure 6-3 Waves passing a sail-
shore once every 5 seconds. What is the wavelength of these ocean waves?
boat reveal how wavelength, veloc-
ity, and frequency are related. If you Reasoning: We can solve for wavelength, given the wave’s velocity (2 meters per second)
know the distance between wave and frequency (1 wave per 5 seconds, or 1/5 Hz 0.2Hz):
crests (the wavelength) and the
number of crests that pass each sec- wave velocity 1m>s2 wavelength 1m2 frequency 1Hz 2
ond (the frequency), then you can
calculate the wave’s velocity. Solution: We can rearrange the equation to solve for wavelength.
velocity 1m>s2
wavelength 1m2
frequency 1Hz 2
12m>s2

0.2 Hz
10 m
THE TWO KINDS OF WAVES: TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL •

Imagine that a chip of bark or a piece of grass is lying on the surface of a pond when you
throw a rock into the water. When the ripples go by, the floating object and the water
around it move up and down; they do not move to a different spot. At the same time,
however, the wave crest moves in a direction parallel to the surface of the water. This
means that the motion of the wave is different from the motion of the medium on which the
wave moves. This kind of wave, where the motion is perpendicular to the direction of the
wave, is called a transverse wave (Figure 6-4a).
Transverse
(a)
Longitudinal
(b)
• Figure 6-4 Transverse (a) and longitudinal (b) waves differ in the motion of the wave relative to the motion of individual particles.
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You can observe (and participate in) this phenomenon if you ever go to a sporting
event in a crowded stadium where fans “do the wave.” Each individual simply stands up
and sits down, but the visual effect is of a giant sweeping motion around the entire sta-
dium. In this way, transverse waves can move great distances, even though individual
pieces of the transmitting medium hardly move at all.
Not all waves are transverse waves like those on the surface of water—we used the
example of a pond simply because it is so familiar and can be visualized. Sound is a form
of wave that moves through the air. When you talk, for example, your vocal cords move
air molecules back and forth. The vibrations of these air molecules set the adjacent mol-
ecules in motion, which sets the next set of molecules in motion and so forth. A wave
moves out from your mouth, and that wave looks similar to ripples on a pond. Sound
waves differ, however, because in the air the wave crest that is moving out is not a raised
portion of a water surface, but a denser region of air molecules. In the language of
physics, sound is a longitudinal wave. As a wave of sound moves through the air, gas
molecules vibrate forward and back in the same direction as the wave. This motion is very
different from the transverse wave of a ripple in water, where the water molecules move
perpendicular to the direction of the waves (see Figure 6-4b). Note that in both longitu-
dinal and transverse waves, the energy always moves in the direction of the wave.
Stop and Think! How would you do a longitudinal wave in a stadium?
The Sound of Music

The speed of sound in air is more or less constant for all kinds of sound. The way we per-
ceive a sound wave, therefore, depends on its other properties: wavelength, frequency,
and amplitude. For example, what we sense as loudness depends on both the amplitude
of a sound and its frequency—the greater the amplitude, for example, the louder the
sound. Similarly, we hear higher-frequency sound waves (sound with shorter wave-
lengths) as higher pitches, while we perceive lower-frequency sound waves (with longer
wavelengths) as lower-pitched sounds. • Figure 6-5 Different-sized instru-
You can experience one consequence of this contrast when you listen to a symphony ments in a symphony orchestra play in
orchestra. The highest notes are played by small instruments, such as the piccolo and different ranges. The larger string bass
violins, while the lowest notes are the domain of the massive tuba and double basses in the back plays lower notes, while
(Figure 6-5). Similarly, the size of each of a big pipe organ’s thousands of the violins play in a higher range.
pipes determines which single note it will produce. An organ pipe
encloses a column of air in which a sound wave can travel back and forth,
down the length of the pipe over and over again. The number of waves
completing this circuit every second—the frequency—defines the pitch
that you hear (see Figure 6-6).
We can calculate the necessary length of an organ pipe from the
desired frequency and the known speed of sound. The note that we hear
as “middle A,” the pitch to which most orchestras tune, has a frequency
of 440 Hz. Sound travels through air at about 340 meters per second. An
organ pipe that is open at both ends produces a note with a wavelength
twice as long as the pipe. The length of an organ pipe air column that
plays middle A, therefore, is given by half the wavelength in the equation:
velocity 1m>s2
wavelength 1m2
frequency 1Hz 2
1340 m>s2

1440 Hz2
0.773 m 1about 2 ft2
Taxi/Getty Images
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1 wavelength = 0.773 m The length of the organ pipe is half the wavelength:
wavelength 1m2
organ pipe length 1m2
Sounding "A"
2
0.773 m

2
0.387 m 1about 15 in 2
Notes in the middle range on the pipe organ are thus produced by
pipes that are about one-half-meter long. •
• Figure 6-6 An organ pipe pro-
duces a single note. Air in the pipe Stop and Think! At which end of a clarinet would you expect to find the
vibrates and produces a sound wave
with a wavelength related to the
keys for playing low notes? Why?
length of the pipe.
EXAMPLE 6-2
T H E L I M ITS OF H U MAN H EARI NG

The human ear can hear sounds at frequencies from about 20 to 20,000Hz. What are the
longest and shortest wavelengths you can hear? What are the longest or shortest organ
pipes you are likely to see?
Reasoning: Each organ pipe has a fixed length and produces just one note. We have to
calculate the wavelength needed for both the lowest and highest frequency.
Solution: The lowest audible note, at 20Hz, would require a wavelength as follows:
velocity 1m>s2
wavelength 1m2
frequency 1Hz 2
1340 m>s2

120 Hz2
17 m 1about 50 ft2
Similarly, the highest audible note, at 20,000 Hz, is produced by

velocity 1m>s2
wavelength 1m2
frequency 1Hz 2
1340 m>s2

120,000 Hz2
0.017 m 1about two-thirds of an inch2
Organ pipes producing these notes would be about half the wavelengths or approx-
imately 8.5 and 0.009 meters, respectively. Most large pipe organs have pipes rang-
ing from about 8 meters to less than 0.05 meter in length. Next time you have the
chance, visit a church or auditorium with a large pipe organ and look at the variety
of pipes. Not only are there many different lengths, but there are also many distinc-
tive shapes, each sounding like a different instrument.
Use of Sound by Animals

Science News Humans use sound to communicate, of course, as do many other animals. But some ani-
mals have refined the use of sound in specialized ways. In 1793, Italian physiologist Lazzaro
Navigating by Sound Spallanzani did some experiments with bats and established that they use sound to locate
Go to your WileyPLUS course their prey (Figure 6-7). He took bats that lived in the cathedral tower in Pavia, blinded
to view video on this topic them, and then turned them loose. Weeks later, those bats had fresh insects in their
c06.qxd 9/11/09 10:43 AM Page 123
stomachs, proving that they didn’t locate food by sight.
Joe MacDonald/Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images

Similar experiments with bats that were made deaf, however,
showed that they could neither fly nor locate insects.
Today, we understand that bats navigate by emitting
high-pitched sound waves and then listening for the
reflection of those waves off of other objects. By measur-
ing the time it takes for a pulse of sound waves to go out,
be reflected, and come back, the bat can determine the
distance to surrounding objects, particularly the flying
insects that make up its diet. Typically, a bat can detect the
presence of an insect up to 10 meters away.
In an interesting application of the principle of natural
selection (see Chapter 25), some species of moths have
developed sophisticated sense organs to hear the sound
emitted by bats. Using ears on their thorax or abdomen,
these moths can hear the high-pitched sounds emitted by
bats and thus can tell when they are being “seen.” When • Figure 6-7 A bat navigates by
they hear the sound, the moths take immediate evasive action. In a few cases, moths have emitting high-pitched sounds and lis-
developed an even more sophisticated defense. When a bat approaches, they emit a series tening for their echoes.
of high-pitched clicks that “jam” the bat’s detection system.
At the opposite end of the sound spectrum, when confronted by very low-frequency
sounds, we often don’t so much hear sound waves as feel them. We sense the vibrations
in our bodies. You may have experienced this sensation when hearing very low notes on
an organ. Some animals (elephants, for example) routinely use sound in the 20–40 Hz
range to communicate with each other over long distances. The mating call of the
female elephant, for example, is experienced as a vibration by humans, but attracts bull
elephants from many miles away.
Whales, dolphins, and porpoises use low-frequency sound echoes as a navigation
tool in the ocean, much as bats do in air. Sometimes, however, the sounds that they emit
are in the audible range for humans. Perhaps the most famous examples of sophisticated
use of sound by animals are the songs of humpback whales, which have appeared on a
number of commercial recordings. The functions of these songs are not clear. It appears,
however, that all of the whales in a wide area of ocean (the South Atlantic, for example)
sing the same song, although some individuals may leave out parts. The songs change
every year, but the whales in a given area change their songs together. •
• Figure 6-8 Two waves originat-
Stop and Think! Today’s scientists are much more concerned about ing from different points create an
the ethical treatment of animals than were naturalists of the eighteenth interference pattern. Bright regions
century. How might you conduct an experiment on the hearing of bats correspond to constructive interfer-
without injuring the animals? ence, while dark regions correspond
to destructive interference.
Courtesy Education Development Center

I NTERFERENCE •
Waves from different sources may overlap and affect each
other in the phenomenon called interference. Interference
describes what happens when waves from two different
sources come together at a single point—each wave inter-
feres with the other, and the observed height of the wave—
the amplitude—is simply the sum of the amplitudes of the
two interfering waves. Consider the common situation
shown in Figure 6-8. Suppose you and a friend each throw
rocks into a pond at two separate points as in the figure.
The waves from each of these two points travel outward
and eventually will meet. What will happen when the two
waves come together?
One easy way to think about what happens is to imag-
ine that each part of each wave carries with it a set of
instructions for the water surface—“move down 2 inches,”
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Constructive or “move up 1 inch.” When two waves

interference arrive simultaneously at a point, the sur-
Amplitude 1 inch Amplitude 2 inches face responds to both sets of instructions.
If one wave says to move down 2 inches
and the other to move up 1 inch, the
result will be that the water surface will
Amplitude 1 inch
move down a total of 1 inch. Thus each
Wave amplitudes add
point on the surface of the water moves a
different distance up or down depending
(a) on the instructions that are brought to it
by the two waves.
Destructive One possible situation is shown in
interference
Figure 6-9a. Two waves, each carrying the
Amplitude 1 inch
command “go up 1 inch” arrive at a point
together. The two waves act together to lift
zero amplitude the water surface to the highest possible
height it can have. This effect is called cons-
tructive interference, or reinforcement. On
Wave amplitudes cancel
the other hand, you could have a situation
Amplitude 1 inch
like the one shown in Figure 6-9b, where
(b) the two waves arrive at a point such that one
• Figure 6-9 Cross sections of is giving an instruction to go up 1 inch and
interfering waves illustrate the phe- the other to go down 1 inch. In this case, the two waves cancel each other out and the water
nomena of (a) constructive and surface will not move up or down at all. This situation is called destructive interference, or
(b) destructive interference.
cancellation. And, of course, waves can interfere anywhere between these two extremes.
The most familiar example of destructive interference does not take place with water
waves but with sound waves. Occasionally an auditorium may be designed in such a way
that almost no sound can be heard in certain seats. This unfortunate situation results when
two waves—for example, one directly from the stage and one bouncing off the ceiling—
arrive at those seats in such a way as to cause partial or total destructive interference. One
of the main goals of acoustical design of auditoriums, a field that relies on complex com-
puter modeling of sound interference patterns, is to avoid such problems.
The Electromagnetic Wave

The last time you had your teeth X-rayed, or cooked a meal in a microwave oven, or lis-
tened to radio you had firsthand experience with the phenomenon of electromagnetic
waves.
Physicists characterize waves with a wave equation, which describes the movement
of the wave’s medium for every wave, whether it’s a water wave moving through a liq-
uid, a sound wave in air, or a seismic wave (a sound wave traveling through rocks) caus-
ing an earthquake. Physicists have learned that whenever an equation that describes
motion has the distinctive form of a wave equation, then a corresponding wave should
be seen in nature.
Soon after Maxwell wrote down the four equations that describe electricity and
magnetism (see Chapter 5), he realized that some rather straightforward mathematical
manipulation led to yet another equation, one that describes waves. The waves that
Maxwell predicted from his wave equation are rather strange sorts of things, and we’ll
describe their anatomy in more detail later. The important point, however, is that these
are waves in which energy is transferred not through matter, but through electrical and
magnetic fields. It appears from the equations that whenever an electrical charge is accel-
erated, for example, one of these waves is emitted. Maxwell called this phenomenon
electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation. An electromagnetic wave is a
wave that is made up of electrical and magnetic fields that fluctuate together; once that
fluctuation starts, the wave keeps itself going, even in a vacuum.
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The Electromagnetic Wave | 125
Maxwell’s equations also predicted exactly how fast the waves could move—the
wave velocity depends only on known constants such as the universal electrostatic con-
stant in Coulomb’s equation (see Chapter 5). These numbers are known from experi-
ment, and when Maxwell put the numbers into his expression for the velocity of his new
waves, he found a very surprising answer. The predicted velocity of the mystery waves
turned out to be 300,000 kilometers per second (186,000 miles per second).
If you just had an “aha!” moment, you can imagine how Maxwell felt. The number
that he calculated is the speed of light, which means that the waves described by his
equation are actually the familiar (but mysterious) waves we call “light.”
This result was astonishing. For centuries scientists had puzzled over the origin and
nature of light. Newton and others had discovered natural laws that describe the con-
nections between forces and motion, as well as the behavior of matter and energy. But
light remained an enigma. How did radiation from the Sun travel to Earth? What caused
the light produced by a candle?
There is no obvious reason why static cling, refrigerator magnets, or the workings of
an electric generator should be connected in any way to the behavior of visible light. Yet
Maxwell discovered that light and other kinds of radiation are a type of wave that is gen-
erated whenever electrical charges are accelerated.
The Ether
When Maxwell first proposed his idea of electromagnetic radiation, he was not prepared
to deal with a wave that could travel in a vacuum—that required no medium whatsoever.
Previous scientists who had studied light, including such luminaries as Isaac Newton,
assumed that light must travel through a hypothetical substance called “ether” that per-
meates all space. Ether, they thought, served as the medium for light, and so Maxwell
assumed that ether provided the medium for his electromagnetic waves. In Maxwell’s
picture, the ether was a tenuous transparent substance, perhaps like invisible Jell-O, that
filled all of space. An accelerating charge shook the Jell-O at one point, and after that the
electromagnetic waves moved outward at the speed of light.
The idea of an ether goes back to the ancient Greeks, and for most of recorded history
scholars logically assumed that the vacuum of space was filled with this imaginary sub- • Figure 6-10 U. S. physicist Albert
stance. It wasn’t until 1887 that two U.S. physicists, Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931) A. Michelson used precise optical
and Edward W. Morley (1838–1923), working at what is now Case Western Reserve Uni- measurements to prove that light
versity in Cleveland, performed experiments waves can travel without a medium.
Boyer/Roger Viollet/Getty Images

that demonstrated that the ether could not be
detected. This failure was interpreted to mean
that the ether did not exist.
The concept of the experiments was very
simple. Michelson and Morley reasoned that if an
ether really existed, then the motion of Earth
around the Sun and the Sun around the center of
our Milky Way galaxy would produce an appar-
ent ether “wind” at Earth’s surface, much as
someone riding in a car on a still day feels a wind.
They used very sensitive instruments to search for
tiny differences in the speed of light as Earth
moved through the ether in different directions.
When their experiment turned up no such differ-
ences, they concluded that ether does not exist.
In 1907, Albert Michelson (Figure 6-10)
became the first U.S. scientist to win a Nobel
Prize, an honor that recognized his pioneering
experimental studies of light. •
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THE ANATOMY OF THE E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVE •

How does an electromagnetic wave move in the absence of any transmitting medium? A
typical electromagnetic wave, shown in Figure 6-11, consists of electrical and magnetic
fields arranged at right angles to each other and perpendicular to the direction the wave is
moving. To understand how the waves form, go back to Maxwell’s equations that describe
how a changing magnetic field produces an electrical field, and vice
Electric versa (Chapter 5). At the point labeled A in Figure 6-11, the electri-
cal and magnetic fields associated with the wave are at maximum
strength, but these fields are changing slowly, so they both decrease
B
in strength. At point B, the fields are at minimum strength, but they
are changing rapidly and so begin to increase. Thus at point A, the
Magnetic
magnetic and electrical fields begin to die out, while at point B just
To observer
the reverse happens. In this way the electromagnetic wave leapfrogs
through space, bouncing its energy back and forth between electri-
A
cal and magnetic fields as it goes.
• Figure 6-11 A diagram of an All of the other kinds of waves we’ve talked about—those on water or in air, for
electromagnetic wave shows the
example—are easy to visualize because the wave moves through a medium. Electromag-
relationship of the electrical field, the
magnetic field, and the direction that netic waves are different, and therefore somewhat mysterious (indeed, many scientists
the wave is moving. A and B indicate find their behavior difficult to understand). However, once you understand that the
points of maximum and minimum electromagnetic wave has this kind of ping-pong arrangement between electricity and
field strength. A changing magnetic magnetism, you can get a sense of how it can travel through a vacuum. The key is that
field produces an electrical field, and the motion of a wave is not the same as the motion of the medium. The electromagnetic
vice versa, so the wave keeps renew- wave is, in a sense, an extension of this idea. It’s a wave that has no medium whatsoever,
ing itself. but simply keeps itself going through its own internal mechanisms. Electromagnetic
waves, then, transfer energy—what we have called radiation (see Chapter 4). These
waves are created when electrical charges accelerate, but once they start moving they no
longer depend on the source that emitted them.
LIGHT •
Once Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetism and light, his
equations allowed him to draw several important conclusions. For one thing, because
the velocity of the electromagnetic waves depends entirely on the nature of interactions
between electrical charges and magnets, it cannot depend on the properties of the wave
itself. Thus, all electromagnetic waves, regardless of their wavelength or frequency, have
to move at exactly the same velocity (Figure 6-12). This velocity—the speed of light—
turns out to be so important in science that we give it a special letter, c. The speed of
electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is one of the fundamental constants of nature. (Light
moving through solids, liquids, or gases travels at a somewhat slower speed.)
For electromagnetic waves traveling in the vacuum of space, the relation among
velocity, wavelength, and frequency takes on a particularly simple form:
wavelength frequency c
300,000 km>s 1186,000 mi>s2
In other words, if you know the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave, you can calcu-
late its frequency and vice versa.
THE E NERGY OF E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES •

Think about how you might produce an electromagnetic wave with a simple comb.
Electromagnetic waves are generated any time a charged object is accelerated, so imag-
ine combing your hair on a dry winter day when the comb picks up a static charge.
Each time you move the comb back and forth, an electromagnetic wave traveling
300,000 kilometers per second is sent out from the comb.
• Figure 6-12 The speed of light is If you wave the electrically charged comb up and down slowly, once every second, you
a universal constant. create electromagnetic radiation, but you’re not putting much energy into it. You produce
c06.qxd 9/11/09 10:43 AM Page 127
a low-frequency, low-energy wave with a wavelength of about 300,000 kilometers.

(Remember, each wave moves outward 300,000 kilometers in a second, which is the sep-
aration between wave crests.)
If, on the other hand, you could vibrate the comb vigorously—say at 300,000 times
per second—you would produce a higher-energy, high-frequency wave with a 1-kilometer
wavelength. By putting more energy into accelerating the electrical charge, you have more
energy in the electromagnetic wave.
Visible light, the first example of an electromagnetic wave known to humans, bears
out this kind of reasoning. A glowing ember has a dull red color, corresponding to a rela-
tively low range of energies. Hotter, more energetic fires show a progression of more ener-
getic colors, from the yellow of a candle flame to the blue-white flame of a blowtorch.
These colors are merely different ranges of frequencies, and therefore different energies, of
light; higher frequencies of light correspond to a blue color, lower frequencies to red.
Red light has wavelengths corresponding to a range of distances between about 600
and 700 nanometers (a nanometer is 10–9 meter, about 40 billionths of an inch). Red
light includes the longest wavelengths that the eye can see and is the least energetic of
the visible electromagnetic waves. Violet light, on the other hand, has a range of shorter
wavelengths corresponding to about 400 to 440 nanometers, and includes the most
energetic of the visible electromagnetic waves. All of the other colors have ranges of
wavelengths and energies between those of red and violet.
EXAMPLE 6-3
F IGU RI NG F REQU ENCY
The average wavelength of yellow light is about 580 nanometers, or 5.8 x 10–7 m. What
is the frequency of an average yellow light wave?
Reasoning: We know that for all electromagnetic waves,
wavelength frequency 300,000 km>s

3 108 m>s
We want to determine frequency, so we rearrange this equation:
13 108 m>s2
frequency
wavelength
Solution: This means that for yellow light with a wavelength of 5.8 10–7 m,
13 108 m>s2
frequency
5.8 107 m
0.52 1015 Hz
5.2 1014 Hz
(Remember, a hertz equals one cycle per second.) In order to generate yellow light by
vibrating a charged comb you would have to wiggle it more than 500 trillion
(520,000,000,000,000) times per second.
THE D OPPLER E FFECT •

Once waves have been generated, their motion is independent of the source. It doesn’t
matter what kind of charged object accelerates to produce an electromagnetic wave;
once produced, all such waves behave exactly the same way. This statement has an
important consequence that was discovered in 1842 by Austrian physicist Christian
Johann Doppler (1803–1853). This consequence is called the Doppler effect in his
honor. The Doppler effect describes the way the frequency of a wave appears to change
if there is relative motion between the wave source and the observer.
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Sound waves provide a familiar example. Figure 6-13a

shows the way a sound wave looks when the source is sta-
tionary relative to a listener—when you listen to your radio,
for example. In this case everything sounds “normal.” If the
source of sound—a racing ambulance with siren blaring, for
example—is moving relative to the listener, however, a dif-
ferent situation occurs (Figure 6-13b). Periodically the crest
of a sound wave moves away from the ambulance and travels
(a)
out in a sphere centered on the spot where the source was
located when that particular crest was emitted. By the time
the ambulance is ready to emit other sound waves, it will
Sound
Emitter have moved, and the second sound-wave sphere emitted will
motion
be centered at the new location. As the source continues to
move, it will emit sound waves centered farther and farther
Lower Higher to the right in the figure, producing a characteristic pattern
frequency frequency as shown.
To a listener standing in front of the ambulance, these
sound waves are bunched up so the pitch of the siren sounds
(b)
higher than it would if the ambulance were standing still. On
the other hand, if the observer is standing in back of the
ambulance, the distance between sound waves will be
Redshift Blueshift
stretched out, and the frequency and pitch of the siren will
sound lower.
You probably have heard the Doppler effect. Think of
standing on a highway while cars go by at high speeds. The
engine noise appears to be very high-pitched as a car
Emitter motion approaches you and then suddenly drops in pitch as the car
passes you. This effect is particularly striking at automobile
races where cars are moving at very high velocity.
(c) This sort of change in pitch provided the first example of
• Figure 6-13 The Doppler effect occurs whenever a source of the Doppler effect to be studied. Scientists hired a band of
waves is moving relative to the observer of the waves. (a) When trumpeters to sit on an open railroad car and blast a single
sound waves spread out from a fixed source in all directions, sta- long, loud note as the train whizzed by at a carefully con-
tionary listeners will hear the same pitch. (b) Sound waves from a trolled speed. Musicians on the ground determined the
moving source seem to increase or decrease in pitch, depending pitches they heard as the train approached and as it receded,
on whether the sound is approaching or receding from the and they compared those pitches to the actual note the musi-
listener. (c) The Doppler shift for light waves causes a blueshift for cians were playing.
approaching light sources and a redshift for receding light sources.
The same sort of bunching up and stretching out of
crests can happen for any wave, including light. If you are
standing in the path of a source of light that is moving toward you, the light you see
will be of higher frequency and hence will look bluer than it would ordinarily. (Remem-
ber, blue light has a higher frequency than red light.) We say the light is blueshifted
(Figure 6-13c).
If, on the other hand, you are standing in back of the moving light source, the dis-
tance between crests will be stretched out and it will look to you as if the light had a lower
frequency. We say that it is redshifted. In Chapter 15 we will see that the redshifting of
light from distant moving sources is one of the main clues that we have about the struc-
ture of the universe.
The Doppler effect also has practical applications much closer to your home. Police
radar units send out a pulse of electromagnetic waves that is absorbed by the metal in
your car, then reemitted. The waves that come back will be Doppler shifted, and by
comparing the frequency of the wave that went out and the wave that comes back, the
speed of your car can be deduced. Similar techniques are used by bats, who rely on the
Doppler shift to detect the motion of their insect prey, and by meteorologists, who
employ Doppler radar to measure wind speed and direction during the approach of
potentially damaging storms (see Chapter 18).
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SIU/Visuals Unlimited
TRANSMISSION, ABSORPTION, AND S CATTERING •
The only way we can know about electromagnetic radiation is to observe its interaction
with matter. Our eyes, for example, interact with visible light and send nerve impulses to
our brain—impulses that are interpreted as what we “see.” When an electromagnetic
wave hits matter, one of three processes takes place:
1. Transmission. The wave will often pass right through matter, as does the light that passes
through your window. This process is called transmission. Transparent materials do not
affect the wave other than slowing it down a bit while it is in transit, or perhaps chang-
ing its direction slightly as in a glass of water—a process called refraction (Figure 6-14).
2. Absorption. Other matter, like an asphalt driveway on a summer day, may soak up
the wave and its energy—the process of absorption. The energy of absorbed
electromagnetic radiation is converted into some other form of energy, usually
heat. Black and dark colors, for example, absorb visible light: you’ve probably
noticed how hot black pavement can become on a sunny day (Figure 6-15). • Figure 6-14 A pencil in a glass of
3. Scattering. Alternatively, electromagnetic waves may be absorbed and rapidly reemit- water appears bent, illustrating the
ted in the process of diffuse scattering (Figure 6-16). Most white materials, such as phenomenon of refraction.
• Figure 6-15 The asphalt on this

Jack Hollingsworth/PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images
highway absorbs sunlight and heats up

on warm days.
• Figure 6-16 Clouds appear white

Adam Jones/Photo Researchers
because of diffuse scattering of

sunlight.
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a wall or piece of paper, scatter all wavelengths of visible light in all directions. White
objects such as clouds and snow, which scatter light from the Sun back into space,
play a major role in controlling Earth’s climate (see Chapter 18). Mirrors, on the
other hand, scatter visible light at the same angle as the original wave in the process
called reflection (Figure 16–17). Colored objects, by contrast, scatter only certain
ranges of wavelengths. A red sweater, for example, will typically scatter light primar-
ily in the red wavelengths, while absorbing light in the green wavelengths.
All electromagnetic waves are detectable in some way. For each of them to be useful,
researchers must find appropriate materials to transmit, absorb, and scatter the waves.
For each wavelength there must be instruments that produce the waves and others that
detect their presence. While only a very narrow range of electromagnetic waves can be
detected by the human eye, scientists have devised an extraordinary range of transmitters
and detectors to produce and measure electromagnetic radiation that we can’t see.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

A profound puzzle accompanied Maxwell’s original discovery that light is an
Gail Mooney/Masterfile
electromagnetic wave. Waves can be of almost any length. Water waves on the
ocean, for example, range from tiny ripples to globe-spanning tides. Yet visible
light spans an extremely narrow range of wavelengths, only about 390 to 710
nanometers (about 15 to 28 millionths of an inch). According to the equations
that Maxwell derived, electromagnetic waves could exist at any wavelength (and,
consequently, any frequency) whatsoever. The only constraint is that the wave-
length times the frequency must be equal to the speed of light. Yet when
Maxwell looked into the universe, he saw visible light as the only obvious exam-
ple of electromagnetic waves. It was as if a splendid symphony, ranging from the
deep bass of the tuba to the sharp shrill of the piccolo, was playing, but you could
hear only a couple of notes in the clarinets.
In such a situation, it would be natural to wonder what had happened to the
rest of the waves. Scientists looked at Maxwell’s equations, looked at nature, and
realized that something was missing. The equations predicted that there ought to
be more kinds of electromagnetic waves than light—waves performing the waltz
between electricity and magnetism, but with frequencies and wavelengths differ-
ent from those of visible light. These as-yet unseen waves would have exactly the
same structure as the one shown in Figure 6-11, but they could have either
longer or shorter wavelengths than visible light depending on the acceleration of
the electrical charge that created them. These waves would move at the speed of
light, and would be exactly the same as visible light except for the differences in
the wavelength and frequency.
• Figure 6-17 Mirrors scatter light Between 1885 and 1889, German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894), after
through the process of reflection. whom the unit of frequency is named, performed the first experiments that confirmed these
predictions. He discovered the waves that we now know as radio. Since that time, all man-
ner of electromagnetic waves have been discovered, from those with wavelengths longer
than Earth’s diameter to those with wavelengths shorter than the size of the nucleus of the
atom. They include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and
gamma rays. This entire symphony of waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum (see
Figure 6-18). Remember that every one of these waves, no matter what its wavelength or
frequency, is the result of an accelerating electrical charge.
R ADIO WAVES •
The radio wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the longest waves,
those whose wavelength is longer than the size of Earth, to waves a few meters long. The
corresponding frequencies, from roughly a kilohertz (1,000 cycles per second, or kHz)
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum | 131
Visible spectrum wavelength (Å)

4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500
88-108 540-1650
Ultraviolet Infrared
MHz kHz
FM AM
Hard X-rays Soft Microwave
Gamma rays Radio
1024 1022 1020 1018 1016 1014 1012 1010 108 106 104 102
Frequency (Hz)
10-16 10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104 106
Wavelength (m)
Atomic nucleus Atom Virus Bacteria Pinhead Fingernail Humans Skyscrapers Mt. Everest
• Figure 6-18 The electromagnetic spectrum includes all kinds of waves that travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, including
radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. Note that sound waves, water waves, seismic waves, and
other kinds of waves that require matter in order to move travel much slower than light speed.
to several hundred megahertz (1 million cycles per second, or MHz), correspond to the
familiar numbers on your radio dial. There are various rather arbitrary subdivisions of
radio waves, but the most important fact about them is that, like light, they can penetrate
long distances through the atmosphere. This feature makes radio waves very useful in
communication systems.
Have you ever been driving at night and picked up a radio signal from a station a
thousand miles away? If so, you have had firsthand experience of the ability of radio
waves to travel long distances through the atmosphere. In Chapter 14 we will see how
important this fact is for astronomy, where scientists speak of the “radio window” in the
atmosphere, which allows Earth-based telescopes to monitor radio waves emitted by
objects in the sky.
A typical radio wave used for communication can be produced by pushing electrons
back and forth rapidly in a tall metal antenna. This acceleration of electrons produces
outgoing radio waves, just as throwing a pebble in a pond produces outgoing ripples.
When these waves encounter another piece of metal (for example, the antenna in your
radio or TV set), the electrical fields in the waves accelerate electrons in that metal, so
that its electrons move back and forth. This electron motion constitutes an electrical
current that electronics in your receiver turn into a sound or a picture.
Most construction materials are at least partially transparent to radio waves. Thus
you can listen to the radio even in the basement of most buildings. In long tunnels or
deep valleys, however, absorption of radio waves by many feet of rock and soil may limit
reception.
In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) assigns fre-
quencies in the electromagnetic spectrum for various uses. Each commercial radio sta-
tion is assigned a frequency (which it uses in association with its call letters), as is each
television station. All manner of private communication—ship-to-shore radio, civilian
band (CB) radio, emergency police and fire channels, and so on—need their share of the
spectrum as well. In fact, the right to use a part of the electromagnetic spectrum for
communications is very highly prized because only a limited number of frequency slices
or “bands” exist, and many more people want to use those frequencies than can do so.
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TECHNOLOGY •
AM and FM Radio Transmission
Radio waves carry signals in two ways: AM and FM. Broadcasters can send out their pro-
grams at only one narrow range of frequencies, a situation very different from
Amplitude modulation (AM) Frequency modulation (FM) music or speech, which use a wide range of frequencies. Thus radio stations cannot
A. Original sound wave A. Original sound wave simply transform a range of sound-wave frequencies into a similar range of radio-
wave frequencies. Instead, the information to be transmitted must be impressed in
some way on the narrow frequency range of your station’s radio waves.
This problem is similar to one you might experience if you had to send a
B. Carrier wave B. Carrier wave
message across a lake with a flashlight at night. You could adopt two strate-
gies. You could send a coded message by turning the flashlight on and off,
thus varying the brightness (the amplitude) of the light. Alternatively, you
could change the color (the frequency) of the light by alternately passing blue
and red filters in front of the beam.
Radio stations also adopt these two strategies (see Figure 6-19). All sta-
tions begin with a carrier wave of fixed frequency. AM radio stations typically
broadcast at frequencies between about 530 and 1600 kHz, whereas the carrier
frequencies of FM radio stations range from about 88 to 110 MHz.
The process called amplitude modulation, or AM, depends on varying the
strength (or amplitude) of the radio’s carrier wave according to the sound sig-
C. Modulated signal C. Modulated signal nal to be transmitted (Figure 6-19a). Thus the shape of the sound wave is
(a) (b)
impressed on the radio’s carrier wave signal. When this signal is taken into
your radio, the electronics are designed so that the original sound signal is
• Figure 6-19 (a) AM (amplitude recovered and used to run the speakers. The original sound signal is what you hear when
modulation) and (b) FM (frequency
modulation) transmission differ in the you turn on your radio. Because AM frequencies easily scatter off the layers of the
way that a sound wave (A) is superim- atmosphere, they can be heard over great distances.
posed on a carrier wave of constant Alternatively, you can slightly vary the frequency of the radio’s wave according to
amplitude and frequency (B). The car- the signal you want to transmit, a process called frequency modulation, or FM, as shown
rier wave can be varied, or modulated, in Figure 6-19b. A radio that receives this particular signal will unscramble the changes
to carry information (C) by altering its in frequency and convert them into electrical signals that run the speakers so that you
amplitude or its frequency.
can hear the original signal. TV broadcasts, which use carrier frequencies about a thou-
sand times higher than FM radio, typically send the picture on an AM signal, and the
sound on an FM signal at a slightly different frequency. •
U.S. Air Force Photo by Staff Sgt. Andy Dunaway, Department of Defense
M ICROWAVES •
Microwaves include electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths range from about 1 meter
(a few feet) to 1 millimeter (.001 meter, or about 0.04 inch). The longer wavelengths of
microwaves travel easily through the atmosphere, like their cousins in the radio part of the
spectrum, though most microwaves are absorbed by rock and building materials. There-
fore, microwaves are used extensively for line-of-sight communications. Most satellites
broadcast signals to Earth in microwave channels, and these waves also commonly carry
long-distance telephone calls and TV broadcasts. The satellite antennas that you see on
private homes and businesses are designed primarily to receive microwave transmissions, as
are the large cone-shaped receivers attached to the microwave relay towers found on many
hills or tall buildings.
The distinctive transmission and absorption properties of microwaves make them ideal
for use in aircraft radar. Solid objects, especially those made of metal, reflect most of the
microwaves that hit them. By sending out timed pulses of microwaves and listening for the
echo, you can judge the direction, distance (from the time it takes the wave to travel out
and back), and speed (from the Doppler effect) of a flying object. Modern military radar is
• Figure 6-20 The Stealth fighter so sensitive that it can detect a single fly at a distance of a mile. To counteract this sensitiv-
has been engineered to reflect and ity, aircraft designers have developed planes with “stealth” technology —combinations of
absorb microwave radiation and thus microwave-absorbing materials, angled shapes that reduce the apparent cross section of
avoid detection by radar. the plane, and electronic jamming to avoid detection (Figure 6-20).
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TECHNOLOGY •
Microwave Ovens Microwave
Fan Microwaves generator
The same kind of waves used for phone calls, television broadcasts, and radar can
be used to cook your dinner in an ordinary microwave oven. In this type of oven
(Figure 6-21) a special electronic device accelerates electrons rapidly and pro-
duces the microwave radiation, which carries energy. These microwaves are
guided into the main cavity of the oven, which is composed of material that scat- Cook
Power
Defrost Popcorn
Timer Time
ters microwaves. Thus the wave energy remains inside the box until it is
Level
1 2 3
absorbed by something. 4 5 6
It turns out that microwaves are absorbed quickly by water molecules. This 7 8 9
means that the energy used to create microwaves is carried by those waves to Cancel vv Stop
food inside the oven, where it is absorbed by water and converted into heat. This
absorption of microwave energy results in a very rapid rise in temperature, and
rapid cooking. Paper and glass, which don’t contain water molecules, are not heated by • Figure 6-21 Every microwave
microwaves. Despite the different applications, from the point of view of the electromag- oven contains a device that gener-
ates microwaves by accelerating
netic spectrum there is no fundamental difference between the microwaves used for
electrons, and walls that scatter the
cooking and those used for communication. • microwaves until they are absorbed,
usually by water molecules that get
hot from the absorbed energy.
I NFRARED R ADIATION •
Infrared radiation includes wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
Tony McConnell/Photo Researchers

that extend from a millimeter down to about a micron (10–6 meter, or
less than a ten-thousandth of an inch). Our skin, which absorbs infrared
radiation, provides a crude kind of detector. You feel infrared radiation
when you reach your hands out to a warm fire or the cooking element
of an electric stove. Infrared waves are what we feel as heat radiation
(see Chapter 4).
All warm objects emit infrared radiation, and this fact has been used
extensively in both civilian and military technology. Infrared detectors
are used to guide air-to-air missiles to the exhaust of jet engines in enemy
aircraft, and infrared detectors are often used to “see” human beings
(Figure 6-22) and warm engines at night. Similarly, many insects (such
as mosquitoes and moths) and other nocturnal animals (including opos-
sums and some snakes) have developed sensitivity to infrared radiation;
thus they can “see” in the dark.
Infrared detection is also used to find heat leaks in homes and buildings. If you take a • Figure 6-22 A photograph using
infrared film reveals heat escaping
picture of a house on a cold night using film that is sensitive to infrared radiation, places
from people. This “false-color”
where heat is leaking out will show up as bright spots on the film. This information can be image is coded so that white is
used to correct the heat loss and thus conserve energy. In a similar way, Earth scientists hottest, followed by red, pink, blue,
often monitor volcanoes with infrared detectors. The appearance of a new “hot spot” may and black.
signal an impending eruption.
Stop and Think! We often say that we get heat from the Sun. What actually
travels between the Sun and Earth?
VISIBLE LIGHT •
What we perceive as the colors of the rainbow are contained in visible light, whose
wavelengths range from red light at about 700 nanometers down to violet light at
about 400 nanometers (Figure 6-23). From the point of view of the larger universe, the
visible electromagnetic world in which we live is a very small part of the total picture
(see Figure 6-18).
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David Parker/Photo Researchers Our eyes distinguish several different colors,
but these portions of the electromagnetic spec-
trum have no special significance except in our
perceptions. In fact, the distinct colors that we
see—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet—
represent very different-sized slices of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. The red and green portions of
100
Relative sensitivity
the spectrum are rather broad, spanning more
80 than 50 nanometers of frequencies; we thus per-
60 ceive many different wavelengths as red or green.
40 In contrast, the yellow part of the spectrum is
quite narrow, encompassing wavelengths from
20
only about 570 to 590 nanometers.
0 Why should our eyes be so sensitive to such a
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
restricted range of the spectrum? The Sun’s light
Wavelength (nm)
is especially intense in this part of the spectrum,
(a) (b)
so some biologists suggest that our eyes evolved
• Figure 6-23 (a) A glass prism sep-
to be especially sensitive to these wavelengths, in order to take maximum advantage of the
arates light into the visible spectrum
of colors, because different wave- Sun’s light. Our eyes are ideally adapted for the light produced by our Sun during daylight
lengths of light bend different hours. Our eyes are also able to see visible light produced by a wide variety of common
amounts. (b) Humans perceive the visi- chemical reactions (see Chapter 10), most notably burning (Figure 6-24). By contrast,
ble light spectrum as a sequence of animals that hunt at night, such as owls and cats, have eyes that are more sensitive to
color bands. The relative sensitivity of infrared wavelengths—radiation that makes warm living things stand out against the
the human eye differs for different cooler background.
wavelengths. Our perception peaks
near wavelengths that we perceive as
yellow, though the colors we see have
no special physical significance. THE S CIENCE OF LIFE •
The Eye
The light detector with which we are most familiar is one we carry around with us all the
time—the human eye. Eyes are marvelously complex light-collecting organs that send
nerve signals to the brain. Your brain converts these signals into images through a com-
bination of physical and chemical processes (Figure 6-25).
Light waves enter the eye through a clear lens whose thickness can be changed by a
sheath of muscles around it. The direction of the waves is changed by refraction in the
lens so that they are focused at receptor cells located in the retina at the back of the eye.
There the light is absorbed by two different kinds of cells, called rods and cones (the
Photo Disc, Inc.
Darwin Dale/Photo Researchers

Jamie McDonald/Getty Images News and Sport Services
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 6-24 (a) A variety of chemical reactions, including fire, produce light energy. (b) One way of producing light is to convert
stored chemical energy, as is done in this emergency flare. (c) Chemical reactions also produce the light given off by a firefly.
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names come from their shape, not their function). The rods are sensitive Muscle (for moving eye)
to light and dark, including low levels of light; they give us night vision.
Three kinds of cones, sensitive to red, blue, and green light, allow us to
see colors. Retina
Lens
The energy of incoming light triggers complex changes in mole-
cules in the rods and cones, initiating a series of reactions that eventu- Cornea
ally leads to a nerve signal that travels along the optic nerve to the brain Pupil Optic
(see Chapter 5). • nerve
Vitreous
Light humor
U LTRAVIOLET R ADIATION • Blind spot

Iris
At wavelengths shorter than visible light, we begin to find waves of high
frequency and therefore high energy and potential danger. The wave- Muscles
(adjusts focus)
lengths of ultraviolet radiation range from 400 nanometers down to
about 100 nanometers in length. The energy contained in longer ultravi-
olet waves can cause a chemical change in skin pigments, a phenomenon
known as tanning. This lower-energy portion of the ultraviolet is not • Figure 6-25 A cross section of the human eye
reveals the path of light, which enters through the
particularly harmful by itself.
protective cornea and travels through the colored iris.
Shorter-wavelength (higher-energy) ultraviolet radiation, on the The pupil changes the size of the aperture through
other hand, carries more energy—enough energy that this radiation, if which light passes, thus controlling the amount of
absorbed by your skin cells, can cause sunburn and other cellular dam- light entering the eye. Muscles move the eye and
age. If the ultraviolet wave’s energy alters your cell’s DNA, it may change the shape of the lens, which focuses light
increase your risk of developing skin cancer (see Chapter 23). In fact, the onto the retina, where the light’s energy is converted
ability of ultraviolet radiation to damage living cells is used by hospitals into nerve impulses. These signals are carried to the
brain along the optic nerve.
to sterilize equipment and kill unwanted bacteria.
The Sun produces intense ultraviolet radiation in both longer and
shorter wavelengths. Fortunately, our atmosphere absorbs much of the harmful short
wavelengths and thus shields living things. Nevertheless, if you spend much time out-
doors under a bright Sun, you should protect exposed skin with a sunblocking chemical,
which is transparent (colorless) to visible light, but reflects or absorbs harmful ultraviolet
rays before they can reach your skin (Figure 6-26).
The energy contained in both long and short ultraviolet
Philip and Karen Smith/Iconica/Getty Images

wavelengths can be absorbed by atoms, which in special mate-
rials may subsequently emit a portion of that absorbed energy
as visible light. (Remember, both visible light and ultraviolet
light are forms of electromagnetic radiation, but visible light
has longer wavelengths, and therefore less energy, than ultravi-
olet radiation.) This phenomenon, called fluorescence, provides
the so-called black light effects so popular in stage shows and
nightclubs. We’ll examine the origins of fluorescence in more
detail in Chapter 8.
X-RAYS •
X-rays are electromagnetic waves that range in wavelength
from about 100 nanometers down to 0.1 nanometer, smaller
than a single atom. These high-frequency (and thus high-
energy) waves can penetrate several centimeters into most
solid matter but are absorbed to different degrees by all kinds
of materials. This fact allows X-rays to be used extensively in
medicine to form visual images of bones and organs inside the
body. Bones and teeth absorb X-rays much more efficiently
than skin or muscle, so a detailed picture of inner structures • Figure 6-26 When you spend
time outdoors under a bright Sun,
emerges (Figure 6-27). X-rays are also used extensively in industry to inspect for defects you should protect your skin with
in welds and manufactured parts. sunblock, which is transparent to
The X-ray machine in your doctor’s or dentist’s office is something like a giant light- visible light, but reflects or absorbs
bulb with a glass vacuum tube. At one end of the tube is a tungsten filament that is heated harmful ultraviolet rays.
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Betty Mallorca/© Corbis
• Figure 6-27 Internal structures are revealed because bones and different tissues absorb X-rays to different degrees.
to a very high temperature by an electrical current, just as in an incandescent lightbulb. At

the other end is a polished metal plate. X-rays are produced by applying an extremely high
voltage—negative on the filament and positive on the metal plate—so electrons stream off
the filament and smash into the metal plate at high velocity. The sudden deceleration of the
negatively charged electrons releases a flood of high-energy electromagnetic radiation—the
X-rays that travel from the machine to you at light speed.

Intense X-ray Sources
X-rays have become supremely important in many facets of science and industry. X-ray
crystallographers use beams of X-rays to determine the spacing and positions of atoms in
a crystal (see Chapter 10), physicians use X-rays to reveal bone fractures and other inter-
nal injuries, and many industries use X-rays to scan for defects in manufactured prod-
ucts. However, many potential applications, such as structural studies of very small
crystals or scans of unusually large manufactured products, are unrealized because of the
relatively low intensity of conventional X-ray sources.
A major effort is now underway to develop new, more powerful X-ray sources. One
such facility, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) near Chicago, Illinois, generates intense
X-ray beams a billion times stronger than conventional sources by accelerating electrons in
a circular path (remember, electromagnetic radiation is emitted when charged particles are
accelerated). Scientists from around the world converge on the APS to study the properties
of matter. Eventually, even more powerful X-ray beams might be produced by an X-ray
laser (see Chapter 8), though such a technology is now only a dream. •
GAMMA R AYS •
The highest energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are called gamma rays. Their wave-
lengths range from slightly less than the size of an atom (about 0.1 nanometer, or 10–10 meter)
to the size of a nucleus (less than a trillionth of a meter, or 10–12 meter). Gamma rays are nor-
mally emitted on Earth only in very high-energy nuclear and particle reactions (see Chapters
12 and 13), but they are produced abundantly in distant energetic stars (see Chapter 14).
Gamma rays have many uses in medicine. Some types of medical diagnosis involve
giving a patient a radioactive chemical that emits gamma rays. If that chemical concen-
trates at places where bone is actively healing, for example, then doctors can monitor the
healing by locating the places where gamma rays are emitted. The gamma ray detectors
used in this specialized form of nuclear medicine are both large (to capture the energetic
waves) and expensive. Doctors also use gamma rays for the treatment of cancer in
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Return to the Integrated Science Question | 137
humans. In these treatments, high-energy gamma rays are directed at tumors or malig-
nancies that cannot be removed surgically. If the gamma ray energy is absorbed in those
tissues, the tissues will die and the patient has a better chance to live.
Gamma rays are also studied extensively in astronomy because many of the interest-
ing processes going on in our universe involve bursts of very high energy and, hence, the
emission of gamma rays.
Thinking More About Electromagnetic Radiation
I S ELF R ADIATION DANGEROUS? have remained constant or dropped over the last 50 years,
though exposure to ELF radiation has increased enormously.
Maxwell’s equations tell us that any accelerated charge will They also questioned the statistical validity of some studies:
emit waves of electromagnetic radiation, not just those that more detailed analysis of results did not demonstrate the con-
have frequencies of millions or billions of hertz. In particular, nection between ELF radiation and disease. In 1995, the presti-
the electrons that move back and forth in wires to produce the gious American Institute of Physics reviewed the scientific
alternating current in household wiring generate electromag- literature on this subject and concluded that there is no reliable
netic radiation. Every object in which electrical power flows, evidence that ELF radiation causes any form of cancer; most
from power lines to toasters, is a source of this weak, extremely funding for research in this area was subsequently cut off.
low-frequency (ELF) radiation. This situation is typical of encounters at the border between
For more than a century, human beings in industrialized science and public health. Preliminary data indicate a possible
countries have lived in a sea of weak ELF radiation, but until health risk but do not prove that the risk is real. Settling the issue
recently no questions were raised about whether that radiation by further study takes years, while researchers carefully collect
might have an effect on human health. In the late 1980s, how- data and weigh the evidence. In the meantime, people have to
ever, a series of books and magazine articles created a minor make decisions about what to do. In addition, as in the case of
sensation by claiming that exposure to ELF radiation might ELF radiation, the cost of removing the risk is often very high.
cause some forms of cancer, most notably childhood leukemia. Suppose you were a scientist who had shaky evidence that
Scientists tended to downplay these claims, because the some common food—bread, for example, or a familiar kind of
electrical fields most residents experience due to power lines are fruit—could be harmful. What responsibility would you have
a thousand times smaller than those due to natural causes (such to make your results known to the general public? If you stress
as electrical activity in nerve and brain cells). They also pointed the uncertainty of your results and no one listens, should you
out that age-corrected cancer rates in the United States (with the make sensational (perhaps unsupported) claims to get people’s
exception of lung cancer, which is caused primarily by smoking) attention?
What is color? colors due to the sensitivity of special cells in the retina of the eye.
These receptor cells, called cones, react to light of varying wave-
• Ancient philosophers and scientists pondered the nature of color.
lengths that correspond to the three primary colors.
It was not, however, until the seventeenth century that Sir Isaac
• The primary colors are merely different ranges of frequencies, and
Newton and others demonstrated that light was the stimulus for
therefore different energies, of light. Higher frequencies of light
the sensation and perception of color. Newton’s work was later
correspond to a blue color and lower frequencies to red. Red
extended and improved by many other scientists.
• Modern science usually defines color as the human sensation and light has wavelengths corresponding to a range of distances
perception of electromagnetic energy as it interacts with the between about 600 and 700 nanometers. Red light includes the
visual system. Therefore, the color of any object is not a prop- longest wavelengths that the eye can see and is the least energetic
erty of that object, but rather the confluence of many factors of the visible electromagnetic waves. Violet light, on the other
such as ambient light levels, the reflectivity of the object’s sur- hand, has a range of shorter wavelengths corresponding to about
face, and the acuity of the visual system (i.e., the eye and brain) 400–440 nanometers, and includes the most energetic of the visi-
receiving the stimuli. In other words, what we perceive as color ble electromagnetic waves. All of the other colors have ranges of
is our mind’s interpretation of the ambient light interacting with wavelengths and energies between those of red and violet.
the reflective properties of an object’s surface. • The branch of science that studies the sensation and perception
• The wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that are percepti- of color is called chromatics. This field encompasses the human
ble by humans beings fall approximately between 400 and 700 perception of color, the properties of materials that lead to color
nanometers (a nanometer is 10 10–9 meter, or about 40 billionths perception, and the physics of the visible range of electromag-
of an inch). The human eye has the ability to distinguish between netic radiation (i.e., light).
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S UMMARY •
Waves provide a way to transfer energy from one place to another the existence of electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation,
through a medium without matter actually traveling across the inter- alternating electrical and magnetic fields that can travel through a vac-
vening distance. Every wave can be characterized by a wavelength, a uum at the speed of light. This discovery solved one of the oldest mys-
velocity, an amplitude, and a frequency (measured in cycles per sec- teries of science, the nature of light. While visible light was the only
ond, or hertz). Transverse waves, such as swells on the ocean, occur kind of electromagnetic radiation known to Maxwell, he predicted the
when the medium moves perpendicular to the direction of the existence of other kinds with longer and shorter wavelengths. Soon
waves. Longitudinal waves, such as sound, occur when the medium thereafter a complete electromagnetic spectrum of waves, including
moves in the same direction as the wave. radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
Two waves can interact with each other, causing constructive or radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays, was recognized.
destructive interference. The observed frequency of a wave depends Electromagnetic radiation can interact with matter in three
on the relative motion of the wave’s source and the observer—a phe- ways: it can be transmitted, absorbed, or scattered. We use these prop-
nomenon known as the Doppler effect. Waves encountering a surface erties in countless ways every day—radio and TV, heating and light-
can be reflected, or they may enter the medium moving in a different ing, microwave ovens, tanning salons, medical X-rays, and more.
direction, a process called refraction. Much of science and technology during the past 100 years has been
The motion of every wave can be described by a characteristic an effort to find new and better ways to produce, manipulate, and
wave equation. James Clerk Maxwell recognized that simple manipula- detect electromagnetic radiation.
tion of his equations that describe electricity and magnetism pointed to
K EY TERMS •
wave light diffuse scattering visible light
wavelength speed of light, c reflection ultraviolet radiation
frequency (measured in hertz) Doppler effect electromagnetic spectrum X-rays
interference transmission radio wave gamma rays
electromagnetic wave, or refraction microwaves
electromagnetic radiation absorption infrared radiation
K EY E QUATIONS •
wave velocity (m/s) wavelength (m) frequency (Hz) 1 hertz 1 cycle/second
velocity 1m>s 2 For light: wavelength (m) frequency (Hz) c

wavelength 1m 2
frequency 1Hz 2 Constant: speed of light c 300,000 km/s 3 108 m/s
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Try to simulate the Doppler effect and experience the changes in tape your red wire end to the positive terminal, but wait to tape the
sound frequencies of a moving object. Obtain a small 1.5-volt black wire end to the negative terminal. Merely place a 3-inch piece
buzzer, two 1 2 inch aluminum foil pieces, a 1.5-volt “C” size bat- of Scotch tape to the side of the battery closest to the negative ter-
tery, 6 feet of sturdy string (Butcher’s twine, #24 cotton), packing minal, leaving 2.5 inches hanging out.
tape, and some transparent Scotch tape. Finally, take your Doppler device outside in an open area and
First, lay a 15-inch strip of packing tape down on a kitchen tape your other wire end to the negative terminal. Now twirl your
counter top with the sticky side up. Next, lay your string perpendic- device around on the string, perpendicular to the Earth (up
ular to the tape, leaving 6 inches overlapping past the tape. Now set toward the sky and down toward the ground). Make sure no one is
your 1.5-volt battery perpendicular to the tape and next to the in line with the direction of the spinning action. Listen carefully
string. Carefully wrap the tape around the battery three or four times to the sound at different lengths. Try twirling a long length of
with the string inside the wrapping, next to the battery. Then tie the string a number of times and then make it much shorter doing
string into three knots on the outside of the unit. After this, take the the same thing again. Did you distinguish a difference in the
12 inches of aluminum foil and fold each piece over and over, sound’s pitch, not only at different lengths, but also at the same
around each wire end of the buzzer. Try to feel the bare wire ends length as the device changed positions? Record what you hear at
inside and fold them over again with the foil. These are your contacts measurable different lengths. Can you explain the sound fre-
to secure the connections. Make sure you first test out which wire quency’s changes in harmony with the Doppler effect? How can
end works on the batteries positive () and negative (–) terminals! you relate the similarities of the sound frequency fluctuations in
(The red wire goes to the positive terminal.) comparison to the ambulance sound which speeds by you on the
Now set the buzzer against the side of the battery and secure it road? Caution! Battery in flight can be very dangerous and can
well with Scotch tape, making certain that it will not come off. Then cause injury!
c06.qxd 9/11/09 10:43 AM Page 139
Buzzer
Butcher’s
twine
Buzzer
wire Buzzer
wire
Battery
Packing Aluminum
tape foil
1. What is a wave? Do waves require the translocation of matter to 13. A vat of molten iron is heated until white hot, then poured
transfer energy? into a mold. As it cools, its color changes to yellow and then red.
2. Identify three characteristics that can be used to describe a wave. Explain why this occurs.
How are these three related? 14. Identify three common uses of microwaves.
3. How is the term hertz (abbreviated Hz) related to a wave’s 15. Why is short-wave ultraviolet light more damaging to the skin
frequency? than long-wave ultraviolet light?
4. Identify everyday examples of waves that travel through solids, 16. What are some uses of gamma rays?
liquids, and gases. 17. What are the longest waves of the electromagnetic spectrum?
5. How is a transverse wave different from a longitudinal wave? Use How large are their wavelengths? Give an example.
a Slinky toy to illustrate the difference between these types of waves. 18. What kinds of electromagnetic radiation can you detect with
6. What type of wave causes us to hear a sound? your body?
7. What is meant by the electromagnetic spectrum? Of what type 19. What are some of the similarities and differences between water
of waves does it consist? waves and light waves?
8. What happens when two different waves overlap? 20. Describe the Doppler effect. Give an example of how you
9. Under what circumstances will an electromagnetic wave form? experience this effect.
Under what circumstances will no electromagnetic waves be produced? 21. Identify a substance that:
10. What features are shared by all electromagnetic waves? In what a. absorbs radio waves
ways might two electromagnetic waves differ? b. scatters microwaves
11. Why did Maxwell think there were kinds of electromagnetic
c. transmits visible light
radiation other than visible light?
12. What was meant by the ether? What prompted the assumption d. absorbs X-rays
that it existed? What proof destroyed the idea of its existence? e. scatters infrared radiation
1. In what ways do ocean waves differ from electromagnetic waves? 8. Why are X-rays used for medical diagnosis? What other wave-
In what ways are they similar? lengths of electromagnetic radiation are used in medicine?
2. If a tree falls in a forest, what kinds of waves are created? Where 9. If a painted wall reflects light with wavelengths 600 to 700 nm,
did the energy that produced those waves come from? but absorbs light with wavelengths 400 to 500 nm, what color is it?
3. Why does your body create a shadow? Is your body transparent What if it reflects light 400 to 500 nm and absorbs light 600 to
to the visible spectrum? to X-rays? 700 nm?
4. How does sunblock protect against some forms of skin cancer? 10. Would an orange be “orange” to a bumblebee? (Hint: What
Against what part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it protect? part of the electromagnetic spectrum do bees “see”?)
5. How do reading glasses work? Describe how the light is interact- 11. What causes a rainbow? What is happening to the sunlight to
ing with the lens. cause us to perceive many individual colors? Why do we not see all
6. What is ether? How did Michelson and Morley demonstrate that the colors all the time?
ether does not exist? What was their hypothesis? 12. What creates the difference between the waves of an AM radio
7. Why do people wear light-colored clothing in summer and dark- station and that of a FM radio station?
colored clothing in winter?
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P ROBLEMS •
1. An organ pipe is 3 meters long. What is the frequency of the 4. What is the wavelength of the carrier wave used by your favorite
sound it produces? Extra credit: To what pitch does that frequency radio station?
correspond? 5. The FM radio band in most places goes from frequencies of
2. An ocean liner experiences broad waves, called swells, with a about 88 to 108 MHz. How long are the wavelengths of the radia-
frequency of one every 20 seconds (0.05 Hz) and a wavelength of tion at the extreme ends of this range?
440 feet. Assume the waves are moving due east. If the liner main- 6. The AM radio band in most places goes from frequencies of
tains a speed of 15 miles per hour, will it have a smoother trip about 535 to 1610 kHz. How long are the wavelengths of the radi-
going east or west? Why? ation at the extreme ends of this range?
3. Radio and TV transmissions are being emitted into space, so 7. Why can we see the moon at night? Calculate the amount of
new CSI episodes are streaming out into the universe. The nearest time it takes for light from the Sun to reach Earth after it is
star is 9.5 x 1017 meters away. If civilized life exists on a planet near reflected from the Moon.
this star, how long will they have to wait for the next episode?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Visit a local hospital and see how many types of electromagnetic 5. Different colors represent different wavelengths of electromag-
radiation are used on a regular basis. From radio waves to gamma netic radiation. Investigate the process by which the human eye
waves, how are the distinctive characteristics of absorption and detects color, as well as the means by which the brain interprets
transmission for each segment of the spectrum used at the facility? color. Do all mammals see in color? How do we know?
2. What frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are used for 6. Find out how sonar works. Compare it to the use of sound by
emergency communications by police, fire, and medivac in your bats and the use of radar by police. Discuss the similarities and dif-
community? What are the corresponding wavelengths of these sig- ferences among the defenses of submarines against sonar, moths
nals? What organizations allocate and monitor these frequencies? against bats, and motorists against police radar.
3. Examine a microwave oven or, better yet, obtain an old broken 7. What radio frequencies does your favorite local TV station use?
oven that you can dissect. Locate the source of microwaves. Which your cell phone?
materials in the oven transmit microwaves? Which ones scatter 8. Keep an “electromagnetic journal” for one day. What activity
microwaves? Do you think any of the components absorb makes use of the most electromagnetic energy?
microwaves? Why? 9. When you are at a loud concert, you can actually “feel” the
4. In large metropolitan areas, a license to broadcast electromagnetic music. What are you feeling? What type of wave is being created?
waves at an AM frequency may change hands for millions of dollars. 10. The next time you are driving on a long stretch of road on a
a. Why is electromagnetic “real estate” so valuable? Investigate hot day, see if you can observe the mirage (i.e., an optical illusion)
how frequencies are divided up and who regulates the process. that is often seen in the distance. Why does it look like water? What
Should individuals or corporations be allowed to “own” por- causes this illusion?
tions of the spectrum, or to buy and sell pieces of it? 11. What type of waves can travel through rock? How fast can they
b. Currently, the only portions of the electromagnetic spec- travel? Can you outrun an earthquake in a car?
trum that are regulated by national and international law are
the longer wavelengths, including radio and microwave. Why
are the shorter wavelengths, including infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths, not similarly regulated?
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 141
7
Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity
Can a human ever travel faster
than the speed of light, at “warp speed”?
PHYSICS
Particle
accelerators that
control relativistic
charged particles in a
closed loop must be
designed to correct for
distortion of mass and
time experienced by the
spending particles
(Ch. 13)
All observers, no matter

what their frame of
reference, see the same
laws of nature.
Atomic clocks
Stars are so
have been shown to
massive that they can
tick slightly slower
bend light coming
when strapped aboard
from more distant
a high-speed plane,
objects to create a
compared to a
gravitational lens.
stationary clock.
TECHNOLOGY ASTRONOMY

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Science Through the Day Waiting at the Stoplight
aiting in your car at a long

W stoplight, you daydream about
the friends you’re going to meet.
You don’t even notice the large bus
in the lane next to you.
Suddenly you have the strange
sensation that your car is moving
backward. But your foot is on the
brake—how can that be? You quickly
realize that it’s the bus that’s moving
forward, not you moving backward.
It was just a brief optical illusion.
For that brief moment you saw
the world through eyes unaffected
by years of experience. You realized
that there is always more than one
way to view any kind of motion.
One way, of course, is to say that Jeff Titcomb/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
you are stationary and the bus is
moving with respect to you. But you could also say that the Almost 100 years ago, Albert Einstein made one of the
bus is stationary and you are moving backward relative to greatest discoveries of the twentieth century thinking
it. Which point of view is right? about situations just like this.
Frames of Reference
A frame of reference is the physical surroundings from which you observe and measure the
world around you. If you read this book at your desk or in an easy chair, you experience the
world from the frame of reference of your room, which seems firmly rooted to the solid
Earth. If you read on a train or in a plane, your frame of reference is the vehicle that moves
with respect to the Earth’s surface. And you could imagine yourself in an accelerating space-
ship in deep space, where your frame of reference would be different still. In each of these
reference frames you are what scientists call an “observer.” An observer looks at the world
from a particular frame of reference with anything from casual interest to a full-fledged lab-
oratory investigation of phenomena that leads to a determination of natural laws.
For human beings who grow up on Earth’s surface, it is natural to think of the
ground as a fixed, immovable frame of reference and to refer all motion to it. After all,
train or plane passengers don’t think of themselves as stationary while the countryside
zooms by. But, as we saw in the opening example, there are indeed times when we lose
this prejudice and see that the question of who is moving and who is standing still is
largely one of definition.
From the point of view of an observer in a spaceship above the solar system, there is
nothing “solid” about the ground you’re standing on. Earth is rotating on its axis and
moving in an orbit around the Sun, while the Sun itself is performing a stately rotation
around the galaxy. Thus, even though a reference frame fixed in Earth may seem “right”
to us, there is nothing special about it.
D ESCRIPTIONS IN D IFFERENT R EFERENCE F RAMES •

Different observers in different reference frames may provide very different accounts
of the same event. To convince yourself of this idea, think about a simple experiment.
While riding on a train, take a coin out of your pocket and flip it. You know what will
142
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Frames of Reference | 143
happen—the coin will go up in the air and Apparent direction of coin fall
fall straight back into your hand, just as it Frame of reference: inside the train Frame of reference: outside the train
would if you flipped it while sitting in a
chair in your room (Figure 7-1a). But
now ask yourself this question: How
would a friend standing near the tracks,
watching your train go by, describe the
flip of the coin?
To that person it would appear that the
coin went up into the air, of course, but by
the time it came down the car would have
traveled some distance down the tracks. As far
as your friend on the ground is concerned,
the coin traveled in an arc (Figure 7-1b).
So you, sitting in the train, say the coin
went straight up and down, while someone
on the ground says it traveled in an arc. Direction of train movement
You and the ground-based observer would (a) (b)
describe the path of the coin quite differ- • Figure 7-1 The path of a coin
ently, and you’d both be correct in your respective frames of reference. The universe we flipped in the air depends on the
live in possesses this general feature—different observers will describe the same event in observer’s frame of reference. (a) A
different terms, depending on their frames of reference. rider in the car sees the coin go up
Does this mean that we are doomed to live in a world where nothing is fixed, and fall straight down. (b) An observer
where everything depends on the frame of reference of the observer? Not necessarily. on the street sees the coin follow an
arching path.
The possibility exists that even though different observers give different descriptions of
the same event, they will agree on the underlying laws that govern it. Even though the
observers disagree on the path followed by the flipped coin, they may very well agree
that motion in their frame is governed by Newton’s laws of motion and the law of the
universal gravitation.
THE P RINCIPLE OF R ELATIVITY •

Albert Einstein (Figure 7-2) came to his theories of relativity by thinking about a funda-
mental contradiction between Newton’s laws and Maxwell’s equations. You can see the
problem by thinking about a simple example. Imagine you’re on a moving railroad car
Bettman/©Corbis-Bettman
and you throw a baseball. What speed will the baseball have according to an observer on
the ground?
If you throw the ball forward at 40 kilometers per hour while on a train traveling
100 kilometers per hour, the ball will appear to a ground-based observer to travel
140 kilometers per hour—40 kilometers per hour from the ball plus 100 kilometers
per hour from the train. If, on the other hand, you throw the ball backward, the
ground based observer will see the ball moving at only 60 kilometers per hour—the
train’s 100 kilometers per hour minus the ball’s 40 kilometers per hour. In our every-
day world, we just add the two speeds to get the answer, and this notion is reflected in
Newton’s laws.
Suppose, however, that instead of throwing a ball you turned on a flashlight and
measured the speed of the light coming from it. In Chapter 6 we saw that the speed of
light is built into Maxwell’s equations. If every observer is to see the same laws of nature,
they all have to see the same speed of light. In other words, the ground observer would
have to see light from the flashlight moving at 300,000 kilometers per second, and not
300,000 kilometers per second plus 100 kilometers per hour. In this case, velocities
wouldn’t add, as our intuition tells us they must.
Albert Einstein thought long and hard about this paradox, and he realized that it
could be resolved in only three ways:
1. The laws of nature are not the same in all frames of reference (an idea Einstein was • Figure 7-2 Albert Einstein
reluctant to accept on philosophical grounds); or, (1879–1955).
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144 | C HAP TE R 7 | Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity
2. Maxwell’s equations could be wrong and the speed of light depends on the speed of
the source emitting the light (in spite of abundant experimental support for the
equations); or,
3. Our intuitions about the addition of velocities could be wrong, in which case the uni-
verse might be a very strange place indeed.
Einstein focused on the third of these possibilities.
The idea that the laws of nature are the same in all frames of reference is called the
principle of relativity, and can be stated as follows:
Every observer must experience the same natural laws.
This statement is the central assumption of Einstein’s theory of relativity. Hidden

beneath this seemingly simple statement lies a view of the universe that is both strange
and wonderful. The extraordinary theoretical effort required to understand the conse-
quences of this one simple assumption occupied Einstein during much of the first
decades of the twentieth century.
Stop and Think! It may seem obvious that the laws of nature are the
same everywhere in the universe, but how can we know for sure? How
might you test this statement?
We can begin to understand Einstein’s work by recalling what Isaac Newton had
demonstrated three centuries earlier, that all motions fall into one of two categories: uni-
form motion or acceleration (Chapter 2). Einstein therefore divided his theory of relativ-
ity into two parts—one dealing with each of these kinds of motion. The easier part, first
published by Einstein in 1905, is called special relativity and deals with all frames of ref-
erence in uniform motion relative to one another—reference frames that do not acceler-
ate. It took Einstein another decade to complete his treatment of general relativity,
mathematically a much more complex theory, which applies to any reference frame
whether or not it is accelerating relative to another.
At first glance, the underlying principle of relativity seems obvious, perhaps almost
too simple. Of course the laws of nature are the same everywhere—that’s the only way
that scientists can explain how the universe behaves in an ordered way. But once you
accept that central assumption of relativity, be prepared for some surprises. Relativity
forces us to accept the fact that nature doesn’t always behave as our intuition says it
must. You may find it disturbing that nature sometimes violates our sense of the “way
things should be.” But you’ll have little problem with relativity if you just accept the idea
that the universe is what it is, and not necessarily what we think it should be.
Another way of saying this is to note that our intuitions about how the world works are
built up from experience with things that are moving at modest speeds—a few hundred, or
at most a few thousand, miles per hour. None of us has any experience with things moving
near the speed of light, so when we start examining phenomena in that range our intuitions
won’t necessarily apply. Strictly speaking, we shouldn’t be surprised by anything we find.
R ELATIVITY AND THE S PEED OF LIGHT •

Science News As the example of the train and the flashlight shows, one of the most disturbing aspects
of the principle of relativity has to do with our everyday notions of speed. According to
Einstein and the Theory the principle, any observer, no matter what his or her reference frame, should be able to
of Relativity.
confirm Maxwell’s description of electricity and magnetism. Because the speed of light is
Go to your WileyPLUS course built into these equations, it follows that:
to view video on this topic.
The speed of light, c, is the same in all reference frames.

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Special Relativity | 145
Strictly speaking, this statement is only one of many consequences of the principle of
relativity. However, so many of the surprising results of relativity follow from it that
it is often accorded special status and given special attention in discussions of those
theories.
XI XII I
S CIENCE MAKING
II III III
VIII IX X
IN THE • V VI VII
12:00:09
Einstein and the Streetcar 12:00:08
12:00:08
Newton and his apple have entered modern folklore as a 12:00:07
12:00:07
paradigm of unexpected discovery. A less-well-known inci- 12:00:06
12:00:06
dent led Albert Einstein, then an obscure patent clerk in 12:00:05
12:00:05
12:00:04
12:00:04
Bern, Switzerland, to relativity.
12:00:03
12:00:03
One day, while riding home in a streetcar, he happened 12:00:02
12:00:02
to glance up at a clock on a church steeple (Figure 7-3). In 12:00:01
his mind he imagined the streetcar speeding up, moving
faster and faster, until it was going at almost the speed of
light. Einstein realized that if the streetcar were to travel at
the speed of light, it would appear to someone on the
streetcar that the clock had stopped. The passenger would
be like a surfer on a light-wave crest—a crest that originated
• Figure 7-3 Albert Einstein, moving
at 12 noon, for example—and the same image of the clock away from a clock tower, imagined
would stay with him. how different observers might view the
On the other hand, a clock moving with him—his pocket watch, for example— passage of time. If Einstein were trav-
would still tick away the seconds in its usual way. Perhaps, Einstein thought, time as eling at the speed of light, for exam-
measured on a clock, just like motion, is relative to one’s frame of reference. • ple, the clock would appear to him to
have stopped, even though his own
pocket watch would still be ticking.
Special Relativity
TIME D ILATION •
Think about how you measure time. The passage of time can be measured by any
kind of regularly repeating phenomenon—a swinging pendulum, a beating heart, or
an alternating electrical current. To get at the theory of relativity, though, it’s easiest
to think of a rather unusual kind of clock. Suppose, as in Figure 7-4, we had a flash-
bulb, a mirror, and a photon detector. A “tick-tock” of this clock would consist of the
flashbulb going off, the light traveling to the mirror, bouncing down to the detector,
and then triggering the next flash. By adjusting the distance, d, between the light
source and mirror, these pulses could correspond to any desired time interval. This
unusual “light clock,” therefore, serves the same function as any other clock—in fact,
you could adjust it to be synchronized with anything from a grandfather clock to a
wristwatch.
Now imagine two identical light clocks: one next to you on the ground (Figure 7-4a),
and the other whizzing by in a spaceship (Figure 7-4b). Imagine further that the mirrors
are adjusted so that both clocks would tick at the same rate if they were standing next to
each other. How would the moving clock look to you?
Standing on the ground, you would see the ground-based clock ticking along as the
light pulses bounce back and forth between the mirror and detector. When you looked
at the moving clock, though, you would see the light following a longer zig-zag path. If
the speed of light is indeed the same in both frames of reference, it should appear to you
that the light in the moving frame takes longer to travel the zig-zag path from light to
detector than the light on the ground-based clock. Consequently, from your point of
view on the ground, the moving clock must tick more slowly. The two clocks are identi-
cal, but the moving clock runs slower. This surprising phenomenon is known as time
dilation, and it is an essential consequence of relativity.
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Stationary light clock
Mirror
tick tock
d
Light Detector
(a)
Moving light clock
k to
tic ck
d v v
(b)
• Figure 7-4 A light clock incorporates a flashing light and a mirror. A light pulse bounces
off the mirror and returns to trigger the next pulse. Two light clocks, one stationary (a) and
one moving (b), illustrate the phenomenon of time dilation. Light from the moving clock
must travel farther, and so it appears to the stationary observer to tick more slowly.
Remember that each observer regards the clocks in his or her own reference frame
as completely normal, while all other clocks appear to be running slower. Thus, para-
doxically, while we observe the spaceship clock as slow, observers in the speeding space-
ship see the Earth-based clock moving and believe that the Earth-based clock is running
more slowly than theirs.
Relativity’s prediction of time dilation can be tested in a number of ways. Scientists
have actually documented relativistic time dilation by comparing two extremely accurate
atomic clocks, one on the ground and one strapped into a jet aircraft. Even though jets
travel at a paltry hundred-thousandth of the speed of light, the difference in the time
recorded by the two clocks can be measured.
Time dilation can also be observed with high-energy particle accelerators that rou-
tinely produce unstable subatomic particles (see Chapter 12). The normal half-life of
these particles is well known. When accelerated to near the speed of light, however,
these particles last much longer because of the relativistic slowdown in their decay rates.
Thus, although the notion that moving clocks run slower than stationary ones vio-
lates our intuition, it seems to be well documented by experiment. Why, then, aren’t we
aware of this effect in everyday life? To answer that question, we have to ask how big an
effect time dilation is. How much do moving clocks slow down?
THE S IZE OF TIME D ILATION •

We have tried, in general, to talk about science in everyday terms and stay away from for-
mulas in this book. But we have now run into a rather fundamental question that requires
some simple mathematics to answer. In this section, you’ll be able to follow the kind of
thought process used by Einstein when he first formulated his revolutionary theory.
Consider the two identical light clocks in Figure 7-4, one moving at a velocity, v,
and one stationary on the ground. Each clock has a light-to-mirror separation distance
of d. (The various symbols we are using are summarized in Table 7-1).
The notation for the time it takes for light to travel the distance d from the light to
its opposite mirror—that is, one “tick” of the stationary clock—is a little trickier,
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Table 7-1 Symbols for Deriving Time Dilation

Symbol Description
v Velocity of the moving light clock relative to the ground
d Distance between the clock’s light and mirror
tGG Time for one tick (ground clock, ground observer)
tMG Time for one tick (moving clock, ground observer)
tGM Time for one tick (ground clock, moving observer)
tMM Time for one tick (moving clock, moving observer)
c Speed of light, a constant
because we have to keep track of which clock we’re looking at and from which reference
frame we’re looking. We will use two subscripts—the first subscript to tell us if the clock
is on the ground (G) or moving (M), and the second subscript to indicate if the observer
is on the ground or moving. Thus, tGG is the time for one tick of the ground-based clock
as observed by an observer on the ground. On the other hand, tMG is the time for one
tick of the moving clock from the point of view of this ground-based observer. Accord-
ing to the principle of relativity, all observers see clocks in their own reference frames as
normal. Or, in equation form,
tGG ⫽ tMM
As ground-based observers, we are interested in determining the relative values of
tGG and tMG—what we see as “ticks” of the stationary versus the moving clocks. In
the stationary ground-based frame of reference, one tick is simply the time it takes
light to travel the distance d:
distance
Time ⫽
speed
Substituting values for the light clock into this equation,
light–to–mirror distance
Time for one tick ⫽
speed of light
or,
d
t GG ⫽
c
where c is the standard symbol for the speed of light.
We argued that to the observer on the ground, it appears that the light beam in the mov-
ing clock travels on a zig-zag path as shown in Figure 7-4, and that this made the moving
clock appear to run more slowly. In what follows, we will show how to take an intuitive
statement like this one and convert it into a precise mathematical equation. We begin by
labeling the dimensions of our two clocks.
The moving clock travels a horizontal distance of v ⫻tMG during each of its ticks. In
order to determine the value of tMG, we must first determine how far light must travel in
the moving clock as seen by the observer on the ground. As illustrated in Figure 7-5b, we
know the lengths of the two shortest sides of a right triangle. One side has length d, rep-
resenting the vertical distance between light and mirror (a distance, remember, that is the
same in both frames of reference). The other side is v ⫻ tMG, which corresponds to the dis-
tance traveled by the moving clock as observed in the stationary frame of reference. The
distance traveled by the moving light beam in one tick is represented by the hypotenuse of
this right triangle and is given by the Pythagorean theorem.
In words: The square of the length of a right triangle’s long side equals the sum of
the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
In words: (applied to our light clock): The square of the distance light travels dur-
ing one tick equals the sum of the squares of the light-to-mirror distance and the hor-
izontal distance the clock moves during one tick.
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• Figure 7-5 Light clocks with Stationary light clock Moving light clock
dimensions labeled. Both the station-
ary clock (a) and the moving clock
(b) have light-to-mirror distance d. Mirror
During one tick the moving clock
to
must travel a horizontal distance k ck
tick tock tic
v ⫻ tMG. d d
Light Detector v ⫻ tMG

(a) (b)
In symbols:
1distance light travels 2 2 ⫽ d2 ⫹ 1v ⫻ tMG 2 2
We can begin to simplify this equation by taking the square roots of both sides.
distance light travels ⫽ 2d 2 ⫹ 1v ⫻ t MG 2 2

Remember, time equals distance divided by velocity. So the time it takes light to travel
this distance, tMG, is given by the distance 2d 2 ⫹ 1v ⫻ t MG 2 2 divided by the velocity
of light, c:
2d 2 ⫹ 1v ⫻ t MG 2 2
t MG ⫽
c
We now must engage in a bit of algebraic manipulation. First, square both sides of
this equation.
d2 v 2 ⫻ t MG2
t MG2 ⫽ ⫹
c2 c2
But we saw previously that tGG ⫽ d/c, so, substituting,

v 2 ⫻ t MG2
t MG2 ⫽ t GG2 ⫹
c2
Dividing both sides by tMG2 gives
t MG2 t GG2 3v 2 ⫻ t MG2>c2 4
⫽ ⫹
t MG2 t MG2 t MG2
or,
t GG 2
1⫽ a b ⫹ 1v>c 2 2
t MG
Finally, regrouping yields
t GG
t MG ⫽
231 ⫺ 1v>c 2 2 4
This expresses in mathematical form what we said earlier in words—that moving clocks
appear to run slower. It tells us that tMG, the time it takes for one tick of the moving clock
as seen by an observer on the ground, is equal to the time it takes for one tick of an iden-
tical clock on the ground divided by a number less than one. Thus the time required for a
tick of the moving clock will always be greater than that for a stationary one.
The factor 2 3 1 ⫺ 1v>c2 2 4 is a number, called the Lorentz factor, that appears over
and over again in relativistic calculations. In the case of time dilation, the Lorentz factor
arises from an application of the Pythagorean theorem.
One important point to notice is that if the velocity of the moving clock is very small
compared to the speed of light, the quantity (v/c)2 becomes very small and the Lorentz
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 149
factor is almost equal to one. In this case, the time on the moving clock is equal to the
time on the stationary one, as our intuition demands that it should be. Only when
speeds get very high do the effects of relativity become important.
How Important Is Relativity?

To understand why we aren’t aware of relativity in our everyday life, let’s calculate
the size of the time dilation for a clock in a car moving at 70 kilometers per hour (about
50 miles per hour).
The first problem is to convert the familiar speed in kilometers per hour to a speed in
meters per second so we can compare it to the speed of light. There are 60⫻60⫽3600
seconds in an hour, so a car traveling 70 kilometers per hour is moving at a speed of
70,000 m
70 km>h ⫽
3600 s
⫽ 19.4 m>s
For this speed, the Lorentz factor is
23 1 ⫺ 119.4>300,000,0002 2 4 ⫽ 0.9999999999999999999
Thus the passage of time for a stationary and speeding car differs by only one part in the
sixteenth decimal place.
To get an idea of how small the difference is between the ground clock and the
moving one in this case, we can note that if you watched the moving car for a time equal
to the age of the universe, you would observe it running 10 seconds slow compared to
your ground clock.
For an object traveling at 99% of the speed of light, however, the Lorentz factor is
231 ⫺ 1v>c2 2 4 ⫽ 231 ⫺ 10.992 2 4
⫽ 210.01992
⫽ 0.1411
In this case, you would observe the stationary clock to be ticking about seven times as
fast as the moving one—that is, the ground clock would tick about seven times while the
moving clock ticked just once.
This numerical example illustrates a very important point about relativity. Our intu-
ition and experience tell us that the exterior clock on our local bank doesn’t suddenly
slow down when we view it from a moving car. Consequently, we find the prediction of
time dilation to be strange and paradoxical. But all of our intuition is built up from expe-
riences at very low velocities—none of us has ever moved at an appreciable fraction of
the speed of light. For the everyday world, the predictions of relativity coincide precisely
with our experience. It is only when we get into regions near the speed of light, where
that experience isn’t relevant, that the “paradoxes” arise. •
Space Travel and Aging

While humans presently do not experience the direct effects of time dilation in their day-
to-day lives, at some future time they might. If we ever develop interstellar space travel
with near-light speed, then time dilation may wreak havoc with family lives (and geneal-
ogists’ records).
Imagine a spaceship that accelerates to 99% of the speed of light and goes on a long
journey. While 15 years seem to pass for the crew of the ship, more than a century goes
by on Earth. The space explorers return almost 15 years older than when they left, but
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 150
Spaceship at rest biologically younger than their great-grandchildren! Friends and

family all would be long-since dead.
If we ever enter an era of extensive high-speed interstellar
travel, people may drift in and out of other people’s lives in ways we
can’t easily imagine. Parents and children could repeatedly leapfrog
each other in age, and the notion of relatedness could take on com-
H
plex twists in a society with widespread relativistic travel. •
D ISTANCE AND R ELATIVITY •

Many results from relativity run counter to our intuition. They can
L be derived by procedures similar to (but more complicated than)
the one we just gave for working out time dilation. In fact, using
(a)
arguments like those we have presented, Einstein showed that
Spaceship at high speed moving yardsticks must appear to be shorter than stationary ones in
the direction of motion (see Figure 7-6).
The equation that relates the ground-based observer’s mea-
surement of a stationary object’s length, LGG, to that observer’s
measurement of the length of an identical moving object, LMG, is
H L MG ⫽ L GG ⫻ 231 ⫺ 1v>c 2 2 4
The term on the right side of this equation is the familiar

Lorentz factor that we derived from our study of light clocks. The
equation tells us that the length of the moving ruler can be
less than
obtained by multiplying the length of the stationary ruler by a
L number less than one, and thus must appear shorter. This phe-
(b) nomenon is known as length contraction. Note that the height
and width of the moving object do not appear to change—only the
• Figure 7-6 A spaceship in
length along the direction of motion. A moving basketball, then,
motion appears to contract in length,
L, along the direction of motion. takes on the appearance of a pancake at speeds near those of light.
However, the height, H, and width of Length contraction is not just an optical illusion. While relativistic shortening doesn’t
the ship do not appear to change. affect most of our daily lives, the effect is real (Figure 7-7). Physicists who work at parti-
cle accelerators inject “bunches” of particles into their machines. As these particles
approach light speed, the bunches are observed to contract according to the Lorentz
factor, an effect that must be compensated for.
Stop and Think! What does the “spaceship at rest” in Figure 7-6 look
like to an observer in the “spaceship at high speed?” Does it appear to be
normal length, shorter, or longer?
S O WHAT ABOUT THE TRAIN AND THE F LASHLIGHT? •

Now that we understand a little about how relativity works, we can go back and unravel
the paradox we discussed earlier in this chapter—the problem of how both an observer
on the ground and an observer on the train could see light from a flashlight moving at
the same speed.
Velocity is defined to be distance traveled divided by the time required for the travel
to take place. Since both length and time appear to be different for different observers,
it should come as no surprise that the rule that tells us how to add velocities (such as the
velocity of the light and the train) might be more complicated than we would expect.
The simple intuition that tells us that we should add the velocity of the train to the
velocity of the ball, like our notions of time and space, is valid at small velocities but
breaks down for objects moving near the speed of light. For those objects, a more com-
plex addition has to be done, and when it is, we find that both observers see the light
moving at a velocity of c.
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©1989 Ping-Kang Hsiung
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
• Figure 7-7 This series of four computer-generated images shows the changing appearance
of a network of balls and rods as it moves toward you at different speeds. (a) At rest, the normal
view. (b) At 50% of light speed, the array appears to contract. (c) At 95% of light speed, the lat-
tice has curved rods. (d) At 99% of light speed, the network is severely distorted.
MASS AND R ELATIVITY •

Perhaps the most far-reaching consequence of Einstein’s theory of relativity was the dis-
covery that mass, like time and distance, is relative to one’s frame of reference. So far we
have been faced with two strange ideas:
1. Clocks run fastest for stationary objects; moving clocks slow down. As the speed of
light is approached, time slows down and approaches zero.
2. Distances are greatest for stationary objects; moving objects shrink in the direc-
tion of motion. As the speed of light is approached, distances shrink and approach
zero.
Einstein showed that a third consequence followed from his principle:
3. Mass is lowest for stationary objects; moving objects become more massive. As an
object’s velocity approaches the speed of light, its mass approaches infinity.
Einstein showed that if the speed of light is a constant in all reference frames—
which must follow from the central assumption of the theory of relativity—then an
object’s mass depends on its velocity. The faster an object travels, the greater its mass
and the harder it is to deflect from its course. If a ground-based observer measures an
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 152
object’s stationary or “rest” mass, mGG, then the apparent mass, mMG, of that object
moving at velocity v is
m GG
m MG ⫽
231 ⫺ 1v>c2 2 4
Once again the Lorentz factor comes into play. As we observe an object approach
the speed of light, its mass appears to us to approach infinity.
This property of mass leads to the common misperception that relativity predicts that
nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. In fact, the only thing we can conclude
is that nothing that is now moving at less than the speed of light can be accelerated to or
past that speed. It also says that, should there exist objects already moving faster than
light, they could not be decelerated to speeds of less than c, and that the only objects that
travel at the speed of light (such as photons) are those that have zero rest mass.
MASS AND E NERGY •

Time, distance, and mass—all quantities that we can easily measure in our homes or
laboratories—actually depend on our frame of reference. But not everything in nature
is so variable. The central tenet of relativity is that natural laws must apply to every
frame of reference. Light speed is constant in all reference frames in accordance with
Maxwell’s equations. Similarly, the first law of thermodynamics—the idea that total
amount of energy in any closed system is constant—must hold, no matter what the
frame of reference. Yet here, Einstein’s description of the universe seems to run into a
problem. He claims that the observed mass depends on your frame of reference. But,
in that case, kinetic energy—defined as mass times velocity squared—could not follow
the conservation of energy law. In Einstein’s treatment, faster frames of reference seem
to possess more energy than slower ones. Where does the extra energy come from?
Conservation of energy appeared to be violated because we missed one key form of
energy in our equations: mass itself. In fact, Einstein was able to show that the amount
of energy contained in any mass turns out to be the mass times a constant.
In words: All objects contain a rest energy (in addition to any kinetic or potential
energy), which is equal to the object’s rest mass times the speed of light squared.
In equation form:
rest energy ⫽ rest mass ⫻ 1speed of light 2 2
In symbols:
E ⫽ mc 2
This familiar equation has become an icon of our nuclear age, for it defines a new form
of energy. It says that mass can be converted to energy, and vice versa. Furthermore, the
amounts of energy involved are prodigious (because the constant, the speed of light
squared, is so large). A handful of nuclear fuel can power a city; a fist-sized chunk of
nuclear explosive can destroy it.
Until Einstein traced the implications of special relativity, the nature of mass and its
vast potential for producing energy was hidden from us. Now nearly a quarter of all elec-
trical power in the United States is produced in nuclear reactors that confirm the pre-
dictions of Einstein’s theory every day of our lives (see Chapter 12).
One way to think about this famous equation is this: before Einstein, scientists
thought of the world as being composed of two giant reservoirs—one labeled “mass”
and the other labeled “energy.” The “mass” reservoir told us that matter couldn’t be
created or destroyed, and that, for example, the number of atoms on the two sides of a
chemical equation have to balance (see Chapter 10). The “energy” reservoir told us
energy could not be created or destroyed, as we saw when we discussed the first law of
thermodynamics in Chapter 3. Einstein’s equation opens a channel between these
previously isolated reservoirs, so conversion of mass to energy and energy to mass is
allowed to happen.
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General Relativity | 153
General Relativity
Special relativity is a fascinating and fairly accessible intellectual exercise, requiring little
more than an open mind and a lot of basic algebra. General relativity, which deals with
all reference frames including accelerating ones, is much more challenging in its full
rigor. While the details are tricky, you can get a pretty good feeling for Einstein’s general
theory by thinking about the nature of forces.
THE NATURE OF F ORCES •

Begin by imagining yourself in a completely sealed room that is accelerating at exactly
one “g”—Earth’s gravitational acceleration. Could you devise any experiment that would
reveal one way or the other if you were
on Earth or accelerating in deep space? On Earth In an accelerating spaceship
If you dropped this book on Earth,
The book falls
the force of gravity would cause it to fall just as it does
to your feet (Figure 7-8a). If you on Earth
dropped the book in the accelerating
The book
spaceship, however, Newton’s first law falls downward
tells us that it will keep moving with
whatever speed it had when it was
released. The floor of the ship, still accel- Acceleration of
erating, will therefore come up to meet it Gravity acts spaceship is
(Figure 7-8b). To you, standing in the toward the center equal to that of
of Earth a dropped object
ship, it appears that the book falls, just as on Earth
it does if you are standing on Earth.
From an external frame of refer- (a) (b)
ence, of course, these two situations
• Figure 7-8 (a) If you drop a book
would involve very different descriptions. In the one case of the book falls due to the on Earth, the force of gravity causes
force of gravity; in the other the spaceship accelerates up to meet the free-floating book. it to accelerate downward and fall at
But no experiment you could devise in your reference frame could distinguish between your feet. (b) If you dropped the
acceleration in deep space and the force of Earth’s gravitational field. same book in an accelerating space-
In some deep and profound way, therefore, gravitational forces and acceleration are ship, the floor of the ship will acceler-
equivalent. Newton saw this connection in a way, for his laws of motion equate force ate upward: the book will appear to
fall at your feet.
with an accelerating mass. But Einstein went a step further by recognizing that what we
call gravity versus what we call acceleration is a purely arbitrary decision, based on our
choice of reference frame. Whether we think of ourselves as stationary on a planet with
gravity, or accelerating on spaceship Earth, makes no difference in the passage of events.
Although this connection between gravity and acceleration may seem a bit abstract, you
already have had experiences that should tell you it is true. Have you ever been in an elevator
and felt momentarily heavier when it starts up or momentarily lighter when it starts down? If
so, you know that the feeling we call “weight” can indeed be affected by acceleration.
The actual working out of the consequences of this notion of the equivalence of
acceleration and gravity is complicated, but a simple analogy can help you visualize the
difference between Einstein’s and Newton’s views of the universe. In the Newtonian uni-
verse, forces and motions can be described by a ball rolling on a perfectly flat surface with
neatly inscribed grid lines (Figure 7-9a). The ball rolls on and on, following a line exactly,
unless an external force is applied. If, for example, a large mass rests on the surface, the
rolling ball will change its direction and speed—it will accelerate in response to the force
of gravity. Thus, for Newton, motion occurs along curving paths in a flat universe.
The description of that same event in general relativity is very different. In this case,
as shown in Figure 7-9b, we would say that the heavy object distorts the surface. Peaks
and depressions on the surface influence the ball’s path, deflecting it as it rolls across the
surface. For Einstein, the ball moves in a straight line across a curved universe.
Given these differing views, Newton and Einstein would give very different descrip-
tions of physical events. Newton would say, for example, that the Moon orbits Earth
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 154
Newtonian universe: gravitational forces in a "flat" universe
Sun
FG
Earth
Moon FG
(a)
Einstein's universe: motion in a curved universe.
Sun
Earth
Moon
Well Well
(b)
• Figure 7-9 Newtonian and Einsteinian universes treat the motion of rolling balls in differ-
ent ways. In the Newtonian scheme (a), a ball travels in uniform motion unless acted upon
by a force; motion occurs along curved paths in a flat universe. In the Einsteinian universe
(b), a ball’s mass distorts the universe; it moves in a straight line across a curved surface.
because of an attractive gravitational force (FG) between the two bodies (Figure 7-9a).
Einstein, on the other hand, would say that space has been warped in the vicinity of the
Earth–Moon system, and this warping of space governs the Moon’s motion (Figure 7-9b).
Imtek Imagineering/Masterfile
In the relativistic view, space deforms around the Sun, and planets follow the curvature
of space like marbles rolling around in the bottom of a curved bowl.
We now have two very different ways of thinking about the universe. In the New-
tonian universe, forces cause objects to accelerate. Space and time are separate dimen-
sions that are experienced in very different ways. This view more closely matches our
everyday experience of how the world seems to be. In Einstein’s universe, objects move
according to distortions in space (Figure 7-10), while the distinction between space and
time depends on your frame of reference.
You will notice that both Newton and Einstein treat gravity as a force that is always
attractive. There’s no room for a repulsive force—an “antigravity”—in these theories. In
• Figure 7-10 A computer- Chapter 15 we discuss some new developments in cosmology that may change this
generated image of a gravity field aspect of gravitation. The discovery of what is called “dark energy” indicates that there
reveals mass as gravity wells on an is another kind of force in the universe—one that, on the scale of galaxies, can be repul-
otherwise flat grid. sive and play the role of antigravity.
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General Relativity | 155
P REDICTIONS OF G ENERAL R ELATIVITY •

The mathematical models of Newton and Einstein are not just two equivalent Courtesy NASA, Richard Ellis (Caltech) and Jean-Paul
Kneib (Observatoire Midi-Pyrenees, France)
descriptions of the universe. They lead to slightly different quantitative predictions
of events. In three specific instances, the predictions of general relativity have been
confirmed.
1. The Gravitational Bending of Light
One consequence of Einstein’s theory is that light can be bent as it travels along
the warped space near strong gravitational centers such as the Sun (Figure 7-11).
Einstein predicted the exact amount of deflection that would occur near the Sun,
and his prediction was confirmed by precise measurements of star positions during
a solar eclipse in 1919. Today these measurements are made with much more pre-
cision by measuring the deflection of radio waves emitted by distant galaxies called
quasars (see Chapter 18).
• Figure 7-11 A gravitational lens.

Stop and Think! Given what you know about electromagnetic waves, do A distant massive object bends the
you think general relativity should predict that other waves—radio, for light from even more distant objects
example—should be bent as they come around the Sun? beyond, causing multiple images.
2. Planetary Orbits
In Newton’s solar system, the planets adopt elliptical orbits, with long and short axes
that rotate slightly because of the perturbing influence of other planets. Einstein’s
calculations make nearly the same prediction, but his axes advance slightly more than
Newton’s from orbit to orbit. In Einstein’s theory, for example, the innermost planet,
Mercury, was predicted to advance by 43 seconds of arc per century due to relativis-
tic effects—a small perturbation superimposed on much larger effects due to the
other planets. Einstein’s prediction almost exactly matches the observed shift in
Mercury’s orbit.
3. The Gravitational Redshift
The theory of relativity predicts that as a photon (a particle of electromagnetic radiation)
moves up in gravitational field, it must lose energy in the process. The speed of light is
constant, so this energy loss is manifest as a slight decrease in frequency (a slight increase
in wavelength). Thus lights on Earth’s surface will appear slightly redder than they do on
Earth if they are observed from space. By the same token, a light shining from space to
Earth will be slightly shifted to the blue end of the spectrum. Careful measurements of
laser light frequencies have amply confirmed this prediction of relativity.
These three instances are regarded as the “classical” tests of general relativity. For
the greater part of the twentieth century they were all the experimental evidence that
scientists had for general relativity. Over the last several decades, however, we have got-
ten better at making very precise measurements, so that even tiny differences between
Newtonian gravity and general relativity can be probed. For example, general relativity
predicts that because of the rotation of the Earth, there will be tiny differences in travel
time between light going from east to west and light going between the same two points
in the opposite direction. Using lasers (see Chapter 8) and atomic clocks, scientists have
been able to confirm this prediction.
Perhaps the most interesting confirmation of general relativity was a project called
Gravity Probe B. This is a satellite experiment designed to test two predictions of gen-
eral relativity relating to the behavior of a gyroscope near Earth orbit. The theory pre-
dicts that there will be two tiny effects that will make the gyroscope wobble—one having
to do with the warping of space-time by Earth’s mass, the other with the predicted drag-
ging of space-time by the planet’s rotation. The heart of the experiment is four quartz
spheres the size of ping-pong balls rotating in a vacuum in a satellite. These spheres have
c07.qxd 9/11/09 10:48 AM Page 156
been called the “roundest objects in the universe,” because if they were blown up to the
size of Earth, the highest “mountain” would be only a couple of feet tall. After decades
of preparation and testing, Gravity Probe B was launched in 2004 and collected huge
amounts of data during its 17-month lifetime. The results, announced after more years
of data analysis, confirm Einstein’s predictions.
TECHNOLOGY •
The Global Positioning System and Relativity

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is one of the marvels of our modern technological
society. Today, anyone can walk into an electronic supply store, pay a relatively small
amount of money, and walk out with a device that will give his
Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.

or her position anywhere on the surface of the planet to an accu-
racy of a few tens of feet. What isn’t generally appreciated is that
the operation of this system depends on the theory of relativity.
The system consists of 24 satellites orbiting 20,000 kilo-
meters above the Earth’s surface (Figure 7-12). Each of these
satellites carries one or more highly accurate (and highly sta-
ble) atomic clocks. These satellite orbits are arranged so that
four of them will be above the horizon at any time. A ground
observer picks up signals from all four satellites and, by com-
paring the difference between the time the signal was emitted
and the time it was received, determines the distance to each.
It is then a simple matter of geometry to get the position of
the receiver.
To get the kind of accuracy we need from the GPS sys-
tem, the times have to be measured to an accuracy of 13 dec-
imal places, an accuracy well within the capability of modern
atomic clocks. The problem is that at this level of accuracy the
effects of relativity play an important role and have to be
taken into account. For example, the satellites are moving at a
• Figure 7-12 This illustration speed of about 4 kilometers per second with respect to an
shows the 24 Navstar satellites used observer on the ground, which means that even the simple time dilation we derived
in the Global Positioning System above will affect the observed time in the 10th decimal place. Other effects predicted by
(GPS). They orbit Earth in six planes, general relativity also have to be taken into account if the comparison of times is to be
ensuring that three to six satellites done accurately. In fact, engineers have found that the effects of relativity in the system
are above the horizon at any location are 10,000 times too big to be ignored.
at any one time. Small ground-based
Thus, although the domain of relativity may seem to be a long way from everyday
receivers calculate the user’s position
by measuring the time it takes for life, you use the theory every time you turn on your car’s navigation system or fly in an
signals to arrive from the satellites. airplane. •
WHO CAN U NDERSTAND R ELATIVITY? •

Einstein’s theory of relativity was extraordinary, but when first introduced it was difficult
to grasp in part because it relied on some complex mathematics that were unfamiliar to
many scientists at the time. Furthermore, while the theory made specific predictions
about the physical world, most of those predictions were exceedingly difficult to test.
Soon after the theory’s publication it became conventional wisdom that only a handful
of geniuses in the world could understand it.
Einstein did make one very specific prediction, however, that could be tested. His
proposal that the strong gravitational field of the Sun would bend the light coming from
a distant star was different from other theories. The total eclipse of the Sun in 1919 gave
scientists the chance to test Einstein’s prediction. Sure enough, the apparent position of
stars near the Sun’s disk was shifted by exactly the predicted amount.
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Summary | 157
Around the world, front-page newspaper headlines trumpeted Einstein’s success.

He became an instant international celebrity, and his theory of relativity became a part of
scientific folklore. Attempts to explain the revolutionary theory to a wide audience
began almost immediately.
Few scientists may have grasped the main ideas of general relativity in 1915, when the
full theory was first unveiled, but that certainly is not true today. The basics of special rela-
tivity are taught to tens of thousands of college freshmen every year, while hundreds of stu-
dents in astronomy and physics explore general relativity in its full mathematical splendor.
If this subject intrigues you, you might want to read some more, watch TV specials
or videos about relativity, or even sign up for one of those courses!
Thinking More About Relativity
WAS N EWTON WRONG? chapter. Newton’s laws, which have worked so well in
describing our everyday world, fail only when dealing with
The theory of relativity describes a universe about which Isaac extremely high velocities or extremely large masses. Thus
Newton never dreamed. Time dilation, contraction of moving Newton’s laws represent an extremely important special case
objects, and mass as energy play no role in his laws of motion. of Einstein’s more general theory.
Curved space–time is alien to the Newtonian view. Does that Science often progresses in this way, with one theory
mean that Newton was wrong? Not at all. encompassing previous valid ideas. Newton, for example,
In fact, all of Einstein’s equations reduce exactly to merged discoveries by Galileo of Earth-based motions and
Newton’s laws of motion, at speeds significantly less than the Kepler’s laws of planetary motion into his unified theory of
speed of light. This feature was shown specifically for time gravity. And someday Einstein’s theory of relativity may be
dilation in the “Science by the Numbers” section in this incorporated into an even grander view of the universe.
Can a human ever travel faster than the speed of light, at “warp º As an object increases in speed, it also increases in mass.
speed”? º As the mass of the object increases, the energy required to
increase its speed also increases.
• The speed of light, denoted by the symbol c, is nearly
• Therefore, as an object approaches the speed of light, its
300,00 km/sec. It is one of the best-known physical constants in
mass would approach infinity, and the energy required to
science.
accelerate an infinite mass beyond the speed of light would
• In 1905, Einstein published his theory of special relativity.
be infinite.
º This theory asserts that the speed of light is a fundamental
constant of nature: It appears the same to all observers in all º Consequently, no physical object such as a human being or
spaceship that is moving at less than the speed of light will ever
frames of reference anywhere in space.
exceed that speed.
• Special relativity asserts that mass is not a constant.
S UMMARY •
Every observer sees the world from a different frame of reference. time dilation. Furthermore, moving objects appear to get shorter in
Descriptions of actual physical events are different for different the direction of motion—the phenomenon of length contraction.
observers, but the theory of relativity states that all observers must Finally, moving objects become more massive than stationary ones,
see the universe operating according to the same laws. Because the and an equivalence exists between mass and energy, as expressed by
speed of light is built into Maxwell’s equations, this principle the famous equation, E⫽mc2.
requires that all observers must see the same speed of light in their General relativity begins with the observation that the force of
frames of reference. gravity is connected to acceleration, and describes a universe in
Special relativity deals with observers who are not accelerating which heavy masses warp the fabric of space–time and affect the
with respect to each other, while general relativity deals with motion of other objects. There are three classic tests of general
observers in any frame of reference whatsoever. In special relativity, relativity—the bending of light rays passing near the Sun, the chang-
simple arguments lead to the conclusion that moving clocks appear ing orientation of the orbit of Mercury, and the redshift of light pass-
to tick more slowly than stationary ones—a phenomenon known as ing through a gravitational field.
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K EY TERMS •
frame of reference special relativity time dilation
theory of relativity general relativity length contraction
K EY E QUATIONS •
t GG m GG
Time Dilation: t MG ⫽ Mass effect: m MG ⫽
2 31 ⫺ 1v>c 2 4
2 2 31 ⫺ 1v>c 2 2 4
Length contraction: L MG ⫽ L GG ⫻ 231 ⫺ 1v>c2 2 4 Rest mass: E ⫽ mc2
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Two observers can give two different accounts of an event, depend-
ing on their frame of reference. Somebody in a spaceship traveling
back to Earth can say that the spaceship is not moving relative to
where they are situated. Somebody tracking the spaceship on the A Binder
Earth can say that relative to the Earth, the spaceship is moving very clip
fast toward the Earth. For this experiment you will need two spring-
loaded clothespins or two 5/8 inch metal binder clips, a large #117
rubber band, and round color sticky labels. (The clothespins are the
safest to use.)
First, mark one color label with an “A”, another with a “B”, and
still another label with a “C”. Next, stick label A on the flat side of C
one clip (or clothespin), label B on the other clip, and label C on or Rubber
near you! Clip the rubber band end into one binder and the other Viewed from band
end into the second binder. Now look for a high ceiling with no one the side
(stretched)
around. Then place binder A in one hand and binder B in the other
hand. Hold them flat-handed, stretching your arms out from your
midsection, and toss them up together into the air. Option 2 would
be if you have a higher floor elevation available and can drop the B
binders to a lower level floor, where somebody below could make
sure no one gets hurt. You would hold one clip while the other one
dangles below it, and then let go. Either way, try to observe the
binders carefully. Or, have a third party take a photo of the clips
falling in the air.
At any point could binder A be moving at the same speed as
C
binder B and considered not moving relative to the other binder?
(The greater the drop distance, the better the experiment works.) Viewed from
From observer C’s frame of reference, where you are standing (or below
the person below); were both binder A and binder B continually (dropped)
moving until they hit the ground (or you caught them)? Caution:
The metal can hurt you, or someone else, if it strikes your body! We the rubber band, at some point in the fall, measurably in a state of
can ask still another question for consideration in this experiment: Is “free fall” and virtually considered weightless?
1. What is a frame of reference? Give examples of frames of refer- 9. What is the relation between the mass of an object and its
ence you have been in today. energy?
2. How does your frame of reference affect your observations and 10. How can we say that gravitational forces and acceleration are
measurements of the physical world? equivalent?
3. What is the central idea of Einstein’s theory of relativity? 11. Give three specific examples in which predictions of general rel-
4. What is the difference between special and general relativity? ativity are confirmed.
5. Is time relative to one’s frame of reference? 12. According to Einstein’s theory, which of the following factors
6. What is time dilation? What factors affect time dilation? Can we depend on the frame of reference and which are constant: mass, dis-
notice time dilation in our everyday life? Why or why not? tance, velocity of light, time, length.
7. What is the Lorentz factor?
8. According to an observer on the ground, how does the length
of a moving object compare to the length of an identical object on
the ground? How does the mass compare?
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Investigations | 159
1. Imagine arriving by spaceship at the solar system for the first 4. The twentieth century has been called the age of relativism,
time. Identify three different frames of reference that you might where each person has his or her own ethical system and no set of
choose to describe Earth. values is absolute. Do you agree? Does the theory of relativity imply
2. The foundation for Newton’s laws of motion was the work of that no values are absolute?
Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo, and many others. Upon whose work 5. Is it possible for matter to travel faster than the speed of light?
does Einstein’s theory of relativity rest? 6. What are the variables in E⫽ mc2?
3. In Chapter 2 we talked about the idea that Newton’s work was 7. Rare astronomical events, such as solar ecplises, have fascinated
profoundly in tune with the time in which he lived. In what sense observers since the dawn of recorded time. What made the total
might you say that relativity is in tune with the twentieth century? eclipse of the Sun in 1919 especially fascinating?
P ROBLEMS •
1. You are traveling 100 kilometers per hour in your car when you 4. If a moving clock appears to be ticking twice as fast as normal, at
throw a ball 50 kilometers per hour. What is the ball’s apparent what percent of light speed is it traveling? Is that speed theoretically
speed to a person standing by the road when the ball is thrown possible?
(a) straight ahead, (b) sideways, and (c) backward? 5. Draw a picture illustrating how a spaceship passing the Earth
2. Calculate the Lorentz factor for objects traveling at 1%, 50%, might look at 1%, 90%, and 99.9% of light speed.
and 99.9% of the speed of light.
3. What is the apparent mass of a 100-kilogram object that has
been accelerated to 10% of light speed?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Read a biography of Albert Einstein. What were his major scien- 4. Investigate the influence of Einstein’s theory of relativity on
tific contributions? For what work did he receive a Nobel Prize? twentieth-century art and philosophy.
2. Take a bathroom scale into an elevator in a tall building, stand 5. E ⫽mc2 is a cultural icon. Can you think of any other scientific
on it, and record your weight under acceleration and deceleration. theories or equations that are as recognizable?
Why does the scale reading change?
3. Read the novel Einstein’s Dreams by Alan Lightman. Each of the
chapters explores different time–space relationships. Which chapters
teach you something about Einstein’s theory of relativity?
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8
The Atom
Why are there so many different materials in the world?
PHYSICS
Experiments reveal
that atoms
BIOLOGY themselves are made CHEMISTRY
of smaller particles.
Carbon, the sixth

Elements in the
element of the
periodic table are
periodic table, forms
arranged according to
the backbone of most
the structure of their
biological molecules.
atoms.
(Ch. 22)
ENVIRONMENT
Burning fossil
fuels may release
Laser beams are All of the matter around compounds of the
created when a
collection of excited
us is made of atoms, the element sulfur into
chemical building the atmosphere,
atoms releases
which leads to the
photons. blocks of our world. formation of acid
rain. (Ch. 19)
TECHNOLOGY
Deep within Earth,

The element helium the element carbon is
was first discovered compressed into its
when its spectrum was
densest form, the
seen in light from
Atoms diamond. (Ch. 16)
the Sun.
of heavy metal
elements such as
lead and mercury,
ASTRONOMY when present in conta- GEOLOGY
minated food and water,
can build up gradually in
the human body and
produce toxic
= applications of the great idea effects. (Ch. 18) = other applications, some of which
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day A Deep Breath
Peter Cade/Stone/Getty Images

t’s a beautiful day. As you drive down the road, into the open
I countryside, you open the window and take a deep breath of air.
It’s so relaxing to get away from school and work. Breathing is so
instinctive that we seldom stop to think about why we need oxygen.
Oxygen is a chemical element, one of about a hundred basic build-
ing blocks that make up all the objects around us. With every breath
you take, oxygen enters your body and sustains life by participating
in chemical reactions that release the energy you use to grow, move,
and think. Without an extremely active element like oxygen, these
reactions couldn’t take place. So our lives depend on oxygen, as well
as many other kinds of atoms.
The Smallest Pieces

Imagine that you took a page from this book and cut it in half, then cut the half in half,
then cut half of the half in half, and so on. Two outcomes are possible. On the one hand,
if paper is smooth and continuous then there would be no end to this process, no small-
est piece of paper that couldn’t be cut further. On the other hand, you might find that
you reach a point where one more cut results in two fragments that are no longer paper.
How could you tell if paper has a smallest piece?
THE G REEK ATOM •

In about 530 BC, a group of Greek philosophers, the most famous of whom was a man
named Democritus, gave this question some serious thought. Democritus argued
(purely on philosophical grounds) that if you took the world’s sharpest knife and started
slicing chunks of matter, you would eventually come to a smallest piece—a piece that
could not be divided further (Figure 8-1). He called this smallest piece the “atom,”
which translates roughly as “uncuttable.” He argued that all material is formed from
these atoms, and that the atoms are eternal and unchanging, but that the relationships
among the atoms are constantly shifting.
Stop and Think! What would happen to Democritus’s argument if

the dividing process never reached a smallest unit? Is such an outcome
logically possible?
161
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162 | C HAP TE R 8 | The Atom
Gold ingot Gold nuggets Gold dust
into atoms whic

subdivided further.
Modern: Further subdivision is possible,

but the identity of the original
element is lost.
Gold atom Atomic fragments

are not gold
• Figure 8-1 Repeatedly dividing a bar of gold, just like cutting paper repeatedly, pro-
duces smaller and smaller groups of atoms, until you come to a single gold atom. Dividing
that atom into two parts produces fragments that no longer have the properties of gold.
E LEMENTS •
The atomic theory is generally attributed to an English meteorologist, John Dalton
• Figure 8-2 Atoms may be envi-
sioned as solid balls that stack
(1766–1844). In 1808, Dalton published a book called New System of Chemical Philoso-
together to form crystals, like fruit at phy, in which he argued that the new knowledge being gained by chemists about mate-
the supermarket. Atomic models are rials provided evidence, in and of itself, that matter was composed of atoms. Chemists
often drawn with spheres, though we knew that most materials can be broken down into simpler chemicals. If you burn wood,
now know that atoms are not solid for example, you get carbon dioxide, water, and all sorts of materials in the ash. If you
objects. use an electrical current to break down water, you get two gases,
hydrogen and oxygen. Dalton and his contemporaries also recog-
nized that a few materials, called elements, could not be broken
down into other substances by any chemical means. Wood can be
heated to get charcoal (essentially pure carbon), for example; but,
try as you might, you can’t break the carbon down any further.
The hypothesis that we now call atomism was simple in concept.
Dalton suggested that for each chemical element there was a corre-
sponding species of indivisible objects called atoms. He borrowed the
name from the Greeks, but very little else. Two or more atoms stuck
together form a molecule—the same term applies to any cluster of
atoms that can be isolated, whether it contains two atoms or a thou-
sand. Molecules make up most of the different kinds of material we
see around us. Water, for example, forms from one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms (thus, the familiar H2O). In Dalton’s view,
atoms were truly indivisible—he thought of them as little bowling
balls (Figure 8-2). In Dalton’s world, then, indivisible atoms provide
the fundamental building blocks of all matter.
Mitch Diamond/Alamy Images
ARE ATOMS R EAL? •

Democritus and other Greek philosophers did not really engage in science—their rea-
soning lacked the interplay between observation and hypothesis that characterizes the
scientific method. In fact, it wasn’t until the beginning of the twentieth century that
most scientists became convinced that atoms are real.
No matter how persuasively argued, philosophical speculations on the nature of
matter and the existence of atoms were just that—speculations. Over the past three cen-
turies, increasingly convincing evidence has mounted for the reality of atoms. Here are
some examples of this growing body of evidence.
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The Smallest Pieces | 163
1. The behavior of gas: The Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) realized that if
atoms are real, they must have mass and velocity, and thus kinetic energy. He success-
fully applied Newton’s second law of motion to atoms to explain the behavior of gases
under pressure. Doubling the number of gas particles, or halving the volume, doubles
the number of collisions between the gas and the confining walls. This increase also
doubles the pressure, the force per unit area. Increasing temperature increases the
average velocity of the gas particles, also increasing pressure.
2. Chemical combinations: English scientist John Dalton advanced the atomic theory
based on the law of definite proportions—an empirical law that states that for any
given compound, elements combine in a specific ratio of weights: water is always
eight parts oxygen to one part hydrogen, for example. Furthermore, when two ele-
ments combine in more than one way, the ratios of weights for the two compounds
will be a small whole number: 12 pounds of carbon can thus combine with either 16
pounds of oxygen or 32 pounds of oxygen (to make the simple molecules CO or
CO2, respectively). Dalton realized, therefore, that compounds don’t generally have
arbitrary fractional ratios of elements. The implication is that some units of elements
are fundamentally indivisible.
3. Radioactivity: The discovery in 1896 of radioactivity, by which individual atoms
emit radiation, provided a compelling piece of evidence for the atomic theory (see
Chapter 12). Certain phosphors flash when hit by this radiation. In 1903, upon see-
ing the irregular twinkling caused by the radiation from individual atoms, even the
most vocal skeptics of the atomic theory had to take pause.
4. Brownian motion: Brownian motion is an erratic, jiggling motion observed in tiny
dust particles of pollen grains suspended in water. In 1905 Albert Einstein
(1879–1955) demonstrated mathematically that such motions must result from a
force—the force of random collisions of atoms. Einstein realized that any small
object suspended in liquid would be constantly bombarded by moving atoms. At
any given moment, there will, purely by chance, be more atoms hitting on one
side than the other. The object will be pushed toward the side with fewer colli-
sions. A moment later, however, more atoms will be hitting another surface, and
the object will change direction. Over time, Einstein argued, atomic collisions
would produce precisely the sort of erratic jiggling motion that you see through a
microscope.
Einstein used the mathematics of statistics to make a number of predictions
about how fast and how far the suspended grains would move, based on the hypoth-
esis that the motion was due to collisions with real atoms. These were predictions that
other scientists could test in a laboratory. French physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin
(1870–1942) published the results of his careful experiments on Brownian motion in
1909. His results agreed with Einstein’s calculations and thus convinced many scien- • Figure 8-3 This electronic image
tists of the reality of atoms. representing individual atoms was
Note that, in spite of the variety of evidence for atoms, to this point all of this evi- taken with an instrument called a
dence was indirect. Matter was observed to behave as if it was made of atoms, but atoms scanning probe microscope. The
“mountains” correspond to individ-
themselves had not been directly observed. ual atoms in a crystal.
5. X-ray crystallography: X-ray crystallography (see Chapter 6), devel-
oped in 1912, convinced any remaining skeptics by demonstrating
the sizes and regular arrangements of atoms in crystals. X-rays can’t
bounce off of hypothetical ideas, so these images were further proof
that atoms are real physical objects.
6. Atomic-scale microscopy: In the early 1980s the first image of an indi-
vidual atom was produced at the University of Heidelberg in Ger-
many. This image was produced by an instrument called a scanning
tunneling microscope, which detects tiny flows of electrons in a
microscopic needle placed next to a solid surface. Now, observa-
tional studies of individual atoms are undertaken around the world
(Figure 8-3).
Courtesy Sémus Davis, Department of Physics, Cornell University
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Stop and Think! When in the chain of historical events would you
have been willing to believe that atoms are real? when Dalton explained the
existence of elements? when Einstein explained Brownian motion? when
you were shown a picture like the one in Figure 8-3? never? What does it
take to make something “real?” And, finally, does it make a difference to
science whether atoms are real?
D ISCOVERING C HEMICAL E LEMENTS •

Describing and isolating chemical elements provided a major challenge for chemists of
the nineteenth century. In 1800, fewer than 30 elements had been isolated—not
enough to establish any systematic trends in their chemical behavior. In the early 1800s,
a new process that broke molecules down into atoms was developed. Called electrolysis
(“splitting by electricity”), it was facilitated by Volta’s invention of the battery (see
Chapter 5) and allowed many new elements to be separated by means of electrical cur-
rent. More than two dozen more elements thus were discovered in the first half of the
nineteenth century.
Dimitri Mendeleev’s invention of the first periodic table of the elements in 1869
(see Chapter 1) capitalized on these discoveries, and it became a powerful tool for pre-
dicting more new elements. The original table listed several dozen elements on the basis
of their atomic weights (in rows from the upper left) and by groups with distinctive
chemical properties (in columns). What Mendeleev could not know was that his table
revealed much about the underlying structure of atoms and their electrons.
Today, the periodic table lists more than 110 elements, of which 92 appear in nature
and the rest have been produced artificially (see Figure 8-18). Most of the materials we
encounter in everyday life are not elements, but compounds of two or more elements
bound together. Table salt, plastics, stainless steel, paint, window glass, and soap are all
made from a combination of elements.
Nevertheless, we do have experience with a few chemical elements in our everyday
lives (Figure 8-4).
• Helium: A light gas that has many uses besides filling party balloons and blimps.
In liquid form, helium is used to maintain superconductors at low temperatures
(see Chapter 11).
• Carbon: Pencil lead, charcoal, and diamonds are all examples of pure carbon. The
differences between these materials have to do with the way the atoms of carbon are
linked together, as we discuss in Chapter 11.
• Aluminum: A lightweight metal used for many purposes. The dull white surface of
the metal is actually a combination of aluminum and oxygen, but if you scratch the
surface, the shiny material underneath is pure elemental aluminum.
• Copper: The reddish metal of pennies and pots. Copper wire provides a cheap and
efficient conductor of electricity.
• Gold: A soft, yellow, dense, and highly valued metal. For thousands of years the ele-
ment gold has been coveted as a symbol of wealth. Today it coats critical electrical
contacts in spacecraft and other sophisticated electronics.
Although we know of more than 90 different elements in nature, many natural sys-
tems are constructed from just a few. Six elements—oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron,
aluminum, and calcium—account for almost 99% of Earth’s solid mass. Most of the
atoms in your body are hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen, with smaller but impor-
tant roles played by phosphorus and sulfur. And most stars are formed almost entirely
from the lightest element, hydrogen.
Stop and Think! Look around you. How many different elements do
you see? How many different compounds? Is it reasonable that there
should be so many more compounds than elements? Why or why not?
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The Structure of the Atom | 165
Joe Mitchell/Getty Images
Kulka/zefa/©Corbis
(a) (b)
iStockphoto
Edward Rozzo/©Corbis
David Arky/©Corbis
(c) (d) (e)
• Figure 8-4 Among the elements used in daily life include (a) helium in balloons, (b) carbon
in diamond, (c) aluminum in cans, (d) copper in wires, and (e) gold in electronics.
The Structure of the Atom

Dalton’s idea of the atom as a single indivisible entity was not destined to last. In 1897,
English physicist Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940), a teacher of Ernest Rutherford,
unambiguously identified a particle called the electron. Thomson found that the elec-
tron has a negative electrical charge and is much smaller and lighter than even the small-
est atom known. Because there was no place from which a particle such as the electron
could come, other than inside the atom, Thomson’s discovery provided incontrovertible
evidence for what people had suspected for a long time. Atoms are not the fundamental
building blocks of matter, but rather are made up of things that are smaller and more
fundamental still. Table 8-1 summarizes some of the important terms related to atoms.
Table 8-1 Important Terms Related to Atoms

Element A chemical substance that cannot be broken down further
Atom The smallest particle that retains its chemical identity
Molecule A collection of two or more atoms bound together; the
smallest unit of a substances that has the chemical properties
of the substance
Electron An atomic particle with negative charge and low mass
Nucleus The small, massive central part of an atom
Proton Positively charged nuclear particle
Neutron Electrically neutral nuclear particle
Ion An electrically charged atom
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THE ATOMIC N UCLEUS •

The most important discovery about the structure of the atom was made by New
Zealand–born physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) and his coworkers in Manches-
Thin
gold foil
ter, England, in 1911. The basic idea of the experiment is sketched in Figure 8-5. The
experiment started with a piece of radioactive material—matter that sends out energetic
particles (see Chapter 12). For our purposes, you can think of radioactive materials as
Screen
sources of tiny subatomic “bullets.” The particular material that Rutherford used pro-
duced bullets that scientists had named alpha particles, which are thousands of times
heavier than electrons. By arranging the apparatus as shown, Rutherford produced a
Source of
particles stream of these subatomic bullets moving toward the right in the figure. In front of this
stream, he placed a thin foil of gold.
• Figure 8-5 In Rutherford’s experi- The experiment was designed to measure something about the way atoms were put
ment, a beam of radioactive particles together. At the time, people believed that the small, negatively charged electrons were
was scattered by atomic nuclei in a scattered around the entire atom, more or less like raisins in a bun. Rutherford was try-
piece of gold foil. A lead shield pro- ing to shoot bullets into the “bun” and see what happened.
tected researchers from the radiation. What the experiment revealed was little short of astonishing. Almost all the sub-
atomic bullets either passed right through the gold foil unaffected or were scattered
through very small angles. This result is easy to interpret: it means that most of the
heavy alpha particles passed through spaces in between gold atoms, and that those that
hit the gold atoms were only moderately deflected by the relatively low-density mater-
ial in them.
Fewer than one alpha particle in a thousand, however, was scattered through a large
angle; some even bounced straight back. After almost two years of puzzling over these
extraordinary results, Rutherford concluded that a large part of each atom’s mass is located
in a very small, compact object at the center—what he called the nucleus. About 999 times
out of 1000 the alpha particles either missed the atom completely or went through the low-
density material in the outer reaches of the atom. About 1 time out of 1000, however, the
alpha particle hit the nucleus and was bounced through a large angle.
You can think of the Rutherford experiment in this way. If the atom were a large ball
of mist or vapor with a diameter greater than a skyscraper, and the nucleus was a bowl-
ing ball at the center of that sphere of mist, then most bullets shot at the atom would go
right through. Only those that hit the bowling ball would be bounced through large
angles. In this analogy, of course, the bowling ball plays the part of the nucleus, while
the mist is the domain of the electrons.
As a result of Rutherford’s work, a new picture of the atom emerged, one that is
very familiar to us. Rutherford described a small, dense, positively charged nucleus sit-
ting at the atom’s center, with light, negatively charged electrons circling it, like planets
orbiting the Sun. Indeed, Rutherford’s discovery has become an icon of the modern
age, adorning everyday objects from postage stamps to bathroom cleaners (Figure 8-6).
• Figure 8-6 The Nuclear Regula- Later on, physicists discovered that the nucleus itself is made up primarily of two differ-
tory Commission, the U. S. govern- ent kinds of particles (see Chapter 12). One of these carries a positive charge and is
ment agency that oversees nuclear called a proton. The other, whose existence was not confirmed until 1932, carries no
power plants and nuclear waste dis- electrical charge and is called a neutron.
posal, uses a highly stylized atomic For each positively charged proton in the nucleus of the atom, there is normally
model as its logo.
one negatively charged electron “in orbit.” Thus the electrical charges of the electrons
and the protons cancel out, and every atom is electrically neutral. In some cases, atoms
either lose or gain electrons. In this case, they acquire an electrical charge and are
called ions.
WHY THE R UTHERFORD ATOM C OULDN’T WORK •

The picture of the atom that Rutherford developed is intellectually appealing, particu-
larly because it recalls to us the familiar orbits of planets in our solar system. We have
already learned enough about the behavior of nature, however, to know that the atom
that is described in the text could not possibly exist in nature. Why do we say this?
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When Matter Meets Light | 167
We learned in Chapter 2 that an object traveling in a circular orbit is constantly

being accelerated—it is not in uniform motion because it is continually changing
direction. Furthermore, we learned in Chapter 5 that any accelerated electrical charge
must give off electromagnetic radiation, as a consequence of Maxwell’s equations.
Thus, if an atom was of the Rutherford type, the electrons moving in their orbits
would constantly be giving off energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This
energy, according to the first law of thermodynamics, would have to come from some-
where (remember conservation of energy!), so the electrons would gradually spiral in
toward the nucleus as they gave up their energy to electromagnetic radiation. Eventu-
ally, the electrons would have to fall into the nucleus and the atom would cease to
exist in the form we know.
In fact, if you put in the numbers, the life expectancy of the Rutherford atom turns
out to be less than a second. Given the fact that many atoms have survived billions of
years, since almost the beginning of the universe, this calculation poses a serious prob-
lem for the simple orbital model of the atom.
When Matter Meets Light

Almost from its inception, the Rutherford model of the atom encountered difficulties.
Some of the problems involved its violations of fundamental physical laws as we have
described, whereas others were more mundane—the Rutherford atom simply did not
explain all the behavior of atoms that scientists knew about. The first decades of the
twentieth century represented a period of tremendous ferment in the sciences as people
scrambled to find a new way of describing the nature of atoms.
THE B OHR ATOM •
Courtesy American Institute of Physics

In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), a young Danish physicist working in England
(Figure 8-7), produced the first model of the atom that avoided the kinds of objec-
tions encountered by Rutherford’s model. The Bohr atom is very strange: it does
not match well with our intuition about the way things “ought to be” in the real
world. The only thing in the Bohr atom’s favor was that it worked.
Bohr’s insight began with an educated guess about the distinctive way in which hot
hydrogen atoms give off light. Hydrogen gas glows by giving off light in several sepa-
rate wavelengths, rather than in a continuous range of wavelengths. The young Bohr
was deeply immersed in studying this emission of light and the way that atoms interact
with light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. He realized that one way of
explaining what he saw in the laboratory was that electrons circling the nucleus, unlike
planets circling the Sun, could not maintain their orbits at just any distance from the
center. He suggested that there were only certain orbits—he called them “allowed
orbits”—located at specified distances from the center of the atom in which an electron
could exist for long periods of time without giving off radiation. (We prefer to use the
terms electron energy levels or electron shells, rather than allowed orbits, when describing
the distribution of electrons in atoms, because later work showed the idea of electron
orbits is not a good description of the atom.) Bohr’s picture of the atom is shown in
Figure 8-8a. The idea is that the electron can exist at a specific distance r1 from the • Figure 8-7 Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
with Aage Bohr, one of his five sons.
nucleus, or at a distance r2 or r3, and so on, each distance corresponding to a different
Both won Nobel Prizes in physics.
electron energy level. As long as the electron remains at one of those distances, its
energy is fixed. In the Bohr atomic model, the electron cannot ever, at any time, exist
at any place between these allowed distances.
One way to think about the Bohr atom is to imagine what happens when you climb a
flight of steps. You can stand on the first step or you can stand on the second step. It’s very
hard, however, to imagine what it would be like to stand somewhere between two steps. In
just the same way, an electron can be in the first energy level, or in the second energy level,
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Scott Carnazine/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Neutron Electron
r3
r2
r1
Proton
(a) (b)
• Figure 8-8 (a) A schematic diagram of the Bohr atom showing the first three energy lev-
els and respective distances (r1, r2, and r3) from the nucleus. (b) A model atom has a nucleus
with massive protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
and so on, but it can’t be in between these allowed energy levels. In terms of energy, both
the steps and the electrons in an atom may be represented by a simple pictorial description
(Figure 8-9). Each time you change steps in your home, your gravitational potential energy
changes. Similarly, each time an electron changes levels, its energy changes.
An electron in an atom can be in any one of a number of allowed energy levels, each
corresponding to a different distance from the nucleus. You would have to exert a force
over a distance to move an electron from one allowed energy level to another, just as
your muscles have to exert a force to get you up a flight of stairs. Thus, the allowed
energy levels of an atom occur as a series of steps as shown in the figure. An electron in
the lowest energy level is said to be in the ground state, while all energy levels above the
ground state are called excited states.
P HOTONS: PARTICLES OF LIGHT •

One major feature of the Bohr atom is that an electron in a higher energy level can move
down into an available lower energy level. This process is analogous to that by which a ball
at the top of a flight of stairs can bounce down the stairs under the influence of gravity.
Electron energy levels

r4
Excited state, r4
r2
r1
Excited state, r4
Excited state, r2
Excited state, r3
Excited state, r2
Ground state, r1
Ground state, r1
• Figure 8-9 Stairs provide an analogy to energy changes associated with electrons in the
Bohr atom. An electron can be in the ground energy state or any one of several higher
energy levels, but never in between energy levels.
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When Matter Meets Light | 169
Assume that an electron is in an excited state, as shown in Figure 8-10. The

Possible energy levels in hydrogen atom
electron can move to the lowest state, but if it does, something must happen to
the extra energy. Energy can’t just disappear. This realization was Bohr’s great Electron
insight. The energy that’s left over when the electrically charged electron moves –
from a higher state to a lower state is emitted by the atom in the form of a single Proton + 1 2 3 4 5
packet of electromagnetic radiation—a particle-like bundle of light called a
photon. Every time an electron jumps from a higher to a lower energy level, a
photon moves away at the speed of light.
The concept of a photon raises a perplexing question: Is light—Maxwell’s (a)
electromagnetic radiation—a wave or a particle? We will explore this puzzle at
some length in Chapter 9, once we have learned more about the behavior of – Excitation
atoms.
The interaction of atoms and electromagnetic radiation provides the most Photon
compelling evidence for the Bohr atom. If electrons are in excited states, and if absorbed
+ 1 2 3 4 5
they make transitions to lower states, then photons are emitted. If we look at a
group of atoms in which these transitions are occurring, we will see light or other
electromagnetic radiation. Thus when you look at the flame of a fire or the glow-
ing heating coil of an electric stove in your kitchen, you are actually seeing pho- (b)
tons that were emitted by electrons jumping between allowed states in that
material’s atoms. De-excitation
Not only does the Bohr atom give us a picture of how matter emits radia- Photon emitted
tion, it provides an explanation for how matter absorbs radiation. Start with an
–
electron in a low-energy state, perhaps its ground state. If a photon arrives that
has just the right amount of energy so that it can raise the electron to a higher + 1 2 3 4 5
energy (the next step up), the photon can be absorbed and the electron will be
pushed up to an excited state. Absorption of light is something like a mirror
image of light emission.
Our picture of the interaction of matter and radiation is exceedingly simple, (c)
but two key ideas are embedded in it. For one thing, when an electron moves from one • Figure 8-10 Electrons in an atom
allowed state to another, it cannot ever, at any time, be at any place in between. This rule may jump between the energy levels
is built into the definition of an allowed energy level. This means that the electron must shown in (a) and, in the process,
(b) absorb or (c) emit energy in the
somehow disappear from its original location and reappear in its final location without form of a photon.
ever having to traverse any of the positions in between. This process, called a quantum leap
or quantum jump, cannot be visualized, but it is something that seems to be funda-
mental in nature—an example of the “quantum weirdness” of nature at the atomic scale
that we’ll discuss in Chapter 9.
The second key idea is that if an electron is in an excited state, it can, in principle,
get back down to the ground state in a number of different ways. Look at Figure 8-11a.
An electron in the upper energy level can move to the ground state by making one large
jump and emitting a single photon with large energy. Alternatively, it can move to the
ground state by making two smaller jumps, as shown in Figure 8-11b. Each of these
jumps emits a photon of somewhat less energy. The energies emitted in the two differ-
ent jumps will generally be different from each other, but the sum of the two energies
will equal that of the single large jump. If we had a large collection of atoms of this kind,
we would expect that some electrons would make the large leap while others would
make the two smaller ones. Thus, when we look at a collection of these atoms, we would
measure three different energies of photons.
This curious behavior of electron energy levels helps to explain the familiar phenom-
enon of fluorescence that we introduced in Chapter 6. Recall that the energy of electro-
magnetic radiation is related to its frequency. In fluorescence, the atom in Figure 8-11
absorbs a higher-energy photon of ultraviolet radiation (which our eyes can’t detect). The
atom then emits two lower-energy photons, at least one of which is in the visible range.
Consequently, by shining ultraviolet “black light” on the fluorescent material, it glows
with a bright color.
A key point about the Bohr atom is that energy is required to lift an electron
from the ground state to any excited state. This energy has to come from somewhere.
We have already mentioned one possibility: that the atom will absorb a photon of just
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 170
the right frequency to raise the electron to a higher energy level.

There are other possibilities, however. If the material is heated,
for example, atoms will move fast, gain kinetic energy, and
Energy emitted undergo energetic collisions. In these collisions, an atom can
+ + as a single photon
absorb energy and then use that energy to move electrons to a
higher state. This explains why materials often glow when they
are heated.
Before Quantum leap to ground state
quantum leap in one jump
AN I NTUITIVE LEAP •
(a)
Bohr first proposed his model of the atom based on an intuition
guided by experiments and ideas about the behavior of things in
Energy emitted the subatomic world. In some ways the Bohr model was com-
as two photons pletely unlike anything we experience in the macroscopic world;
indeed, the model seemed to some a little bit “crazy.” It took two
+ +
decades for scientists to develop a theory called quantum mechan-
ics that showed why electrons can exist only in Bohr’s “allowed
orbits” and not in between. We will discuss this justification for the
Before Quantum leap to ground state Bohr atom in Chapter 9, but it should be remembered that the
quantum leap in two jumps justification occurred long after the initial hypothesis. The Bohr
atom was accepted by physicists because it worked—it explained
(b) what they saw in nature and allowed them to make predictions
• Figure 8-11 An electron can about the behavior of real matter.
jump from a higher to lower energy How could Bohr have come up with such a strange picture of the atom? He was
level in (a) a single quantum leap that
undoubtedly guided by some of the early work that would lead to the theory of quan-
is accompanied by the release of one
photon, or (b) by multiple quantum tum mechanics (see Chapter 9). In the end, however, this explanation is unsatisfactory.
leaps that are accompanied by the Many people at the time studied the interactions of atoms and light, but only Bohr was
release of more than one photon. able to make the leap of intuition to his description of the atom. This insight, like New-
ton’s realization that gravity might extend to the orbit of the Moon, remains one of the
great intuitive achievements of the human mind.
Stop and Think! How are intuitive leaps, such as the one made by
Bohr, consistent or not consistent with the scientific method as described
in Chapter 1?
Spectroscopy
Whenever energy is added to a system with many atoms in it, electrons in some atoms
jump to excited states. As time goes by, these electrons will make quantum leaps down
to the ground state, giving off photons or heat energy as they do. If some of those pho-
tons are in the range of visible light, the source will appear to glow.
You may not realize it, but you have looked at such collections of atoms all your life.
Common mercury vapor street lamps contain bulbs filled with mercury gas. When the
gas is heated, electrons are moved up to excited states. When they jump down, they emit
photons that give the lamp a bluish-white color. Other types of streetlights, often used
at freeway interchanges, use bulbs filled with sodium atoms. When sodium is excited,
the most frequently emitted photons lie in the yellow range, so the lamps look yellow
(Figure 8-12).
Yet another place where you can see photons emitted directly by quantum leaps is
in Day-Glo colors, the vivid colors often used in sports clothing and advertising. From
these examples, you can draw two conclusions: (1) quantum leaps are very much in
evidence in your everyday life, and (2) different atoms give off different characteristic
photons.
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Spectroscopy | 171
The second of these two facts is extremely
Yoav Levy/Phototake
important for scientists. If you think about the
structure of an atom, the idea that different atoms
emit and absorb different characteristic photons
shouldn’t be too surprising. Electron energy levels
depend on the electrical attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons, just as the orbits of the
planets depend on the gravitational attraction
between the planets and the Sun. Different nuclei
have different numbers of protons, so electrons cir-
cling them are in different energy levels. In fact, the
energy between the allowed energy levels within
the atom is different in each of the hundred or so
different chemical elements. Because the energy
and frequency of photons emitted by an atom
depend on the differences in energy between these
levels, each chemical element emits a distinct set of
characteristic photons.
You can think of the collection of characteris- (a) (b) (c)
tic photons emitted by each chemical element as a • Figure 8-12 The elements (a)
kind of “fingerprint”—something that is distinctive for that chemical element and sodium, (b) potassium, and (c) lithium
none other. This feature opens up a very interesting possibility. The total collection of impart distinctive colors to a flame.
photons emitted by a given atom is called its spectrum, a characteristic fingerprint
that can be used to identify chemical elements even when they are very difficult to
identify by any other means.
In practice, the identification process works like this: Light from the gaseous
atoms is spread out by being passed through a prism (Figure 8-13). Each possible
quantum jump corresponds to light at a specific wavelength, so each type of atom pro-
duces a set of lines, as shown in Figure 8-14. This spectrum is the atomic fingerprint.
The Bohr picture suggests that if an atom gives off light of a specific wavelength
and energy, then it will also absorb light at that wavelength. The emission and absorp-
tion processes, after all, may involve quantum jumps between the same two energy lev- • Figure 8-13 A glass prism
els but in different directions. Thus if white light shines through a material containing spreads out the colors of the visible
a particular kind of atom, certain wavelengths spectrum.
of light will be absorbed. Observing that light
Orange
Yellow
Green
Violet
on the other side of the material, you will see
Red
certain colors missing. The dark areas corre-
sponding to the absorbed wavelengths are Visible spectrum
called absorption lines. This set of lines is as
much an atomic fingerprint as the set of colors
that the atoms emit. And although the use of
visible light is very common, these arguments
hold for radiation in any part of the electro-
magnetic spectrum.
Spectroscopy has become a standard tool
that is used in almost every branch of science.
Astronomers use emission spectra to find the
Source of
chemical composition of distant stars, and white light Prism
they study absorption lines to determine the Slit
chemical composition of interstellar dust and
the atmospheres of the outer planets. Spec-
Collimating
troscopic analysis is also used in manufactur- lens
ing to search for impurities on production
lines, and by police departments to identify
small traces of unknown materials when con-
ducting investigations.
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 172
Courtesy Bausch & Lomb

(a) Atomic hydrogen (H)
(b) Sodium (Na)
(c) Neon (Ne)
• Figure 8-14 Line spectra, shown here for (a) hydrogen, (b) sodium, and (c) neon, provide
distinctive fingerprints for elements and compounds.
Spectra of Life’s Chemical Reactions

In a classic set of experiments in the early 1940s, scientists used spectroscopy to work out in
detail how chemical reactions governed by large molecules called enzymes (see Chapter 22)
proceed in cells. In these experiments, a fluid containing the materials undergoing the
chemical reactions was allowed to flow down a tube. The farther down the tube the fluid
was, the farther along the reaction was. By measuring spectra at different points along the
tube, scientists were able to follow the change in the behavior of electrons as the chemical
reactions went along. In this way, part of the enormously complex problem of understand-
ing the chemistry of life was unraveled.
More recently, scientists have begun to develop instruments that can use the princi-
ples of spectroscopy to identify pollutants emitted by automobile tailpipes as the cars
drive by. If they are successful, we will have a major new tool in our battle against air pol-
lution and acid rain (see Chapter 19). •
The Story of Helium

You have probably experienced helium, perhaps to inflate party balloons. Helium gas
turns out to be a very interesting material, not only for its properties (it’s less dense than
air, so it floats up), but because of the history of its discovery.
The word helium refers to helios, the Greek word for Sun, because helium was first dis-
covered in spectral lines in the Sun in 1868 by English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer
(1836–1920). Helium is very rare in Earth’s atmosphere, and before Lockyer’s discovery
scientists were not even aware of its existence. Following the discovery, there was a period
of about 30 years when astronomers accepted the fact that the element helium existed in
the Sun, but were unable to find it on Earth.
This supposition led to a very interesting problem. Could it be that there were
chemical elements on the Sun that simply did not exist on our own planet? If so, it
would call into question our ability to understand the rest of the universe, for the simple
reason that if we don’t know what an element is and can’t isolate it in our laboratories,
then we can never really be sure that we understand its properties. In fact, the existence
of helium on Earth wasn’t confirmed until 1895, when Lockyer identified its spectrum
in a sample of radioactive material. •
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Spectroscopy | 173
TECHNOLOGY •
The Laser
The Bohr atom provides an excellent way of understanding the workings of one of the most
important devices in modern science and industry—the laser. The word laser is an acronym
for l ight amplification by s timulated e mission of r adiation. At the core of every laser is a
collection of atoms—a crystal of ruby, per-
haps, or a gas enclosed in a glass tube. The
term stimulated emission refers to a process Photon 1
that goes on when light and these atoms
interact. If an electron is in an excited state, as
shown in Figure 8-15, and one photon of just Photon 2
the right energy passes nearby, the electron
may be stimulated to make the jump to a
lower energy state, thus releasing a second
photon. By “just the right energy” for the first Photon 3
+
photon, we mean a photon whose energy cor-
responds to the energy gap between two elec-
tron energy levels in the atom.
Furthermore, the stimulated atom emits Atom 1
+
photons in a special way. Remember that Atom 2
light is a form of electromagnetic radiation
that can be described as a wave. In a laser,
the crests of all the emitted photon waves
line up exactly with the crests of the first photon, and the signal is enhanced by construc- • Figure 8-15 Lasers produce a
beam of light when one photon stim-
tive interference. In the language of the physicists, we say that the photons are “coher- ulates the emission of other photons.
ent.” Thus in stimulated emission, you have one photon at the beginning of the process
and two coherent photons at the end.
Now suppose that you have a collection of atoms where most of the electrons are in the
excited state, as shown in Figure 8-16. If a single photon of the correct frequency enters this Science News
system from the left and moves to the right, it will pass the first atom and stimulate the emis-
sion of a second photon. You will then have two photons moving to the right. As these pho- Laser Eye Surgery
tons encounter other atoms, they, too, stimulate emission so that you have four photons. It’s Go to your WileyPLUS course
not hard to see that light amplification in a laser will happen very quickly, cascading so that to view video on this topic
soon there is a flood of photons moving to the right through the collection of atoms. Energy
added to the system from outside continuously returns atoms to their excited state—a
process called pumping—so that more and more coherent photons can be produced.
In a laser, the collection of excited atoms is bounded on two sides by mirrors so that
photons moving to the right hit the mirror, are reflected, and make another pass
Mirror Electrodes for

(100% reflecting) optical pumping
Mirror
(95% reflecting)
Tube containing
helium and neon
Coherent light beam
Power supply Excited atoms
• Figure 8-16 The action of a laser. Electrons in the laser’s atoms are continu-
ously “pumped” into an excited state by an outside energy source, and the
beam of photons is released when the electrons return to their ground state.
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 174

Ray Nelson/Phototake
through the material, stimulating even more emission of
photons as they go. If a photon happens to be lined up exactly
perpendicular to the mirrors at the end of the laser, it will con-
tinue bouncing back and forth. If its direction is off by even a
Rolf Vennenbernd/dpa/Landov LLC

small angle, however, it will eventually bounce out through
the sides of the laser and be lost. Thus only those photons that
are exactly aligned will wind up bouncing back and forth
between the mirrors, constantly amplifying the signal. Aligned
photons will traverse the laser millions of times, building up
an enormous cascade of coherent photons in the system.
The mirrors are designed to be partially reflective—perhaps
95% of the photons that hit the mirror are reflected back into
the laser. The remaining 5% of photons that leak out form the
familiar laser beam, which is made of intense, coherent light.
Laser beams have been applied in thousands of uses in
science and industry since their development in the 1960s
(Figure 8-17a). Low-power lasers are ideal for optical scanners,
such as the ones in supermarket checkout lines, and they make
ideal light pointers for lectures and slide shows. The fact that
(a) (b) the beam of light travels in a straight line makes the laser invalu-
• Figure 8-17 Lasers have many able in surveying over long distances—for example, modern
uses. (a) Lasers are used by subway tunnels are routinely surveyed by using lasers to provide a straight line under-
astronomers to align and focus ground. Lasers are also used to detect movement of seismic faults in order to predict earth-
telescopes. (b) Light generated quakes (see Chapter 17). In this case, a laser is directed across the fault, so that small
in this argon laser is carried by motions of the ground are easily measured. Finely focused laser beams have revolutionized
fiber-optic cable for use in delicate procedures such as eye surgery (Figure 8-17b). Much more powerful lasers can
surgery on the human eye. transfer large amounts of energy. They are often used as cutting tools in factories, as well as
implements for performing some kinds of surgery. The military has also adopted laser tech-
nology, in targeting and range finders, and in designs for futuristic energy beam weapons.
From the point of view of science, however, lasers are important because they enable
us to make extremely precise measurements of atomic structures and properties. Almost
all modern studies of the atom depend in some way on the laser. •
The Periodic Table of the Elements

The periodic table of the elements, which systematizes all known chemical elements,
provides a powerful conceptual framework for understanding the structure and interac-
tion of atoms. Dimitri Mendeleev, the Russian scientist who studied the regularity or
periodicity in the known chemical elements (see Chapter 1), related that periodicity to
each element’s atomic properties. Today, each element is assigned an integer, called the
atomic number, which defines the sequence of elements in the table. The atomic number
corresponds to the number of protons in the atom, or, equivalently, if the atom is not
charged, to the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus. If you arrange the ele-
ments as shown in Figure 8-18, with elements getting progressively heavier as you read
from left to right and top to bottom as in a book, then elements in the same vertical col-
umn have very similar chemical properties.
P ERIODIC C HEMICAL P ROPERTIES •

The most striking characteristic of the periodic table is the similarity of elements in any
given column. In the far left-hand column of the table, for example, are highly reactive
elements called alkali metals (lithium, sodium, and potassium, designated Li, Na, and K
in Figure 8-18, respectively). Each of these soft, silvery elements forms compounds
(called salts) by combining in a one-to-one ratio with any of the elements in the next-to-
last column (fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, designated F, Cl, and Br). Water dissolves
these compounds, which include sodium chloride, or table salt.
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 175
The Periodic Table of the Elements | 175
Atomic number
IA metal metalloid nonmetal VIIIA

(1) 1 (18)
1
H 2
1 H IIA 1.00794 IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.00794 (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.00260
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Atomic mass B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.01218 10.811 12.011 14.00674 15.9994 18.99840 20.1797
11 12
VIIIB
13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.98977 24.3050 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98154 28.0855 30.97376 32.066 35.4527 39.948
Periods
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.078 44.95591 47.88 50.9415 51.9961 54.9380 55.847 58.93320 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.92159 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 98.9072 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.82 118.710 121.75 127.60 126.90447 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90543 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.85 186.207 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.96654 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98037 208.9824 209.9871 222.0176
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 Halogens Noble
7 Fr Ra †Ac Rf Ha Sg Ns Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub or Inert
223.0197 226.0254 227.0278 261.11 262.114 263.118 262.12 (265) (266) (269) (272) (277)
Gases
Alkali Alkaline
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metals Earth Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
*
Metals 140.115 140.90765 144.24 144.9127 150.36 151.965 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

† Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 237.0482 244.0642 243.0614 247.0703 247.0703 242.0587 252.083 257.0951 258.10 259.1009 260.105
• Figure 8-18 The periodic table of the elements. The weights of the elements increase from
left to right. Each vertical column groups elements with similar chemical properties.
The elements in the second column, including beryllium, magnesium, and calcium
(designated Be, Mg, and Ca, respectively), are metallic elements called the alkaline
earth metals and they too display similar chemical properties among themselves. These
elements, for example, combine with oxygen in a one-to-one ratio to form colorless
compounds with very high melting temperatures.
Elements in the far right-hand column (helium, neon, and argon, designated He,
Ar, and Ne), by contrast, are all colorless, odorless gases that are almost impossible to
coax into any kind of chemical reaction. These so-called noble gases find applications
when ordinary gases are too reactive. Helium lifts blimps, because the only other lighter-
than-air gas is the dangerous, explosive element hydrogen. Argon fills incandescent
lightbulbs, because nitrogen or oxygen would react with the hot filament.
In the late nineteenth century, scientists knew that the periodic table “worked”—it
organized the 63 elements known at that time and implied the existence of others—but
they had no idea why it worked. Their faith in the periodic table was buttressed by the
fact that, when Mendeleev first wrote it down, there were holes in the table—places
where he predicted elements should go, but for which no element was known. The
ensuing search for the missing kinds of atoms produced the elements we now call scan-
dium (in 1876) and germanium (in 1886).
WHY THE P ERIODIC TABLE WORKS: E LECTRON S HELLS •

With the advent of Bohr’s atomic model and its modern descendants, we finally have
some understanding of why the periodic table works. We now realize that the pattern of
elements in the periodic table mirrors the spatial arrangement of electrons around the
atom’s nucleus—a concentric arrangement of electrons into shells.
The atom is largely empty space. When two atoms come near enough to each
other to undergo a chemical reaction—a carbon atom and an oxygen atom in a burn-
ing piece of coal, for example—electrons in the outermost shells meet each other
first. We will see in Chapter 10 that these outermost electrons govern the chemical
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 176
properties of materials. We have to understand the behavior of these electrons if we

want to understand the periodic table.
To do this, we need to know one more curious fact about electrons. Electrons are
particles that obey what is called the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that no two
electrons can occupy the same energy state at the same time. One analogy is to compare
electrons to cars in a parking lot. Each car takes up one space, and once a space is filled,
no other car can go there. Electrons behave in just the same way. Once an electron fills
a particular niche in the atom, no other electron can occupy the same niche. A parking
lot can be full long before all the actual space in the lot is taken up with cars, because the
driveways and spaces between cars must remain empty. So, too, a given electron shell can
be filled with electrons long before all the available space is filled.
In fact, it turns out that there are only two spaces that an electron can fill in the
innermost electron shell, which corresponds to the lowest Bohr energy level. One of
these spaces corresponds to a situation in which the electron “spins” clockwise on its
axis, the other to a situation in which it “spins” counterclockwise on its axis. When we
start to catalog all possible chemical elements in the periodic table, we have element
one (hydrogen) with a single electron in the innermost shell, and element two (helium)
with two electrons in that same shell. After this, if we want to add one more electron, it
has to go into the second electron shell because the first electron shell is completely
filled. This situation explains why only hydrogen and helium appear in the first row in
the periodic table.
Adding a third electron yields lithium, an atom with two electrons in the first shell,
and a single electron in the second electron shell. Lithium is the element just below
hydrogen in the first column of the periodic table, because both hydrogen and lithium
have a lone electron in their outermost shell (Figure 8-19).
The second electron shell has room for eight electrons, a fact reflected in the eight
elements of the periodic table’s second row, from lithium with three electrons to neon
with ten. Neon appears directly under helium, and we expect these two gases to have
similar chemical properties because both have a completely filled outer electron shell.
• Figure 8-19 A representation of

electrons in a number of common
atoms reveals the underlying struc-
ture of the periodic table of the ele- +1 +2
ments. The first electron shell can H He
hold one or two electrons, corre- First electron
sponding to the first two elements, shell
hydrogen and helium. The second
and third shells each hold eight addi-
tional electrons. Atoms in the same
column have the same configuration
of electrons in their outer shells: the
first column has a single electron, the +3 +6 +8 +9 +10
next to the last column is one elec-
tron short of a filled shell, and the Li C O F Ne
last column (the noble gases) have Second electron
completely filled outer shells. shell
+11 +14 +16 +17 +18
Na Si S Cl Ar
Third electron
shell
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 177
Summary | 177
Thus, a simple counting of the positions available to electrons in the first two elec-
tron shells explains why the first row in the periodic table has two elements in it and the
second row eight. By similar (but somewhat more complicated) arguments, you can
show that the Pauli exclusion principle requires that the next row of the periodic table
has 8 elements, the next 18, and so on. Thus, with an understanding of the shell-like
structure of the atom’s electrons, the mysterious regularity that Mendeleev found
among the chemical elements becomes an example of nature’s laws at work.
Thinking More About Atoms
WHAT D O ATOMS “LOOK LIKE?” your teeth, for example, unless some intermediary system—
film or electronic—converts the X-rays into a pattern that can
Throughout this book you will find drawings of atoms. In this be detected in the visible region of the electromagnetic spec-
chapter we drew atoms as electrons in circular shells around a trum. Similarly, astronomers often convert radio waves, infrared
central nucleus. In Chapter 10, atoms appear as little spheres in radiation, and other wavelength data into false-color images
pictures of molecules like H2O (water) and crystals like NaCl of distant objects. Scanning tunneling microscope “pictures”
(table salt). In other chapters atoms are portrayed as fuzzy of atoms come from another such transformation. The
clouds, or waves, or even collections of dozens of smaller amount of electrical charge at a particular point on a material’s
sphere-like particles. So, what do atoms really “look like?” surface is converted into the height of the peak you see in the
Strictly speaking, we only “see” something when electro- picture.
magnetic waves from the visible part of the spectrum enter our Is an X-ray picture of your teeth more real than the micro-
eyes. We are accustomed, however, to talking about other scope picture of the atom? Why or why not?
ways of “seeing.” You cannot see X-rays being absorbed by
Why are there so many different materials in the world? • For example, if you burn wood you get the gases carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, as well as numerous other
• As we look around our world, we see a myriad of materials.
materials found in the leftover ash. Similarly, if you use an
Some of these are naturally occurring, like the sand on the beach
electrical current to break down water, you get two gases,
or the air we breathe, while others are “man-made” like the plas-
hydrogen and oxygen.
tic of our computer keyboard.
• Nevertheless, Dalton and his contemporaries recognized
• Given the obvious diversity of matter, philosophers and scientists
that a few materials, called elements, could not be broken
have wondered for millennia if any common fundamental con-
down into other substances by any chemical means.
stituents or ultimate building blocks of our natural world exist.
• Today we know that the materials around us are constructed
º Democritus (circa 530 BC) argued that all matter is constructed from smaller, more fundamental constituents called atoms, the
of eternal and unchanging particles, which he called “atoms.”
chemical building blocks of our universe. These chemical build-
From a theoretical standpoint, he was not too far “off the
ing blocks combine together to form all the materials in our uni-
mark.” Nonetheless, the “atoms” of modern chemistry bear lit-
verse, from simple elements like helium to incredibly complex
tle resemblance to the atoms of Democritus.
organic molecules like proteins.
º Over two millennia later, the father of modern chemistry, John
Dalton (1766–1844), argued that evidence provided by In Chapter 11, you will see that the arrangement of atoms
chemists demonstrated that although most materials could be not only creates the diversity of matter, but also the myriad
broken down into simpler chemicals, there were some materi- properties that matter exhibits.
als that resisted further deconstruction.
S UMMARY •
About 100 different elements are sufficient to form all the solids, liq- century and recent imaging of individual atoms in new kinds of micro-
uids, and gases around us. Atoms, the building blocks of our chemical scopes have confirmed the existence of these tiny particles.
world, combine into groups of two or more; these groups are called Each atom contains a massive central nucleus made from posi-
molecules. For thousands of years atoms were discussed purely as hypo- tively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. Surrounding
thetical objects, but studies of Brownian motion early in the twentieth the nucleus are electrons, which are negatively charged particles that
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have only a small fraction of the mass of protons and neutrons. Early electron energy level are called quantum leaps or quantum jumps.
models of this kind of atom treated electrons like planets orbiting Spectroscopic studies of the light emitted or absorbed by atoms—
around the Sun. Those models were flawed, however, because each the atom’s spectrum—reveal the nature of each atom’s electron
electron, constantly accelerating, would have to emit electromag- energy levels.
netic radiation continuously. Niels Bohr proposed an alternative Each atom’s electrons are arranged in concentric shells. When
model in which electrons exist in various energy levels, much as you two atoms interact, electrons in the outermost shell come into con-
can stand on different levels of a flight of stairs. tact. This shell-like electronic structure is reflected in the organiza-
Electrons in the Bohr atom can shift to a higher energy level tion of the periodic table of elements, which lists all the elements in
by absorbing the energy of heat or light. Electrons can also drop rows corresponding to increasing numbers of electrons in each shell,
into a lower energy level and in the process release heat or a and in columns corresponding to elements with similar numbers of
photon, an individual electromagnetic wave. These changes in outer shell electrons and thus similar chemical behavior.
K EY TERMS •
element electron photon spectrum
atom nucleus quantum leap, spectroscopy
molecule Bohr atom or quantum jump periodic table of the elements
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Light is a mixture of colors and can be separated into these various cylinder base. Put a tape around the border of the tube and the index
colors by using a spectroscope. Each element has its own unique cards to avoid any light coming into the cylinder. Cut a circle on the
spectrum. Electrons in an atom of an element jump to an excited CD about the diameter of the toilet paper roll. Peel away the silver
state when they are given energy. If the energy is removed they return colored film from the CD and glue the CD to the toilet paper roll on
to their ground state, emitting photons or energy in the process. For the opposite end of the slit. Now you have your spectroscope tube.
building your own spectroscope you will need an old CD, toilet paper Point the slit to the source of light and look through the CD. The
roll, two index cards, a permanent marker, masking tape, and scissors. source of light can be a fluorescent light bulb, an incandescent light,
Take two index cards and place them side by side so that there is a candle, or glow stick. (Caution! Do not look at the Sun.) Draw the
a small slit between them. Glue the paper roll to the index cards. Cut spectrum produced by each source of light and compare them. In
away the excess of index cards; they should be slightly larger than the what ways do the atomic spectra support Bohr’s model of the atom?
Top view
Paper Cut away

roll excess cards
Side views
Sharpie-marked
circle
Index Narrow
card slit
CD
Add Paper roll
CD
Tape
Cards
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Problems | 179
1. Did Democritus use the scientific method to study the existence 9. How does Bohr’s model of the atom differ from Rutherford’s?
of atoms? How does the interaction of atoms and electromagnetic energy pro-
2. Did Dalton use the scientific method in his studies of the vide evidence for the Bohr model of the atom?
existence of atoms? 10. What is the relationship between a photon and a quantum leap?
3. Review six kinds of observational evidence that were used to 11. How might an emission spectrum and an absorption spectrum
support the atomic theory. of a given element differ in appearance?
4. What three particles make up every atom? What are the major 12. Cite three examples of everyday objects with vivid emission
differences among these particles? spectra.
5. What is the most massive part of the atom? Of what does it 13. How might astronomers on Earth use spectroscopy to deter-
consist? Why are electrons and protons found in different parts mine chemical elements that occur in stars?
of the atom? 14. Describe the basic components of a laser. How does a laser
6. Why is the smallest unit of an element an atom, but the smallest work?
unit of a compound is a molecule? 15. How is the periodic table arranged? How do the atomic
7. Approximately how many elements are necessary to form all the weights change as you move from the upper left to the lower
solids, liquids, and gases around us? right of the table?
8. Review the basic elements of Rutherford’s experiment. What 16. How is the electromagnetic spectrum related to quantum leaps
evidence did Rutherford use to justify his discovery of the nucleus? (i.e., electrons moving to lower or higher energy levels)?
1. Which atomic model (i.e., Bohr’s or Rutherford’s) resembles 10. What does it mean to say the periodic table was useful because
our solar system of planets orbiting the Sun most closely in struc- it “worked?” How does this relate to the scientific method? Can you
ture? How is the degradation of orbiting planets in our solar system think of another invention that “worked” without our having a sci-
like that of the Rutherford atomic model? entific understanding of the principles that underlied its operation?
2. For what does the acronym LASER stand? 11. Why is chlorine used in pools and to bleach clothing? What
3. What are coherent photons? How are they related to the pro- chemical property does chlorine possess that makes it a good chem-
duction of laser emissions? ical for that purpose? Using the periodic table, what other elements
4. Carbon dioxide lasers are often used for welding and cutting. might be used instead of chlorine?
What other chemical elements are used in lasers? 12. Space probes often carry compact spectrometers among their
5. Rutherford’s experiment involved firing nucleus-sized “bullets” scientific hardware. What kind of spectroscopy might scientists use
at atoms of gold. Why might he have chosen gold instead of to determine the surface composition of the cold, outer planets that
hydrogen? orbit the Sun? How might they use spectroscopy to determine the
6. What is a quantum leap? How big is a quantum leap? Advertisers atmospheric composition of these planets?
often describe improvements in their products as a “quantum leap.” 13. In the science fiction series Star Trek, there is a weapon called
Is this an appropriate use of the term? the “photon torpedo.” Given what you now know about photons,
7. Based on your knowledge of Newton’s laws of motion, the laws speculate about how such a weapon might work.
of thermodynamics, and the nature of electromagnetic radiation, 14. If you replaced the tungsten filament of a typical incandescent
explain why the Rutherford model of the atom couldn’t work and bulb with an iron filament, would the emission spectrum be the
the Bohr model does. same? Why or why not?
8. When you shine invisible ultraviolet light (black light) on certain 15. If you replaced the argon in a typical incandescent bulb with
objects, they glow with brilliant colors. How might this behavior be oxygen, what would happen to the filament? Why?
explained in terms of the Bohr atom? 16. How does the Pauli exclusion principle relate to the arrange-
9. Why do different lasers have different-colored beams? ment of elements in the periodic table?
P ROBLEMS •
1. If the electrons in an atom can occupy any of four different How do these numbers compare with the number of known
energy levels, how many lines might appear in that atom’s spec- chemical elements?
trum? What if the atom has five different energy levels? 4. Using the periodic table, calculate the result of the following
2. Imagine that you have four different chemical elements in your equation: the number of electrons in the outer shell of a hydro-
chemical laboratory. What is the maximum number of 1:1 chemical gen atom minus the number of electrons in the outer shell of a
compounds that you could form? What if you had 12 different helium atom plus the number of electrons in the outer shell of a
chemical elements? hydrogen atom.
3. Imagine that you have six different chemical elements. What is the
maximum number of 1:1:1 chemical compounds that you could
form? What about 1:1:2 compounds? What about 1:2:3 compounds?
c08.qxd 9/11/09 10:58 AM Page 180
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Investigate the history of the discovery of chemical elements. 4. Why do colors look different when viewed indoors under fluo-
What technological innovations led to the discovery of several new rescent light, and outdoors in sunlight? How might you devise an
elements? What was the most recent element to be discovered, and experiment to quantify these differences?
how was it found? How much time did researchers have to study 5. Investigate the variety of lasers that are currently available. What
the most recently developed element? How many elements occur in is the range of wavelengths available? How are different lasers used
nature, and how many are human-made? in medicine? in industry? in science?
2. Simple handheld spectroscopes are available in many science labs. 6. At your local hardware store, find “full-spectrum” fluorescent or
Look at the spectra of different kinds of lightbulbs: an incandescent incandescent bulbs. Read the labels describing their emission spec-
bulb, a fluorescent bulb, a halogen bulb, and any other kinds avail- trum. What wavelengths of electromagnetic energy do the bulbs
able to you. What differences do you observe in their spectra? Why? produce? Are they really “full spectrum”?
3. Place pieces of transparent materials between a strong light 7. Many television crime shows depict forensic investigators using
source and the spectrometer described in Investigation 2. Does the spectroscopy to detect the residue of bodily fluids at crime scenes.
spectrum change? Why? How does spectroscopy detect this residue?
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9
Quantum Mechanics
How can the electron
behave like both a particle and a wave?
PHYSICS
Quantum
mechanics requires
an entirely new way
of describing the state
of a system at the
BIOLOGY level of the atom. CHEMISTRY
Wave-particle
Some scientists
duality explains the
think that quantum
shapes of allowed
mechanics is
electron orbits, and
intimately involved in
therefore the
the phenomenon of
chemical reactions
consciousness.
of atoms.
At the subatomic scale,

everything is quantized.
Any measurement at GEOLOGY
that scale significantly
Sensitive alters the object The way that atoms
electronic detectors being measured. combine to form
can detect the minerals is governed
emission of a single by the laws of
photon from an quantum
excited atom. mechanics.
TECHNOLOGY
In
CAT scans,
The nuclear photoelectric
reactions that power devices convert X-ray
the Sun are governed photons into electrical
by the laws of currents, whose
quantum mechanics. strength can be used to
(Ch. 14) produce a picture of
= other applications,
a patient’s internal
= applications of the organs.
some of which are
great idea discussed discussed in other
in this chapter ASTRONOMY HEALTH & SAFETY chapters
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Science Through the Day Digital Pictures
t’s 9:30 a.m. as you pull into the oceanside parking lot. You’ve made great time and
Stuart O’Sullivan/Stone/Getty Images

I are eager to hit the beach. You see your friends waiting near the entrance. As you
shout and wave, a classmate snaps your picture on his new digital camera. Everyone
crowds around to see the crisp image on the camera’s video monitor.
But how can a little box almost instantaneously capture and display a picture?
At the heart of every digital camera is a plate of light-sensitive material called a
photoelectric device—the same kind of material that converts the Sun’s energy into
electricity in a solar cell and measures brightness in a light meter. These everyday
objects are practical consequences of one of the strangest discoveries in science—
the discovery of the quantum world.
The World of the Very Small

In Chapter 8 we saw that when an electron moves between energy levels and emits a pho-
ton, it is said to make a quantum leap. The term quantum mechanics refers to the theory
that describes this event and other events at the scale of the atom. The word quantum
comes from the Latin word for “bundle,” and mechanics, as we saw in Chapter 2, is the
study of the motion of material objects. Quantum mechanics, then, is the branch of science
that is devoted to the study of the motion of objects that come in small bundles, or quanta.
We have already seen that material inside the atom comes in little bundles—tiny pieces of
matter we call electrons travel in orbits around another little bundle of matter we call the
nucleus. In the language of physicists, the atom’s matter is said to be quantized.
Electrical charge is also quantized—electrons have a charge of exactly –1 fundamen-
tal unit of charge, and protons have a 1 charge. We’ve seen that photons emitted by an
atom can have only certain values of energy, so that energy levels in the atom and emit-
ted energy are quantized. In fact, inside the atom, in the world of the submicroscopically
small, everything comes in quantized bundles.
Our everyday world isn’t like this at all. Although we’ve been told since childhood
that the objects around us are made up of atoms, for all intents and purposes we experi-
ence matter as if it were smooth, continuous, and infinitely divisible. Indeed, for almost
any phenomenon in the physical world, the idea of matter existing in continuous form
works as well as anyone would want.
The quantum world is foreign to our senses. All of the intuition that we have
built up about the way the world operates—all of the “gut feelings” we have about
the universe—comes from our experiences with large-scale objects made up of appar-
ently continuous material. If it should turn out (as it does) that the world of the
quantum does not match our intuition, we should not be surprised. We have never
dealt with this kind of world, so we have no particular reason, based on observations
or experience, to believe that it should behave one way or the other.
This warning may not make you feel much better as you learn just how strange and
different the quantum world really is, but it might help you come to intellectual grips
with a most fascinating part of our physical universe.
182
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The World of the Very Small | 183
M EASUREMENT AND OBSERVATION IN THE QUANTUM WORLD •

Every measurement in the physical world incorporates three essential components:
1. A sample—a piece of matter to study
2. A source of energy—light, wave, or heat or kinetic energy that interacts with the sample
3. A detector to observe and measure that interaction
When you look at a piece of matter such as this book, you can see it because light bounces
off the book and comes to your eye, a very sophisticated detector (see Chapter 6). When
you examine a piece of fruit at the grocery store, you apply energy by squeezing it to
detect if it feels too ripe.
Many professions employ sophisticated devices to make their measurements. Air traf-
fic controllers reflect microwaves off airplanes to determine their positions (Figure 9-1),
oceanographers bounce sound waves off deep-ocean sediments to map the seafloor, and
dentists pass X-rays through your teeth and gums to look for cavities. In our everyday
world we assume that such interactions of matter and energy do not change the objects
being measured in any appreciable way. Microwaves don’t alter an airplane’s flight path,
nor do sound waves disturb the topography of the ocean’s bottom. And while prolonged
exposure to X-rays can be harmful, the dentist’s brief exploratory X-ray photograph has
no obvious immediate effects on the tooth. Our experience tells us that a measurement
can usually be made on a macroscopic object—something large enough to be seen with-
out a microscope—without altering that object, because the energy of the probe is much
less than the energy of the object.
The situation is rather different in the quantum world. If you want to “see” an
electron, you have to bounce energy off it so that the information can be carried to
your detectors. But nothing at your disposal can interact with the electron without
simultaneously affecting it. You can bounce a photon off it, but in the process the
electron’s energy will change. You can bounce another particle off it, but the electron
will recoil like a billiard ball. No matter what you try, the energy of the probe is too
close to the energy of the thing being measured. The electron cannot fail to be altered
by the interaction.
Many everyday analogies illustrate the process of measurement in the quantum
world. It’s like trying to detect bowling balls by bouncing other bowling balls off
them. The act of measurement in the quantum world poses a dilemma analogous to
trying to discover if there is a car in a tunnel when the only means of finding out is to
send another car into the tunnel and listen for a crash. With this technique you can MAI/NASA/Landov LLC
certainly discover whether the first car is there. You can probably even find out where
it is by measuring the time it takes the probe car to crash. What you cannot do, how-
ever, is assume that the first car is the same after the interaction as it was before. In
the same way, nothing in the quantum world can be the same after the interaction
associated with a measurement as it was before.
In principle, this argument would apply to any interaction, whether it involves
photons and electrons or photons and bowling balls. As we demonstrate in the “Sci-
ence by the Numbers” section in this chapter, however, the effects of the interaction
for large scale objects are so tiny that they can simply be ignored, while in the case of
interactions at the atomic level, they cannot. This fundamental difference between the
quantum and macroscopic worlds is what makes quantum mechanics quite different
from the classical mechanics of Isaac Newton. Remember that every experiment, be it
on planets or fruit or quantum objects, involves interactions of one sort or another.
The consequences of small-scale interactions make the quantum world different, not
the fact that a measurement is being made.
• Figure 9-1 A radar antenna sends
THE H EISENBERG U NCERTAINTY P RINCIPLE • out microwaves that interact with
flying airplanes, are reflected, and
In 1927, a young German physicist, Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), put the idea of detected on their return. This allows
limitations on quantum-scale measurements into precise mathematical form. His work, air traffic controllers to keep track of
which was one of the first results to come from the new science of quantum mechanics, where airplanes are in the sky.
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184 | C HAP TE R 9 | Quantum Mechanics
is called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle in his honor. The central concept of the
uncertainty principle is simple:
At the quantum scale, any measurement significantly alters the object being
measured.
Suppose, for example, you have a particle such as an electron in an atom and want to know
where it is and how fast it’s moving. The uncertainty principle tells us that it is impossible
to measure both the position and the velocity with infinite accuracy at the same time.
The reason for this state of affairs, of course, is that every measurement changes the
object being measured. Just as the car in the tunnel could not be the same after the first
measurement was made on it, so too will the quantum object change. The result is that
as you measure one property such as position more and more exactly, your knowledge of
a property such as velocity gets fuzzier and fuzzier.
The uncertainty principle doesn’t say that we cannot know a particle’s location with
great precision. It is possible, at least in principle, for the uncertainty in position to be
zero, which would mean that we know the exact location of a quantum particle. In this
case, however, the uncertainty in the velocity has to be infinite. Thus, at the point in time
when we know exactly where the particle is, we have no idea whatsoever how fast it is
moving. By the same token, if we know exactly how fast the quantum particle is moving,
we cannot know where it is. It could, quite literally, be in the room with us or in China.
In practice, every quantum measurement involves trade-offs. We accept some fuzzi-
ness in the location of the particle and some fuzziness in the knowledge of the velocity,
playing the two off against each other to get the best solution to whatever problem it is
we’re working on. We cannot have precise knowledge of both at the same time, but we
can know either one as accurately as we like at any time.
Let’s look a little more closely at the differences between the world of our intuition
and the quantum world. In the former, we assume that measurement doesn’t affect the
thing being measured, so that we can have exact, simultaneous knowledge of both the
position and velocity of an object such as a car or a baseball. In the quantum world, as
Heisenberg taught us, we cannot.
Heisenberg put his notion into a simple mathematical relationship, which is a complete
and exact statement of the uncertainty principle.
In words: The error or uncertainty in the measurement of an object’s position, times
the error or uncertainty in that object’s velocity, must be greater than a constant
(Planck’s constant) divided by the object’s mass.
In equation form:
1uncertainty in position 2 1uncertainty in velocity2 7

h
mass
where h is a number known as Planck s constant 1see below2.
,
In symbols:
h
¢x ¢v 7
m
This equation is a precise, shorthand way of saying that you can never know both the posi-
tion and velocity of an object with perfect accuracy. The difference between our everyday
world and the world inside the atom hangs on the question of the numerical value of h/m,
the numbers on the right side of Heisenberg’s equation. In SI units (see Appendix A),
Planck’s constant, h, has a value of 6.63 10–34 joule-seconds.
The important point about the Heisenberg relationship is not the exact value of the
number, h/m, but the fact that the number is greater than zero. Look at it this way. If
you make more and more precise measurements about the location of a particle, you
determine its position more and more exactly, and the uncertainty in position, ¢ x, must
get smaller and smaller. In this situation, it follows that the uncertainty in velocity, ¢ v,
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The World of the Very Small | 185
has to get bigger and bigger. In fact, we can use the uncertainty principle to calculate
exactly our uncertainty in velocity for a given uncertainty in position, and vice versa.
Uncertainty in the Newtonian World

The best way to understand why we do not have to worry about the uncertainty princi-
ple in our everyday life is to calculate the uncertainty in measurements in two separate
situations: large objects and very small objects.
1. Small Uncertainties with Large Objects. A moving automobile with a mass of
1000 kilograms is located in an intersection that is 5 meters across. How precisely can
you know how fast the car is traveling?
We can solve this problem by noting that if the car is somewhere in an intersection
5 meters across, then the uncertainty in position of the car is about equal to 5 meters.
Thus we know the car’s mass and uncertainty in position, so we can calculate the
uncertainty in velocity:

h
mass
First, we must rearrange this equation to solve for uncertainty in velocity:
1h>mass 2
1uncertainty in velocity2 7
uncertainty in position
3 16.63 1034 J-s2>1000kg4
7
5m
3 16.63 1037
J-s2>kg4
7
5m
37
7 1.33 10 m>s
Thus the uncertainty in the velocity of the automobile is greater than 1.33 10–37 m/s
(note that the unit J-s/kg-m is equivalent to m/s; see Problem 2 at the end of the
chapter). This uncertainty is extremely small. Theoretically, we could know the velocity of
the car to an accuracy of 37 decimal places! In practice, however, we have no method of
measuring velocities with present or foreseeable future technology to an accuracy
remotely approaching this. The uncertainty is, for all practical purposes, indistinguish-
able from zero. Therefore, for objects with significant mass such as automobiles, the
effects of the uncertainty principle are totally negligible. The equation confirms our expe-
rience that Newtonian mechanics works perfectly well in dealing with everyday objects.
2. Large Uncertainties with Small Objects. Contrast the preceding example with
the uncertainty in velocity of an electron in an atom, located within an area about
10–10 meters on a side. To what accuracy can we measure the velocity of that elec-
tron? The mass of an electron is 9.11 10–31 kg. If we take the uncertainty in
position to be 10–10 m, then according to the uncertainty principle,
1h>mass 2
1uncertainty in velocity2 7
uncertainty in position
3 16.63 1034 J-s2>19.11 1031 kg 2 4
7
1010 m
7 7.3 106 m>s
This uncertainty is very large indeed. The mere fact that we know that an electron is
somewhere in an atom means that we cannot know its velocity to within a million
meters per second.
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For ordinary-sized objects such as cars and bowling balls, whose mass is mea-
sured in kilograms, the number on the right side of the uncertainty relation is so small
that we can treat it as being zero. Only when the masses get very small, as they do for
particles such as the electron, does the number on the right get big enough to make
a practical difference. •
Stop and Think! How big do you suppose something has to be before
we can forget about the effects of the uncertainty principle? as big as a
speck of dust? a baseball? a car?
Probabilities
The uncertainty principle has consequences that go far beyond simple statements about
measurement. In the quantum world we must radically change the way that we describe
events. Consider an everyday example in which the uncertainties are much larger (but
easier to picture) than those associated with Heisenberg’s equation. Think of a batter
hitting a ball during a nighttime baseball game.
Imagine yourself at a big-league ball game under the lights of a great stadium. Cheering
fans fill the stands, roving vendors sell their food and drink, and the pitcher and batter play
out their classic duel. The pitcher stares the batter down, winds up, and hurls a fastball. But
the batter is ready and pounces on the pitch. The ball leaps off the bat with a sharp crack.
And then all the lights go out.
Where will the ball be in five seconds? If you were an outfielder, this would be more
than a philosophical question. You would need to know where to go to make your catch,
even in the dark. In a Newtonian world, you would have no problem in doing this. If you
knew the position and velocity of the ball at the instant the lights went out, some simple
calculations would tell you exactly where the ball would be at any time in the future.
• Figure 9-2 The position of a If you were a quantum outfielder in an atom-sized ball field, on the other hand, you
“quantum baseball” cannot be would have a much harder time of it. You couldn’t know both the position and velocity of
precisely determined. Instead, you the quantum ball when the lights go out; at best you could put some bounds on them.
can predict only the probabilities of You might, for example, be able to say something like “It’s somewhere inside this 3-foot
the ball being at various distances
from home plate, as discussed in the
circle and traveling between 30 and 70 feet per second.” This means that when you have
text. The most likely location is at the to guess where it would be in five seconds, you wouldn’t be able to do so with any accu-
peak of the curve, but the ball could racy. If you were thinking in Newtonian terms, you would have to say that the ball could
be anywhere else. be 147 feet from the plate (if it were traveling 30 feet per second and located at the back
of the 3-foot circle), 353 feet from the plate (if it were traveling
70% 80% 90% 70 feet per second and located at the front of the circle), or any-
60%
50% place in between. The best you could do would be to predict the
40%
30% likelihood, or probability, that the ball would be anywhere in the
20% outfield, and you could present these probabilities on a graph like
10%
the one shown in Figure 9-2.
This example shows that the uncertainty principle requires a
description of quantum-scale events in terms of probabilities. Just
like the baseball in our example of the darkened stadium, there
must be uncertainties in the position and velocity for every quan-
tum object when we first start observing it, and hence there will be
uncertainties at the end—uncertainties that can be dealt with by
reporting probabilities.
This result is extremely important. It tells us that we cannot
think of quantum events in the same way that we think of normal
events in our everyday world. In particular, we have to rethink
what it means to talk about concepts such as regularity, pre-
Homeplate dictability, and causality at the quantum level.
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Wave-Particle Duality | 187
Wave-Particle Duality
Quantum mechanics is sometimes called wave mechanics because it turns out that quan-
tum objects sometimes act like particles and sometimes like waves. This dichotomy is
known as the problem of wave-particle duality, and it is a feature of the quantum world.
To understand it, think about how particles and waves behave in our macroscopic world.
THE D OUBLE-S LIT TEST •

Energy travels either as a wave or as a particle in our everyday world (see Chapter 6).
Particles transfer energy through collisions, while waves transfer energy through col-
lective motion of the media or electromagnetic fields. Every aspect of the everyday
world can be neatly divided into particles or waves, and many experiments can be used
to determine whether something is a particle or wave. The most famous of these
experiments uses a double-slit apparatus, which consists of a barrier that has two slits
in it (Figure 9-3). If particles such as baseballs are thrown from the left side, a few will
make it through the slits, but most will bounce off. If you were standing on the other
side of the barrier, you would expect to see the baseballs coming through more or less
in the two places shown, accumulating in two piles behind the barrier. You wouldn’t
expect to see many particles (baseballs) at the spots between the slits.
If, however, waves of water were coming from the left side, you would expect to see the
results of constructive and destructive interference (see Chapter 6). Rather than the two
piles of baseballs, we would see perhaps half a dozen regions of high waves beyond the bar-
rier, interspersed with regions of still water.
Now, let’s use the same arrangement to see whether light behaves as a particle or a
wave. In Chapter 8 we learned that light is emitted in discrete bundles of energy called
• Figure 9-3 The two-slit experi-
photons. On the one hand, photons behave like particles in the sense that they can be ment may be used to determine
localized in space. You can set up experiments in which a photon is emitted at one point, whether something is a wave or a
then received somewhere else after an appropriate lapse of time, just as a baseball is “emit- particle. (a) A stream of particles
ted” by a pitcher and “received” later by a catcher (Figure 9-3a). If, on the other hand, like baseballs striking the barrier will
you shine light—a flood of photons—on the two-slit apparatus, you will definitely get an accumulate in the two regions
interference pattern on the right (Figure 9-3b). In that experiment, photons act like directly behind the slits. (b) When
waves. The big question: How can photons sometimes act like waves and sometimes act waves converge on two narrow slits,
however, constructive and destruc-
like particles? tive interference results in a series
You can make the problem even more puzzling by setting up the barrier so of peaks.
that only one photon at a time comes through the slits. If you do this, you find
Detectors
that each photon arrives at a specific point at the film—behavior you would
Number of particles
expect of a particle. If you allow photons to accumulate over long periods of
time, however, they will arrange themselves into an interference pattern charac-
teristic of a wave.
You could do a similar series of experiments with any quantum object—
electrons, for example (Figure 9-4), or photons, or even atoms. They all Particle gun
exhibit the properties of both particles and waves, depending on what sort of (shooting baseballs)
experiment is done. If you perform an experiment that tests the particle prop- Barrier
(a)
erties of these things, they look like particles. If you perform an experiment to
test their wave properties, they look like waves. Whether you see quantum
Detector
objects as particles or waves seems to depend on the experiment that you do.
Some experimenters have gone so far as to try to “trick” quantum particles
such as electrons into revealing their true identity by using modern fast elec-
tronics to decide whether a particle- or wave-type experiment is being done Wave
after the quantum object is already on its way into the apparatus. Scientists who
do these experiments find that the quantum object seems to “know” what Wave source
experiment is being done, because the particle experiments always turn up par-
ticle properties, while the wave experiments always turn up wave properties.
At the quantum level, the objects that we talk about are neither particles nor Barrier
waves in the classical sense. In fact, we can’t really visualize them at all, because (b) Intensity of wave
c09.qxd 9/11/09 11:04 AM Page 188
• Figure 9-4 When electrons pass Electron

through a two-slit barrier one at a time
(a), they cause 100 single spots on a Film
photographic film (b). As the number Double slit
of electrons increases to 3000 (c), and barrier
then to 70,000 (d), a wave-like interfer-
ence pattern emerges. The bright
areas are places where constructive
interference occurs, and the dark areas
correspond to destructive interference. Moving electrons
(Images courtesy Akira Tonomura, J. Endo, T. Matsuda
and T. Kawasaki, Am J. Phys. 57(2): 117, February 1989.
Reproduced with permission of American Institute of
Physics.)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
we have never encountered anything like them in our everyday experience. They are a third
kind of object, neither particle nor wave, but exhibiting the properties of both. If you per-
sist in thinking about them as if they were baseballs or surf coming onto a beach, you will
quickly lose yourself in confusion.
It’s a little bit like finding someone who has seen only the colors red and green in
her entire life. If she has decided that everything in the world has to be either red or
green, she will be totally confused by seeing the color blue. What she has to realize is
that the problem is not in nature, but in her assumption that everything has to be either
red or green.
In the same way, the problem of wave-particle duality arises from our assumption
that everything has to be either a wave or a particle. If we allow ourselves the possibility
that quantum objects are things that we have never encountered before, and that they
therefore might have unencountered properties, the puzzle vanishes. However, it van-
ishes only if we agree that we won’t try to draw a picture of these objects or pretend that
we can actually visualize what they are.
TECHNOLOGY •
The Photoelectric Effect

When photons of sufficient energy strike some materials, their energy can be absorbed
by electrons, which are shaken loose from their home atoms. If the material in question
is in the form of a thin sheet, then when light strikes one side, electrons are observed
coming out of the other. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect, and it finds
applications in numerous everyday devices.
One aspect of the photoelectric effect played a major role in the history of quantum
mechanics. The time between the arrival of the light and the appearance of the electrons is
extremely short—far too short to be explained by the relatively gentle action of a wave
nudging the electrons loose. In fact, it was Albert Einstein who pointed out that the expla-
nation of this rapid response depended on the particle-like nature of the photon. He argued
that the interaction between the light and the electron is something like the collision
between two billiard balls, with one ball shooting out instantly after the collision. It was this
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Wave-Particle Duality and the Bohr Atom | 189
work, which led to our modern concept of the photon, that was the basis of Einstein’s
Nobel Prize in 1921.
The conversion of light energy into electrical current is used in many familiar devices.
In a digital camera, for example, one photoelectric device measures the amount of light
available to determine how wide to open the lens and what the shutter speed should be.
Then a photoelectric plate collects the photographic image. In telephone systems that use
fiber optics—glass fibers that act like pipes for visible light—light signals strike sophisti-
cated semiconductor devices (see Chapter 11) and shake loose electrons. These electrons
form a current that ultimately drives the diaphragm in your telephone and produces the
sound that you hear. In CAT scans, photoelectric devices convert X-ray photons into
electrical currents whose strength can be used to produce a picture of a patient’s internal
organs. As all of these examples show, an understanding of the way objects interact in the
quantum world can have enormous practical consequences. •
Wave-Particle Duality and the Bohr Atom

Treating electrons as waves helps explain why only cer- Courtesy Education Development Center
tain “orbits” are allowed in atoms (see Chapter 8).

Every quantum object displays a simple relationship
between its speed (when we think of it as a particle) and
its wavelength (when we think of it as a wave). It turns
out that for electrons, protons, and other quantum
objects, a faster speed always corresponds to a shorter,
more energetic wavelength (or a higher frequency).
If you think of an electron as a particle, then you
can treat its motion around an atom’s nucleus in the
same Newtonian way you treat the motion of Earth in
orbit around the Sun. That is, for any given distance
from the nucleus, the electron must have a precise
velocity to stay in a stable orbit. Provided it is moving
at such a velocity, it will stay in that orbit just as Earth
stays in a stable orbit around the Sun. Any faster and it
must adopt a higher orbit; any slower and it will move
closer to the nucleus.
If we choose to think about the electron as a wave,
however, a different set of criteria can be used to decide
how to put the electron into its orbit. A wave on a
straight string (on a guitar, for example) vibrates uni-
formly only at certain frequencies that depend on the
length of the string (Figure 9-5). These frequencies
1
correspond to fitting ⁄2, 1, and 3⁄2 wavelengths on the
string in the figure. Now imagine bending the guitar
string around into a circular orbit. In this case, you will
be able to fit only certain standing waves in the orbit, as
shown in Figure 9-6.
You can now ask a simple question: Are there any
orbits for which the wave and particle descriptions
are consistent? In other words, are there orbits for
which the velocity of the electron (when we think of
it as a particle) is appropriate to the orbit, while at the
• Figure 9-5 A vibrating string adopts a regular

pattern, known as a standing wave. These photos and
1
diagrams illustrate fixed patterns with (a) ⁄2, (b) 1, and (c)
3⁄2 wavelengths. (a) (b) (c)
c09.qxd 9/11/09 11:04 AM Page 190
same time the electron wave (when we think of it as a wave) fits onto the orbit, given the
relation between wavelength and velocity?
When you do the mathematics, you find that the only orbits that satisfy these twin
conditions are equivalent to the Bohr electron energy levels (Figure 9-8). That is to say, the
only orbits allowed in the atom are those for which it makes no difference whether we think of the
Nucleus electron as a particle or a wave. In a sense, then, the wave-particle duality exists in our
r
minds, and not in nature—nature has arranged things so that what we think doesn’t matter.
Q UANTUM WEIRDNESS •
The fact that quantum objects behave so differently from objects in our everyday experience
causes many people to worry that nature has somehow become “weird” at the subatomic
level. The description of particles in terms of a wave defies our commonsense. Situations in
• Figure 9-6 An electron in an
which a photon or an electron seems to “know” how an apparatus will be arranged before
atom adopts a standing wave like a
vibrating string. This illustration the arranging is done seem wrong and unnatural.
shows a standing wave with four Many people, scientists and nonscientists alike, find the conclusions of quantum
wavelengths fitting into the orbit’s mechanics to be quite unsettling. The American physicist Richard Feynman stressed this
circumference. point when he said, “I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics. p
Do not keep saying to yourself, ‘But how can it be like that?’ p Nobody knows how it can
be like that.”
In spite of this rather disturbing situation, the success of quantum mechanics provide
sample evidence that there is a correct way to describe an atomic-scale system. If you
ignore this fact, you can get into a lot of trouble. Newtonian notions like position and
velocity just aren’t appropriate for the quantum world, which must be described from the
beginning in terms of waves and probabilities. Quantum mechanics thus becomes a way
of predicting how subatomic objects change in time. If you know the state of an electron
now, you can use quantum mechanics to predict the state of that electron in the future.
This process is identical to the application of Newton’s laws of motion in the macroscopic
world. The only difference is that in the quantum world, the “state” of the system is a
probability.
In the view of most working scientists, quantum mechanics is a marvelous tool that
allows us to do all sorts of experiments and build all manner of new and important pieces
of equipment. The fact that we can’t visualize the quantum world in familiar terms
seems a small price to pay for all the benefits we receive.
TECHNOLOGY •
Quantum Computing
In Chapter 11 we will describe in detail the workings of the modern digital com-
puter. We will see that the basic working unit of a computer is a device known as a
transistor, which can be in one of two possible states—on or off. (Think of it as a
sort of high-tech lightbulb.) This means that the computer is a device which takes
in information in digital form, manipulates it, and sends it back out in the same way.
The basic unit of information in this sort of device is called the “bit,” with a single
bit telling us whether a given transistor is on or off. The computer works by chang-
ing bits one at a time (by switching transistors on and off), and at any moment in
time we can characterize the state of the computer by listing the state of each indi-
vidual transistor.
Scientists have known for decades that quantum mechanics implies the possibility of
a radically new type of computer. Because quantum states are described by wave func-
tions or probabilities, you can think of a computer in which the basic device, instead of
being “on” or “off,” is described as a mix of probabilities of these two states. Such a unit
of information is called a “qubit” (for “quantum bit”). Theoretically, a machine that
manipulates qubits can be thought of as being in many different states at the same time,
instead of in just one state like the conventional computer. This means, theoretically,
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Quantum Entanglement—Weirdness in Action | 191
that a quantum computer could solve certain types of problems much more quickly than
a conventional one.
Research today is concentrated on building devices that can manipulate qubits, with
a full-fledged quantum computer being far in the future. At the moment, the consensus
seems to be that conventional computers are improving so fast, and the problems
involved in developing a quantum computer so difficult, that it is hard to justify the cost
of developing the device. •
A Famous Interchange
Many people are disturbed by the fact that nature must be described in terms of prob-
abilities at the subatomic level. Many scientists were also disturbed when quantum
mechanics was first developed in the early twentieth century. Even Albert Einstein, one
of the founders of quantum mechanics, could not accept what it was telling us about
the world. He spent a good part of the last half of his life trying to refute it. His most
famous statement from this period was, “I cannot believe that God plays dice with the
universe.”
Confronted one too many times with this aphorism, Einstein’s lifelong friend
and colleague Neils Bohr is supposed to have replied, “Albert, stop telling God what
to do.” •
Quantum Entanglement—Weirdness in Action

One of the strangest features of the quantum world goes by the name quantum entan-
glement. It has no real analog in our everyday experience, but here is an example that
demonstrates its main characteristic. Suppose you had a set of dice, and each die was per-
fectly normal—if rolled individually, a die shows each face one-sixth of the time. Now
suppose you take one of the dice to New York and the other to Los Angeles and rolled
them. Imagine discovering when you did this that whatever showed on the New York
die also showed on its partner in Los Angeles. If the New York die came up with a 3, for
example, the Los Angeles die would do the same. This strange connection between the
two die would be inexplicable in our ordinary world but would simply be an example of
entanglement in the quantum world.
Here’s a simple example: suppose an atom emits two photons at the same time.
The two-photon system is then described by a wave function. Now let the two photons
travel in opposite directions, travel so far that there is no possibility that a signal travel-
ing at the speed of light could pass between them in the time that it takes to make a
measurement. In our ordinary world—if we were throwing baseballs, for example—we
would expect that a measurement on one baseball would have no effect on the other
once the two have separated. In the quantum world, however, the wave functions of
the two photons never really become separated. They remain entangled with each
other, so that if you measure one photon you know exactly what state the other one is
in. Don’t try to picture how measuring one photon can change the other, even when
the two have no way of communicating with each other. You can’t. This is just another
example of Feynman’s dictum.
As strange as quantum entanglement may seem, it actually has practical implications,
primarily through a process known as quantum teleportation.
Here’s how it works: Suppose Bob creates a pair of entangled photons (Figure 9-7).
He keeps one and sends the other to Alice. Bob then takes his entangled photon and
allows it to interact with another photon—call this third photon the “signal photon.” He
then phones Alice and tells her the result of the interaction. Using this information
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Bob • Figure 9-7 This is a schematic diagram of the process of

A B C quantum teleportation. ”Bob” creates a pair of entangled
Signal photons (shown in blue) and sends one to ”Alice.” Alice
Entangled photon
photons interacts her entangled photon with the signal photon (red) and
communicates the result to Bob, who can then recreate the
signal photon in his own laboratory.
Bob keeps
Bob sends a photon and her entangled photon, Alice can then reconstruct the
a photon
to Alice signal photon. Like the fictional “transporter” in the Star
Trek science fiction series, quantum teleportation
B C
destroys the signal photon in one place and recreates it in
A
another.
Information
Interaction and
One important aspect of quantum teleportation is that
Alice
of interaction measurement it allows absolutely secure communication between Bob and
Alice. If an eavesdropper (usually called “Eve”) intercepts
the phone conversation it will do her no good, because she
doesn’t have an entangled photon. If, on the other hand,
C Photons B she intercepts Alice’s entangled photon, the uncertainty
destroyed
A principle guarantees that she will change it, which means
that Bob and Alice will know that she is listening.
Reconstructs
The quantum teleportation of photons is now a fairly
signal photon routine laboratory exercise. The next step—the teleporta-
tion of atoms—is still in the future, and the teleportation of human beings remains firmly
in the realm of science fiction.
Imagno/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Stop and Think! Is the photon created by quantum teleportation the

same photon that was destroyed? If it has all the properties of the origi-
nal photon, how could you tell the two apart?
Science in the Making: Quantum Teleportation

In 1997, a group in Vienna headed by physicist Anton Zeilinger sent the first picture
through the use of quantum teleported photons. Zeilinger explained to his team
that since this would be a historic event, they would have to be careful in their
• Figure 9-8 The so-called Venus
choice of subject. In fact, he told them, he had two criteria: first, the image had to
of Willendorf, a 4" (11 cm) tall
prehistoric statue of a fertility be peaceful, and second, it had to be Austrian. Their choice: the so-called Venus of
goddess discovered in an Austrian Willendorf, a prehistoric statue of a fertility goddess discovered in an Austrian village
village, was the first picture trans- (Figure 9-8). •
mitted through the use of quantum
teleported photons.
Thinking More About Quantum Mechanics
U NCERTAINTY AND H UMAN B EINGS laid out with clockwork precision, it allows no room for human
action. No one can make a choice about what he or she will do,
The ultimate Newtonian view of the universe was the concept because that choice is already determined and exists (in the mind
of the Divine Calculator (see Chapter 2). This mythical being, of God or the Divine Calculator) before it is made.
given the position and velocity of every particle in the universe, Quantum mechanics gives us one way to get out of this par-
could predict every future state of those particles. The difficulty ticular bind. Heisenberg tells us that, although we might be able
with this concept, of course, is that if the future of the universe is to predict the future if we knew the position and velocity of every
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Key Equations | 193
particle exactly, we can never actually get those two numbers. Many scientists and philosophers have argued that the
The Divine Calculator in a quantum world is doomed to wait for- brain is no more than a physical structure. These thinkers have
ever for the input data with which to start the calculation. run into a problem, however, because if the brain is purely a
One area where the uncertainty principle is starting to play a physical object, its future states should be predictable. Recently,
somewhat unexpected role is in the old philosophical argument scientists (most notably Roger Penrose of Cambridge Univer-
about the connection between the mind and the brain. The sity) have argued that quantum mechanics can introduce a kind
brain is a physical object, an incredibly complex organ that of unpredictability that squares better with our perceptions of
processes information in the form of nerve impulses. (A more our own minds.
detailed description of the workings of the brain is given in Think about how the workings of the brain might be
Chapter 11.) The problem: What is the connection between the unpredictable at the quantum level. Why might that uncer-
physical reality of the brain—the atoms and structures that com- tainty make it difficult (or even impossible) to make precise
pose it—and the consciousness that we all experience? predictions of the future state of the brain?

How can the electron behave like both a particle and a wave? Nevertheless, the use of the wave and particle metaphors allows
us to visualize discrete facets of the behavior of these particles.
• Quantum mechanics is also called wave mechanics because quan-
º Treating electrons as waves helps explain why electrons will only
tum objects (e.g., electrons or photons) sometimes act like parti- be found in certain “allowable” orbits (see Chapter 8). Remem-
cles and sometimes like waves. This dichotomy is known as the ber that every quantum object displays a simple relationship
problem of wave-particle duality, and is a feature of the quantum between its velocity (when we think of it as a particle) and its
world. wavelength (when we think of it as a wave).
• The problem of duality dates back to at least the seventeenth º When you think of an electron as a particle, you can treat its
century when Christian Huygens and Isaac Newton debated the motion around an atom’s nucleus in the same Newtonian way
nature of light and matter. you treat the motion of Earth in orbit around the Sun. That is,
• In the twentieth century, quantum mechanics offered a unified for any given distance from the nucleus, the electron must have a
theoretical framework that afforded an understanding that all precise velocity to stay in a stable orbit. Conversely, if we choose
matter may exhibit the behavioral characteristics of both particles to think about the electron as a wave, a different set of criteria
and waves. can be used to decide how to place the electron into its orbit.
• In Chapter 8, we learned that experiments can be conducted in • Convincing evidence of the duality of electrons is offered by the
which photons or electrons will behave like particles in the sense fact that the Bohr electron energy levels are the only energy levels
that they can be localized in space. On the other hand, by using for which the wave and particle descriptions are consistent. In
the two-slit apparatus, an interference pattern will be observed other words, the Bohr energy levels satisfy the relationships
suggesting that photons and electrons act like waves. between velocity and orbits when the electron is being thought of
• At the quantum level, the subatomic objects about which we are as a particle, and the relationship between velocity and wavelength
writing are neither particles nor waves in the classical sense. when it is being thought of as a wave.
S UMMARY •
Matter and energy at the atomic scale come in discrete packets called must be greater than a small positive number. Unlike the Newtonian
quanta. The rules of quantum mechanics, the laws that allow us to world, you can never know the exact position and velocity of a quan-
describe and predict events in the quantum world, are disturbingly tum particle.
different from Newton’s laws of motion. These uncertainties preclude us from describing atomic-scale par-
At the quantum scale, unlike our everyday experience, any mea- ticles in the classical way. Instead, quantum descriptions are given in
surement of the position or velocity of a particle causes the particle to terms of the probability that an object will be in one state or another.
change in unpredictable ways. The mere act of measurement alters the Furthermore, quantum objects are not simply particles or waves, a
thing being measured. Werner Heisenberg quantified this situation in dichotomy familiar to us in the macroscopic world. They represent
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that the uncertainty something completely different from our experience, incorporating
in the position of a particle multiplied by the uncertainty in its velocity properties of both particles and waves.
K EY TERMS •
quantum mechanics uncertainty principle probability
K EY E QUATIONS •
h
mass
c09.qxd 9/11/09 11:04 AM Page 194
D ISCOVERY L AB •
At times light behaves as particles, which are packets of energy or Aluminum foil
photons, but it can also behave as waves. Light has characteristics that Setup (1" square)
any wave would have. Are you surprised at this dual nature of light?
To prove this statement you will need a red laser pointer, aluminum
foil, pin, projection screen (wall), a few clips and a razor.
First, cut 1 square inch of aluminum foil and create pinholes
Pinholes
by pressing the pin against the foil. The pinholes should be less (2 mm apart)
than 2 millimeters apart and should be as small as possible. Now
make two slits about 4 or 5 millimeters long and 1 millimeter Slits
apart. Place the laser about 10 to 12 meters away from the wall in (4-5 mm long
and 1 mm apart)
a dark room. Put the foil about 15 centimeters in front of the laser.
With the clips grasp the foil. Shine the laser beam through the pin-
holes. Make adjustments so that the beam falls on both the pin-
holes with same intensity. What is the diameter of the image with Experiment
the pinholes? What is the length of the image with the slits? What
Wall
happens when the waves from one slit meet with the waves from Aluminum
the other slit? How does this experiment describe the dual nature foil Laser
of the waves?
You can try different patterns instead of the slits and pinholes.
You can also use different color filters and compare the differences. 15 cm
10-12 meters
1. What is the name of the theory that describes events at the scale 7. Why is quantum mechanics sometimes called wave mechanics?
of the electron? 8. Describe what happens when a researcher shines a light on a
2. Give three examples of properties that are quantized at the scale “two-slit” apparatus. How does this demonstrate the wave-like
of an electron. nature of light?
3. Every measurement in the physical world requires three compo- 9. Give an everyday example of wave-particle duality.
nents. What are they? Provide an everyday example of each. 10. Explain how the photoelectric effect works. Does it depend on
4. In what way is a measurement at the quantum scale of an electron the wave or the particle nature of light?
different from a measurement at the large scales of everyday objects? 11. How does wave-particle duality explain the Bohr orbits of
5. There was once a humorous poster showing a picture of a bed with electrons in atoms?
the caption, “Heisenberg may have slept here.” In what way is this an 12. Why did Albert Einstein use playing dice as an analogy for
inaccurate representation of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle? quantum mechanics?
6. Under what circumstances can you know the velocity of an 13. What is a qubit? What potential is there in the manipulation of
electron with great accuracy? qubits?
1. Why are our observations and intuitions from our macro- 4. What experiment allows researchers to determine if some-
scopic Newtonian universe insufficient to describe the quantum thing is a wave or a particle? How do electrons behave in this
world? experiment?
2. What is the greatest challenge associated with the act of mea- 5. Why is probability necessary to be able to describe subatomic
surement in the quantum world? events?
3. Identify the sample, the source of energy, and the detector in the 6. What is quantum teleportation? Is the teleportation of photons
following “experiments”: possible? How about atoms?
a. measuring the distance to a remote star 7. Sketch a possible probability diagram for the final resting posi-
tion of a golf ball on a driving range. Assume that the golf tee is the
b. determining the sweetness of a piece of fruit
starting point and that an average drive is 250 feet.
c. determining if a piano needs tuning
8. In Chapter 2 we discussed the fact that chaotic systems are, for
d. determining the height of a person all practical purposes, unpredictable. How does this sort of unpre-
e. measuring the temperature of a room dictability differ from that associated with quantum mechanics?
c09.qxd 9/11/09 11:04 AM Page 195
9. Present an argument in terms of the wave nature of the electron 11. If you threw baseballs through a large two-slit apparatus,
that shows why electrons in Bohr energy levels cannot emit radiation would you produce a diffraction pattern? Why or why not? What
and spiral in toward the nucleus, as they might be expected to do type of object would you need to produce a diffraction pattern?
on the basis of Maxwell’s equations. (Hint: See “Why the Rutherford 12. According to Heisenberg, will the “Divine Calculator”
Atom Couldn’t Work” in Chapter 8.) (from Chapter 2) ever have the information it needs to begin
10. How are electrons, atoms, and light (i.e., photons) similar in calculation?
behavior? How are they different from baseballs, basketballs, and
bowling balls?
P ROBLEMS •
1. A baseball (mass .145 kg) is thrown towards homeplate at a 3. An atom of gold (mass 3.27 10–25 kg) travels at a speed
speed between 45.0 and 45.1 meters per second. How accurately between 20.0 and 20.1 meters per second. How accurately can we
can we determine its position? determine its position? Is this accuracy in position attainable? How
2. In the “Science by the Numbers” section in this chapter, we does it compare to the size of a nucleus?
converted the unit J-s/kg-m to the unit of velocity (m/s) 4. If the particle in problem 3 was an electron rather than an atom,
without comment. Demonstrate the equivalence of these would our accuracy in determining its position increase or decrease?
two units. Why? What if we used an atom of plutonium instead of gold?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Look up the doctrine of predestination in an encyclopedia. Does connections between the artistic and scientific movements of those
it have a logical connection to the notion of the Divine Calculator? times?
Which came first historically? 4. Some people interpret the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to
2. Werner Heisenberg was a central, and ultimately controversial, mean that you can never really know anything for certain. Would
figure in German science of the 1930s and 1940s. Read a biography you agree or disagree?
of Heisenberg. Discuss how his early work in quantum mechanics 5. Who is Schrodinger? What was his role in the development of
influenced his prominent scientific role in Nazi Germany. quantum mechanics?
3. What changes in artistic movements were taking place during 6. Many people claim that obscure ancient texts such as the Tao Te
the period around 1900 (just before the discoveries of quantum Ching presage and parallel quantum physics. Are they correct?
mechanics) and in the mid-twentieth century? Are there any
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10
Atoms in Combination: The Chemical Bond
How does blood clot?
PHYSICS
Atoms bond to each

other by the action of
forces.
Living
cells break Inert gas
down the chemical elements,
bonds in energy-rich including helium and
molecules such as neon, have completely
glucose (a sugar) into filled electron shells
water, carbon dioxide, and thus rarely take
and energy. part in chemical
(Ch. 21) reactions.
ENVIRONMENT
Many
modern high- The national
strength glues, recycling effort
including epoxy resins
Atoms bind together in involves hundreds of
and superglue, are chemical reactions by different processes,
liquids that undergo the rearrangement of each one designed for
polymerization the chemical bonds in
reactions to electrons. specific materials.
produce a (Ch. 19)
solid.
TECHNOLOGY
The predominant The ionic bonding of

state of matter in the most common
Sun and other stars is minerals makes rocks
plasma. hard and brittle.
Many
types of fire
extinguishers
blanket flames with a
ASTRONOMY chemical that robs the
GEOLOGY
fire of oxygen, and
thus stops the
violent flaming
= applications of the great idea reaction. = other applications, some of which
HEALTH & SAFETY
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:17 AM Page 197
Science Through the Day Throwing Things Away
Emma Lee/Life File/PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images

n your way to pick the perfect
O spot on the beach, you and your
friends divide up a heavy load of
food and drinks. Your backpack is
too full already, so you decide to dis-
card a couple of old empty soft drink
bottles, plastic wrappers, and an old
newspaper to make more room. You
walk over to the beach house where
there are separate receptacles for
glass, plastic, paper, and other trash. It
seems like a lot of extra work to sort
out trash at the beach. Is it really
worth the bother? But you dutifully
follow the instructions, separate the
different materials, and are soon on
your way.
Our Material World

Think about all the things you’ve thrown away during the past month. Every day you
toss out aluminum cans, plastic wrappers, glass jars, food scraps, and lots of paper. From
time to time you also discard used batteries, disposable razors, dirty motor oil, worn-out
shoes and clothes, even old tires or broken furniture. What happens to all that stuff after
it becomes trash?
Many communities try to recycle much of their waste. Plastic, glass, aluminum, and
newspaper, for example, can be reprocessed and turned into new products and packag-
ing. Old oil can be refined, but most trash ends up in landfills, where, we hope, it will
eventually break down into soil.
The situation that faces our society is more than a little ironic. Everything you use and
then throw away is made from collections of atoms bonded together. While they are in the
store and for as long as we use them, we want these products and their packaging to last and
keep looking new. But as soon as we throw them out, we’d like our disposable materials to
fall apart and disappear. One way to achieve this end is to engineer biodegradable materials—
paper, plastics, fabrics, and other goods designed to break apart when thrown away.
But what holds materials together in the first place? Why do certain atoms, when
brought close together, develop an affinity and stick to each other? How do the mole-
cules that play such an important role in our lives retain their identity? And how can we
design new materials that will fall apart when their useful lives are over? The answers lie
in the nature of the chemical bond.
Electron Shells and Chemical Bonds

The last two chapters have focused on the structure and behavior of individual atoms,
but the materials we depend on in day-to-day life are made from combinations of many
atoms. The process by which two or more atoms combine is called chemical bonding,
and the linkage between two atoms is called a chemical bond.
197
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198 | C HAP TE R 10 | Atoms in Combination: The Chemical Bond
1 2 Think about how two atoms might interact. You know that the atom is
H He mostly empty space, with a tiny, dense nucleus surrounded by negatively
1.00794 4.00260
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 charged electrons. If two atoms approach each other, their outer electrons
Li Be B C N O F Ne encounter each other first. Whatever holds two atoms together thus involves
6.941 9.01218 10.811 12.011 14.00674 15.9994 18.99840 20.1797
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 primarily those outer electrons. In fact, the outer electrons play such an impor-
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar tant role in determining how atoms combine that they are given the special
22.98977 24.3050 26.98154 28.0855 30.97376 32.066 35.4527 39.948
name of valence electrons (see Chapter 8). Chemical bonding often involves an
• Figure 10-1 The first three rows exchange or sharing of valence electrons, and the number of electrons in an atom’s outer-
of the periodic table, containing ele- most shell is called its valence. Chemists often express the importance of the number of
ments 1 and 2, 3 through 10, and 11
outer electrons by saying that valence represents the combining power of a given atom.
through 18, respectively, hold the key
to understanding chemical bonding. The top three rows of the periodic table of the elements provide the key to understand-
ing the varied strategies of chemical bonding (Figure 10-1). Different electron shells hold
different numbers of electrons, which gives rise to the distinctive structure of the periodic
table (see Figure 8-18). It turns out that by far the most stable arrangement of electrons—
the electron configuration of lowest energy—has completely filled electron shells. A glance
at the periodic table tells us that atoms with a total of 2, 10, 18, or 36 electrons (all the atoms
that appear in the table’s extreme right-hand column) have filled shells and very stable config-
urations. Atoms with this many electrons in their outermost shells are inert gases (also called
noble gases), which do not combine readily with other materials. Indeed, helium, neon, and
argon, with atomic numbers 2, 10, and 18, respectively, have completely filled electron shells,
and are thus the only common elements that do not ordinarily react with other elements.
Every object in nature tries to reach a state of lowest energy, and atoms are no excep-
tion. Atoms that do not have the magic number of electrons (2, 10, 18, etc.) are more
likely to react with other atoms to produce a state of lower energy. You are familiar with
this kind of process in many other natural systems. If you put a ball on top of a hill, for
example, it will tend to roll down to the bottom, creating a system of lower gravitational
potential energy. Similarly, a compass needle tends to align itself spontaneously with
Earth’s magnetic field, thereby lowering its magnetic potential energy. In exactly the
same way, when two or more atoms come together the electrons tend to rearrange them-
selves to minimize the chemical potential energy of the entire system. This situation may
require that they exchange or share electrons. As often as not, that process involves
rearrangements with a total of 2, 10, 18, or 36 electrons.
Chemical bonds result from any redistribution of electrons that leads to a more sta-
ble configuration between two or more atoms—especially configurations with a filled
electron shell.
Most atoms adopt one of three simple strategies to achieve a filled shell:
they give away electrons, accept electrons, or share electrons.
If the bond formation takes place spontaneously, without outside intervention, energy will
be released in the reaction. The burning of wood or paper (once their temperature has been
raised high enough) is a good example of this sort of process, and the heat you feel when
you put your hands toward a fire derives ultimately from the chemical potential energy that
is given off as electrons and atoms are reshuffled. Alternatively, atoms may be pushed into
new configurations by adding energy to systems. Much of industrial chemistry, from the
smelting of iron to the synthesis of plastics, operates on this principle.
Types of Chemical Bonds

Atoms link together by three principal kinds of chemical bonds—ionic, metallic, and
covalent—all of which involve redistributing electrons between atoms. In addition,
polarization and hydrogen bonding result from shifts of electrons within their atoms or
groups of atoms. Each type of bonding corresponds to a different way of rearranging
electrons, and each produces distinctive properties in the materials it forms.
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Types of Chemical Bonds | 199
I ONIC B ONDS •
We’ve seen that atoms with “magic numbers” of 2, 10, 18, or 36 electrons are particularly
stable. By the same token, atoms that differ from these magic numbers by only one elec-
tron in their outer orbits are particularly reactive—in effect, they are “anxious” to fill or
empty their outer orbits. Such atoms tend to form ionic bonds, chemical bonds in which
the electrical force between two oppositely charged ions holds the atoms together.
Ionic bonds often form as one atom gives up an electron while another receives it.
Sodium (a soft, silvery white metal), for example, has 11 electrons in an electrically
neutral atom—2 in the lowest orbit, 8 in the next, and a single electron in its outer
shell. Sodium’s best bonding strategy, therefore, is to lose one electron. The seven-
teenth element, chlorine (a yellow-green toxic gas), on the other hand, is one electron
shy of a filled shell. Highly corrosive chlorine gas will react with almost anything that
can give it an extra electron (Figure 10-2). When you place sodium in contact with
chlorine gas, the result is predictable: in a fiery reaction, each sodium atom donates its
extra electron to a chlorine atom.
In the process of this vigorous electron exchange, atoms of sodium and chlorine
become electrically charged—they become ions. Neutral sodium has 11 positive protons in
its nucleus, balanced by 11 negative electrons in orbit. By losing one electron, sodium
becomes an ion with 11 protons but only 10 electrons (a magic number). The resulting
sodium ion has one unit of positive charge, shown as Na+ in Figure 10-2. Similarly, neutral
chlorine has 17 protons and 17 electrons. The addition of an extra negative electron creates
a chloride ion with 17 protons and 18 electrons (also a magic number). The resulting chlo-
rine ion has one unit of negative charge, shown as Cl– in the figure. The mutual electrical
attraction of positive sodium and negative chloride ions is what forms the ionic bonds
between sodium and chlorine. The resulting compound, sodium chloride or common table
salt, has properties totally different from either sodium or chlorine.
Under normal circumstances, sodium and chlorine ions will lock together into a crys-
tal, a regular arrangement of atoms such as the one shown in Figure 10-3. Alternating
• Figure 10-2 Sodium, a highly

reactive element, readily transfers its
single valence electron to chlorine,
+ which is one electron shy of the
Na + Cl Na Cl
“magic” number 18. The result is the
ionic compound sodium chloride—
ordinary table salt. In these diagrams,
electrons are represented as dots in
shells around a nucleus.
A sodium A chlorine A sodium A chloride
atom atom ion ion
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl–
©Visuals Unlimited/Corbis
• Figure 10-3 (a) The atomic

structure of a sodium chloride crys-
tal consists of a regular pattern of
alternating sodium and chloride
ions. (b) This pattern is reflected in
the tiny cube-shaped crystals of
table salt (magnified 25 times).
Sodium ion (Na+)
Chloride ion (Cl–)

(a) (b) LM 52X
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:17 AM Page 200
sodium and chloride ions form an elegant repeating structure in which each Na+ is
surrounded by six Cl–, and vice versa.
Ionic bonds may involve more than a single electron transfer. The twelfth element,
magnesium, for example, donates two electrons to oxygen, which has eight electrons. In
the resulting compound, MgO (magnesium oxide), both atoms have stable filled shells of
10 electrons, and the ions, Mg2+ and O2–, form a strong ionic bond. Ionic bonds involv-
ing the negative oxygen ion O2– and positive ions, such as aluminum (Al3+), magnesium
(Mg2+), silicon (Si4+), and iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+), are found in many everyday objects: in
most rocks and minerals, in china and glass, and in bones and egg shells.
Compounds with ionic bonds are often very strong along the direction of the bonds,
but they can break easily if the bonds are twisted or bent. As a consequence, ionic-bonded
materials such as rock, glass, or egg shells are usually quite brittle. These materials are
strong in the sense that you can pile lots of weight on them. But once they shatter and
ionic bonds are broken, they can’t be put back together again.
EXAMPLE 10-1
I ON IC B ON DI NG OF T H REE ATOMS
Magnesium chloride, which plays an important role in some batteries, is an ionic-bonded
compound with one part magnesium to two parts chlorine (MgCl2). How are the electrons
arranged in this compound?
Reasoning: From the periodic table (see Figure 10-1), magnesium and chlorine are
elements 12 and 17, respectively. Magnesium, therefore, has 10 electrons (2 8) in
inner shells and 2 valence electrons. Chlorine has 10 electrons (2 8) in its inner shells
and 7 electrons in the outer one, meaning that it is 1 electron short of a filled outer
shell (Figure 10-4).
Solution: Magnesium has two electrons to give, and chlorine seeks one electron, to
achieve stable filled outer orbits. Thus magnesium gives one electron to each of two
chlorine atoms, and the resulting Mg2+ ion attracts two Cl– ions to form MgCl2.
• Figure 10-4 (a) Magnesium and chlorine neutral-atom electron configurations (left),
and their configurations after electrons have been transferred from the magnesium to the
chlorine atoms (right). (b) Magnesium chloride, which forms a white powder, is used in the
chemical industry. Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Cl Cl
Mg Mg
Cl Cl
A magnesium Two chlorine A magnesium Two chloride

atom atoms ion ions
Mg + 2 Cl Mg2+ 2Cl–
(a) (b)
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:17 AM Page 201
M ETALLIC B ONDS •
Atoms in an ionic bond transfer electrons directly—electrons are on “permanent loan”
from one atom to another. Atoms in a metal also give up electrons, but they use a very
different bonding strategy. In a metallic bond, electrons are redistributed so that they
are shared by many atoms.
Sodium metal, for example, is made up entirely of individual sodium atoms. All
of these atoms begin with 11 electrons, but they release one to achieve the more sta-
ble 10-electron configuration. The extra electrons move away from their parent
atoms to float around the metal, forming a kind of sea of negative charge. In this neg-
ative electron sea, the positive sodium ions adopt a regular crystal structure, as shown
in Figure 10-5.
You can think of the metallic bond as one in which each atom shares its outer elec-
tron with all the other atoms in the system. Picture the free electrons as a kind of loose
glue in which the metal atoms are placed. In fact, the idea of a metal as being a collection
of marbles (the ions) in a sea of stiff, glue-like liquid provides a useful analogy.
Metals, characterized by their shiny luster and ability to conduct electricity, are
formed by almost any element or combination of elements in which large numbers of
atoms share electrons to achieve a more stable electron arrangement. Some metals, such
as aluminum, iron, copper and gold, are familiar from everyday experience. But many
elements can form into a metallic state when the conditions are right, including some
that we normally think of as gases, such as hydrogen or oxygen at very high pressure. In
fact, the great majority of chemical elements are known to occur in the metallic state. In
addition, two or more elements can combine to form a metal alloy, such as brass (a mix-
ture of copper and zinc) or bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). Modern specialty-steel
alloys often contain more than half a dozen different elements in carefully controlled
proportions.
The special nature of the metallic bond explains many of the distinctive properties we
observe in metals. If you attempt to deform a metal by pushing on the marble-and-glue
bonding system, atoms will gradually rearrange themselves and come to some new
configuration—the metal is malleable. It’s hard to break a metallic bond just by push-
ing or twisting, because the atoms are able to rearrange themselves. Thus when you
hammer on a piece of metal, you leave indentations but do not break it (Figure 10-6),
in sharp contrast to what happens when you hammer on a ceramic plate.
• Figure 10-5 (a) Metallic bonding occurs when a bond is created by the sharing of
electrons among several metal atoms. For example, sodium atoms have 11 electrons,
but 10 electrons (a magic number) is much more stable. Therefore, each sodium atom
in sodium metal gives up one electron to its surroundings. (b) Sodium metal is so soft
that it can be cut with a knife, and so reactive that protective gloves must be worn to
avoid chemical burns.
Positive ions from
Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.
the metal
Electron cloud that

doesn’t belong to
any one metal ion
(a) (b)
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:17 AM Page 202
Johner/Getty Images, Inc.
Dex Image/Getty Images, Inc.

(a) (b)
• Figure 10-6 Metals can be molded or hammered into different shapes. (a) A construction
worker hammers metal sheeting into position. (b) A Japanese craftsman hammers sheet metal
into a bowl.
In Chapter 11, we’ll examine more closely the electrical properties of materials held
together by the metallic bond. We’ll see that this particular kind of bond produces mate-
rials through which electrons—electrical current—can flow.
C OVALENT B ONDS •
In the ionic bond, one atom donates electrons to another in a more or less permanent
loan. In the metallic bond, on the other hand, atoms share some electrons throughout
the material. In between these two types of bonds is the extremely important covalent
bond, in which well-defined clusters of neighboring atoms, called molecules, share
electrons. These strongly bonded groups may consist of anywhere from two to many
millions of atoms.
The simplest covalently bonded molecules contain two atoms of the same element,
such as the diatomic gases hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), and oxygen (O2). In the case of
hydrogen, for example, each atom has a relatively unstable single electron. Two hydrogen
atoms can pool their electrons, however, to create a more stable two-electron arrangement.
The two hydrogen atoms must remain close to each other for this sharing to continue, so a
chemical bond is formed, as shown in Figure 10-7. Similarly, two oxygen atoms, each with
eight electrons, share two pairs of electrons.
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other covalently bonded molecules have lower
chemical potential energy than isolated atoms because electrons are shared. These
molecules are less likely to react chemically than the isolated atoms.
The most fascinating of all covalently bonded elements is carbon, which forms the
backbone of all life’s essential molecules. Carbon, with two electrons in its inner shell and
four in its outer shell, presents a classic case of a half-filled shell. When carbon atoms
approach each other, therefore, a real question arises as to whether they ought to accept or
donate four electrons to achieve a more stable arrangement. You could imagine, for exam-
ple, a situation where some carbon atoms give four electrons to their neighbors, while other
carbon atoms accept four electrons, to create a compound with strong ionic bonds between
C4+ and C4–. Alternatively, carbon might become a metal in which every atom releases four
electrons into an extremely dense electron sea. But neither of these things happens.
In fact, the strategy that lowers the energy of the carbon–carbon system the most is for
the carbon atoms to share their outer electrons. Once bonds between carbon atoms have
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:17 AM Page 203
H + H
+ +
H + H
H H
H H
+ +
H-H H2
(a) (b)
• Figure 10-7 Two hydrogen atoms become an H2 molecule by sharing each of their
electrons in a covalent bond. (a) This bonding may be represented schematically in a dot
diagram or (b) by the merging of two atoms with their electron clouds.
formed, the atoms have to stay close to each other for the sharing to continue. Thus the
bonds generated are just like the bond in the case of hydrogen. The case of carbon is
unusual, however, because a single carbon atom can form covalent bonds with up to four
other atoms by sharing one of its four valence electrons with each. A single bond (shown as
C–C) forms when one electron from each atom is shared, while a double bond (shown as
CC) results when two electrons from each atom are shared between one another. By form-
ing bonds among several adjacent carbon atoms, you can make rings, long chains, branching
structures, planes, and three-dimensional frameworks of carbon in almost any imaginable
shape. There is virtually no limit to the complexity of molecules you can build from such
carbon–carbon bonding (Figure 10-8). So important is the study of carbon-based molecules
that chemists have given it a special name: organic chemistry. In fact, all the molecules in your
body and in every other living thing are held together at least in part by covalent bonds in
carbon chains (see Chapter 22). Covalent bonds also drive much of the chemistry in the cells
of your body and play a role in holding together the DNA molecules that carry your genetic
code. It would not be too much of an exaggeration to say that the covalent bond is the bond
of life. Covalent bonds also play a critical role in the silicon-based integrated circuits that run
your computer. The element silicon, like carbon, has four electrons in its outer shell.
Stop and Think! Life on Earth is based on the properties of the

element carbon. Looking at the first three rows of the periodic table in
Figure 10-1, are there any other candidate elements that might form
the basis of life elsewhere?
P OLARIZATION AND HYDROGEN B ONDS •

Ionic, metallic, and covalent bonds form strong links between individual atoms, but
molecules also experience forces that hold one to another. In many molecules, the elec-
trical forces are such that, although the molecule by itself is electrically neutral, one part
of the molecule has more positive or negative charge than another. In water, for exam-
ple, the electrons tend to spend more time around the oxygen atoms than around the
hydrogen atoms. This uneven electron distribution has the effect of making the oxygen
side of the water molecule more negatively charged, and the two “Mickey Mouse ears”
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O O O
CH2 C N CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 N C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 C N CH2 CH2 CH2
H H H
(a)
Tom Hollyman/Photo Researchers Inc.

Wayne Eastep/Stone/Getty Images
H H
H C C H
C C C
H C C C H
C C C C
C C C C
H C C C H
C C C
H C C H
H H
(b) (c) (d )
• Figure 10-8 Carbon-based molecules may adopt almost any shape. The molecules
may consist of (a) long, straight chains of carbon atoms that form fibrous materials such as
(b) nylon or they may incorporate complex rings and branching arrangements that form
lumpy molecules such as hexabenzocoronene (c), which is a component of soot (d).
Positive side of the hydrogen atom more positively charged (Figure 10-9). Atom clusters of this type,
Hydrogen Hydrogen with a positive and negative end, are called polar molecules.
The electrons of an atom or molecule brought near a polar molecule such as water will
tend to be pushed away from the negative side and shifted toward the positive side. Conse-
105°
quently, the side of an atom facing the negative end of a polar molecule will become slightly
Oxygen positive. This subtle electron shift, called polarization, in turn will give rise to an electrical
attraction between the negative end of the polar molecule and the positive side of the other
molecule. The electron movement thus creates an attraction between the atom and the
molecule, even though all the atoms and molecules in this scheme may be electrically neu-
Negative side tral. One of the most important consequences of forces due to polarization is the ability of
• Figure 10-9 Each water molecule water to dissolve many materials. Water, made up of strongly polar molecules, exerts forces
is formed from two hydrogen atoms that make it easier for ions such as Na+ and Cl– to dissolve.
and one oxygen atom (H2O), arranged A process related to the forces of polarization leads to the hydrogen bond, a weak
at a 105-degree angle. Electrons tend
to spend more time on the oxygen
bond that may form after a hydrogen atom links to an atom of certain other elements
side of this polar molecule, which (oxygen or nitrogen, for example) by a covalent bond. Because of the kind of
becomes more negatively charged, rearrangement of electrical charge described above, a hydrogen atom may become
while the hydrogen side becomes polarized and develop a slight positive charge, which attracts another atom to it. You
more positively charged. can think of the hydrogen atom as a kind of bridge in this situation, causing a redistri-
bution of electrons that, in turn, brings larger atoms or molecules together. Individual
hydrogen bonds are weak, but in many molecules they occur repeatedly and therefore
play a major role in determining the molecule’s shape and function. Note that while all
hydrogen bonds require hydrogen atoms, not all hydrogen atoms are involved in
hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are common in virtually all biological substances, from every-
day materials such as wood, silk, and candle wax, to the complex structures of every
cell in your body. As we shall see in Chapter 23, hydrogen bonds in every living
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States of Matter | 205
thing link the two sides of the DNA double helix together, although the sides them-
selves are held together by covalent bonds. Ordinary egg white is made from mole-
cules whose shape is determined by hydrogen bonds, and when you heat the
material—when you fry an egg, for example—hydrogen bonds are disrupted and the
molecules rearrange themselves so that instead of a clear liquid you have a white
gelatinous solid.
States of Matter
So far, we’ve been looking at the ways in which the limited number of chemical elements
in the periodic table can be linked together by a few different types of chemical bonds or
attractive forces. The everyday materials that we use, however, typically incorporate tril-
lions upon trillions of atoms. Countless linkages among vast numbers of atoms collec-
tively produce the remarkable variety of materials in our world. Depending on how these
groups of atoms are organized, they may take on many different forms. These different
modes of organization, called the states of matter, include gases, plasmas, liquids, and
solids (Figure 10-10).
GASES •
A gas is any collection of atoms or molecules that expands to take the shape of and fill
the volume available in its container (Figure 10-10a). Most common gases, including
those that form our atmosphere, are invisible, but the force of a gust of wind is proof
that matter is involved. The individual particles that comprise a gas may be isolated
atoms such as helium or neon, or small molecules such as nitrogen (N2) or carbon
dioxide (CO2). If we could magnify an ordinary gas a billion times, we would see these
particles randomly flying about, bouncing off each other and anything else they con-
tact. The gas pressure that inflates a basketball or tire is a consequence of these count-
less collisions.
• Figure 10-10 The different states of matter are distinguished by the arrangements
of their atoms (clockwise). (a) In a gas, atoms or molecules are not bonded to each other,
so they expand to fill any available volume. (b) Plasma, gas-like state with positive
nuclei in a sea of electrons. (c) In a liquid molecules are bound to each other but they
are free to move relative to each other, yielding a material that can change shape but
holds its volume. (d) In a solid atoms are locked into a rigid pattern that retains its
shape and volume.
SOHO (ESA&NASA)
(a)
Gas, molecules
widely spaced apart
(d) Solid, molecules stay

rigidly in place
(c) Liquid, molecules slide

past one another (b)
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:18 AM Page 206
P LASMA •
At extreme temperatures like those of the Sun (Figure 10-10b), high-energy colli-
sions between atoms may strip off electrons, creating a plasma, in which positive
nuclei move about in a sea of electrons. Such a collection of electrically charged
objects is something like a gas, but it displays unusual properties not seen in other
states of matter. Plasmas, for example, are efficient conductors of electricity and,
because they are gas-like, can be confined in a strong magnetic field or “magnetic
bottle.”
Plasmas are the least familiar state of matter to us, yet more than 99.9% of all the vis-
ible mass in the universe exists in this form. Not only are most stars composed of a dense
hydrogen- and helium-rich plasma mixture, but several planets, including Earth, have
regions of thin plasma in their outer atmospheres. Some gradations exist between gas
and plasma. Partially ionized gases in neon lights or fluorescent lightbulbs, for example,
have a small fraction of their electrons in a free state. While not a complete plasma, these
ionized gases do conduct electricity.
LIQUIDS •
Any collection of atoms or molecules that has no fixed shape but maintains its volume is
called a liquid (Figure 10-10c). Other than water and biological fluids, few liquids
occur naturally on Earth. Water, by far the most abundant liquid on Earth’s surface, is a
dynamic force for geological change (see Chapter 18), and water-based solutions are
essential to all life.
At the molecular level, liquids behave something like a container full of sand grains.
The grains fill whatever volume they are poured into, freely flowing over each other
without ever taking on a fixed shape. Attractive forces between individual atoms or mol-
ecules hold the liquid together. At the surface of the liquid, these attractive forces act to
prevent atoms or molecules from escaping. In effect, they pull the surface in, giving rise
to surface tension, the property that causes small quantities of the liquid to form beads or
droplets.
S OLIDS •
Solids include all materials that possess a more or less fixed shape and volume
(Figure 10-10d). In all solid materials the chemical bonds are both strong and direc-
tional. In detail, however, solids adopt several quite different kinds of atomic structures.
In crystals, groups of atoms occur in a regularly repeating sequence, the same
atom or atoms appearing over and over again in a predictable way (Figure 10-11a). A
crystal structure can be described by first determining the size and shape of the tiny
box-like unit that repeats, then recording the exact type and position of every atom
that appears in the box. In common salt (see Figure 10-3), for example, the box is a
tiny cube less than a billionth of a meter on an edge, and each box contains sodium
atoms at the cube center and corners, and chlorine atoms at the center of every face.
The regular atomic structure of crystals often leads to large single crystals with beauti-
ful flat faces (Figure 10-11b).
Common crystals include grains of sand and salt, computer chips, and gem-
stones. Most crystalline solids, however, are composed of numerous interlocking
crystal grains. The two most important groups of these types of materials in our
everyday life are metals and alloys that are characterized by metallic bonds, and most
ceramics, a broad class of hard, durable solids that includes bricks, concrete, pottery,
porcelain, and numerous synthetic abrasives, as well as teeth and bones and most
rocks and minerals.
Glasses, in contrast to crystals, are solids with predictable local environments for
most atoms, but no long-range order to the atomic structure (Figure 10-11c). In most
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Key:
Silicon atom
Oxygen atom
(a) (c)
G. Tompkinson/Photo Researchers
Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images
(b) (d )
• Figure 10-11 (a) The arrangement of atoms in a crystal is regular and predictable over
distances of thousands of atoms, a fact reflected in the faceted surfaces that result from
the regular repetition of atoms, for example, in (b) this crystal of the mineral quartz, SiO2.
(c) The arrangement of atoms in a glass is regular on a local scale but irregular over a dis-
tance of three or four atoms. (d) The curved fracture surfaces of the natural glass obsidian
are a consequence of this atomic-scale irregularity.
common window and bottle glasses, for example, silicon and oxygen atoms form a
strong three-dimensional framework. Most silicon atoms are surrounded by four oxygen
atoms, and most oxygen atoms are linked to two silicon atoms. If you were placed on
any atom in a glass, chances are you could predict the next-door atoms. Nevertheless,
glasses have no regularly stacked boxes of structure. Travel more than two or three atom
diameters from any starting point, and there is no way that you could predict whether
you’d find a silicon or an oxygen atom. Consequently, pieces of glass break with sharp,
irregular surfaces (Figure 10-11d).
Stop and Think! Glass window panes appear solid but after many, many
years some antique glass begins to droop. How would you explain this
behavior in terms of the structure of glass?
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Polymers are extremely long and large molecules that are formed from numerous
smaller molecules, like links forming a chain. The atomic structure of these materials is
often one-dimensional, with predictable repeating sequences of atoms along the poly-
mer chain (Figure 10-12). Common polymers include numerous biological materials,
such as animal hair, plant cellulose, cotton, and spiders’ webs.
Polymers include all plastics, which are synthetic materials formed primarily from
petroleum. They consist of intertwined polymer strands, much like the strands of fiber-
glass insulation. When heated, these strands slide across each other to adopt new
shapes. When cooled, the plastic fiber mass solidifies into whatever shape is available.
Though almost unknown a few decades ago, plastics have become our most versatile
commercial materials, providing an extraordinary range of uses: films for lightweight
packaging, dense castings for durable machine parts, thin strong fibers for clothing,
colorful moldings for toys, and many others. (You’ve probably noticed the small trian-
gular recycling symbol with a number inside on plastic containers. The numbers refer
to common types of plastics, which are separated before reprocessing. Table 10.1 lists
the most common varieties and their uses.) Plastics serve as paints, inks, glues, sealants,
foam products, and insulation. New tough, resilient plastics have revolutionized many
sports with products such as high-quality bowling and golf balls, and durable football
and ice hockey helmets, not to mention a host of completely new products from Fris-
bees to roller blades.
• Figure 10-12 Polymers come in many forms. (a) Unbranched polymers form long fibers
like nylon (b). By contrast, (c) branching polymers can form sturdy solid plastics like the
wheels on roller blades (d).
An unbranched polymeric chain
Wolfgang Kaehler/©Corbis
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
(a)
A branched polymeric chain
(b)
CH3
iStockphoto
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

(c) (d)
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Table 10-1 Recycling Plastic

No. Name Principal Uses
1 PET The most common recycled plastic, used for food and beverage containers
2 HDPE Rigid, narrow-neck containers for detergent and milk; grocery bags
3 PVC Plastic pipe, outdoor furniture, sturdy containers
4 LDPE Trash and produce bags, food storage containers
5 PP Aerosol caps, drinking straws
6 PS Packing peanuts, cups, and plastic tableware
TECHNOLOGY •
Liquid Crystals and Your Hand Calculator

Almost every material on Earth is easily classified as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, but scien-
tists have synthesized an odd intermediate state of matter called liquid crystals. These
materials have quickly found their way into many kinds of electronic devices, including
the digital display of your pocket calculator (Figure 10-13a). The distinction between a
liquid and a crystal is one of atomic-scale order: Atoms are disordered in a liquid, and
ordered in a crystal. But what happens in the case of a liquid formed from very long or
very flat molecules? Like a box of uncooked spaghetti or a plate of pancakes, in which
the individual pieces may shift around but are well oriented, these molecules may adopt
ordered arrangements even in the liquid form.
If the molecules are polar, they may behave like tiny compass needles. Under ordi-
nary circumstances these molecules will occur in random orientations, as in a normal
liquid (Figure 10-13b). Under the influence of an electrical field, however, the mole-
cules may adopt a partially ordered structure in which the molecules line up side by side
• Figure 10-13 (a) Liquid crystal displays are found in many electronic devices. (b) Under
normal circumstances, the elongated polar molecules of a liquid crystal display are randomly
oriented and thus appear transparent, but in an electric field (c) the molecules align in an
orderly pattern and appear darker.
Lawrence Dutton/Stone/Getty Images
Random pattern Orderly pattern
(a) (b) (c)

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(Figure 10-13c). This change in structure may even change some of the liquid’s physi-
cal properties—its color or light-reflecting ability, for example. This phenomenon is
now widely used in liquid crystal displays in watches and computers, in which electrical
impulses align molecules in selected regions of the screen to provide a rapidly changing
visual display.
Are liquid crystals found in nature? Every cell membrane is composed of a double
layer of elongated molecules, called lipids (see Chapter 22). Many scientists now suspect
that these “lipid bilayers” originated in the primitive ocean as molecules similar to
today’s liquid crystals. •

The Discovery of Nylon

Nature’s success in making strong, flexible fibers inspired scientists to try the same
thing. American chemist Wallace Carothers (1896–1937) began thinking about polymer
formation while a graduate student in the 1920s. At the time, no one was sure how nat-
ural fibers formed, or what kinds of chemical bonds were involved. Carothers wanted to
find out.
The chemical company DuPont took a gamble by naming Carothers head of its new
“fundamental research” group in 1928. No pressure was placed on him to produce com-
mercial results, but within a few years his team had developed the synthetic rubber neo-
prene, and by the mid-1930s they had devised a variety of extraordinary polymers,
including nylon, the first human-made fiber (Figure 10-14). Carothers also demonstrated
conclusively that polymers in nylon are covalently bonded chains of small molecules, each
with six carbon atoms.
DuPont made a fortune out of nylon and related synthetic fibers. Nylon was inex-
pensive to manufacture and had many advantages over natural fibers. It could be melted
• Figure 10-14 The man-made fiber and squeezed out of spinnerets to form strands of almost any desired size: threads, rope,
nylon can be pulled out of a liquid.
surgical sutures, tennis racket strings, and paintbrush bristles, for example. These fibers
could be made smooth and straight like fishing line, or rough and wrinkled like wool, to
vary the texture of fabrics. Nylon fibers could also be kinked with heat, to provide per-
manent folds and pleats in clothing. The melted polymer could even be injected into
molds to form durable parts such as tubing or zipper teeth.
Sadly, Wallace Carothers did not live to see the impact of his extraordinary dis-
coveries. Suffering from increasingly severe bouts of depression and convinced that
he was a failure as a scientist, Carothers took his own life in 1937, just a year before
the commercial introduction of nylon. •
C HANGES OF STATE •
Place a tray of liquid water in the freezer and it will turn to solid ice. Heat a pot of water
on the stove and it will boil away to a gas. These everyday phenomena are examples of
changes of state, which are transitions among the solid, liquid, and gas states. Freezing
and melting involve changes between liquids and solids (Figure 10-15a), while boiling
and condensation are changes between liquids and gases (Figure 10-15b). In addition,
some solids may transform directly to the gaseous state by sublimation.
Temperature induces these transitions by changing the speed at which molecules
vibrate. An increase in the temperature of ice to above 0ºC (32ºF), for example,
causes molecular vibrations to increase to the point that individual molecules jiggle
loose and the crystal structure starts to break apart. A liquid forms. Then, above
100ºC (212ºF), individual water molecules move fast enough to break free of the
liquid surface and form a gas. These changes require a great deal of energy, because a
great many chemical attractions must be broken to change from a solid to a liquid, or
from a liquid to a gas. Thus a pot of water may reach boiling temperature fairly
quickly, but it takes a long time to break all the attractions between water molecules
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Chemical Reactions and the Formation of Chemical Bonds | 211
Teiji Saga/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Paul Souders/© Corbis-Bettman
(a) (b)
• Figure 10-15 Water displays changes of state. (a) Melting water streams from the Jakob-
shaven Glacier near Ilulissat, Greenland. (b) Swans swim on a cold pond, where water vapor
in the air condenses into fog.
and boil the water away. By the same token, a glass of ice water will remain at 0ºC for
a long time, even on a warm day, until enough energy has been absorbed to break all
the ice attractions. Only after the last bit of ice is gone can the water temperature
begin to rise.
Chemical Reactions and the Formation of Chemical Bonds

Our world is filled with countless materials—solids, liquids, and gases of every
description. Where do all these different materials come from? How do new chemical
bonds form?
Atoms, as well as smaller molecules, come together to form larger molecules, and
larger molecules break up, in processes that we call chemical reactions. When we
take a bite of food, light a match, wash our hands, or drive a car, we initiate chemical
reactions. Earth’s chemical reactions include rock formation and rock weathering.
Every moment of every day, countless chemical reactions in every cell of our bodies
sustain life. • Figure 10-16 On May 6, 1937,
All chemical reactions involve rearrangement of the atoms in elements and com- the hydrogen-filled German airship
pounds, as well as rearrangement of electrons to form chemical bonds. Such reactions Hindenberg burst into flame. The
rapid reaction of hydrogen plus
can be expressed as a simple equation:
oxygen produced water and heat.
reactants S products
Popperfoto/Getty Images, Inc.

All such reactions must balance, so that the total number and kinds of
atoms are the same on both sides. For example, oxygen and hydrogen
can form water by the reaction:
2H 2 O2 S 2H 2O
This reaction is balanced because each side has four hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms. In the process of this reaction we can observe
both chemical changes (the rearrangement of atoms) and physical
changes (the gases hydrogen and oxygen transform into liquid water
with different properties). The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to
form water is explosively violent. The explosion of the hydrogen-filled
airship Hindenberg was a dramatic illustration of this chemical reaction
(Figure 10-16).
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EXAMPLE 10-2
B ALANCI NG C H EM ICAL E QUATIONS
Your car battery contains plates of lead (Pb) and lead dioxide (PbO2) immersed in a solu-
tion of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). After the battery has been discharged, the lead, the lead
dioxide, and sulfuric acid have been converted into lead sulfate (PbSO4) and water
(H2O). Write a balanced reaction that models this process.
Reasoning and Solution: The reactants in this process are Pb, PbO2 and H2SO4,
while the products are PbSO4 and H2O. First write the equation in the simplest form,
with one of each reactant and product molecule:
Pb PbO2 H 2SO4 S PbSO4 H 2O
This equation, however, is not balanced. Two lead atoms appear on the left side, for
example, while only one lead atom is on the right. The only way to make sure that there
are as many atoms at the end as at the beginning is to write:
Pb PbO2 2H 2SO4 S 2PbSO4 2H 2O
As you can see, on each side of the equation there are now two atoms of lead, two SO4
groups, four hydrogen atoms, and two oxygen atoms. This balanced equation represents
the reshuffling of atoms that goes on when your battery discharges. It tells us that two
molecules of sulfuric acid will be used for each atom of lead and that two molecules of
water and two of lead sulfate will be produced at the end.
Every chemical reaction, no matter how complex, must balance: you must end with
the same number of atoms with which you began.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND ENERGY:

ROLLING DOWN THE C HEMICAL H ILL •
Before considering the ways that atoms can combine to form molecules, pause for a
moment to think about why these reactions take place at all. The fundamental reason, as
so often happens with natural phenomena, has to do with energy, as described by the
laws of thermodynamics (see Chapters 3 and 4).
Consider, for example, one of the electrons in the neutral sodium atom shown in
Figure 10-2. This electron is moving around the nucleus, so it has kinetic energy. In
addition, the electron possesses potential energy because it is a certain distance from the
positively charged nucleus. Thus, just by virtue of its position, the electron is capable of
doing work (this is the way potential energy was defined in Chapter 3). Finally, the elec-
tron has an additional component of potential energy because of the electrical repulsion
between it and all of the other electrons in the atom. This is analogous to the small con-
tribution to Earth’s gravitational potential energy from the other planets. The sum of
these three energies—the kinetic energy associated with orbital motion, the potential
energy associated with the nucleus, and the potential energy associated with the other
electrons—is the total energy of the single electron in the atom.
The atom’s total energy outside the nucleus is the sum of the energies of all of the
electrons. For the isolated sodium atom in Figure 10-2, the total energy is the sum of
the energy of the 11 electrons; for the chlorine atom, it is the sum of the energies of
the 17 electrons. The total energy of the sodium–chlorine system is the sum of the
individual energies of the two atoms.
Think about what happens to the energy of the sodium–chlorine system after the
ionic bond has formed. The force on each electron is now different than it was before.
For one thing, the number of electrons in each atom has changed; for another, the atoms
are no longer isolated, so electrons in the sodium can exert forces on electrons in the
chlorine and vice versa. Consequently, the orbits of all the electrons will shift a little due
to the formation of the bond. This means that each electron will find itself in a slightly
different position with regard to the nucleus, will be moving at a slightly different speed,
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and will experience a slightly different set of forces than it did before. The total energy of
each electron will be different after the bond forms, the total energy of each atom will be
different, and the total energy of the system will be different.
Whenever two or more atoms come together to form chemical bonds, the total
energy of the system will be different after the bonds form than it was before. Two pos-
sibilities exist: either the final energy of the two atoms is less than the initial energy, or
the final energy is greater than the initial energy.
The reaction that produces sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine is an example
of the first kind of reaction, in which the total energy of the electrons in the system is lower
after the two atoms have come together (Figure 10-17a). According to the first law of
thermodynamics, the total energy must be conserved, and that difference is given off dur-
ing the reaction in the form of heat, light, and sound (there is an explosion). A chemical
reaction that gives off energy in some form is said to be exothermic.
Many examples of exothermic reactions occur in everyday life. The energy that
moves your car is given off by the explosive chemical combination of gasoline and oxy-
gen in the car’s engine. The chemical reactions in the battery that runs your iPhone also
produce energy, although in this case some of the energy is in the form of kinetic energy
of electrons in a wire. At this moment, cells in your body are breaking down molecules
of a sugar known as glucose to supply the energy you need to live (see Chapter 21).
If the final energy of the electrons in a reaction is greater than the initial energy, then
you have to supply energy to make the chemical reaction proceed. Such reactions are said
to be endothermic. The chemical reactions that go on when you are cooking (poaching an
egg, for example, or baking a cake) are of this type (Figure 10-17b). You can put the
ingredients of a cake together and let them sit for as long as you like, but nothing will hap-
pen until you turn on the oven and supply energy in the form of heat. When the energy is
available, electrons can move around and rearrange their chemical bonds. The result: a
cake where before there was only a mixture of flour, sugar, and other materials.
As we saw earlier, you can think of chemical reactions as being analogous to a ball
lying on the ground. If the ball happens to be at the top of a hill, it will lower its
potential energy by rolling down the hill, giving up the excess energy in the form of
frictional heat. If the ball is at the bottom of the hill, you have to do work on it to get
it to the top. In the same way, exothermic reactions correspond to systems that “roll
down the hill,” going to a state of lower energy and giving off excess energy in some
form. Endothermic reactions, on the other hand, have to be “pushed up the hill” and
hence absorb energy from their surroundings.
• Figure 10-17 Some chemical

Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs
EVANS CAGLAGE/Dallas Morning News/©Corbis
reactions, such as (a) the formation of

table salt from sodium metal and chlo-
rine gas, release heat energy—they are
exothermic. Other chemical reactions,
such as (b) poaching an egg, require
heat—they are endothermic.
(a) (b)
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COMMON CHEMICAL REACTIONS •

Many millions of chemical reactions take place in the world around us. Some occur nat-
urally, and some occur as the result of human design or intervention. In your everyday
world, however, you are likely to see a few types of chemical reactions over and over
again. Let’s examine a few of these common reactions in more detail.
Oxidation and Reduction
Perhaps the most distinctive chemical feature of our planet is the abundance of a highly
reactive gas, oxygen, in our atmosphere. This trait leads to many of the most familiar chem-
ical reactions in our lives. Oxidation includes any chemical reaction in which an atom (such
as oxygen or any other atom that will accept electrons) accepts electrons while combining
with other elements. The atom that transfers the electrons is said to be oxidized. Rusting is
a common gradual oxidation reaction in which iron metal combines with oxygen to form a
reddish iron oxide, as given by the equation
4Fe 3O2 S 2Fe 2O3
Burning or combustion is a much more rapid oxidation, in which oxygen combines with
carbon-rich materials to produce carbon dioxide and other byproducts that often pollute.
Hydrocarbons—chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen—provide the most effi-
cient fuels for combustion, with only carbon dioxide and water (hydrogen oxide) as
products. This reaction is:
In words: Hydrocarbon plus oxygen reacts to form carbon dioxide plus water plus energy.
In chemical notation:
13n 12
CnH 2n2 c d O2 S nCO2 1n 12 H 2O energy
2
If you heat or cook with natural gas, then you are using an oxidation reaction to gener-
ate energy in your home. The term natural gas refers to a compound that chemists call
methane. A methane molecule consists of a single carbon atom covalently bonded to
four hydrogen atoms, as shown in the drawing in Figure 10-18b. The oxidation reaction
involved in the burning of methane is written
CH 4 2O2 S CO2 2H 2O
• Figure 10-18 (a) A forest fire is an oxidation reaction. In pictorial form (b), an oxida-
tion reaction involves the transfer of electrons to oxygen atoms. When natural gas (CH4)
burns, it combines with two oxygen molecules (O2) to form a molecule of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and two molecules of water (H2O).
David R. Frazier Photolibrary/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Electrons
transferred
O O
H H H
Heat O
H C H O C O
Light H H
H O
O O
Methane + Oxygen Carbon + Water
dioxide
(a) (b)
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Steven Weinberg/Stone/Getty Images

Electrons
transferred
Fe2O3 C
C
Fe2O3
C
Pure
Iron ore + carbon
Fe
O C O
Fe
O C O
Fe
O C O
Fe
Iron Carbon
metal + dioxide
(a) (b)
• Figure 10-19 (a) The smelting of iron metal from iron ore is a reduction reaction. (b) In
pictorial form, iron ore (an oxide of iron, Fe2O3) combines with charcoal (pure carbon) to
make iron metal and an oxide of carbon (CO2).
The opposite of oxidation is reduction, a chemical reaction in which electrons are

transferred to an atom from other elements. The atom that receives the electrons is said
to be reduced. Thousands of years before scientists discovered oxygen, primitive metal-
workers had learned how to reduce metal ores by smelting (Figure 10-19). In the iron-
smelting process (typical of the industry carried out at hundreds of North American
furnaces 250 years ago), iron makers heated a mixture of ore (iron oxide) and lime (cal-
cium oxide) in an extremely hot charcoal fire. The lime lowered the melting temperature
of the entire mixture, which then reacted to produce iron metal and carbon dioxide.
A material that has been oxidized has lost electrons to oxygen or some other atom.
A material that has been reduced, on the other hand, has gained electrons. You may find
the mnemonic OIL RIG (“oxidation is loss, reduction is gain)” useful in keeping the
two straight.
Oxidation and reduction are essential to life, and they define the principal difference
between plants and animals. As we shall see in Chapter 21, animals take in carbon-based
molecules in their food and allow it to be oxidized in their cells. Carbon dioxide is released • Figure 10-20 The evaporation of
as a byproduct. Plants take in carbon dioxide and use the energy in sunlight to reduce it, salt water leads to the precipitation
releasing oxygen as a byproduct. of large salt flats, such as these
deposits at Death Valley National
Precipitation–Solution Reactions Park in California.
Water and many other liquids have the ability to dissolve solids.
Cliff Leight/Aurora Photos Inc.

You can observe such solution reactions when you put salt or
sugar into water. You can also watch the opposite process—
precipitation reactions—occur if you allow ocean water to evap-
orate. Ocean water contains a rich mixture of elements in
solution that precipitate as the water evaporates (Figure 10-20).
The complex sequence of precipitation includes calcium carbon-
ate (CaCO3), calcium sulfate (CaSO4), sodium chloride (NaCl),
and dozens of other more exotic compounds. In many locations
around the world, including the area around Death Valley in
California and the Great Salt Lake in Utah, thick deposits of these
so-called evaporite chemicals are mined for sodium, potassium,
boron, chlorine, and other elements. The next time you’re at the
ocean, scoop up a handful of salt water and, as the water evapo-
rates, watch as tiny salt crystals precipitate on your palm.
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Acid–Base Reactions
Acids are common substances, used by people for thousands of years. The word has even
entered our everyday vocabulary; we may refer to someone with an “acid” wit when we
mean a sense of humor that is sharp and corrosive. Acids corrode metals and have a sour
taste. For our purposes, we can make a technical definition of an acid as follows: An acid
is any material that, when put into water, produces positively charged hydrogen ions
(i.e., protons) in the solution. Lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar are examples of
common weak acids, while sulfuric acid (used in car batteries) and hydrochloric acid
(used in industrial cleaning) are strong acids.
Bases are another class of corrosive materials. They taste bitter and generally feel
slippery between your fingers. For our purposes, we can define a base as any material
that, when put into water, produces negatively charged OH– ions. This ion, consisting of
an oxygen–hydrogen system that has an extra electron, is called the hydroxide ion. Most
antacids (e.g., milk of magnesia) are weak bases. Cleaning fluids containing ammonia are
the strongest of bases we most often encounter, although still relatively weak. Most com-
mon drain cleaners are examples of strong bases.
Although the common definitions of acids and bases involve taste and feel, you
shouldn’t try these tests yourself. Many acids and bases are extremely dangerous and
corrosive—for example, battery acid (H2SO4) and lye (NaOH).
When acids and bases are brought together in the same solution, the H+ and the OH–
ions react together to form water, and we say that the substances neutralize each other. For
instance, if we mix hydrochloric acid (HCl) and lye (NaOH), we will find a chemical reac-
tion that can be represented as follows:
HCl NaOH S H 2O NaCl
This balanced reaction indicates that molecules of HCl and NaOH recombine to form a
molecule of water (H2O) and one unit of common table salt (NaCl). From this equation
it appears that the formation of water removes both the positively charged hydrogen ion
and the negatively charged hydroxide ion from solution, and the other parts of the orig-
inal molecules come together to form a new material. Salt is the general name for mole-
cules formed by neutralization of an acid and a base.
The definition of acids and bases leads to a simple way of measuring the strength of a
solution. Although you might not think so at first glance, pure distilled water always con-
tains some protons and hydroxide groups. A small number of water molecules are always
being broken up, and at the same time elsewhere in the liquid, protons and hydroxide
groups come together to form new molecules of water. In fact, in pure water there are
almost exactly 10–7 moles of positively charged particles per liter. Acids contain more pos-
itive charges than this, while bases contain fewer.
This fact is used to set the scale for measuring acids and bases. Pure water has a pH
(“power of Hydrogen”) of 7. An acid solution that has a larger number of positive
charges—a concentration of 10–6 moles per liter, for example—will have a lower pH (a pH
of 6 in this example). A base that has a lower concentration of positive charges—10–10
moles per liter, for example—will have a higher pH (a pH of 10 in this example). Here are
some common pH values:
Stomach acid 1.0–3.0

Mean of Adirondack lakes, 1975 4.8
Normal rainwater 5.6
Mean of Adirondack lakes, 1930 6.5
Pure water 7.0
Human blood 7.3–7.5
Household ammonia 11.0
Note in particular the dramatic change in the acidity of lakes in New York’s Adirondack
Mountains between 1930 and 1975. The cause of this change is acid rain—a phenomenon
we will examine in more detail in Chapter 19.
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Antacids
The first step of digestion, after the food is chewed and swallowed, takes place when
acids in the stomach begin to break up the molecules that you have eaten. Occasionally,
the stomach’s acidity becomes too high, and we take antacids to feel better.
When you take an antacid, you are running a neutralization reaction in your body.
Ordinary over-the-counter antacids contain bases such as aluminum hydroxide
[Al(OH)3] or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), which react with some of the acid in the
stomach. These products do not neutralize all the stomach’s hydrochloric acid, only
enough of it to alleviate the symptoms. •
Polymerization and Depolymerization

The molecular building blocks of most common biological structures are small (see
Chapter 22), consisting of a few dozen atoms at most. Yet most biological molecules
are huge, with up to millions of atoms in a single unit. How can small building blocks
yield large structures characteristic of living things? The answer lies in the process of
polymerization.
A polymer is a large molecule that is made by linking smaller, simpler molecules
together repeatedly to build up a complex structure (Figure 10-21). The word comes
from the Greek poly (many) and meros (parts). In spider’s webs, clotting blood, and a
thousand other processes, living systems have mastered the art of combining small mol-
ecules into long chains.
Polymerization reactions include all chemical reactions that form very large molecules
from small molecules. Synthetic polymers usually begin in liquid form, with small molecules
that move freely past their neighbors. Polyethylene, for example, begins as a gas with mole-
cules containing just 6 atoms (2 carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms), while the liquid that
makes a common nylon contains molecules with 6 atoms of carbon, 11 of hydrogen, 1 of
nitrogen, and 1 of oxygen—a combination that chemists write as C6H11NO. Polymers
form from the liquid when the ends of these molecules begin to link up. In the case of
nylon, the polymer forms by a condensation reaction in which each new polymer bond
forms by the release of a water molecule (Figure 10-21a). Polyethylene, on the other hand,
forms by addition polymerization, in which the basic building blocks are simply joined end
to end (Figure 10-21c).
Polymers play an enormous role in our lives. The useful properties of these varied
materials are related to the shapes of molecules and the way they come together to form
materials (Figure 10-22). In polyethylene, for example, long-chain molecules wrap
themselves together into something like a plate of hairy spaghetti. It’s hard for water
molecules to penetrate into this material, so it is widely used in packaging. The “plastic”
on prepackaged fruit or meat at your supermarket may be made from polyethylene. A
closely related polymer is polyvinyl chloride (PVC), whose basic building block, vinyl
chloride, is just an ethylene molecule in which one of the four hydrogen atoms has been
replaced by a chlorine atom. Because the chlorine atom is bigger than hydrogen, the
molecules of the polymer are lumpy and cannot pack too closely together. Commercial
PVC, widely used in water and sewer pipes, contains other kinds of molecules that move
between the polymers, lubricating the system and making the resulting material highly
flexible. Credit cards are also made from this material. Other common polymers include
polypropylene (artificial turf), polystyrene (“foam” cups and packaging), and Teflon
(nonstick cookware).
Many polymers are extremely long lasting, a situation that presents a growing prob-
lem in an age of diminishing landfills. Nevertheless, most polymers are not permanently
stable. Given time, they will decompose into smaller molecules. This breakdown of a
polymer into short segments is called depolymerization.
Perhaps the most familiar depolymerization reactions occur in your kitchen. Poly-
mers cause the toughness of uncooked meat and the stringiness of many raw vegetables.
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 218
Addition polymerization
Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.

CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2
CH2 – CH2 CH2 – CH2 CH2 – CH2 CH2 – CH2 CH2 – CH2
CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2
(a) (b) SM 160X
Condensation polymerization
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
Bill Bachmann/Photo Researchers
H H O H H O H H O H H O H H O
H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
H OH
H 2O H2O H2O H2O
H H O H H O H H O H H O H H O
H N C C N C C N C C N C C N C C OH
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
(c) (d)
• Figure 10-21 Polymers form from monomers in two ways. (a) Addition polymerization
occurs when monomers simply attach end-to-end to produce (b) synthetic fibers, as shown
here magnified 23 times. (c) In condensation polymerization a small molecule is released for
each added monomer. (d) The tiny bubbles in polyurethane foam insulation are formed by
the carbon dioxide molecules released during polymerization.
We cook our food, in part, to break down these polymers. Chemicals such as meat
tenderizers and marinades can also contribute to depolymerization and can improve
the texture of some foods.
Not all depolymerization is desirable. Museum curators are painfully aware of the
breakdown process, which affects leather, paper, textiles, and other historic artifacts
made of organic materials. Storage in an environment of low temperature, low humidity,
and an inert atmosphere (preferably without oxygen) may slow the depolymerization
process, but there is no known way to repolymerize old brittle objects.
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 219
Linear polymer Branched polymer Cross-linked polymer
(a) (b) (c)
SUPERSTOCK
(d)
• Figure 10-22 Polymers can come in many forms: (a) a twisted chain that can form insu-
lating fibers, (b) a branched chain that can form thin, sturdy plastic bags, and (c) chains that
are linked together, which are used in solid plastic components. (d) These important struc-
ture differences lead to the remarkable variety of plastics that we use every day.
B UILDING M OLECULES: THE HYDROCARBONS •

As an example of how a wide variety of materials can be made by assembling the same
molecular building blocks in different ways, let’s start with the methane molecule shown
in Figure 10-18 and build a family of molecules known to chemists as alkanes. Alkanes
are flammable materials (either gases or liquids) that burn readily and are often used as
fuels. Most of the components of the gasoline in your car, for example, are members of
this family. Alkanes are one example of hydrocarbons, molecules made completely from
hydrogen and carbon atoms.
You can think of methane as being composed of a carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms
(what chemists call the methyl group) plus a fourth hydrogen. We begin by noticing that we
can replace the hydrogen in the methane by another methyl group to form a molecule with
two carbons in it. This larger molecule is ethane, a volatile, flammable gas (Figure 10-23).
You can keep going. Adding a third methyl group produces propane, a three carbon
chain. Propane is widely used as a fuel for portable stoves; you may have used it on your
last camping trip. The next step is to substitute another methyl group for hydrogen to
form a four-carbon chain, a molecule called butane. But there is an ambiguity here. We
could, as shown, add the new group at the end of the chain so that all four carbon
atoms form a straight line. This process would give us a form of butane known as n-butane
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 220
Methane Propane n-Butane

©Comstock/Corbis
Thinkstock/©Corbis
(a) (b) (c)
H H H H H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
Methane Ethane Propane n-butane
H H H
H C C C H Isobutane
H C H
H
(d)
• Figure 10-23 Hydrocarbons are commonly used as fuels, including (a) methane, or nat-
ural gas, (b) propane in portable metal containers, and (c) butane in disposable cigarette
lighters. (d) These members of the alkane series may be built up by adding methyl groups to
methane. The first three members of the group are methane (with one carbon atom), ethane
(with two carbon atoms), and propane (with three carbon atoms). The next two members are
isomers of butane (n-butane and isobutane, each with four carbon atoms).
(or “normal” butane). However, we could just as well add the methyl group to the inte-
rior carbon atom. In this case, the molecule would be known as isobutane. Isobutane
and n-butane have exactly the same numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms but are
actually quite different materials. (To give just one example, the former boils at –11.6ºC
while the latter boils at –0.5ºC.) Molecules that contain the same atoms but have dif-
ferent structures are called isomers.
As we continue the building process, moving to molecules with five carbons (pentane),
six carbons (hexane), seven carbons (heptane), eight carbons (octane), and beyond, the
number of different ways to assemble the atoms grows very fast. Octane, for example, has
18 different isomers; some have long chains, others are branched. As we shall see, these
structural differences play an important role in a molecule’s usefulness as an automotive fuel.
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 221
All other things being equal, the carbon chain length affects whether the alkane is a
solid or liquid: the longer the chain, the higher the temperature at which that material can
remain a solid. If carbon chains are straight, then alkanes with a half-dozen or so carbons
are liquid, but those with more than 10 are soft solids. Good-quality paraffin candle wax,
for example, which melts only near a hot flame of a wick, is composed primarily of chains
with 20 to 30 carbon atoms. The presence of branches in the chain, however, makes it more
difficult for the molecules to pack together efficiently. One consequence of branching is
that the melting points are generally lowered compared to those of straight alkanes.
TECHNOLOGY •
Refining Petroleum
Deep underground are vast lakes of a thick, black liquid called petroleum, derived from
many kinds of transformed molecules of former life forms. Petroleum is an extremely
complex mixture of organic chemicals, as much as 98% molecules of hydrogen and car-
bon (mostly in the form of hydrocarbons), with about 2% of other elements. Engineers
must separate this mixture into much purer fractions through the process of distillation.
Hydrocarbons with different numbers and arrangements of carbon atoms have very
different boiling temperatures. The key to distillation, then, is to boil off and collect dif-
ferent kinds of molecules successively, according to their boiling points. The most
volatile hydrocarbon—the one with the lowest boiling point—is simple methane (CH4),
or natural gas. At the opposite extreme are very-long-chain hydrocarbons with dozens
of carbon atoms, as in the molecules that comprise hard waxes, asphalt, and tar.
Modern chemical plants bristle with tall cylindrical towers that distill petroleum.
Engineers pump crude oil into a tower, which is heated from below to create a temper-
ature gradient up the tower (see Figure 10-24). At various levels of the tower, useful
• Figure 10-24 (a) Modern chemical plants bristle with tall distillation columns, in which
petroleum products are purified. (b) A schematic diagram of a distillation column in a chemi-
cal plant shows how a temperature gradient (hotter at the bottom, cooler at the top) is used
to separate hydrocarbons into fractions useful as gases, gasoline, kerosene, heating oil,
lubricating oils and paraffin, asphalt, and tar.
Low-boiling
Fractionating hydrocarbon
gases
Derek Croucher/©Corbis
tower
Straight-run
gasoline
Kerosene
Heating oil,
diesel and
jet fuel
Furnace Lubricating oil,

paraffin wax
Asphalt and tar

drawn off
as residue
...where it is heated
and transferred into
fractionating tower
Crude oil is pumped
into furnace...
(a) (b)
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 222
petroleum products such as gasoline or heating oil are recovered and sent to other parts
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/Photo Researchers

of the plant for further processing.
The gasoline you buy at a service station is usually rated in “octanes.” The octane rat-
ing of a gasoline is based on its ability to stand high compression in a cylinder without
igniting. A fuel mixture that ignites while the piston is still moving up and compressing the
gas in the cylinder will cause the engine to knock—a highly undesirable quality. In general,
the more highly branched a molecule is, the better it will perform without knocking.
A particular isomer of octane that has five carbons in a row and three methyl groups on
the sides turns out to have very good antiknock properties. This isomer is called isooctane,
and an octane rating of 100 for any fuel mixture means that it is as good as pure isooctane.
At the opposite extreme, n-heptane is an isomer with seven carbons in an unbranched chain
that produces knocking all the time. An octane rating of zero means the fuel mixture is as
bad as pure n-heptane. Thus the octane rating of a fuel is simply a statement that it per-
forms as well as a particular mixture of isooctane and n-heptane. A fuel rated at 95 octane,
SM 2396X
for example, performs as well as a mixture of 95% isooctane and 5% n-heptane. •
• Figure 10-25 A microscopic view
of the clotting of blood reveals the
polymerization of thrombin filaments,
which trap blood cells (red) and stop THE S CIENCE OF LIFE •
bleeding.
The Clotting of Blood
Whenever you get a cut that bleeds, your blood begins a remarkable and complex
sequence of chemical reactions called clotting. Normal blood, a liquid crowded with cells
and chemicals that distribute nutrients and energy throughout your body, flows freely
through the circulatory system. When that system is breached and blood escapes, how-
ever, the damaged cells release a molecule called prothrombin.
Prothrombin itself is inactive, but other blood chemicals convert it into the active
chemical thrombin. The thrombin reacts to break apart other normally stable chemicals that
are always present in blood, and thus produces small molecules that immediately begin to
polymerize. The new polymer, called fibrin, congeals quickly and forms a tough fiber net
that traps blood cells and seals the break in minutes (Figure 10-25). Clotting chemical reac-
tions differ depending on the nature of the injury and the presence of foreign matter in the
wound. Biologists have discovered more than a dozen separate chemical reactions that may
occur during the process. A number of diseases and afflictions may occur if some part of this
Science News complex chemical system is not functioning properly. Hemophiliacs lack one of the key
clotting chemicals and so may bleed continuously from small cuts. Some lethal snake ven-
Recycling Electronics oms, on the other hand, work by inducing clotting in a closed circulatory system. •
䉯
Thinking More About Atoms in Combination
LIFE-CYCLE C OSTS in its plates, pumping and refining the oil that was made into
its plastic case, assembling the final product, and so on. When
Every month chemists around the world develop thousands of that battery reaches the end of its useful life, all of these mate-
new materials and bring them to market. Some of these materi- rials have to be dealt with responsibly. For example, if you
als do a particular job better than those they replace, some do throw the battery into a ditch somewhere, the lead may wind
jobs that have never been done before, and some do jobs more up in nearby streams and wells.
cheaply. All of them, however, share one property—when the One way of dealing with this sort of problem, of course, is
useful life of the product of which they are a part is over, they to recycle materials—pull the lead plates out of the battery,
will have to be disposed of in a way that is not harmful to the process them, and then use them again. But even in the best
environment. Until very recently, engineers and planners had system, some materials can’t be recycled, either because they
given little thought to this problem. have become contaminated with other materials through use,
Think about the battery in your car, for example. The pur- or because we don’t have technologies capable of doing the
chase price covered the cost of mining and processing the lead recycling. These materials have to be disposed of in a way that
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 223
Key Terms | 223
isolates them from the environment. The question becomes, The cost of a product such as a new car, then, has to reflect the
“Who pays?” fact that someday that car may be abandoned and the manufac-
Traditionally, in the United States, the person who does turer will have to pay for its disposal.
the dumping—in effect, the last user—must see to the disposal. Life-cycle costing increases the price of commodities, con-
In some European countries, however, a new approach is being tributing to inflation in the process. What do you think the
introduced. Called life-cycle costing, this concept is built proper trade-off is in this situation? How much extra cost
around the proposition that once a manufacturer uses a mater- should be imposed up front compared to eventual costs of
ial, he or she owns it forever and is responsible for its disposal. disposal?
How does blood clot? • Coagulation is the process of forming a clot. Blood clots are
comprised of both platelets and fibrous proteins.
• Blood is a viscous liquid that transports nutrients and oxygen to
our tissues. It is pumped by our heart to the trillions of cells in º Platelets are small cell fragments that are continuously cir-
culating in the blood of mammals. They begin to aggre-
our body via the circulatory system’s vessels.
gate at the site of injury.
º Blood vessels such as arteries, capillaries, and veins are the
conduits that form the “plumbing” of our circulatory system. º Damage to the endothelium also causes the release of
prothrombin. Numerous chemical reactions convert
All blood vessels are comprised of different layers of tissue that
prothrombin into an insoluble polymer known as fibrin.
serve specific functions. The innermost lining, called the
This new polymer quickly forms a tough fibrous net
endothelium, allows blood to flow freely and easily. Any dam-
that strengthens the platelet plug. This part of the
age to the vessel wall and this inner lining (e.g., a small cut or
process is known as secondary hemostasis and quickly
a massive wound) causes blood to flow out of the vessel with-
seals the wound.
out restraint (i.e., bleeding).
• Once the wound has healed, blood clots are broken down
º Damage to the endothelium initiates a complex cascade of chemi- and resorbed by the body.
cal reactions that attempt to stem quickly the flow of blood. This
• These processes occur in all mammals.
process is known as hemostasis, and begins with coagulation.
S UMMARY •
Atoms link together by chemical bonds, which form when a rearrange- with a regular and repeating atomic structure; glasses, with a nonre-
ment of electrons lowers the potential energy of the electron system, peating structure; and plastics, which are composed of intertwined
particularly by the filling of outer electron shells. Ionic bonds lower chains of molecules called polymers. The various states of matter can
chemical potential energy by the transfer of one or more electrons to undergo changes of state, such as freezing, melting, or boiling, with
create atoms with filled shells. The positive and negative ions created in changes in temperature or pressure.
the process bond together through electrostatic forces. In metals, on Chemical bonds break and form during chemical reactions,
the other hand, isolated electrons in the outermost shell wander freely which may involve the synthesis or decomposition of chemical com-
throughout the material and create metallic bonds. Covalent bonds pounds. Reactions in which materials lose electrons to atoms such as
occur when adjacent atoms, or groups of atoms called molecules, share oxygen are called oxidation reactions. In the opposite reaction, called
bonding electrons. Hydrogen bonding is a special case involving reduction, electrons are moved onto atoms.
distortion of electron distributions to create electrical polarity— All life depends on polymerization reactions, in which small mole-
regions of slightly positive and negative charge that can bind together. cules link together to form long polymer fibers such as natural hair, silk,
Atoms combine to form several different states of matter. Gases plant fiber, and skin, and synthetic materials such as polyesters, vinyl,
are composed of atoms or molecules that can expand to fill any avail- cellophane, and other plastics. Hydrocarbons, widely used as fuels, are
able volume. Plasmas are ionized gases in which electrons have been chainlike molecules made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. High tem-
stripped from the atoms. Liquids have a fixed volume but no fixed peratures and certain chemicals can cause the breakdown of polymers,
shape. Solids have fixed volume and shape. Solids include crystals, or depolymerization, which is often a key objective in cooking.
K EY TERMS •
chemical bond states of matter glass reduction
ionic bond gas polymer polymerization
metallic bond plasma plastic hydrocarbon
metal liquid changes of state
covalent bond solid chemical reaction
hydrogen bond crystal oxidation
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 224
D ISCOVERY L AB •
As you may know, acids are substances that taste sour, turn blue in water, and aspirin in water. Make an indicator by using unsweet-
litmus red, react with metals, and produce hydrogen gas. Acids ened grape juice. Put about 10–15 milliliters of vinegar in a cup and
remain colorless in the presence of phenolphthalein, they can add a few drops of unsweetened grape juice. If the solution turns red
neutralize bases, and have a pH between 0 and 7. Bases are sub- it is an acid. If it turns green it is a base. Repeat the same procedure
stances that taste bitter, are slippery to touch, and turn red litmus with different solutions and observe the color change. How much
blue. In the presence of phenolphthalein, bases turn pink, they vinegar is needed to neutralize a baking soda solution? Take 15 mil-
can neutralize acids, and have a pH between 7 and 14. Products liliters of baking soda solution and add a few drops of unsweetened
of neutralization are salt and water. Neutral substances have a pH grape juice to it. Pour a measured amount of vinegar slowly until the
of 7. color changes from green to red. Can vinegar neutralize baking
Now try to identify acids and bases in your home. Gather these soda? How much vinegar did you need? Based on your lab, can you
materials: water, vinegar, lemon juice, orange juice, soap solution, predict if there are more chemicals in your home that are acids or
baking soda in water, milk, glass cleaner, any soda pop, Alka-Seltzer that are bases?
Unsweetened
grape juice
vinegar
Add
vinegar
Color change? Neutralized?
1. When is an electron a valence electron? Why are valence electrons 9. How is a glass constructed from its atoms? a plastic? a cystalline
especially important in chemical reactions? solid?
2. Describe how the rearrangement of electrons and the concomitant 10. Identify common changes of state and give examples of each.
lowering of potential energy are related to chemical and ionic bonds. 11. In what sense are oxidation and reduction reactions opposites?
3. Describe the metallic bond. What properties of metal follow 12. Are the following substances acid, base, or neutral: sodium bicar-
from the properties of the bond? bonate (pH8.3); blood (pH7.4); milk (pH6.7); orange juice
4. Which type of chemical bond is found in an alloy? Give an example (pH3.6); milk of magnesia (pH10.5); soda pop (pH3.1)?
of an alloy. 13. What is polymerization? Give an example.
5. Describe the covalent bond. Give an example of a material that 14. Upon what type of reaction does all life rely? How are polymers
uses it. involved in the formation of biological materials?
6. Describe the hydrogen bond. How is the electrical polarity 15. What are the characteristics of alkanes? What are the names and
exhibited in hydrogen bonding forces created? properties of the first five alkanes?
7. Describe three everyday states of matter, including differences 16. What is an isomer? Do all isomers have the same chemical
among them in volume and shape. In which states do the atoms or properties?
molecules have the greatest kinetic energy? The least? 17. How many isomers of hexane are there? Draw them.
8. How is a plasma like a gas? How is it like a metal? Where are 18. What are hydrocarbons? For what are they widely used?
plasmas found in the solar system? Where are they found in modern
technologies?
c10.qxd 9/11/09 11:19 AM Page 225
1. Identify objects around you that use the three kinds of chemical 9. Explain why melting ice is considered an endothermic process.
bonding described in the text. Are atomic bonds being broken?
2. Why do most molecules have covalent bonds? 10. What are polar molecules? Why is polarization important for
3. Classify the solid objects around you as ceramics, metals, glasses, biological reactions?
and plastics. 11. What is rust? What type of reaction leads to the rusting of
4. If the temperature of a solution is decreasing as a chemical reac- some metals (e.g., iron)?
tion is progressing, is the reaction endothermic or exothermic? 12. What is the maximum number of electrons that an atom can
5. The chemistry of the planet Mars is quite similar to Earth except have in its first orbital? its second and third orbitals?
that there is almost no water. Which common chemical reactions 13. Why is it that a liquid has a fixed volume but not a fixed shape?
that occur on Earth would you not expect to see on Mars? 14. What is the structural difference between liquid water at 0ºC
6. How does cooking affect polymers? Why else might we cook our and ice at 0ºC? What is the structural difference between liquid
food? water at 0ºC and liquid water at 100ºC?
7. Cooks often tenderize meat by soaking it in a liquid such as 15. Why does ice float when placed in water? What roles do hydro-
lemon juice or vinegar for several hours. What chemical reaction do gen bonding and polarity play in this phenomenon?
you think is taking place in the meat? How is this reaction analo- 16. What is an isomer? Do all isomers have the same chemical
gous to heating in an oven? properties?
8. During icy winter conditions we often throw salt on sidewalks 17. Why do crystals form? In what substances are crystals more
and streets. What occurs when salt comes in contact with ice? What likely to form? Why?
reaction is involved? How do you think the melting point of salt 18. What information does the octane rating of a fuel provide?
water compares to that of pure water? When is a fuel with a high octane rating necessary?
P ROBLEMS •
1. When you burn methane (CH4), it unites with oxygen 2. Use some other examples of the burning of hydrocarbons (e.g.,
(O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). ethane-C2H6 or propane-C3H8) to balance reaction equations.
Write an equation to balance the reactants and products 3. Is CH 4 O2 S CO2 H 2O a balanced equation? Why or
of this reaction. why not?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Look around your home and school and list the variety of plastic 5. We often refer to drinking water as being “soft” or “hard,” based
objects. What strategy might you develop to recycle plastics? Note on the kind of impurities present in the water. Which kind do you have
the numbers surrounded by a triangle on many disposable plastics. in your community? What kind of chemical reaction can take place if
What do the numbers mean? water is too hard? How can you prevent that reaction from occurring?
2. What materials were used for the construction of buildings, fur- 6. Use a pH meter to measure the acidity of various liquids. What
niture, and transportation devices in the United States 200 years is the pH of lemonade? a soft drink? milk? How do these liquids
ago? What modern technologies would be difficult or impossible compare with stomach acids?
with just those materials? 7. New plastics are being created from corn and soybeans, and
3. Why is it that some materials in landfills don’t break down into these plastics break down when exposed to air and water. In what
their constituent chemical parts? ways will the environment benefit from these biodegradable plas-
4. Dissect a disposable diaper. How many kinds of materials can you tics? Should our government mandate the use of materials that
identify? What are the key properties of each? What kind of chemical biodegrade once their useful life is over?
bonding might contribute to the distinctive properties of these materi- 8. Search the Web to find out how long it takes for common items
als? Investigate the arguments for and against using disposable diapers. like a cigarette butt or styrofoam coffee cup to biodegrade.
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:30 AM Page 226
11
Materials and Their Properties
How have computers gotten so much faster?
PHYSICS
Semiconductor
diodes control the
flow of electrons in
BIOLOGY modern electronic CHEMISTRY
devices.
The
human brain Metals, in which
is made up of bonding electrons
interconnected are shared among
nerve cells, which are many atoms, make the
arranged in a complex best conductors of
system that cannot heat and
be reproduced electricity.
artificially.
ENVIRONMENT
High-
temperature A material’s properties
Photovoltaic cells
superconductors, result from its will be used
which operate at the
temperature of liquid constituent atoms and increasingly to
convert
nitrogen, may soon find the arrangements of environmentally safe
many applications in
high-efficiency
chemical bonds that solar energy into
magnets and hold those atoms electricity.
motors. together.
TECHNOLOGY
Modern Rocks tend to be

telescopes rely on tough and brittle
electronic light because their atoms
detectors that use are held together
photoelectronic primarily by strong
material. (Ch. 14) ionic bonds.
Flexible synthetic
fibers with high
ASTRONOMY tensile strength are
GEOLOGY
used in automobile
seat belts.

HEALTH & SAFETY
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 227
Science Through the Day Hauling Gear
t’s only 10 a.m. but the beach is already

I starting to get crowded. You and your
friends decide to walk a few hundred
meters down the beach to a more open
stretch. There’s a surprising amount of gear
to haul across the beach. You carry a Styro-
foam cooler filled with aluminum soda
cans, while your backpack holds a pile of
sandwiches, SPF30 sunblock, a cotton
towel, a Frisbee, and your MP3 player with
your favorite music.
Without even thinking about it you’ve
loaded up with dozens of amazing high-
tech materials, each with its own distinctive
and valuable properties: insulating light-
weight Styrofoam, shiny strong aluminum,
creamy protective lotion, tasty layered
sandwiches, soft cool cotton, durable hard
plastic, and astonishingly versatile semicon-
ductor devices in your electronic gear. Even
your backpack features a score of different
Vera Storman/Getty Images
sophisticated polymer fibers, plastic zippers,
synthetic dyes, and metal alloys. Every one of these distinc-
tive materials has been designed to serve our needs, and
every one is crafted from atoms.
Materials and the Modern World

The materials people use, perhaps more than any other facet of a culture, define the
technical sophistication of a society. We speak of the most primitive human cultures as
Stone Age societies, and we recognize Iron Age and Bronze Age peoples as progressively
more advanced.
Stop and Think! Given that historical perspective, in what age are we
now living?
Take a moment and look around your room. How many different kinds of materials
do you see? The lights and windows employ glass—a brittle, transparent material. The
walls may be made out of gypsum, a chalk-like mineral that has been compressed in a
machine and placed between sheets of heavy paper. Your chair probably incorporates
several materials, including metal, wood, woven fabric, and glues (Figure 11-1).
Many of these materials would have been familiar to Americans 200 years ago,
when almost everything was made from less than a dozen common substances:
wood, stone, pottery, glass, animal skin, natural fibers, and a few basic metals such as
iron and copper. But thanks to the discoveries of chemists, the number of everyday
materials has increased by a thousandfold in the past two centuries. Cheap and abun-
dant steel transformed the nineteenth-century world with railroads and skyscrapers,
while aluminum provided a lightweight metal for hundreds of applications. The
227
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228 | C HAP TE R 11 | Materials and Their Properties

Tom Stewart/©Corbis-Bettman
development of rubber, synthetic fibers,
and a vast array of other plastics affected
every kind of human activity from industry
to sports. Brilliant new pigments enlivened
art and fashion, while new medications
cured many ailments and prolonged lives.
And in our electronic age, the discovery of
semiconductor and superconductor materi-
als has changed life in the United States in
ways that our eighteenth-century ancestors
could not have imagined.
Chemists take natural elements and
compounds that form earth, air, and water
and devise thousands of useful materials.
They succeed in part because materials dis-
play so many different properties: color,
smell, hardness, luster, flexibility, density,
solubility in water, texture, melting point,
strength—the list goes on and on. Each
• Figure 11-1 A typical room is new material holds the promise of doing
filled with high-tech materials: syn- some job cheaper or safer or otherwise better than any other. Based on our understand-
thetic fibers, specialized glass, coloring of atoms and their chemical bonding (see Chapter 10), we now realize that the prop-
ful plastics, and metal alloys. erties of every material depend on three essential features:
1. The kind of atoms of which it is made
2. The way those atoms are arranged
3. The way the atoms are bonded to each other
In this chapter, we look at different properties of materials and see how they
relate to their atomic architecture. We examine the strength of materials—how well
they resist outside forces. We look at the ability of materials to conduct electricity,
and we examine whether they are magnetic. And, finally, we describe what are per-
haps the most important new materials in modern society, the semiconductor and the
microchip.
The Strengths of Materials

Have you ever carried a heavy load of groceries in a thin plastic grocery bag? You can
cram a bag full of heavy bottles and cans and lift it by its thin handles without fear of
breakage. How can something as light, flexible, and inexpensive as a piece of plastic be
so strong?
Strength is the ability of a solid to resist changes in shape. Strength is one of the
most immediately obvious material properties, and it bears a direct relationship to chem-
ical bonding. A strong material must be made with strong chemical bonds. By the same
token, a weak material, like a defective chain, must have weak links between some of its
atoms. While no type of bond is universally stronger than the other kinds, many strong
materials, such as rocks, glass, and ceramics, are held together primarily by ionic bonds.
Next time you see a building under construction, look at the way beams and girders link
diagonally to form a rigid framework. Chemical bonds in strong materials do the same
thing. A three-dimensional network of ionic bonds in these materials holds them
together like a framework of steel girders.
The strongest materials we know, however, incorporate long chains and clusters of
carbon atoms held together by covalent bonds. The extraordinary strength of natural
spider webs, synthetic Kevlar (used to make bulletproof vests), diamonds, your plastic
shopping bag, and the muscles in your arm all stem from the strength of covalent bonds
to carbon atoms (Figure 11-2).
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The Strengths of Materials | 229
IMA/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Dorling Kindersley RF/Getty Images, Inc.
Muscle fiber
• Figure 11-2 The strength of materials is vital to many activities. The strength of muscle
fibers arises in part from strong carbon-carbon bonds.
D IFFERENT K INDS OF STRENGTH •

Every material is held together by the bonds between its atoms. When an outside force
is applied to a material, the atoms must shift their positions in response. The bonds
stretch and compress, and an equal and opposite force is generated inside the material to
oppose the force that is imposed from the outside, in accordance with Newton’s third
law of motion. The strength of a material is thus related to the size of the force it can
withstand when it is pushed or pulled.
Material strength is not a single property, because there are different ways of placing
an object under stress (Figure 11-3). Scientists and engineers recognize three very dif-
ferent kinds of strength when characterizing materials:
1. Its ability to withstand crushing (compressive strength)
2. Its ability to withstand pulling apart (tensile strength)
3. Its ability to withstand twisting (shear strength)
Your everyday experience will convince you that these three properties are often quite
independent. A loose stack of bricks, for example, can withstand crushing pressures—
you can pile tons of weight on it without having the stack collapse. But the stack of • Figure 11-3 Suspension bridges
bricks has little resistance against twisting. Indeed, it can be toppled by a child. A rope, feature vertical supports that are
extremely strong under compression
on the other hand, is extremely strong when pulled but has little strength under twisting
and massive steel cables that are
or crushing. extremely strong under tension.
The point at which a material stops resisting external forces
Digital Vision/Getty Images

and begins to bend, break, or tear is called its elastic limit. We
see examples of this phenomenon every day. When you break
an egg, crush an aluminum can, snap a rubber band, or fold a
piece of paper, you exceed an elastic limit and permanently
change the object. When the materials in your body exceed
their elastic limit, the consequences can be catastrophic. Our
bones may break if put under too much stress, while arteries
under pressure that is too high may rupture in an aneurysm.
A material’s strength is a result of the type and arrange-
ments of chemical bonds. Think about how you might design a
structure using Tinkertoys that would be strong under crush-
ing, pulling apart, or twisting. The strongest arrangement
would have lots of short sticks with triangular patterns.
Nature’s strongest structure, diamond, adopts this strategy; it
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Bruce Hands/Stone/Getty Images
Carbon Covalent
atoms bonds
(a) (b)
• Figure 11-4 (a) The girder framework of a skyscraper and (b) a diamond’s crystal structure
are both strong because of numerous very strong connections. In a building the connections
are steel girders; in diamond they are carbon–carbon covalent bonds.
is exceptionally strong under all three kinds of stress because of its three-dimensional
framework of strong carbon–carbon bonds (see Figure 11-4). Glass, ceramics, and most
rocks, which also feature rigid frameworks of chemical bonds, are relatively strong.
Many plastics like the one in your shopping bag, however, have strong bonds in only
one direction and thus are strong when stretched, but have little strength when twisted
or crushed. Materials with layered atomic structures, in which planes of atoms are
arranged like a stack of paper, are generally strong when squeezed but quite weak under
other stresses. Thus the strength of a material depends on the kind of atoms in it, the
way they are arranged, and the kind of chemical bonds that hold the atoms together.
C OMPOSITE MATERIALS •
Composite materials combine the properties of two or more materials. The strength of
one of the constituents is used to offset the weakness of another, resulting in a material
• Figure 11-5 In composite materi- whose strengths are greater than any of its components. Plywood, one of the most com-
als, such as reinforced concrete, one
mon composite materials, consists of thin wood layers glued together with alternating
material’s weakness is compensated
by the other’s strength. grain direction. The weakness of a single thin sheet of wood is compensated by the
strength of the neighboring sheets. Not only is plywood much stronger
Lester Lefkowitz/Stone/Getty Images, Inc.
than a solid board of the same dimension, but it can also be produced
from much smaller trees by slicing thin layers of wood off a rotating log,
like removing paper from a roll.
Reinforced concrete (Figure 11-5) is a common composite mate-
rial in which steel rods (with great tensile strength) are embedded in a
concrete mass (with great compressive strength). A similar strategy is
used in fiberglass, formed from a cemented mat of glass fibers, and in
new carbon-fiber composites that are providing extraordinarily strong
and lightweight materials for industry and sports applications.
The modern automobile features a wide variety of composite materi-
als. Windshields of safety glass are layered to resist shattering and reduce
sharp edges in a collision. Tires are intricately formed from rubber and
steel belting for strength and durability. Car upholstery commonly min-
gles natural and artificial fibers, and dashboards often employ complexly
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Electrical Properties of Materials | 231
laminated surfaces. The bodies of many cars are formed from a fiberglass or other molded
lightweight composite. And, as we shall see, all of a modern automobile’s electronics, from
radio to ignition, depend on semiconductor composites of extraordinary complexity.
Electrical Properties of Materials

Of all the properties of materials, none are more critical to our world than those that
control the flow of electricity. Glance around you and tally up the number of electrical
devices nearby. Chances are your list will quickly grow to several dozen. Almost every
aspect of our technological civilization depends on electricity, so scientists have devoted
a good deal of attention to materials that are useful in electrical systems. (See Chapter 5
for a review of electricity and magnetism.) If the job at hand is to send electrical energy
from a power plant to a distant city, for example, we need a material that will carry the
electrical energy without much loss. If, on the other hand, the job is to put a covering
over a wall switch so that we will not be endangered by electricity when we turn on a
light, we want a material that will not conduct electricity at all. In other words, a large
number of different kinds of materials contribute to any electrical device.
C ONDUCTORS •
Any material capable of carrying electrical current—that is, any material through which
electrons can flow freely—is called an electrical conductor. Metals, such as the copper
that carries electricity through the building in which you are now sitting, are the most
common conductors, but many other materials also conduct electricity. Saltwater, for
example, contains ions of sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl–), which are free to move if
they become part of an electric circuit. We can find out if a material will conduct elec-
tricity by making it part of an electric circuit and seeing if current flows through it.
The arrangement of a material’s electrons determines its ability to conduct electric-
ity. In the case of metals, you will recall, some electrons are bonded fairly loosely and
shared by many atoms. If you connect a copper wire across the poles of a battery, those
electrons are free to move in response to the battery’s potential. They flow from the
negative pole toward the positive pole of the battery.
As we saw in Chapter 5, the motion of electrons in electrical currents is seldom • Figure 11-6 Electrical wiring con-
smooth. Under normal circumstances, electrons moving through a metal will collide sists of a conducting metal core sur-
continuously with the much heavier ions in that metal. In each of those collisions, elec- rounded by an insulating layer of
plastic.
trons lose some of the energy they have gotten from the battery, and that energy is con-
Nash Photos/Getty Images, Inc.

verted to the faster vibration of ions—what we perceive as heat. The property by which
materials drain the energy away from a current is called electrical resistance. Even very
good conductors have some electrical resistance. (The inverse of electrical resistance is
electrical conductance, or the ease with which electrons flow in a material. Resistance and
conductance are thus different ways of describing the same property.)
I NSULATORS •
Many materials incorporate chemical bonds in which few electrons are free to move in
response to the “push” of an electric field. In rocks, ceramics, and many biological mate-
rials such as wood and hair, for example, the electrons are bound tightly to one or more
atoms by ionic or covalent bonds (see Chapter 10). It takes considerable energy to pry
electrons loose from those atoms—energy that is normally much greater than the energy
supplied by a battery or an electrical outlet. These materials will not conduct electricity
unless they are subjected to an extremely high voltage, which can pull the electrons
loose. If they are made part of an electric circuit, no electricity will flow through them.
We call these materials electrical insulators.
The primary use of insulators in electric circuits is to channel the flow of electrons
and to keep people from touching wires that are carrying current (Figure 11-6). The
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 232
Pure material shields on your light switches and household power outlets and the casings for most car
batteries, for example, are made from plastic, a reasonably good insulating material that
has the added advantages of low cost and flexibility. Similarly, electrical workers use pro-
tective rubber boots and gloves when working on dangerous power lines. In the case of
Silicon high-power lines, glass or ceramic components are used to isolate the current because of
atom
their superior insulating ability.
Outer-shell
electron
S EMICONDUCTORS •
Many materials in nature are neither good conductors nor perfect insulators. We call
• Figure 11-7 A normal silicon crys- such materials semiconductors, and they form the critical workhorse components of
tal displays a regular pattern of sili- our electronic age. As the name implies, a semiconductor will carry electricity but will
con atoms. Some of its electrons are not carry it very well. Typically, the resistance of silicon is a million times higher than the
shaken loose by atomic vibrations, resistance of a conductor such as copper. Nevertheless, silicon is not an insulator,
and these electrons are free to move
because some of its electrons do flow in an electric circuit. Why should this be?
around and conduct electricity.
In a silicon crystal (Figure 11-7), all the electrons are taken up in the covalent bonds
that hold each silicon atom to its neighbors. At room temperature, the silicon atoms
vibrate and a few of the covalent bonding electrons are shaken loose—think of them as
picking up a little of the vibrational energy of the atoms. These conduction electrons are
free to move around the crystal. If the silicon is made part of an electric circuit, a mod-
est number of conduction electrons are free to move through the solid. When a con-
duction electron is shaken loose, it leaves behind a defect in the silicon crystal—the
absence of an electron. This missing electron is called a hole. Just as electrons move in
response to electrical charges, so too can holes (see Figure 11-8a).
The motion of holes in semiconductors is something like what you see in a traffic
jam on a crowded expressway (Figure 11-8b). A space will open up between two cars,
after which one car moves up to fill the space, then another car moves up to fill that
space, and so on. You could describe this sequence of events as the successive motion of
cars. But you could just as easily (in fact, from a mathematical point of view more easily)
say that the space between cars—the hole—moves backward down the line. In the same
way, you can either describe the effects of the successive jumping of electrons from one
• Figure 11-8 (a) A hole in a semiconductor is produced when an electron is missing. Holes
can move, just like electrons. As an electron moves to fill a hole, it creates another hole
where it used to be. (b) As cars in a traffic jam move slowly forward, “holes” in the traffic can
be described as moving backward. This behavior is analogous to holes in a semiconductor.
Joe Raedle/Getty Images, Inc.
Hole
Silicon atom
Electron
Outer-shell electron
(a) (b)
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Electrical Properties of Materials | 233
atom to another, or talk about the hole moving through the material. Although there
are relatively few semiconducting materials in nature, they have played an enormous role
in the microelectronics industry, as we shall see later.
S UPERCONDUCTORS •
Some materials cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero exhibit a property known
as superconductivity—the complete absence of any electrical resistance. Below some
very cold critical temperature, electrons in these materials are able to move without sur-
rendering any of their energy to the atoms. This phenomenon, discovered in Holland in
1911, was not understood until the 1950s. Today, superconducting technologies provide
the basis for a worldwide multibillion-dollar-a-year industry. The principal reason for this
success is that once a material becomes superconducting and is kept cool, current will
flow in it forever. This behavior means that if you take a loop of superconducting wire
and hook it up to a battery to get the current flowing, the current will continue to flow
even if you take the battery away.
In Chapter 5, we learned that current flowing in a loop creates a magnetic field. If
we make an electromagnet out of superconducting material and keep it cold, the mag-
netic field will be maintained at no energy cost except for the refrigeration. Indeed,
superconductors provide strong magnetic fields much more cheaply than any conven-
tional copper-wire electromagnet because they don’t heat up from electrical resistance.
Superconducting magnets are used extensively in many applications where very high
magnetic fields are essential—for example, in particle accelerators (see Chapter 12) and
in magnetic resonance imaging systems for medical diagnosis. Perhaps they will eventu-
ally be used in everyday transportation.
How is it that a superconducting material can allow electrons to pass through without
losing energy? The answer in at least some cases has to do with the kind of electron–ion
interactions that occur. At very low temperatures, heavy ions in a material don’t vibrate
very much and can be thought of as being fixed in more or less one place. As a fast-
moving electron passes between two positive ions, the ions are attracted to the electron
and start to move toward it. By the time the ions respond, however, the electron is long
gone. Nevertheless, when the ions move close together, they create a region in the mater-
ial with a more positive electrical charge than normal. This region attracts a second elec-
tron and pulls it in. Thus the two electrons can move through the superconducting
material something like the way two bike racers move down a track, with one running
interference for the other.
At the very low temperatures at which a material becomes superconducting, elec-
trons hook up in pairs, and the pairs start to interlock like links of a complex, tangled
matrix. While individual electrons are very light, the whole collection of interlocked
electrons in a superconductor is quite massive. If one electron in a superconductor
encounters an ion, the electron can’t be easily deflected. In fact, to change the velocity
of any electron, something you would have to do to get energy from it, you would have
to change the velocity of all the electrons. Because this can’t be done, no energy is given
up in such collisions, and electrons simply move through the material together. If the
temperature is raised, though, the ions vibrate more vigorously and are no longer able to
perform the delicate minuet required to produce the electron pairs. Thus above the crit-
ical temperature, superconductivity breaks down.

Searching for New Superconductors
Until the mid-1980s, all superconducting materials had to be cooled in liquid helium, an
expensive and cumbersome refrigerant that boils at a few degrees above absolute zero,
because none of these materials was capable of sustaining superconductivity above
about 20 kelvins. Acting on a hunch, scientists Karl Alex Müller and George Bednorz
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©AP/Wide World Photos

David Parker/IMI/Univ. Birmingham/Photo Researchers
(a) (b)
• Figure 11-9 (a) A magnet floats “magically” above a black disk made from a new “high-
temperature” superconductor. The clouds in the background form above the cold liquid-
nitrogen refrigerant. (b) This technology has been used in Japan to float high-speed trains
above their tracks.
of IBM’s Zurich, Switzerland, research laboratory began a search for new superconductors.
Traditional superconductors are metallic, but Bednorz and Müller decided instead to focus
on oxides—chemical compounds, such as most rocks and ceramics, in which oxygen partic-
ipates in ionic bonds. It was an odd choice, for oxides make the best electrical insulators,
although a few unusual oxides do conduct electricity.
Working with little encouragement from their peers and no formal authorization
from their employers, the scientists spent many months mixing chemicals, baking them
in an oven, and testing for superconductivity. The breakthrough came on January 27,
1986, when a small black wafer of baked chemicals was found to become superconduct-
ing at greater than 30 degrees above absolute zero—a temperature that shattered the
old record and ushered in the era of “high-temperature” (though still extremely cold)
superconductors. The scientists’ compound of copper, oxygen, and other elements
seemed to defy all conventional wisdom, and it began a frantic race to study and improve
the novel material.
Today, many scientists are attempting to synthesize new oxides closely related to
those first described by Bednorz and Müller, while others struggle to devise practical
applications for these new materials. Some recently developed compounds superconduct
at temperatures as high as 160 degrees above absolute zero (see Figure 11-9).
High-temperature superconductors have taken superconductivity from the
domain of a few specialists and brought it into classrooms around the world. As a
new generation of scientists grows up with these new superconductors, new ques-
tions will be asked and exciting new ideas and inventions are sure to be found.
Within the next generation we may have electric motors that rotate a million revolu-
tions per minute on superconducting bearings, superconducting electrical storage
facilities that reduce our energy bills, and magnetically levitated trains that travel at
jet speeds between cities. •
Magnetic Properties of Materials

The magnets that lie at the heart of most electric motors and generators, though crit-
ical to almost everything we do, are not much evident in our everyday lives. Similarly,
we are usually unaware of the magnets that drive our stereo speakers, telephones, and
other audio systems. Even refrigerator magnets and compass needles are so common
that we take them for granted. But why do some common materials such as iron dis-
play strong magnetism, while other substances seem to be unaffected by magnetic
fields?
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Microchips and the Information Revolution | 235
In Chapter 5, we learned that
Visuals Unlimited/©Corbis Images

one of the fundamental laws of
nature is that every magnetic field is
due, ultimately, to the presence of
electrical currents. In particular, N Electron
electrons spinning around an atom
can be thought of as a small electrical
current, so each electron in an atom
acts like a little electromagnet. An +
atom can be thought of as being
composed of many small electro-
magnets, each with different strength
Atomic
and pointing in a different direction. nucleus
The total magnetic field of the atom
S
arises by adding together the mag-
(a) (b)
netic fields of all the tiny electron
electromagnets. • Figure 11-10 (a) The dipole mag-
netic field of a single atom takes the
It turns out that many atoms have magnetic fields that closely approximate the
same form as that of (b) larger mag-
dipole type (originally shown in Figure 5-8); thus each atom in the material can be nets. In this image small iron filings
thought of as a tiny dipole magnet (Figure 11-10). The magnetic field of a solid mate- align themselves with the dipole mag-
rial like a piece of lodestone arises from the combination of all these tiny magnetic netic field of a permanent magnet.
fields.
It’s somewhat harder to understand why most
materials do not have magnetic fields. In Figure 11-11a,
we show the orientation of atomic magnets in a
typical material. They point in random directions,
so at a place outside the material their effects tend
to cancel. An observer looking at the material will
measure no magnetic field, and a compass placed North
(a)
outside the material will not be deflected. This ordi-
nary situation explains how materials made up of
tiny magnets can, as a whole, be nonmagnetic. In a
few materials, including iron, cobalt, and nickel
metals, the atomic magnets line up—an effect called
ferromagnetism (Figure 11-11b). In a normal piece Domains
of iron, atoms within a specific domain will all be
lined up pointing in the same direction, but the ori-
entation of domains is random. Someone standing
outside this material will not measure a magnetic South
field, because the small magnetic fields in different (b) (c)
domains cancel each other. In special cases, as when • Figure 11-11 Different magnetic
iron cools from very high temperature in the presence of a strong magnetic field, all behavior in materials. (a) Nonmagnetic
of the neighboring domains may line up and thus reinforce each other. Only when materials have random orientations of
atomic spins. (b) Ferromagnetic mate-
most of the magnetic domains line up (as shown in Figure 11-11c) do you get a
rials with randomly oriented domains
material that exhibits an external magnet field—the arrangement that occurs in per- are not magnetic. (c) A permanent
manent magnets. magnet has more uniformly oriented
atomic spins.
Microchips and the Information Revolution

Every material has hundreds of different physical properties. We have already seen how
strength, electrical conductivity, and magnetism all result from the properties of individ-
ual atoms and how those atoms bond together. We could continue in this vein for many
more chapters, examining optical properties, elastic properties, thermal properties, and
so on. But such a treatment would miss another key idea about materials:
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 236
New materials often lead to new technologies that change society.
Of all the countless new materials discovered in the last century, none has trans-
formed our lives more than silicon-based semiconductors. From personal computers to
auto ignitions, iPods to sophisticated military weaponry, microelectronics are a hallmark
of our age. Indeed, semiconductors have fundamentally changed the way we manipulate
a society’s most precious resource—information. The key to this revolution is our ability
to fashion complex crystals atom by atom from silicon, a material that is produced from
ordinary beach sand.
D OPED S EMICONDUCTORS •
The element silicon by itself is not a very useful substance in electric circuits. What
makes silicon useful, and what has driven our modern microelectronic technology, is a
process known as doping. Doping is the addition of a minor impurity to an element or
compound. The idea behind silicon doping is simple. When silicon is melted before
being made into circuit elements, a small amount of some other material is added to it.
One common additive is phosphorus, an element that has five valence (bonding) elec-
trons, as opposed to the four valence electrons of silicon.
When the silicon crystallizes to form the structure shown in Figure 11-12a, the
phosphorus is taken into the crystalline structure. However, of the five valence electrons
in each phosphorus atom, only four are needed to make bonds to silicon atoms in the
crystal. The fifth electron is not locked in at all. In this situation, it does not take long for
the extra electron to be shaken loose and wander off into the body of the crystal. This
action has two important consequences: (1) there are conduction electrons in the mate-
rial, and (2) the phosphorus ion that has been left behind has a positive charge. A semi-
conductor doped with phosphorus is said to be an n-type semiconductor, because the
moving charge is a negative electron.
Alternatively, silicon can be doped with an element such as aluminum, which has
only three valence electrons (Figure 11-12b). In this case, when the aluminum is doped
into the crystal structure, there will be one less valence electron compared to the silicon
atoms it replaced in the crystal. This “missing” electron—a hole—creates a material
that can now more easily carry an electrical current. The hole need not stay with the
aluminum atom but is free to move around within the semiconductor as described ear-
lier. Once it does so, the aluminum atom, which has now acquired an extra electron,
• Figure 11-12 (a) Phosphorus-doped silicon n-type semiconductors have a few extra neg-
atively charged electrons, while (b) aluminum-doped silicon p-type semiconductors have a
few extra positively charged holes. Both n- and p-type semiconductors are usually formed
from silicon crystals with a few impurity atoms.
Phosphorus-doped silicon n-type semiconductor Aluminum-doped silicon p-type semiconductor
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
- Electron
- -
+ –
Si Si - P - Si Si Si Si - Al Si Si
- Electrons - Hole +
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
(a) (b)
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 237
will have a negative charge. This type of material is called
Stockbyte/Getty Images, Inc.

a p-type semiconductor, because a hole—a missing nega-
Charge layers
tive electron—acts as a positive charge.
D IODES • + E –
You can understand the basic workings of a microchip by – – + +

conducting an experiment in your mind. Imagine taking a –
+ E
piece of n-type semiconductor and placing it against a
piece of p-type semiconductor. As soon as the two types of – – + +
material are in contact, how will electrons move? –
+ E
Near the contact, negatively charged electrons will
diffuse from the n-type semiconductor over into the – – + +
p-type, while positively charged holes will diffuse back the
p-type n-type
other way. Thus, on one side of the boundary there will
be a region where negative aluminum ions—ions locked (a) (b)
into the crystal structure by the doping process—acquire • Figure 11-13 (a) The semiconduc-
an extra electron. Conversely, on the other side of the boundary is an array of positive tor diode consists of an n-type
phosphorus ions, each of which has lost an electron but which are nonetheless locked region and a p-type region. Electrons
into the crystal. in this diode can flow easily from the
negative to the positive region. This
A semiconducting device like this—formed from one p and one n region—is called
distribution of electric charge creates
a diode (see Figure 11-13). Once a diode is constructed, a permanent electrical field a field, labeled E, that blocks elec-
tends to push electrons across the boundary in only one direction, from the n-type side trons from flowing the opposite way.
to the p-type side. As electrons are pushed “with the grain” in the diode, from negative The result is a one-way valve for elec-
to positive, the current flows through normally. When the current is reversed, however, trons. (b) A tiny diode can control a
the electrons are blocked from going through by the presence of the built-in electrical large electric current.
field. Thus the diode acts as a one-way gate, allowing the electrical current through in
only one direction.
The semiconductor diode has many uses in technology. One use, for example, can
be found in almost any electronic device that is plugged into a wall outlet. As we saw in
Chapter 5, electricity is sent to homes in the form of alternating current, or AC. How-
ever, it turns out that most home electronics such as
Alternating current Direct current
televisions and stereos require direct current, or DC.
A semiconductor diode can be used to convert the
alternating current into direct current by blocking off n p
half of it. In fact, if you examine the insides of almost
any electronic gear, the power cord leads directly to a
diode and other components that convert pulsing AC
Negative Positive
into steady DC, as shown in Figure 11-14.
• Figure 11-14 A diode converts
alternating current to direct current
in most electronic devices. Half of
the alternating current passes
TECHNOLOGY • through the diode, but the other half
is blocked.
Photovoltaic Cells and Solar Energy
Semiconducting diodes may play an important role in the energy future of the
United States, through the use of a device called the photovoltaic cell. A photovoltaic
cell is nothing more than a large semiconductor diode. A thin layer of n-type mater-
ial overlays a thicker layer of p-type. Sunlight striking the top n-type layer shakes
electrons loose from the crystal structure. These electrons are then accelerated
through the n-p boundary and pushed out into an external circuit. Thus, while the
Sun is shining, the photovoltaic cell acts in the same way as a battery. It provides a
constant push for electrons and moves them through an external circuit. If large
numbers of photovoltaic cells are put together, they can generate enormous
amounts of current (Figure 11-15).
Photovoltaic cells enjoy many uses today. Your hand calculator, for example, may
very well contain a photovoltaic cell that recharges the batteries (it’s the small dark
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Masterfile
band just above the buttons). Photovoltaic
cells are also used in regions where it’s hard
to bring in traditional electricity—to pump
water in remote sites, for example, or to
provide electricity in backcountry areas of
national parks.
Another use of photovoltaics is in cam-
eras. In products from TV cameras to the
sensitive detectors that astronomers attach to
their telescopes, light strikes a semiconductor
rather than film. Using processes slightly
more complex than those described for a
photovoltaic cell, light striking each part of
the semiconductor is converted into an elec-
trical current, with the strengths of the cur-
rents from each part depending on the
amount of light that falls there. The strength
of those currents is then used to reconstruct
the visual image. •
• Figure 11-15 The Sun’s energy is
converted to electricity by photo-
voltaic panels at a Southern THE TRANSISTOR •
California generating plant.
The device that drives the entire information age, and perhaps more than any other has
been responsible for the transformation of our modern society, is the transistor.
Invented just two days before Christmas 1947 by Bell Laboratory scientists John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the early transistor was simply a sand-
wich of n- and p-type semiconductors.
In one kind of transistor, two p-type semiconductors form the “bread” of a sand-
wich, while the n-type semiconductor is the “meat.” Another kind of transistor uses the
npn configuration. Both kinds of transistors control the flow of electrons (Figure 11-16).
Electrical leads connect to each of the three semiconductor regions of the transistor.
An electrical current goes into the region called the emitter; the thin slice of semi-
conductor in the middle is called the base; and the third semiconductor section is the
collector.
Thus the transistor has two built-in electrical fields, one at each p-n junction.
The idea of the transistor is that a small amount of electrical charge run into or out
of the base can change these electrical fields—in effect, opening and closing the gates
• Figure 11-16 (a) A pnp and an of the transistor. The best way to think of the transistor is to make an analogy to a
npn transistor. (b) Transistors are eas-
pipe that carries water. The electrical current that flows from emitter to collector is
ily applied to a circuit board.
like water that flows through the pipe, and the base is
p-type n-type p-type like a valve in the pipe. A small amount of energy
©Corbis Images
applied to turning the valve can have an enormous

effect on the flow of water. In just the same way, a small
amount of charge run into or out of the base can have
an enormous effect on the current that runs through
the transistor.
pnp transistor In your cell phone, for example, weak electrical cur-
n-type p-type n-type
rents are created when your voice sets up vibrations in a
small crystal. This weak current can be fed into the base of
a transistor, and can thus be impressed on the much larger
current that is flowing from the emitter to the collector. A
device that takes a small current and converts it into a
large one is called an amplifier (see Figure 11-17). The
amplifier in your cell phone takes the weak current cre-
npn transistor ated by your voice and converts it into the much larger
(a) (b) current that runs the speakers.
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 239
Emitter Base Collector
p-type n-type p -type
Power R
Generator Output
voltage voltage
Time Time
• Figure 11-17 A transistor acting as an amplifier. A small amount of energy, supplied by a

power source such as a CD player, goes to the base of the transistor, where it is amplified as
discussed in the text.
Current
through
transistor
Current into Collector Current out
base of base
Base
No current through
the transistor, Current through
switch is off the transistor,
Emitter switch is open
(a) (b)
• Figure 11-18 A transistor acting as a switch. A small current causes the transistor to
switch from off (a) to on (b).
• Figure 11-19 A microchip incor-
porates many transistors built into a
As important as the transistor’s amplifying properties are, probably its most important tiny piece of silicon, as shown here.
use has been as a switch. If you run enough negative charge into the base, it can repel any Fifty years ago, it would have taken
electrons that are trying to get through. Thus moving an electrical charge into the base will several rooms to house the comput-
shut off the flow of current through the transistor, whereas running the electrical charge ing power in this single microchip.
out of the base will turn the current back on (Figure 11-18). In this manner the transistor
acts as an electron switch, and it can be used to process information in computers—
arguably the most important device developed in the twentieth century.
M ICROCHIPS •
Individual diodes and transistors still play a vital role in modern electronics, but these devices
have been largely replaced by much more complex arrays of p- and n-type semiconductors,
called microchips (see Figure 11-19). Microchips may incorporate hundreds or thousands
of transistors in one integrated circuit, specially designed to perform a specific function. An
integrated circuit microchip lies at the heart of your pocket calculator or microwave oven
control, for example. Similarly, arrays of integrated circuits store and manipulate data in your
personal computer, and they regulate the ignition in all modern automobiles.
Nelson Morris/Photo Researchers
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 240
The first transistors were bulky things, about the size of a golf ball, but today a single
microchip the size of a grain of rice can integrate hundreds of thousands of these devices.
California’s Silicon Valley has become a well-known center for the design and manufacture
of these tiny integrated circuits. Production of thousands of transistors on a single silicon
chip requires exquisite control of atoms. One technique is to put a thin wafer of silicon
into a large heated vacuum chamber. Around the edges of the chamber is an array of small
ovens, each of which holds a different element, such as aluminum or phosphorus. The side
ovens are heated in carefully controlled sequence and opened to allow small amounts of
other elements—the dopants—to be vaporized and enter the chamber along with silicon.
If you want to make a p-type semiconductor, for example, you could mix a small
amount of phosphorus with the silicon in the chamber and let it deposit onto the silicon
plate at the bottom. Typically, a device called a mask is put over the silicon chip so that
the p-type semiconductor is deposited only in designated parts of the chip. Then the
vapor is cleared from the chamber, a new mask is put on, and another layer of material is
laid down. In this way, a complex three-dimensional structure can be built up at a micro-
scopic scale. In the end, each microchip has many different transistors in it, connected
exactly as designed by engineers.
TECHNOLOGY •
Jim Trefil Gives His Car a Tune-Up
As a student, I acquired the first of a long string of Volkswagen Beetles. Now let me tell
you, my friends, that was a sweet car! There were never any problems with the cooling
system, for the simple reason that there wasn’t any—the engine was cooled by the air
flowing by. And almost any repair could be made by someone with reasonable mechani-
cal ability and a set of tools. While in graduate school, I spent many happy hours under
my car, adjusting this or that.
But I never work on my cars any more. When I look under the hood, all I see is a
complex array of computers and microchips—nothing a person can get a wrench around
(Figure 11-20). Yet the car I drive today, provided everything is working, is much more
user friendly than my old Volkswagen. The flow of gasoline to the cylinders, for example,
is regulated by a small onboard computer rather than by a clumsy mechanical carburetor.
This personal story about cars turns out to be a pretty good allegory for the way in
which the science of materials has developed in the twentieth century. In the beginning,
industry turned out big, relatively simple things that were easy to understand and work
with—iron wheels for railroads, steel springs for car suspensions, wooden chairs and
• Figure 11-20 Today’s automo-

bile engines are controlled by
microchips.
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 241
tables for the home. Today, industry turns out items that perform the same jobs better
but that are made from new kinds of materials such as plastics, composites, and semi-
conductors. Instead of manipulating large chunks of material, we now control the way
atoms fit together. Like modern cars, modern materials do their job well, but they can-
not be made (or, usually, repaired) by a simple craftsperson working with simple tools.
So while the materials we use are becoming better at what they do and easier for us to
use, it becomes harder and harder for us to understand what those materials are. I might
have been able to fix my Volkswagen myself, but there is no way I can look under the hood
and shift atoms around in my modern car’s microchip. In a sense, the improved perfor-
mance of modern materials has been bought at the price of our ability to understand them.
To a large extent, the emphasis of modern materials science has shifted away from manipu-
lating large blocks of stuff, which are readily available to our senses, to manipulating atoms
in ever-more-complex ways. And, of course, we can’t see or taste or feel atoms. •
I NFORMATION •
The single most important use of semiconducting devices is in the storage and manipu-
lation of information. In fact, the modern revolution in information technology—the
development of arrays of interconnected computers, global telecommunications net-
works, vast data banks of personal statistics, digital recording, and the credit card—is a
direct consequence of materials science.
All the things we normally consider as conveying information—the printed or spoken
word, pictures, or music, for example—can be analyzed in terms of their information
content and manipulated by the microchips we’ve just discussed. The term information,
like many words, has a precise meaning when it is used in the sciences, a meaning that is
somewhat different from colloquial usage. In its scientific context, information is mea-
sured in a unit that is called the binary digit, or bit.
You can think of the bit as the two possible answers to any simple question: yes or
no, on or off, up or down. A single transistor being used as a switch, for example, can
convey one bit of information—it is either on or off. Any form of communication con-
tains a certain number of bits of information, and the computer is simply a device that
stores and manipulates this kind of information.
One way of thinking about information in bits is to imagine a row of lightbulbs.
Each bulb can be on or off, so each bulb conveys one bit of information. You could
imagine making a code—all lights on is the letter “a”, all lights on except the first is the
letter “b”, and so on. In this way, each on-and-off arrangement of the lights would be a
different letter. You could then send a message by flashing different patterns.
If you had only one lightbulb, you could convey only two possibilities—on or off.
This would be one bit of information, and would correspond to trying to write a mes-
sage using only the letters “a” and “b”. (You could, for example, have a code where
“on” meant “a”, and “off” meant “b”). If you had two lightbulbs, you would have four
different configurations—on-on, on-off, off-on, and off-off—and therefore could con-
vey four different possibilities. With two lightbulbs, in other words, you could add “c”
and “d” to your list. In fact, you can work out that the number of different arrange-
ments of the on-off signals increases as the number of bulbs in your array grows. The
rate of growth is summarized in the following table:
Number of bulbs Number of configurations
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
8 256
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Given this table, how many lightbulbs would you need to send any message in the
English language? One way to approach this problem is to think about something most of
us take for granted—the design of typefaces. There are hundreds of different typefaces, and
new ones are being designed all the time. The type in this book, for example, is set in a type-
face called Galliard. People who design these typefaces reckon that they need 228 characters
to represent a complete message in English. This number includes letters (lowercase and
capital), numbers, fractions, punctuation marks, commercial symbols like the $ sign, and
what are called “peculiars”—* and %, for example. From the above table, then, we see that
in order to have a full representation of the English language, we would need a bank of
eight lightbulbs.
Another way of saying this is that it requires 8 bits of information to specify a letter
or symbol in English. In computer science, 8 bits is called a byte. From this simple fact
we can build up a hierarchy of information content as follows:
A six-letter word requires 6 8 48 bits of information
A printed page of 500 words requires 500 48 2,400 bits 2.4 Kb
A 300-page book requires 300 2,400 720,000 bits 720 Kb 0.72 Mb
A million-volume library requires 1,000,000 720,000 720 Gb
Where Kb, Mb, and Gb stand for a kilobit (1000 bits), a megabit (a million bits), and a
gigabit (a billion bits), respectively.
Stop and Think! Peoples of the world employ many alphabets besides
the Latin alphabet used to write English. How does the number of bits
required to designate a letter depend on the number of letters in the
alphabet?

Is a Picture Really Worth a Thousand Words?
Pictures and sounds can be analyzed in terms of information content, just like words.
Your television screen, for example, works by splitting the picture into small units called
pixels (Figure 11-21). In North America, the picture is split up into 525 segments on the
• Figure 11-21 (a) Digital images
Christian Petersen/Getty Images, Inc.

are stored in the form of tiny colored
squares (b), called pixels. The more
pixels per square inch, the higher
the picture’s resolution.
(a) (b)
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 243
horizontal and vertical axes, giving a total of about 275,000 pixels (in rounded numbers)
for one picture on the TV screen. Your eye integrates these dots into a smooth picture.
Every color can be thought of as a combination of the three colors—red, green, and
blue—and it is usual to specify the intensity of each of these three colors by a number that
requires 10 bits of information to be recorded. (In practice, this means that the intensity
of each color is specified on a scale of about 1 to 1000.) Thus each pixel requires 30 bits
to define its color. Thus the total information content of a picture on a TV screen is
275,000 pixels 30 bits about 8 million bits
Thus it requires about 8 megabits, or 1 megabyte, to specify a single frame on a TV picture.
We should note that a TV picture typically changes 30 times a second, so the total flow of
information on a TV screen may exceed 200 million bits per second.
It thus would appear that a picture is worth not only a thousand words but much
more. In fact, if a word contains 48 bits of information, then the picture will be worth
8 million bits per picture divided by 36 bits per word, which equals about 166,000 words
per picture.
The old saying, if anything, underestimates the truth! •
C OMPUTERS •
A computer is a machine that stores and manipulates information. The information is
stored in the computer in microchips, each of which incorporates many thousands of inter-
connected transistors that act as switches and carry information. In principle, a machine
with a few million transistors could store the text for this entire book. In practice, however,
computers do not normally work in this way. They have a central processing unit (CPU) in
which transistors store and manipulate relatively small amounts of information at any one
time. When the information is ready to be stored—for example, when you have finished
working on a text in a word processor, or writing a program to perform a calculation—it is
removed from the CPU and stored elsewhere. It might, for example, be stored in the form
of magnetically oriented particles on a floppy disk or a hard drive. In these cases, a bit of
information is no longer a switch that is on or off, but a bit of magnetic material that has
been oriented either “north pole up” or “north pole down.”
The ability to store information in this way is extremely important in modern society.
As just one example, think about the last time you made an airline reservation. You went
online and got into communication with the airline’s computer. Stored in strings of bits
within that computer are the flights, the seating assignments, the ticket arrangements,
and often the addresses and phone numbers of every passenger who will be flying on the
particular day when you want to fly. When you change your reservation, make a new one,
or perform some other manipulation, the information is taken out of storage, brought to
the central processing unit, manipulated by changing the exact sequence of bits, and then
put back into storage. This process—the storage and manipulation of vast amounts of
data—forms the very fabric of our modern society.
You’ve probably noticed that the speed and information capacity of computers has
increased astonishingly over the past few decades. Just look at the improvements in the
images and action of video games (Figure 11-22). This tendency for ever-faster comput-
ers was first noted in 1965 by Gordon Moore, the founder of Intel. He pointed to a
trend that the number of transistors that can be packed into every square inch of a
microchip (a measure of computing power) tends to double about every two years.
(Since Moore’s time, this number has fallen to 18 months!) “Moore’s Law” has held up
remarkably for 40 years, though it can’t continue indefinitely. The average size of a sin-
gle transistor is now only a few thousand atoms across, and a semiconductor device can’t
be much smaller than that.
These advances are primarily the result of many improvements in materials and
their processing at the atomic scale—a field called nanotechnology. New fine-grained
magnetic materials have greatly increased the capacity of information storage devices
such as hard disks, while improved semiconductor processing techniques continue to
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 244
Richard Chung/Reuters/©Corbis-Bettman
D&P Valenti/ClassicStock/©Corbis-Bettmann
(a) (b)
• Figure 11-22 In less than a quarter of a century, the computer has evolved from a spe-
cialized research aid to an essential tool for business and education. (a) Elementary school
boys operate a 1980s TRS-80 computer playing games. (b) Twenty-first-century video games
were on display at this trade show in Taipei.
reduce the size of individual n- and p-type semiconductor domains. The result is smaller,
more powerful computers—one of many ways that advances in material science play a
direct role in our lives.

The Computer and the Brain
When computers first came into public awareness, there was a general sense that we were
building a machine that would in some way duplicate the human brain (Figure 11-23).
Concepts such as artificial intelligence were sold (some would say oversold) on the basis of
MPI Biochemistry/Volker Steger/Photo Researchers, Inc.

• Figure 11-23 Could neuro-chips
be in our future? Modern technology
may soon be able to fuse human
brain cells to computer chips.
SM 807X
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 245
the idea that computers would soon be able to perform all those functions that we normally
think of as being distinctly human. In fact, this scenario has not come to pass. The reason
has to do with the difference between the basic unit of the computer, which is the transistor,
and the basic unit of the brain, which is the nerve cell.
The transmission of electrical signals between the brain’s neurons is fundamentally
different from that between elements in ordinary electric circuits (see Chapter 5). This
difference in signal transmission alone, however, does not make a brain so different
from a computer. A computer normally performs a sequential series of operations—
that is, a group of transistors takes two numbers, adds them together, feeds that
answer to another group of transistors that performs another manipulation, and so
on. Some computers are now being designed and built that have some parallel
capacity at the same time—machines in which, for example, addition and other
manipulations are done in parallel rather than one after the other. Nevertheless, the
natural configuration of computers is to have each transistor hooked to, at most, a
couple of others.
A nerve cell in the brain, however, operates in quite a different manner. Each of the
brain’s trillions of nerve cells connects to a thousand or more different neighboring
nerve cells. Whether a nerve cell decides to fire—whether the signal moves out along the
axon—depends in a complex way on the integration of all the signals that come into that
cell from thousands of other cells.
This complex arrangement means that the brain is a system that is highly inter-
connected, more interconnected than any other system known in nature. In fact, if the
brain has trillions of cells and each cell has a thousand connections, there will be on
the order of 1,000,000,000,000,000 connections among brain cells. Building a com-
Science News
puter of this size and level of connectedness is at present totally beyond the capability
of technology. • Will Computers Out-Think Us?
䉯
Thinking More About Properties of Materials
THINKING MACHINES Berkeley, has recently challenged the whole idea of the Turing
test as a way of telling if a machine can think by proposing a para-
One of the most intriguing questions about the ever-increasing dox he calls the “Chinese room.”
abilities of complex computers is whether a computer can be The Chinese room works like this: An English-speaking
built that is, by general consensus, regarded as “alive” or person sits in a room and receives typed questions from a
“conscious.” British mathematician Alan Turing proposed a test Chinese-speaking person in the adjacent room. The English-
to address this question. The so-called Turing test operates this speaking person does not understand Chinese but has a large
way: A group of human beings sit in a room and interact with manual of instructions. The manual might say, for example,
something through some kind of computer terminal. They that if a certain group of Chinese characters is received, then
might, for example, type questions into a keyboard and read a second group of Chinese characters should be sent out. The
answers on a screen. Alternatively, they could talk into a micro- English-speaking person could, at least in principle, pass the
phone and hear answers played back to them by some kind of Turing test if the instructions were sufficiently detailed and
voice synthesizer. These people are allowed to ask the hidden complex. Obviously, however, the English speaker has no idea
“thing” any questions they like. At the end of the experiment, of what he or she is doing with the information that comes in
they have to decide whether they are talking to a machine or to or goes out. Thus, argues Searle, the mere fact that a machine
a human being. If they can’t tell the difference, the machine is passes the Turing test tells you nothing about whether it is
said to have passed the Turing test. aware of what it is doing.
As of this date, no machine has passed the test (there have Do you think a machine that can pass the Turing test must
been occasional contests in Silicon Valley in which machines were be aware of itself? Do you see any way around Searle’s argu-
put through their paces). But what if a machine did actually pass? ment for the Chinese room? What moral and ethical problems
Would that mean we have invented a truly intelligent machine? might arise if human beings could indeed make a machine that
John Searle, a philosopher at the University of California at everyone agreed has consciousness?
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How have computers gotten so fast? º Complex arrays of silicon-based semiconductors are called
microchips.
• The properties of any material depend on three essential features.
º Microchips may incorporate hundreds of transistors in one
º The type of atoms that comprise the material. integrated circuit.
º The arrangement of atoms that comprise the material. • A measure of computing power is the number of transistors that
º The bonding of the atoms that comprise the material. can be packed onto a microchip.
• New materials can lead to new technologies (e.g., silicon-based
semiconductors), or changes in existing technologies (e.g., º Moore’s Law, first noted in 1965, refers to the fact that the
number of transistors that can be placed onto a microchip
increased computing speed.).
doubles every two years.
• Computers are built to store and manipulate vast amounts of
information. º Computers have become faster because the improvement in
materials led to an enhancement in computing power by
º The basic building block of the computer is the transistor. increasing the number of transistors that can be packed onto a
º The first transistors were quite large. Early computers were single microchip.
very slow because space constraints limited the total number of
transistors in any circuit.
S UMMARY •
All materials, from building supplies and fabrics to electronic compo- New materials play important roles in modern technology.
nents and food, have properties that arise from the kinds of constituent Semiconductors, in particular, are vital to the modern electronics
atoms and the ways those atoms are bonded together. The high industry. Semiconductor material, usually silicon, is modified by
strength of materials such as stone and synthetic fibers relies on inter- doping with small amounts of another element. Phosphorous doping
connected networks of ionic or covalent bonds. Composite materials, adds a few mobile electrons to produce an n-type semiconductor,
such as plywood, fiberglass, and reinforced concrete, merge the special while aluminum doping provides positive holes in p-type semicon-
strengths of two or more materials. ductors. Devices formed by juxtaposing n- and p-type semiconduc-
The electrical properties of materials also depend on the kinds of tors act as switches and valves for electricity. A diode joins single
constituent atoms and the bonds they form. For example, electrical pieces of n- and p-type material, for example, to act as a one-way
resistance—a material’s resistance to the flow of an electrical current— valve for current flow. Transistors, which incorporate a pnp or npn
depends on the mobility of bonding electrons. Metals, which are char- semiconductor sandwich, act as amplifiers or switches for current.
acterized by loosely bonded outer electrons, make excellent electrical Microchips can combine up to thousands of n and p regions in a sin-
conductors, while most materials with tightly held electrons in ionic and gle integrated circuit.
covalent bonds are good electrical insulators. Materials such as silicon Semiconductor technology has revolutionized the storage and
that conduct electricity, but not very well, are called semiconductors. At use of information. Any information can be reduced to a series of
very low temperatures, some compounds lose all resistance to electron simple “yes-no” questions, or bits. Eight-bit words, called bytes, are
flow and become superconductors. the basic information unit of most modern computers.
Magnetic properties also arise from the collective behavior of
atoms. While most materials are nonmagnetic, ferromagnets have
domains in which electron spins are aligned with each other.
K EY TERMS •
strength electrical insulator diode byte
composite materials semiconductor transistor computer
electrical conductor superconductivity microchip
electrical resistance doping bit
D ISCOVERY L AB •
You have read that an electrical conductor is any material that allows First, take your aluminum foil and tape the ends down on the
electrons to flow freely through it. It could be a copper wire—or even poster board. Next, strip 1.5 inches of the insulation off of the wire
saltwater! Try this experiment by gathering the following items: one ends with the fingernail clippers by scoring the plastic in a circular
8.5 11 inch piece of poster board, one 6-volt dry cell, three pieces fashion and pulling the insulation off. Then set your 6-volt dry cell
of 12-inch bell wire, scotch tape, spring clothespin, 2 3 inch alu- down on the poster board and attach one end of the bare wire to the
minum strip, 6-volt lamp (bulb), short wide-mouthed plastic cup, positive terminal and tape the other end down on the aluminum foil.
one-half cup of table salt, and fingernail clippers. After that, roll a piece of tape and place it on the bottom of the plastic
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 247
cup, setting the cup near the dry cell. Now take another wire you Test your connection by taking the other end and touching
stripped and place the bare wire end underneath the negative terminal the bare wire against the other wire’s end to see if the bulb lights
of the dry cell. Follow this up with the other wire end, by placing and up and the connection is good. Now place the other end of the
taping it into the inside of the cup, about halfway down. After this wire into the inside of the cup like before and tape it down, leaving
wrap one wire end around the lamp base (just below the glass) and some bare wire exposed. Pour warm water into the cup and fill it
stick the lamp into the inside circular part of the clothespin. Next, set about 60% full. Then place six tablespoons of table salt into the
the clothespin down flat on the poster board with the lamp upright water and slowly stir. Does the light bulb light up? Can you explain
and the lamp’s contact (metal end) lying against the aluminum foil. why? If the bulb does not light up, press down on the clothespin,
Tape both ends of the clothespin down firmly. or add more salt.
Dry Cell
Insulated
wire
Cup taped to
poster board
6v lamp
Bare
wires
Clothespin Warm
Bare water
wire
Aluminum
foil Poster
board
1. What three essential features define the properties of a material? 9. What is the difference between an insulator, a semiconductor,
2. What kinds of chemical bonds are strongest? Why are these and a superconductor?
bonds so strong? 10. Explain how holes can move in a semiconductor.
3. What is strength? What factors determine the strength of a material? 11. If all atoms have electrons that are in motion about an atom,
4. Name the three kinds of strength used to characterize materi- why aren’t all materials magnetic?
als. Give examples of materials that are strong in each of these 12. What causes the magnetic properties of a material?
modes. What kind of chemical bonding occurs in each of these 13. What is a semiconductor diode? How do diodes convert AC
materials? into DC?
5. Diamonds and graphite are both made from carbon atoms. Why 14. What is a transistor? What are the base, emitter, and collector,
is graphite so much weaker? respectively?
6. What is the difference between a composite material and a com- 15. How are diodes and transistors similar, and how are they different?
pound? Give an example of each. 16. What is an integrated circuit? How might one be made?
7. Identify the materials that serve as an electrical insulator and an 17. Give an example of a bit of information. What is the difference
electrical conductor in an electrical device that you use every day. between a bit and a byte?
8. What is unusual about superconductors? Under what conditions 18. What is artificial intelligence? Name two essential differences
do materials exhibit superconductivity? between our brains and the CPU of a computer.
1. How do the principles of physics and chemistry both come into 4. How has the development of new materials changed the world
play when developing new materials? in which you live? Give examples of three new materials and the
2. From the point of view of atomic architecture, how does a mate- impact they have had on your everyday life.
rial like concrete, which is strong under compression, differ from a 5. Identify 10 objects in your home that use semiconductors. What
material like steel, which is strong under tension? other kinds of materials with special electrical properties are found
3. How do conductors and insulators differ in their atomic structure? in all of these 10 objects?
c11.qxd 9/11/09 11:31 AM Page 248
6. If water in a pipe is analogous to electricity in a wire, what is 11. What is the relationship between heat production and
analogous to a diode? a transistor? What electrical device is resistance?
analogous to a water storage tank? 12. Would a silicon semiconductor doped with boron be n or p
7. What are microchips? How are they related to integrated type? How about one doped with arsenic? (Hint: Look at the
circuits? periodic table.)
8. How can complex information such as music be reduced to a 13. Have you seen solar photovoltaic cells in your town? Why do
series of simple “yes-no” questions? you suppose they were placed where you saw them?
9. Can Moore’s law continue indefinitely? Why or why not? 14. Do electrons flow from the positive terminal to the negative
10. Why are both insulators and conductors needed in all electrical terminal of a battery or vice versa? Why?
devices? 15. What determines a material’s ability to conduct electricity?
P ROBLEMS •
1. Many countries around the world are converting television broad- 4. Estimate the total amount of information contained in the
casts into high-definition TV (HDTV). In HDTV, the picture is split printed words in this book. Estimate the information content of the
up into as many as 1100 by 1100 (as opposed to 525 by 525) pixels. illustrations in this book.
What is the information content of an HDTV picture? What is the 5. What is the information content in any given minute of a LCD
information content that must be transmitted each second in an monitor at a resolution of 800600 with the picture changing
HDTV broadcast? 85 times a second? What about a screen resolution of 1024768
2. Construct a set of yes-or-no questions to specify any letter of with changes 75 times a second?
the alphabet, both upper- and lowercase, and all digits from zero 6. The Kangxi dictionary compiled in China in 1710 during the
to nine. Qing dynasty encompasses 46,964 characters. How many bits
3. Construct a set of yes-or-no questions to specify any planet in would it take to specify a specific Kangxi character? Compare this to
our solar system. the number required in languages that have alphabets.
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Why does a magnet become demagnetized when you repeatedly 9. What kinds of materials do surgeons use to replace broken hip
hit it with a hammer? In what other ways can you destroy a permanent bones? What are the advantages of this material?
magnet? Why aren’t “permanent magnets” permanent? 10. Plastic surgeons have used silicon-filled implants for breast
2. Shortly after the discovery of high-temperature superconductiv- enlargement and other cosmetic procedures. Intensive research is
ity, many newspapers and TV shows ran features on how these new now under way to understand the effects of silicon on the human
materials would change society. What is the highest temperature at body, due to claims of adverse reactions to these implants. Investi-
which superconductivity has been demonstrated? In what ways gate the nature of silicon and summarize some of the contradictory
might superconductivity change society? Historically, what other results of recent research. Based on your investigation, do you think
new materials have caused significant changes in human societies? such implants should be banned?
Have all these changes been productive and positive? 11. Investigate the use of new materials in sports medicine such as
3. Every year, one or two promising new materials capture public Gore-Tex tendons. What are the ethical implications of using new
attention. Scan recent issues of Science News and identify one such materials to create athletes who are stronger due to superhuman
material. Who made it? How might it be used? replacement parts?
4. Research the status of magnetically levitated trains, like the one 12. Superman’s costume was bulletproof. What qualities would the
now operating in Japan. How does it operate? How fast might it material that made up his costume need to resist the impact of a
go? How soon might such a train operate in North America? bullet? What materials are used in modern bulletproof vests and
5. Read the book or watch the 1951 movie The Man in the White body armor? Under what conditions (i.e., twisting, compression,
Suit. What unique material properties are described, and how is the tension) are they strongest?
new technology received by society? 13. If you could create a new super-material, what would it be used
6. A class of new materials called fullerenes, including the substance for? What atomic structure would be necessary to give the material
known as buckyballs, were invented in 1985. Investigate these the qualities that you desire? How might this material change society?
materials and their possible uses. Would all the changes be productive?
7. Visit a sports equipment store. Learn about the new materials 14. Why does Major League Baseball disallow the use of metallic
that are used in tennis rackets, football helmets, and sports clothing. bats? How could a baseball be changed to offset the use of aluminum
8. Write a short story in which a new material with unique properties bats? How could the materials in a baseball be changed to allow more
plays a central role. home runs?
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12
The Nucleus of the Atom
How do scientists determine
the age of the oldest human fossils?
PHYSICS
The nucleus is held

together by the
BIOLOGY strong force. CHEMISTRY
The chemical
All life on Earth
bonding of an atom’s
evolved in a
electrons has virtually
radioactive
no effect on what
environment.
happens in the
(Ch. 25)
nucleus.
ENVIRONMENT
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear energy Wastes from
depends on the nuclear power
produce energy by
generation must be
controlling nuclear conversion of mass isolated from the
fission reactions.
into energy. environment.
TECHNOLOGY
Fusion reactions
that combine All rocks contain
hydrogen to produce a trace of
helium plus energy radioactive isotopes,
occur in the Sun and notably those of
other stars. uranium.
(Ch. 14)
Doctors
sometimes rely on
ASTRONOMY radioactive tracers to
GEOLOGY
diagnose injuries and
disease.

HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Radioactivity Around Us
t’s great to be lying on the beach, lulled

I by the sound of the surf, soaking up the
sun. Away from the pressures of school
and work, time seems to stand still. In such
a relaxing setting it’s hard to imagine that
hundreds of energetic radioactive particles
are tearing through your body every
minute. Some of those speeding particles
will damage your cells, breaking apart
bonds in the molecules that control critical
functions of metabolism and cell division.
But don’t lose a moment worrying about
this ubiquitous background radioactivity.
Since the dawn of life, low levels of
radioactivity in rocks, sand, soils, and the
oceans have bathed every living thing. This
radioactivity, a natural part of every envi-
ronment on Earth, reveals much about the
inner structure of the atom. Angelo Cavalli/iconica/Getty Images
Empty Space, Explosive Energy

Imagine that you are holding a basketball, while 25 kilometers (about 15 miles) away a
few grains of sand whiz around. And imagine that all of the vast intervening space—
enough to house a fair-sized city—is absolutely empty. In some respects, that’s what an
atom is like, though on a much smaller scale, of course. The basketball is the nucleus,
and the grains of sand represent the electrons (remember, though, that electrons display
characteristics of both particles and waves). The atom, with a diameter 100,000 times
that of its nucleus, is almost all empty space.
Previous chapters explored the properties of atoms in terms of their electrons.
Chemical reactions, the way a material handles electricity, and even the very shape and
strength of objects depend on the way that electrons in different atoms interact with
each other. In terms of our analogy, all of the properties of the atoms that we have stud-
ied so far result from actions that are taking place 25 kilometers from the location of the
basketball-sized nucleus. The incredible emptiness of the atom is a key to understanding
two important facts about the relation of the atom to its nucleus.
1. What goes on in the nucleus of an atom has almost nothing to do with the atom’s chemistry,
and vice versa. The chemical bonding of an atom’s electrons has virtually no effect on
what happens to the nucleus. In most situations you can regard the electrons and the
central nucleus as two separate and independent systems.
2. The energies available in the nucleus are much greater than those available among
electrons. The particles inside the nucleus are tightly locked in. It takes a great deal
more energy to pull them out than it does to remove an electron from an atom.
The enormous energy we can get from the nucleus follows from the equivalence of
mass and energy (which we discussed in Chapter 3). This relationship is defined in
Einstein’s most famous equation.
In words: Mass is a form of energy. When mass is converted into energy, the amount
of energy produced is enormous—equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the
speed of light squared.
250
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Empty Space, Explosive Energy | 251
In equation form:
Bruno Morandi/Age Fotostock America, Inc.

Energy mass 1speed of light2 2

In symbols:
E mc2
Remember that the constant c, the speed of light, is a very large number (3108 meters
per second) and that this large number is squared in Einstein’s equation to give an even
larger number. Thus, even a very small mass is equivalent to a very large energy, as
shown in the following “Science by the Numbers” section.
Einstein’s equation tells us that a given amount of mass can be converted into a spe-
cific amount of energy in any form, and vice versa. This statement is true for any process
involving energy. When hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, for example, the
mass of the water molecule is a tiny bit less than the sum of the masses of the original
atoms. This missing mass has been converted to binding energy in the molecule. Simi-
larly, when an archer draws a bow, the mass of the bow increases by a tiny amount
because of the increased elastic potential energy in the bent material (Figure 12-1).
The change in mass of objects in everyday events such as these is so small that it is cus-
tomarily ignored, and we speak of the various forms of energy without thinking about their
mass equivalents. In nuclear reactions, however, we cannot ignore the mass effects. A • Figure 12-1 When a bow is
nuclear reactor, for example, can transform fully 20% of the mass of a proton into energy in drawn, its mass has increased by a
each reaction by a process we will soon discuss. Thus nuclear reactions can convert signifi- tiny amount.
cant amounts of mass into energy, while chemical reactions, which involve only relatively
small changes in electrical potential energy, involve only infinitesimal changes in mass. This
difference explains why an atomic bomb, which derives its destructive force from nuclear
reactions, is so much more powerful than conventional explosives, such as dynamite, and
conventional weapons, which depend on chemical reactions in materials such as TNT.

Mass and Energy
On the average, each person in the United States uses about 10,000 kilowatt-hours (kwh)
of energy each year, a rate of about one kilowatt-hour each hour. In effect, each individual
uses the energy equivalent of a toaster going full blast all the time. How much mass would
have to be converted completely to energy to produce your year’s supply of energy?
In Appendix B, we find that one kilowatt-hour of energy is the same as 3.6 million
joules, so every year each of us uses:
annual energy use 110,000 kwh2 13.6 106 joule>kWh 2
36,000 106 joule
3.6 1010 joule
In order to calculate the mass that is equivalent to this large amount of energy, we need
to put this energy into the Einstein equation, which we can rewrite as:
energy
mass
1speed of light 2 2
Written in this form, the number we seek (the mass) is expressed in terms of two num-
ber we already know. The speed of light, c, is 3108 m/s, so we find that:
13.6 1010 joule2
mass
13 108 m>s2 2
13.6 1010 joule2

19 1016 m2>s2 2
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252 | C HAP TE R 12 | The Nucleus of the Atom
4.0 107 joule-second2>meter 2

4.0 107 kilogram
In the last step we have to remember that a joule is defined as a kilogram-meter2/second2,
so the units “joule-second2/meter2” in this answer are exactly the same as kilograms
(see Appendix B). Our year’s energy budget could be satisfied by a mass that weighs less
than a millionth of a kilogram, or about the mass of a small sand grain, if you could
unlock that energy! •
The Organization of the Nucleus

As we saw in Chapter 10, Ernest Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus by observ-
ing how fast-moving particles scatter off gold atoms. In later experiments with even
faster atomic “bullets,” scientists found that atomic nuclei sometimes break into smaller
fragments. Thus, like the atom itself, the nucleus is made up of smaller pieces, most
importantly the proton and the neutron. Approximately equal in mass, the proton and
neutron can be thought of as the primary building blocks of the nucleus.
The proton (from Latin for “the first one”) has a positive electrical charge of 1
and was the first of the nuclear constituents to be discovered and identified.
Stop and Think! Why might electrically charged particles be easier to

identify than electrically neutral ones?
The number of protons determines the electrical charge of the nucleus. An atom in its
electrically neutral state will have as many negative electrons in orbit as protons in the nucleus.
Thus the number of protons in the nucleus determines the chemical identity of an atom.
When people began studying nuclei, however, they quickly found that the mass of a
nucleus is significantly greater than the sum of the mass of its protons. In fact, for most
atoms the nucleus is more than twice as heavy as its protons. What accounts for this
observation of “missing mass”? Scientists concluded that atoms must contain some kind
of particle other than the proton or electron, but what is it?
We can identify at least three characteristics of this missing particle. First, it must be
relatively massive to account for the observed mass of atoms. Second, it must reside in
the nucleus of the atom, in close proximity to the protons. And third, it must be electri-
cally neutral; otherwise it would be easy to identify in an electric field. We now realize
that this extra mass is supplied by a particle in the nucleus with no electrical charge called
the neutron (for “the neutral one”). The neutron has approximately the same mass as the
proton. Thus a nucleus with equal numbers of protons and neutrons will have twice the
mass of the protons alone.
The mass of a proton or a neutron is about 2000 times the mass of the electron.
Therefore, almost all of the mass of the atom is contained within the protons and neu-
trons in its nucleus. You can think of things this way: electrons give an atom its size, but
the nucleus gives an atom its mass.
E LEMENT NAMES AND ATOMIC N UMBERS •

The most important fact in describing any atom is the number of protons in the
nucleus—the atomic number. This number defines which element you are dealing with.
All atoms of gold (atomic number 79) have exactly 79 protons, for example. In fact,
the name “gold” is simply a convenient shorthand for “atoms with 79 protons.” Every
element has its own atomic number: all hydrogen atoms have just one proton, carbon
atoms must have six protons, and so on. The periodic table of the elements that we dis-
cussed in Chapter 7 can be thought of as a chart in which the number of protons in the
atomic nucleus increases as we read from left to right and top to bottom.
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The Organization of the Nucleus | 253
Protons define the chemical behavior of an atom. The fixed number of positively
charged protons dictates the arrangement of the atom’s electrons and thus its chemical
properties.
I SOTOPES AND THE MASS N UMBER •

Each element has a fixed number of protons, but the number of neutrons may vary from
atom to atom. In other words, two atoms with the same number of protons may have
different numbers of neutrons. Such atoms are said to be isotopes of each other, and
they have different masses. The total num-
ber of protons and neutrons is called the
mass number. 100
Every element exists in several different
isotopes, each with a different number of
neutrons. The most common isotope of car- 80
bon, for example, has 6 neutrons, so it has a
mass number of 12 (6 protons6 neutrons);
Proton number Z
it is usually written 12C or carbon-12 and is 60
Z
called carbon twelve. Other isotopes of the
=
N
carbon nucleus, such as carbon-13 with 7
neutrons, and carbon-14 with 8 neutrons,
40
are heavier than carbon-12, but they have
the same electron arrangements and, there-
fore, the same chemical behavior. A neutral
carbon atom, whether carbon-12, carbon-13, 20
or carbon-14, must have 6 electrons in orbit
to balance the required 6 protons.
The complete set of all the isotopes—
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
every known combination of protons and
Neutron number N
neutrons—is often illustrated on a graph
that plots number of protons versus number of neutrons (see Figure 12-2). Several fea- • Figure 12-2 A chart of the iso-
tures are evident from this graph. First, every chemical element has many known isotopes. Stable isotopes appear in
topes, in some cases, dozens of them. Close to 2000 isotopes have been documented, green, and radioactive isotopes are
in yellow. Each of the approximately
compared to the hundred or so different elements. This plot also reveals that the num-
2000 known isotopes has a different
ber of protons is not generally the same as the number of neutrons. While many light combination of protons (Z on the ver-
elements, up to about calcium (with 20 protons), often have nearly equal numbers of tical scale) and neutrons (N on the
protons and neutrons, heavier elements tend to have more neutrons than protons. This horizontal scale). Isotopes of the light
fact plays a key role in the phenomenon of radioactivity, as we shall see. elements (toward the bottom left of
the chart) have similar numbers of
protons and neutrons and thus lie
close to the diagonal N Z line at
45 degrees. Heavier isotopes (on the
EXAMPLE 12-1 upper right part of the chart) tend to
have more neutrons than protons
I NSI DE TH E ATOM and thus lie well below this line.
We find an atom with 9 protons and 8 neutrons in its nucleus and 10 electrons in orbit.
1. What element is it?
2. What is its mass number?
3. What is its electrical charge?
4. How is it possible that the numbers of protons and electrons are different?
Reasoning: We can find the first three answers by looking at the periodic table, but we will
refer back to Chapter 10 and the discussion of stable electron states for the last answer.
Solution:
1. The element name depends on the number of protons, which is 9. A glance at the
periodic table reveals that element number 9 is fluorine.
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2. Next, we calculate the mass number, which is the sum of protons and neutrons:
98 17. This isotope is fluorine-17.
3. The electrical charge equals the number of protons (positive charges) in the nucleus
minus the number of electrons (negative charges) surrounding the nucleus:
910 1. The ion is thus F–1.
4. The number of positive charges (9 protons) differs from the number of negative
charges (10 electrons) because this atom is an ion. Atoms with 10 electrons are partic-
ularly stable (see Chapter 11), so fluorine usually occurs as a –1 ion in nature.
EXAMPLE 12-2
A H EAVY E LEM ENT
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are contained in the atom 56Fe when it has
a charge of 2?
Reasoning: Once again we can look at the periodic table for the first two answers, but
we will have to do a simple calculation for the last answer. Remember, the number of
protons is the same as the atomic number; the number of neutrons is the mass number
minus the number of protons; and we compare the number of protons and the 2 charge
to determine the number of electrons.
Solution: From the periodic table, the element Fe (iron) is element number 26, so it
has 26 protons.
The number of neutrons is the mass number, 56, minus the number of protons:
56 26 30 neutrons.
The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to the number of protons
minus the charge on the ion, which in this case is 2. Thus there are 26 2 24 electrons
in orbit.
THE STRONG F ORCE •

In Chapter 5 we learned that one of the fundamental laws of electricity is that like
charges repel each other. If you think about the structure of the nucleus for a moment,
you will realize that the nucleus is made up of a large number of positively charged
objects (the protons) in close proximity to each other. Why doesn’t the electrical repul-
sion between the protons push them apart and disrupt the nucleus completely?
The nucleus can be stable only if there is an attractive force capable of balancing or
overcoming the electrical repulsion at the incredibly small scale of the nucleus. Much
of the effort of physicists in the twentieth century has gone into understanding the
nature of this force that holds the nucleus together. Whatever the force is, it must be
vastly stronger than gravity or electromagnetism, the only two forces we’ve encoun-
tered up to this point. For this reason it is called the strong force. The strong force
must operate only over the very short distances characteristic of the size of the
nucleus, because our everyday experience tells us that the strong force doesn’t act on
large objects. Both with respect to its magnitude and its range, the strong force is
somehow confined to the nucleus. In this respect, the strong force is unlike electricity
or magnetism.
The strong force has another distinctive feature. If you weigh a dozen apples and a
dozen oranges, their total weight is simply the sum of the individual pieces of fruit. But
this is not true of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The mass of the nucleus is always
slightly less than the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons. When protons and
neutrons come together, some of their mass is converted into the energy that binds
them together. We know this must be true, because it requires energy to pull most
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Radioactivity | 255
nuclei apart. This so-called binding energy varies from one nucleus to another. The iron
nucleus is the most tightly bound of all the nuclei. This fact will become important in
Chapter 14, when we discuss the death of stars.
Radioactivity
The vast majority of atomic nuclei in objects around you—more than 99.999% of the
Tom Raymond/Stone/Getty Images

atoms in our everyday surroundings—are stable. In all probability, the nuclei in those
atoms will never change to the end of time. But some kinds of atomic nuclei are not sta-
ble. Uranium-238, for example, which is the most common isotope of the rather common
element uranium, has 92 protons and 146 neutrons in its nucleus. If you put a block of
uranium-238 on a table in front of you and watched for a while, you would find that a few
of the uranium nuclei in that block would disintegrate spontaneously. One moment there
would be a normal uranium atom in the block, and the next moment there would be frag-
ments of smaller atoms and no uranium. At the same time, fast-moving particles would
speed away from the uranium block into the surrounding environment. This spontaneous
release of energetic particles is called radioactivity or radioactive decay (Figure 12-3).
The emitted particles themselves are referred to as radiation. The term radiation used in
this sense is somewhat different from the electromagnetic radiation that we introduced in
Chapter 6. In this case, radiation refers to whatever comes out from the spontaneous decay
of nuclei, be it electromagnetic waves or actual particles with mass.
• Figure 12-3 Safety officers in

Stop and Think! What might the world be like if most atoms were protective clothing use a Geiger
radioactive? counter to examine waste for
radioactivity.
WHAT’S R ADIOACTIVE? •
Almost all of the atoms around you are stable, but most everyday elements have at least
a few isotopes that are radioactive. Carbon, for example, is stable in its most common
isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-13; but carbon-14, which constitutes about a trillionth
of the carbon atoms in living things, is radioactive. A few elements such as uranium,
radium, and thorium have no stable isotopes at all. Even though most of our surround-
ings are composed of stable isotopes, a quick glance at the chart of isotopes (Figure 12-2)
reveals that most of the 2000 or so known natural and laboratory-produced isotopes are
unstable and undergo radioactive decay of one kind or another.
Becquerel and Curie

The nature of radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Antoine Henri Becquerel
(1852–1908), who studied chemicals that incorporate uranium and other radioactive ele-
ments. He placed some of these samples in a drawer of his desk along with an unexposed
photographic plate and a metal coin. When he developed the photographic plate some
time later, the silhouette of the coin was clearly visible. From this photograph he con-
cluded that some as-yet-unknown form of radiation had traveled from the sample to the
plate. The coin seemed to have absorbed the radiation and blocked it off, but the radiation
that got through delivered enough energy to the plate to cause the chemical reactions that
normally go into photographic development. Becquerel knew that whatever had exposed
the plate must have originated in the minerals and traveled at least as far as the plate.
Becquerel’s discovery was followed by an extraordinarily exciting time for chemists,
who began an intensive effort to isolate and study the elements from which the radiation
originated. The leader in the field we now call radiochemistry was also one of the best
c12.qxd 9/11/09 11:35 AM Page 256
known scientists of the modern era, Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867–1934). Born in
Courtesy College Physicans of America
Poland and married to Pierre Curie, a distinguished French scientist, she conducted her
pioneering research in France, often under extremely difficult conditions because many
of her colleagues were unwilling to accept a woman scientist (Figure 12-4). She worked
with tons of exotic uranium-bearing minerals from mines in Bohemia, and she isolated
minute quantities of previously unknown elements such as radium and polonium. One
of her crowning achievements was the isolation of 22 milligrams of pure radium chlo-
ride, which became an international standard for measuring radiation levels. She also
pioneered the use of X-rays for medical diagnosis during World War I. For her work she
became the first scientist to be awarded two Nobel prizes, one in physics and one in
chemistry. She also was one of the first scientists to die from prolonged exposure to radi-
ation, whose harmful effects were not known at that time. Her fate, unfortunately, was
shared by many of the pioneers in nuclear physics. •

• Figure 12-4 The Curie family,
with Marie Sklodowska, Pierre, and The CAT Scan
their daughter, Irene. Both parents Manipulation of X-rays plays a crucial role in a modern medical technique called the CAT
received the Nobel Prize in chemistry scan. Ordinary X-ray photographs depend on the differences in density (and therefore in
in 1911 for isolating radium and the ability to absorb X-rays) of the various materials in the body. In these photographs,
polonium. Their daughter received
the 1935 prize with her husband,
the X-rays make one pass through, in one direction only, to produce pictures. They can-
Frederic Joliot-Curie. not produce a three-dimensional image of the interior of the body, nor can they produce
sharp images of organs whose densities are not significantly different
from the densities of their surroundings. These shortcomings are
overcome by a different X-ray technique known as computerized axial
tomography (CAT).
Goodshoot/©Corbis Images
The easiest way to visualize a CAT scan is to imagine dividing

the body into slices perpendicular to the backbone, with each slice
being a millimeter or so in width. The material in each slice is
probed by successive short bursts of X-rays, lasting only a few mil-
liseconds each, that cross the slice in different directions. Each part
of the slice is thus traversed by many different X-ray bursts. Each
burst of X-rays contains the same number of photons when it
starts, and the ones that go all the way through the body (i.e.,
those not absorbed by material along their path) are measured by a
ER Productions/©Corbis Images
photoelectric device.
Once all the data on a given slice have been obtained, a computer
works out the density of each point of the body and produces a
detailed cross section along that particular slice (Figure 12-5). A com-
plete picture of the body (or a specific part of it) can then be built up
by combining successive slices. •
• Figure 12-5 A man having a CAT

scan; a video monitor is in the back-
ground next to the machine. A CAT THE K INDS OF R ADIOACTIVE D ECAY •
scan of a human skull and brain is
shown as an inset. Physicists who studied radioactive rocks and minerals soon discovered three different kinds
of radioactive decay, each of which changes the nucleus in its own characteristic way, and
each of which plays an important role in modern science and technology (Table 12-1).
Table 12-1 Types of Radioactive Decay

Type of Decay Particle Emitted Net Change
alpha alpha particle new element with two less protons, two less neutrons
beta electron new element with one more proton, one less neutron
gamma photon same element, less energy
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Radioactivity | 257
These three kinds of radioactivity were dubbed alpha, beta, and

gamma radiation to emphasize that they were unknown and mys-
terious when first discovered.
1. Alpha Decay
Some radioactive decays involve the emission of a relatively large and Helium
massive particle composed of two protons and two neutrons. Such a atoms
particle is exactly the same as the nucleus of a helium-4 atom. It is
called an alpha particle, and the process by which it is emitted is
called alpha decay. (An alpha particle is often represented in equa- alpha
particles
tions and diagrams by the Greek letter a.)
The nature of alpha decay was discovered by Ernest Ruther-
ford, the discoverer of the nucleus, in the first decade of the twen-
tieth century. His simple and clever experiment, sketched in Radioactive
Figure 12-6, began with a small amount of radioactive material material
known to emit alpha particles in a sealed tube. After a number of Initially Several months
months, careful chemical analysis revealed the presence of a small later
amount of helium in the tube, helium that hadn’t been present when the tube was • Figure 12-6 The Rutherford
sealed. From this observation, Rutherford concluded that alpha particles must be associ- experiment led to the identification
ated with the helium atom. Today we would say that Rutherford observed the emission of the alpha particle, which is the
same as a helium nucleus.
of the helium nucleus in radioactive decay, followed by the acquisition of
two electrons to form an atom of helium gas. Rutherford received the Alpha decay
Nobel Prize in chemistry for his chemical studies and his work in sorting 2 neutrons
out radioactivity. He is one of the few people in the world who made his 2 protons
most important contributions to science—in this case the discovery of the
nucleus—after he received the Nobel Prize.
When the nucleus emits an alpha particle, it loses two protons and two
neutrons (Figure 12-7a). This means that the daughter nucleus will have two
fewer protons than the original. If the original nucleus is uranium-238 with
92 protons, for example, the daughter nucleus will have only 90 protons,
Uranium-238
which means that it is a completely different chemical element called thorium. (92 protons)
The total mass of the new atom will be 234, so alpha decay causes uranium-238
to transform to thorium-234. The thorium nucleus with 90 protons can Thorium-234
(90 protons)
accommodate only 90 electrons in its neutral state. This means that, soon after
the decay, two of the original complement of electrons will wander away, leav- (a)
ing the daughter nucleus with its allotment of 90. The process of alpha decay Beta decay
reduces the mass and changes the chemical identity of the decaying nucleus.
Radioactivity is nature’s “philosopher’s stone.” According to medieval Electron
alchemists, the philosopher’s stone was supposed to turn lead into gold. (negative charge)
The alchemists never found their stone because almost all of their work
involved what we today would call chemical reactions; that is, they were try-
ing to change one element into another by manipulating electrons. Given Neutron Proton
what we now know about the structure of atoms, we realize that they were (positive charge)
approaching the problem from the wrong end. If you really want to change
one chemical element into another, you have to manipulate the nucleus,
precisely what happens in the process of radioactivity.
Neutrino
When the alpha particle leaves the parent nucleus, it typically travels at (no charge)
a very high speed (often at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light) so (b)
it carries a lot of kinetic energy. This energy, like all nuclear energy, comes
from the conversion of mass: the mass of the daughter nucleus and the Gamma radiation
alpha particle, added together, is somewhat less than the mass of the parent
Photon
emitted
• Figure 12-7 The three common types of radioactive decay involve the spon-
taneous release of energetic particles from an atom. In alpha decay (a) an atom Key:
emits an alpha particle with two protons and two neutrons. In beta decay (b) a Protons adopt a
lower energy state Proton =
neutron in the atom’s nucleus transforms to a positively charged proton, which Neutron =
remains in the nucleus, plus an energetic negatively charged electron and a neu- (c)
Electron =
trino, which are emitted as radiation. In gamma decay (c) an energetic gamma ray
Neutrino =
(a photon) is emitted as positively charged protons adopt a lower energy state.
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uranium nucleus. If the alpha particle is emitted by an atom that is part of a solid body,
then it will undergo a series of collisions as it moves from the parent nucleus into the
wider world. In each collision it will share some of its kinetic energy with other atoms.
The net effect of the decay is that the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is eventually
converted into heat, and the material warms up. About half of Earth’s interior heat
comes from exactly this kind of energy transfer. As we shall see in Chapter 17, this heat
is ultimately responsible for many of Earth’s major surface features.
2. Beta Decay
The second kind of radioactive decay, called beta decay, involves the emission of an electron.
(Beta decay and the electron it produces are often denoted by the Greek letter b.) The sim-
plest kind of beta decay that can be observed is for a single neutron (Figure 12-7b). If
you put a collection of neutrons on the table in front of you, they would start to disin-
tegrate, with about half of them disappearing in the first 10 minutes or so. The most
obvious products of this decay are a proton and an electron. Both particles carry an elec-
trical charge and are therefore very easy to detect. This production of one positive and
one negative particle from a neutral one does not change the total electrical charge of
the entire system.
In the 1930s, when beta decay of the neutron was first seen in a laboratory, the exper-
imental equipment available at the time easily detected and measured the energies of the
electron and proton. Scientists looking carefully at beta decay were troubled to find that the
process appeared to violate the law of conservation of energy, as well as some other impor-
tant conservation laws in physics. When they added up the mass and kinetic energies of the
electron and proton after the decay, the total amounted to less than the mass tied up in the
energy of the original neutron. If only the electron and proton were given off, the conser-
vation law of energy, as well as other important laws of nature, would be violated.
Rather than face this possibility, physicists at the time followed the lead of Wolfgang
Pauli (see Chapter 8) and postulated that another particle had to be emitted in the
decay, a particle that they could not detect at the time, but that carried away the missing
energy and other properties. It wasn’t until 1956 that physicists were able to detect this
missing particle—the neutrino, or “little neutral one”—in the laboratory. This particle
has no electrical charge, travels close to the speed of light, and, if modern theories are
correct, carries a very tiny mass. Today, at giant particle accelerators (see Chapter 13),
neutrinos are routinely produced and used as probes in other experiments. When beta
decay takes place inside a nucleus, one of the neutrons in the nucleus converts into a
proton, an electron, and a neutrino. The lightweight electron and the neutrino speed
out of the nucleus, while the proton remains. The electron that comes off in beta decay
is not one of the electrons that was originally circling the nucleus in a Bohr electron
shell. The electrons emitted from the nucleus come out so fast that they are long gone
from the atom before any of the electrons in shells have time to react. The new atom has
a net positive charge, however, and eventually may acquire a stray electron from the
environment.
The net effect of beta decay is that the daughter nucleus has approximately the same
mass as the parent (it has the same total number of protons and neutrons), but has one
more proton and one less neutron. It is therefore a different element than it was before.
Carbon-14, for example, undergoes beta decay to become an atom of nitrogen-14. If
you were to place a small pile of carbon-14 powder—it would look like black soot—in a
sealed jar and come back in 20,000 years, most of the powder would have disappeared
and the jar would be filled with colorless, odorless nitrogen gas. Beta decay, therefore, is
a transformation in which the chemical identity of the atom is changed, but its mass is
virtually the same before and after. (Remember, the electron and neutrino that are emit-
ted are extremely lightweight and make almost no difference in the atom’s total mass.)
What force in nature could cause an uncharged particle such as the neutron to fly
apart? The force is certainly not gravitational attraction between masses, nor is it the
electromagnetic force that causes oppositely charged particles to fly away from each
other. And beta decay seems to be quite different from the strong force that holds
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Radioactivity | 259
protons together in the nucleus. In fact, beta decay is an example of the operation of
the fourth fundamental force in nature, the weak force.
3. Gamma Radiation
The third kind of radioactivity, called gamma radiation, is different in character from
alpha and beta decay. (Gamma decay and gamma radiation are often denoted by the
Greek letter g .) A “gamma ray” is simply a generic term for a very energetic photon—
electromagnetic radiation (Figure 12-7c). In Chapter 6 we saw that all electromagnetic
radiation comes from the acceleration of charged particles, and that is what happens in
gamma radioactivity. When an electron in an atom shifts from a higher energy level to a
lower one, we know that a photon will be emitted, typically in the range of visible or
ultraviolet light. In just the same way, the particles in a nucleus can shift between dif-
ferent energy levels. These shifts, or nuclear quantum leaps, involve energy differences
thousands or millions of times greater than those of an atom’s electrons. When particles
in a nucleus undergo shifts from higher to lower energy levels, some of the emitted
gamma radiation is in the range of X-rays, while others are even more energetic.
A nucleus emits gamma rays any time its protons and neutrons reshuffle. Neither
the protons nor the neutrons change their identity, so the daughter atom has the same
mass, the same isotope number, and the same chemical identity as the parent. Neverthe- • Figure 12-8 The damage to
less, this process produces highly energetic radiation. atoms and molecules from different
kinds of radiation can be compared
to the damage to objects in an
R ADIATION AND H EALTH • alleyway caused by different types of
The most important thing to realize about radiation is that it is a natural part of our envi- vehicles. The massive, lumbering
truck is analogous to an alpha particle
ronment. Life on our planet evolved in a radioactive environment, and radiation did not (a), the smaller, faster car is analogous
suddenly appear when we were able to detect and measure it in the twentieth century. to a beta particle (b), and the small,
Cosmic rays from space are passing through your body as you read this, for example. swift motorcycle is analogous to a
As we shall see in Chapter 25, living things evolve in such a way as to adapt to their envi- gamma ray (c). Although you might
ronment. This means that cells in organisms (including humans) have, over the ages, devel- conclude that the gamma ray does
oped mechanisms for repairing the damage caused by radiation. In fact, there is a the least amount of damage, its high
long-standing debate between scientists on the question of whether or not small amounts of kinetic energy and ability to penetrate
deeply makes it especially dangerous
radiation, by stimulating the immune system, actually improves an organism’s overall health. in large quantities.
Now that we understand what radi-
ation is, we can understand how it might
harm living tissue. The basic process,
called ionization, involves fast moving
alpha, beta, or gamma rays stripping
electrons from atoms as they pass by
The truck doesn't get far, but totals whatever it hits.
(Figure 12-8). If the damaged atom hap- (a)
pens to be in a molecule, the radiation
might block essential functions of the cell.
Large doses of radiation, such as
those encountered by some people in
the nuclear attacks of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in World War II or the Cher-
nobyl reactor accident in Ukraine in
1986, can cause serious illness or death. The car travels farther than the truck,
More significant, however, is the possi- (b) does less damage per foot traveled than the truck.
bility that exposure to radiation can
result in cancer or birth defects years
after exposure. The 23,797 survivors of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki who received
significant nonfatal doses and were fol-
lowed by doctors for years thereafter, for
example, contracted about three more
cases of leukemia a year than were seen The motor bike makes it through the alley,
doing less damage per foot traveled.
in a similar group that was not exposed. (c)
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Robert Hazen’s Broken Wrist

I once had an experience that gave me a whole new perspective on radioactivity. Years
ago while playing beach volleyball I dove for a ball and bent back my wrist. It hurt a lot,
but it was early in the season, so I taped up the wrist and kept on playing. After a couple
of weeks it didn’t hurt too much, so I forgot about the injury.
Years later, when the wrist started hurting again, I saw a doctor, who said, “Your
wrist has been broken for a long time. When did it happen?” Because the break was so
old, my doctor had to find out whether the broken bone surfaces were still able to mend.
They sent me to a specialized hospital facility where I was given a shot of a fluid contain-
ing a radioactive phosphorus compound—a compound that concentrates on active
growth surfaces of bone. After a few minutes this radioactive material circulated through
SPL/Photo Researchers
my body, with some of the phosphorus compound concentrating on unset regions of my

wrist bones. Radioactive molecules constantly emitted particles that moved through my
skin to the outside; as I lay on a table, my broken wrist glowed on the overhead monitor.
The process produced a clear picture of the fracture, so my doctor was able to reset the
bones. My wrist has healed, and I’m back to playing volleyball.
Today numerous different radioactive materials are useful in medicine and industry
because all radioactive isotopes are also chemical elements. The chemistry of atoms is gov-
erned by their electrons, while the radioactive properties of a material are totally unrelated
to the chemical properties. This means that a radioactive isotope of a particular chemical
will undergo the same chemical reactions as a stable isotope of that same element. If a
radioactive isotope of iodine or phosphorus is injected into your bloodstream, for exam-
ple, it will collect at the same places in your body as stable iodine or phosphorus.
Medical scientists can use this fact to study the functions of the human body and to
make diagnoses of diseases and abnormalities (Figure 12-9). Iodine, for example, con-
centrates in the thyroid gland. Instruments outside the body can study the thyroid
• Figure 12-9 Radioactive tracers gland’s operation by following the path of iodine isotopes that are injected into the
at work. The patient has been given bloodstream. Radioactive or nuclear tracers are also used extensively in the earth sci-
a radioactive tracer that concentrates
in the bone and emits radiation that
ences, in industry, and in other scientific and technological applications to follow the
can be measured on a film. The dark exact chemical progressions of different elements. Small amounts of radioactive material
spot in the front part of the skull indi- will produce measurable signals as they move through a system, allowing scientists and
cates the presence of a bone cancer. engineers to trace their pathways. •
HALF-LIFE •
A single nucleus of an unstable isotope left to itself will eventually decay in a spontaneous
event. That is, the original nucleus will persist up until a specific time, then radioactive
decay will occur, and from that point on you will see only the fragments of the decay.
Watching a single nucleus undergo decay is like watching one kernel in a batch of
• Figure 12-10 The graph shows popcorn. Each kernel will pop at a specific time, but all the kernels don’t pop at the same
the number of radioactive nuclei left time. Even though you can’t predict when any one kernel will pop, you can predict the
in a sample as the number of half-
time during which the popping will go on. A collection of radioactive nuclei behaves in
lives increases.
an analogous way. Some nuclei decay almost as soon as you start watching; others persist
100
for much longer times. The percentage of nuclei that decay in each second after you
start watching remains more or less the same.
Percentage of original
80
isotope remaining
Physicists use the term half-life to describe the average time it takes for half of a
60 batch of radioactive isotopes to undergo decay. If you have 100 nuclei at the beginning of
your observation and it takes 20 minutes for 50 of them to undergo radioactive decay, for
40 example, then the half-life of that nucleus is 20 minutes. If you were to watch that sam-
ple for another 20 minutes, however, not all the nuclei would have decayed. You would
20
find that you had about 25 nuclei at the end, then at the end of another 20 minutes you
0 would most likely have 12 or 13, and so on (Figure 12-10).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Saying that a nucleus has a half-life of an hour does not mean that all the nuclei will
Half-lives sit there for an hour, at which point they will all decay. The nuclei, like the popcorn kernels
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Radioactivity | 261
in our example, decay at different times. The half-life is simply an indication of how long
Patrick Mesner/Gamma-Presse,Inc.
on average it will be before an individual nucleus decays.
Radioactive nuclei display a wide range of half-lives. Some nuclei, such as uranium-222,
are so unstable that they persist only a tiny fraction of a second. Others, such as
uranium-238, have half-lives that range into the billions of years, comparable to Earth’s
age. Between these two extremes you can find a radioactive isotope that has almost any
half-life you wish.
We do not yet understand enough about the nucleus to be able to predict half-lives. On
the other hand, the half-life is a fairly easy number to measure and therefore can be deter-
mined experimentally for any nucleus. The fine print on most charts of the isotopes
(expanded versions of Figure 12-2) usually includes the half-life for each radioactive isotope.
R ADIOMETRIC DATING •
The phenomenon of radioactive decay has provided scientists who study Earth and
human history with one of their most important methods of determining the age of
materials. This remarkable technique, which depends on measurements of the half-life of
radioactive materials, is called radiometric dating.
The best-known radiometric dating scheme involves the isotope carbon-14. Every
living organism takes in carbon during its lifetime. At this moment, your body is taking
the carbon in your food and converting it to tissue, and the same is true of all other ani-
mals. Plants are taking in carbon dioxide from the air and doing the same thing. Most of
this carbon, about 99%, is in the form of carbon-12, while perhaps 1% is carbon-13. But
• Figure 12-11 The Shroud of Turin,
a certain small percentage, no more than one carbon atom in every trillion, is in the form
with its ghostly image of a man, was
of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon with a half-life of about 5700 years. dated by carbon-14 techniques to
As long as an organism is alive, the carbon-14 in its tissues is constantly renewed in the centuries after the death of Jesus.
same small proportion that is found in the general environment. All of the isotopes of car-
bon behave the same way chemically, so the proportions of carbon isotopes in the living
tissue will be nearly the same everywhere, for all living things. When an organism dies,
however, it stops taking in carbon of any form. From the time of death, therefore, the
carbon-14 in the tissues is no longer replenished. Like a ticking clock, carbon-14 disappears
atom by atom to form an ever-smaller percentage of the total carbon. We determine the • Figure 12-12 The oldest human
approximate age of a bone, piece of wood, cloth, or other object by carefully measuring fossils are too ancient to be dated by
the fraction of carbon-14 that remains and comparing it to the amount of carbon-14 that carbon-14 methods. An alternative
we assume was in that material when it was alive. If the material happens to be a piece of technique, called potassium-argon
wood taken out of an Egyptian tomb, for example, we have a pretty good estimate of how dating, is employed for dating the
old the artifact is and, by inference, when the tomb was built. rocks in which these skulls, which are
up to 3.7 million years old, were
Carbon-14 dating often appears in the news when a reputedly ancient artifact is shown found.
to be from more recent times. In a highly publicized experiment, the Shroud of Turin, a fas-
John Reader/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers

cinating cloth artifact reputed to be involved in the burial of Jesus, was shown by carbon-14
techniques to date from the thirteenth or fourteenth century AD (Figure 12-11).
Stop and Think! In Chapter 2 we described the monument known as

Stonehenge and gave an age for it. This age came from the carbon dating
technique we’ve just described. Because the monument we see today is
made of stone (which has no carbon), how do you suppose this dating
was done?
Carbon-14 dating has been instrumental in mapping human history over the last sev-
eral thousand years. When an object is more than about 50,000 years old, however, the
amount of carbon-14 left in it is so small that this dating scheme cannot be used. To date
rocks and minerals that are millions of years old, scientists must rely on similar techniques
that use radioactive isotopes of much greater half-life (Figure 12-12). Among the most
widely used radiometric clocks in geology are those based on the decay of potassium-40
(half-life of 1.25 billion years), uranium-238 (half-life of 4.5 billion years), and
rubidium-87 (half-life of 49 billion years). In these cases, we measure the total number
c12.qxd 9/11/09 11:35 AM Page 262
of atoms of a given element, together with the relative percentage of a given isotope, to
determine how many radioactive nuclei were present at the beginning. Most of the ages
that we will discuss in the chapters on the earth sciences and evolution are ultimately
derived from these radiometric dating techniques.
Dating a Frozen Mammoth

Russian paleontologists occasionally discover beautifully preserved mammoths frozen in
Siberian ice. Carbon isotope analyses from these mammoths often show that only about
one-fourth of the original carbon-14 is still present in the mammoth tissues and hair. If
the half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 years, how old is the mammoth?
To solve this problem it’s necessary to determine how many half-lives have passed,
with the predictable decay rate of carbon-14 serving as a clock. In this case, only one
fourth of the original carbon-14 isotopes remain (1/4 1/2 1/2), so the carbon-14
isotopes have passed through two half-lives. After 5700 years about half of the original
carbon-14 isotopes will remain. Similarly, after another 5700 years only one-half of
those remaining carbon-14 isotopes (or one-fourth of the original amount) will remain.
The age of the mammoth remains is thus two half-lives, or about 11,400 years. •
D ECAY C HAINS •
When a parent nucleus decays, the daughter nucleus will not necessarily be stable. In
fact, in the great majority of cases, the daughter nucleus is as unstable as the parent. The
original parent will decay into the daughter, the daughter will decay into a second
daughter, on and on, perhaps for dozens of different radioactive events. Even if you start
with a pure collection of atoms of the same isotope of the same chemical element,
nuclear decay will guarantee that eventually you’ll have many different chemical species
in the sample. A series of decays of this sort is called a decay chain. The sequence of
decays continues until a stable isotope appears. Given enough time, all of the atoms of
the original element will eventually decay into that stable isotope.
To get a sense of a decay chain, consider the example we used at the beginning of
this chapter—uranium-238, with a half-life of approximately 4.5 billion years. Uranium-238
decays by alpha emission into thorium-234, another radioactive isotope. In the process
uranium-238 loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thorium-234 undergoes beta decay (half-
life of 24.1 days) into protactinium-234 (half-life of about seven hours), which in turn
undergoes beta decay to uranium-234. Each of these beta decays results in the conver-
sion of a neutron into a proton and an electron. After three radioactive decays we are
back to uranium, albeit a lighter isotope with a 247,000-year half-life.
The rest of the uranium decay chain is shown in Figure 12-13. It follows a long
path through eight different elements before it winds up as stable lead-206. Given
enough time, all of Earth’s uranium-238 will eventually be converted into lead. Since
Earth is only about 4.5 billion years old, however, there’s only been time for about
half of the original uranium to decay, so at the moment (and for the foreseeable
future) we can expect to have all the members of the uranium decay chain in existence
on Earth.
I NDOOR R ADON •
The uranium-238 decay chain is not an abstract concept, of interest only to theoretical
physicists. In fact, the health concern over indoor radon pollution is a direct conse-
quence of the uranium decay chain. Uranium is a fairly common element—about two
grams out of every ton of rocks at Earth’s surface are uranium. The first steps in the
uranium-238 decay chain produce thorium, radium, and other elements that remain sealed
in ordinary rocks and soils. The principal health concern arises from the production of
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Energy from the Nucleus | 263
U 234 U 238
Uranium 92 2.5 × 4.5 ×
105y 109y
Pa 234
Protactinium 91 α 6.7
β α
hours
Th 230 Th 234
Thorium 90 8× 24.1
104 y β day
α
Actinium 89
Ra 226
Radium 88 1000
yr
α
Number of protons
Francium 87
Rn 222
Radon 86 3.8
α days
At
Astatine 85 218
2 sec.
Po 210 Po 214 Po
α
Polonium 84 138 1.6 × 218
days 10-4y αβ 3 min.
Bl
α
α Bl 214
Bismuth 83 210 20
β αβ α
6 days min.
Pb Pb 210
α α Pb 214
Lead 82 206 22 20.8
Stable
β years β min.
Tl 206 Tl 210
Thallium 81 4.2 1.3
β min. β min.
124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146
Number of neutrons
• Figure 12-13 The uranium-238 decay chain. The nuclei in the chain decay by both alpha
and beta emission until they reach lead-208, a stable isotope. Some isotopes may undergo
either alpha or beta decay, as indicated by splits in the chain. Nevertheless, all paths eventu-
ally arrive at lead-208 after 14 decay events.
radon-222, about halfway along the path to stable lead. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
inert gas that does not chemically bond to its host rock.
As radon is formed, it seeps out of its mineral host and moves into the atmosphere,
where it undergoes alpha decay (half-life of about four days) into polonium-218 and a
dangerous sequence of short-lived, highly radioactive isotopes. Historically, radon atoms
were quickly dispersed by winds and weather, and they posed no serious threat to human
health. In our modern age of well-insulated, tightly sealed buildings, however, radon gas
can seep in and build up, occasionally to hundreds of times normal levels, in poorly ven-
tilated basements. Exposure to such high radon levels is dangerous because each radon
atom will undergo at least five more radioactive decay events in just a few days.
The solution to the radon problem is relatively simple. First, any basement or other
sealed-off room should be tested for radon. Simple test kits are available at your local
hardware store. If high levels of radon are detected, then the area’s ventilation should be
improved.
Energy from the Nucleus

Most scientists who worked on understanding the nucleus and its decays were involved
in basic research (see Chapter 1). They were interested in acquiring knowledge for its own
sake. But, as frequently happens, knowledge pursued for its own sake is quickly turned
to practical use. Such applications certainly happened with the science of the nucleus.
c12.qxd 9/11/09 11:35 AM Page 264
The atomic nucleus holds vast amounts of energy. One of the defining achievements
of the twentieth century was the understanding of and ability to harness that energy.
Two very different nuclear processes can be exploited in our search for energy: processes
called nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
N UCLEAR F ISSION •
Fission means splitting, and nuclear fission means the splitting of a nucleus. In most
cases, energy is required to tear apart a nucleus. Some heavy isotopes, however, have
nuclei that can be split apart into products that have less mass than the original. From
such nuclei, energy can be obtained from the mass difference.
The most common nucleus from which energy is obtained by fission is uranium-235,
an isotope of uranium that constitutes about 7 of every 1000 uranium atoms in the
world. If a neutron hits uranium-235, the nucleus splits into two roughly equal-sized
large pieces and a number of smaller fragments. Among these fragments will be two or
three more neutrons. If these neutrons go on to hit other uranium-235 nuclei, the
process will be repeated and a chain reaction will begin, with each split nucleus produc-
ing the neutrons that will cause more splittings.
By this basic process, large amounts of energy can be obtained from uranium. The
device that allows us to extract energy from nuclear fission is called a nuclear reactor
(Figure 12-14). The uranium in a reactor contains mostly uranium-238, but it has been
processed so it contains much more uranium-235 than it would if it were found in
nature. This uranium is stacked in long fuel rods, about the thickness of a lead pencil,
surrounded by a metallic protector. Typical reactors will incorporate many thousands of
fuel rods. Between the fuel rods is a fluid called a moderator, usually water, whose func-
tion is to slow down neutrons that leave the rods.
The nuclear reactor works like this: A neutron strikes a uranium-235 nucleus in one
fuel rod, causing that nucleus to split apart. These fragments include several fast-moving
neutrons. Fast neutrons are very inefficient at producing fission, but as the neutrons
move through the moderator they are slowed down. In this way, they can initiate other
fission events in other uranium atoms. A chain reaction in a reactor proceeds as neutrons
cascade from one fuel rod to another. In the process, the energy released by the conver-
sion of matter goes into heating the fuel rods and the water. The hot water is pumped to
another location in the nuclear plant, where it is used to produce steam.
• Figure 12-14 A nuclear reactor, The steam is used to run a generator to produce electricity as described in Chapter 5
shown here schematically, produces (see Figure 5-24). In fact, the only significant difference between a nuclear reactor and
heat that converts water to steam. a coal-fired generating plant is the way in which steam is made. In the nuclear reactor,
The steam powers a turbine, just as the energy to produce steam comes from
in a conventional coal-burning plant. the conversion of mass in uranium nuclei;
Steam turbine in the coal-fired plant, it comes from the
Power lines burning of coal. Nuclear reactors must
keep a tremendous amount of nuclear
S m
St
Steam
potential energy under control while con-
Electric
generator fining dangerously radioactive material.
Water Modern reactors are thus designed with
numerous safety features. The water that is
Moderator
in contact with the uranium, for example,
is sealed in a self-contained system and
does not touch the rest of the reactor.
Another built-in safety feature is that
nuclear reactors cannot function without
the presence of the moderator. If there
should be an accident in which the water
was evaporated from the reactor vessel, the
chain reaction would shut off. Thus a reac-
tor cannot explode and is not analogous to
Coolant water of lake, river, ocean, etc. the explosion of an atomic bomb.
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Energy from the Nucleus | 265
The most serious accident that can occur at a nuclear reactor
Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes

involves processes in which the flow of water to the fuel rods is
interrupted. When this happens, the enormous heat stored in the
central part of the reactor can cause the fuel rods to melt. Such an
event is called a meltdown. In 1979, a nuclear reactor at Three Mile
Island in Pennsylvania suffered a partial meltdown but caused only a
slight release of radiation—only about 1% of the allowed daily
dosage (Figure 12-15). In 1986, a less carefully designed reactor at
Chernobyl, Ukraine, underwent a meltdown accompanied by large
releases of radioactivity.
F USION •
Fusion refers to a process in which two atoms of hydrogen combine
together, or fuse, to form an atom of helium. In the process, some
of the mass of the hydrogen is converted into energy. Under special
circumstances it is possible to push two nuclei together and make
them fuse in a way that produces energy. When elements with low atomic numbers fuse • Figure 12-15 One of the
reactors at the nuclear power plant
under these special circumstances, the mass of the final nucleus is less than the mass of its
at Three Mile Island, near Harrisburg,
constituent parts. In these cases, it’s possible to extract energy from the fusion reaction Pennsylvania, had to shut down after
by conversion of that “missing” mass. suffering a partial meltdown. Safety
The most common fusion reaction combines four hydrogen nuclei to form a helium measures ensured that no radioactive
nucleus (Figure 12-16). (Remember that an ordinary hydrogen nucleus is a single proton, material was released into the
with no neutron. Thus we use the terms hydrogen nucleus and proton interchangeably.) environment.
This nuclear reaction powers the Sun and other stars and thus is ultimately responsible
for all life on Earth.
+ H +
You cannot just put hydrogen in a container and expect it
to form helium, however. Two positively charged protons Other
particles
must collide with tremendous force in order to overcome their
electrostatic repulsion and allow the strong force to kick in
(remember, the strong force operates only over extremely
short distances). In the Sun, high pressures and temperatures + + Deuterium
H
in the star’s interior trigger the fusion reaction. The sunlight (a)
falling outside your window is generated by the conversion of
600 million tons of hydrogen into helium each second. The
helium nucleus has a mass about half a percent less than the Deuterium +
+ 3He
original hydrogen nuclei. The “missing” mass is converted to +
the energy that eventually radiates out into space.
Since the 1950s many attempts have been made to harness
nuclear fusion reactions to produce energy for human use. The
problem has always been that it is very difficult to get protons
to collide with enough energy to overcome the electrical repul- H + Photon
sion between them and initiate the nuclear reaction. (b)
One promising but technically difficult method is to confine
protons in a very strong magnetic field while heating them with
high-powered radio waves. This is the technique used in the +
3He + Proton
+
• Figure 12-16 A fusion reaction releases energy as individual

+
protons combine to form larger nuclei. Hydrogen nuclei enter + 4He
into a multistep process whose end product is a helium-4
nucleus. The red balls are positively charged protons, the blue 3He + + Proton
ones are electrically neutral neutrons, and “other particles” +
include positrons and neutrinos that don’t form part of nuclei. (c)
”Deuterium,” with one proton and one neutron, is another
name for a hydrogen-2 nucleus. Helium-3 and helium-4 nuclei Key:
both have two protons plus one or two neutrons, respectively. + Proton
The helium-4 nucleus is also known as an alpha particle when
Neutron
it is emitted from a larger atomic nucleus as alpha radiation.
c12.qxd 9/11/09 11:36 AM Page 266
world’s largest fusion reactor, now being built in France (see “Technology” section below).
The main reason that scientists pursue the dream of fusion power is that there is enough deu-
terium in the world’s oceans to supply a virtually limitless source of energy for humanity.
Another technique called “inertial confinement” is also being explored. In this tech-
nique, a drop of frozen deuterium is blasted with intense laser radiation. The resulting heat-
ing and compression produces the conditions necessary for fusion. In 2009, the National
Ignition Laboratory in California came on line, producing fusion reactions in this way.
Science News
TECHNOLOGY •
Nuclear Fusion and ITER ITER: The Future of Fusion
Go to your WileyPLUS course The technique of using magnetic fields to contain a plasma while it is heated to fusion tem-
to view video on this topic. peratures is the main principle behind the operation of a major fusion reactor now being
built near the town of Cadarache in southern
ITER/Photo Researchers, Inc.
France. The machine, scheduled to come on

line in 2016, is called ITER (Figure 12-17).
Originally the name was an acronym for
“International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor,” but it is now used as a single word
that means “forward” in Latin.
The site in France was chosen after
extended international negotiations in
which sites on three continents were
considered. The main working unit will
be a doughnut-shaped vacuum chamber
enclosed by magnets. The plasma circles
around the doughnut as it is heated by a
radio frequency field. When its tempera-
ture gets high enough, fusion reactions
will be initiated.
Although other fusion reactors of this
type have been built in various laboratories
around the world, ITER will be the first to
generate more power than it uses. It is, in
fact, designed to produce 500 megawatts of
electricity—enough to power a small town.
It is important to remember, however, that
ITER is not being built as a commercial
reactor, but as what engineers call a “proof
of concept,” a machine that will act as a
model for future commercial applications. •
• Figure 12-17 This cutaway view

of the proposed ITER reactor shows
the large coils that will be used to
produce the magnetic field needed S CIENCE IN THE MAKING •
to confine the plasma during the
fusion process. Superheavy Elements
Uranium, with 92 protons, is the heaviest element commonly found in nature, but ever
since the mid-twentieth century scientists have been able to build heavier ones in the lab-
oratory. If you look at the periodic table of the elements in Chapter 8, all of the elements
past uranium are seen only in specialized experiments. The general technique used by
groups trying to produce superheavy nuclei is to use an accelerator to get a heavy ion
(gold, for example, or krypton) moving fast and then allow it to collide with a heavy target
nucleus. In the resulting nuclear maelstrom, it sometimes happens that enough protons
and neutrons stick together to create a short-lived superheavy nucleus. Using this tech-
nique, nuclei up to element 118 have been created.
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Although these heavier atoms will be unstable and decay quickly, they can last long
enough to be identified by their spectra. Scientists believe that when we get to atomic
numbers around 126, we will find an “island of stability”—nuclei that, once created, will
not decay. If this is so, you can imagine these new nuclei forming the basis for a whole new
branch of chemistry. •
Thinking More About The Nucleus
N UCLEAR WASTE Plans now call for nuclear waste disposal by the incorporation
of radioactive atoms into stable glass that is surrounded by succes-
When power is generated in a nuclear reactor, many more nuclear sive layers of steel and concrete. These stable containers are to be
changes take place than those associated with the chain reaction buried deep under Earth’s surface in stable rock formations. Ulti-
itself. Fast-moving debris from the fission of uranium-235 strike mately, if a long sequence of public hearings, construction permits,
other nuclei in the system—both the ordinary uranium-238 that and other hurdles are passed, the U.S. Department of Energy
makes up most of the fuel rods, and the nuclei in the concrete hopes to confine much of the nation’s nuclear waste at the Yucca
and metal that make up the reactor. In these collisions, the Mountain repository in a remote desert region of Nevada. The
original nuclei may undergo fission or absorb neutrons to hope is that long-lived wastes can be sequestered from the environ-
become isotopes of other elements. Many of these newly pro- ment until after they are no longer dangerous to human beings.
duced isotopes are radioactive. The result is that even when all The Yucca Mountain project continues to be a controversial
of the uranium-235 has been used to generate energy, a lot of subject. Supporters of the site argue that a single, remote, long-
radioactive material remains in the reactor. This sort of material term site is vastly preferable to the present 131 temporary repos-
is called high-level nuclear waste. (The production of nuclear itories now located in 39 different states. Such scattered sites are
weapons is another source of this kind of waste.) The half-lives difficult to monitor and protect from terrorist threats. Oppo-
of some of the materials in the waste can run to hundreds of nents of Yucca Mountain counter that hauling thousands of tons
thousands of years. How can we dispose of this waste in a way of nuclear waste on interstate highways poses a far greater danger
that keeps it away from living things? to the public than the present sites. Some geologists, further-
The management of nuclear waste begins with storage. more, fear that Yucca Mountain may be subject to occasional
Power companies usually store spent fuel rods at a reactor site earthquakes and volcanic activity, and that its location, less than
for tens of years to allow the short-lived isotopes to decay. At 100 miles from Las Vegas, is not sufficiently remote.
the end of this period, long-lived isotopes that are left behind What should we do with our increasing quantities of nuclear
must be isolated from the environment. Scientists have devel- waste? What responsibility do we have to future generations to
oped techniques for incorporating these nuclei into stable ensure that the waste we bury stays where we put it? Should the
solids, either minerals or glass. The idea is that the electrons in existence of nuclear waste restrain us in our development of
radioactive isotopes form the same kind of bonds as stable iso- nuclear energy? Should we, as some scientists argue, keep nuclear
topes, so that with a judicious choice of materials, radioactive waste materials at the surface and use them for applications such
nuclei will be locked into a solid mass for long periods of time. as medical tracers and fuel for reactors?

How do scientists determine the age of the oldest human fossils? organism dies, it stops absorbing all forms of carbon from the
environment, including carbon-14.
• Radiometric dating uses the phenomenon of radioactive decay
and measurements of the half-life of radioactive elements to º The passage of time and the process of radioactive decay cause
the amount of carbon-14 in the remains of the organism to
date ancient objects. This method provides scientists who study
diminish faster than other stable forms of carbon. The propor-
Earth and human history with one of their most important
tion of carbon-14 left in the remains provides an indication of
methods of establishing the age of materials from both the near
the time that has passed since its death.
and distant past.
• Radiometric dating using the carbon-14 method has a limit of
• Radiocarbon dating is one of the most useful radiometric dating
approximately 60,000 years since the amount of C-14 left after
methods.
this period of time will be quite small. Therefore, the oldest
º It uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (C-14) to known human remains (which may be as old as 200,000 years)
determine the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about
are much too ancient to use carbon-14 techniques.
60,000 years.
• To date the most ancient of human fossils, scientists must deter-
º Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon with a half-life of
mine the geological age of surrounding rock using radioactive
about 5700 years. It is produced continuously as solar radiation
isotopes with much greater half-lives, including potassium-40
enters Earth’s atmosphere.
(half-life of 1.25 billion years), uranium-238 (half-life of
º As long as an organism is alive, it will continuously take in 4.5 billion years), and rubidium-87 (half-life of 49 billion years).
carbon-14 along with other forms of carbon, but when an
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S UMMARY •
The nucleus is a tiny collection of massive particles, including posi- radioactivity, involving the emission of energetic electromagnetic radia-
tively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. The nucleus tion, is called gamma radiation. The rate of radioactive decay is mea-
plays a role independent of the orbiting electrons that control chemical sured by the half-life, which is the time it takes for half of a collection of
reactions, and the energies associated with nuclear reactions are much isotopes to decay. Radioactive half-lives provide the key for radiometric
greater. The number of protons—the atomic number—determines the dating techniques based on carbon-14 and other isotopes. Unstable
nuclear charge and therefore the type of element; each element in the isotopes are also used as radioactive tracers in medicine and other areas
periodic table has a different number of protons. The number of of science. Indoor radon pollution and nuclear waste are two problems
neutrons plus protons—the mass number—determines the mass of that arise from the existence of radioactive decay.
the isotope. Nuclear particles are held together by the strong force, There are two forms of nuclear energy. Fission reactions, as con-
which operates only over extremely short distances. trolled in nuclear reactors, produce energy when heavy radioactive
While most of the atoms in objects around us have stable, nuclei split apart into fragments that together weigh less than the
unchanging nuclei, many isotopes are unstable—they spontaneously original isotopes. Fusion reactions, on the other hand, combine light
change through radioactive decay. In alpha decay, a nucleus loses two elements to make heavier ones, as in the conversion of hydrogen into
protons and two neutrons. In beta decay, a neutron spontaneously a smaller mass of helium in the Sun. In each case, the lost nuclear
transforms into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. A third kind of mass is converted into energy.
K EY TERMS •
proton mass number alpha decay radiometric dating
neutron strong force beta decay fission
atomic number radioactivity or radioactive gamma radiation nuclear reactor
isotope decay half-life fusion
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Radiometric dating is the process of finding the age of rocks using number decayed (this represents the parent isotope). Count the num-
the time it takes for the radioactive substances in the rock to decay. ber of M&M’s with the other side up (daughter isotope). Now you
Have you ever wondered how scientists determine the age of the have gone through one half-life. Repeat the procedures every two
rocks? You can try this activity by gathering 100 M&M candy pieces, minutes for five trials or until all the M&M’s are gone. Find the total
a stopwatch, and a Styrofoam cup. number of half-lives the parent isotope went through. Find the age of
Put the M&M’s (representing the rock) in a cup and record the the rock (M&M’s) by calculating the parent-to-daughter ratio. At
total number of parent isotope (M&M’s). Empty the contents of the every step find the percent of the parent atom remaining in the rock.
cup on a table. Any “M” of M&M’s that is face-down will represent a (Number of half-lives length of half-life age of the sample) In
decayed nucleus. Remove all the decayed nuclei and count the total what ways is using the M&M’s similar to radioactive decay?
1. By what order of magnitude is an atom larger than its nucleus? 12. What happens to atomic nuclei during radioactive decay?
2. What equation describes the relationship between mass and energy? 13. Explain the term half-life.
3. Which has more mass, electrons or protons? Therefore, where is 14. What is radiometric dating? What is the most commonly used
most of the mass of an atom contained? isotope in the radiometric dating of previously living organisms?
4. What fact about atomic nuclei suggests the existence of the Why must geologists use potassium-40 and uranium-238 instead of
neutron? carbon-14 to date the oldest fossils?
5. The chemical identity of an atom is determined by which 15. What led physicists to hypothesize the existence of the neutrino?
“building block(s)” of the nucleus? 16. How does gamma radiation differ from alpha and beta radiation?
6. What is the difference between mass number and atomic 17. Heavier radioactive isotopes move to lighter, more stable
number? Is one always greater than the other? isotopes through which forms of radioactive decay?
7. What is an isotope? 18. How can we obtain energy from nuclear fission?
8. What is the strong force? How is the strong force different from 19. What is a chain reaction?
gravity and electromagnetism? 20. How does a nuclear reactor work?
9. Describe the major achievement of Marie Curie. 21. How do fusion reactions produce energy?
10. What is alpha decay? How does it change the nucleus? 22. What is a critical mass?
11. Why does beta decay not change the total electrical charge 23. How are radioactive tracers useful in medicine? Give an example.
of an atom? 24. What is nuclear waste? Why is it a serious problem for society?
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1. How is mass a form of energy? 9. Discuss the pros and cons of nuclear power.
2. Why must the “strong force” exist? 10. Can nuclear radiation escape from nuclear power plants?
3. Why is the destructive force of conventional explosives (e.g., If so, how?
TNT) much less than that of nuclear explosions? (Hint: E mc2) 11. What type of nuclear reaction powers our Sun?
4. What was the hypothesis behind Rutherford’s experiment on 12. What form of indoor air pollution is the result of naturally
alpha decay? What did he prove? occurring radioactive decay?
5. What are the potential benefits and risks in using nuclear tracers 13. Suppose you are a scientist from the future who has discovered
in medical diagnosis? the ruins of the Empire State Building. How would you go about
6. Critical mass is a term that is widely used outside of nuclear estimating the date when it was built?
science. What is its everyday meaning, and how does that relate to 14. Why must uranium be enriched in order to be used in a nuclear
its scientific meaning? power plant? What is changed in the process of enrichment?
7. What types of researchers and scientists use carbon-14 radiometric 15. Does the interaction of electrons in chemical bonding affect
dating? What type of researcher would use other isotopes such as the nucleus?
uranium-238? 16. What isotope would you use to date the pyramids at Giza?
8. How is the principle of conservation of energy seen in (a) fission A mummy found inside? Why?
reactions and (b) fusion reactions? 17. What is a decay chain and why is it important?
P ROBLEMS •
1. Use the periodic table to identify the element, atomic number, c. potassium-40
mass number, and electrical charge of the following combinations: d. radon-222
a. 1 proton, 0 neutrons, 1 electron 5. The average atomic weight of cobalt atoms (atomic number 27)
b. 8 protons, 8 neutrons, 8 electrons is actually slightly greater than the average atomic weight of nickel
c. 17 protons, 18 neutrons, 18 electrons atoms (atomic number 28). How could this situation arise?
d. 36 protons, 50 neutrons, 36 electrons 6. Imagine that a collection of 1 million atoms of uranium-238 was
2. Use the periodic table to determine how many protons and neu- sealed in a box at Earth’s formation 4.5 billion years ago. Use the
trons are in each of the following atoms: uranium-238 decay chain (Figure 12-13) to predict some of the
a. C-13 things you would find if you opened the box today.
b. Zn-66 7. Isotope X has a half-life of 100 days. A sample is known to have
contained about 10 million atoms of isotope X when it was put
c. Ag-108
together but is now observed to have only about 100,000 atoms of
d. Au-102 isotope X. Estimate how long ago the sample was assembled.
3. What are the common names of the elements in Problems 1 and 2? Explain the relevance of this problem to the technique of radiomet-
4. How many neutrons do the following elements have in its ric dating.
nucleus? 8. Why hasn’t all the uranium-238 in Earth decayed into lead?
a. carbon-14 Calculate when this milestone will occur. Will anyone now living be
b. uranium-236 around to experience it?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Read a historical account of the Manhattan Project. What was 4. How much of the electricity in your area comes from nuclear
the principal technical problem in obtaining the nuclear fuel? Why reactors? What fuel do they use? Where are the used fuel rods taken
did chemistry play a major role? What techniques are now used to when they are replaced? If the facility offers public tours, visit the
obtain nuclear fuel? reactor and observe the kinds of safety procedures that are used.
2. What is the current status of U.S. progress toward developing a 5. Obtain a radon test kit from your local hardware store and use it
depository for nuclear waste? How do your representatives in in the basement of two different buildings. How do the values
Congress vote on matters relating to this issue? compare? Is either at a dangerous level? If the values differ, what
3. What sorts of isotopes are used for diagnostics in your local might be the reason?
hospital? Where are supplies of those radioisotopes purchased? What 6. Only about 90 elements occur naturally on Earth, but
are the half-lives of the isotopes, and how often are supplies scientists are able to produce more elements in the laboratory.
replaced? What is the hospital’s policy regarding the disposal of Investigate the discovery and characteristics of one of these
radioactive waste? human-made elements.
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7. Read an account of the so-called cold fusion episode. At what 10. What are the half-lives of common isotopes (e.g., carbon-14,
point in this history were conventional scientific procedures bypassed? uranium-238, uranium-235)?
Ultimately, do you think that the scientific method worked or failed? 11. What countries generate the majority of their electric power
8. Soon the U.S. government will take over responsibility for the using nuclear energy? Do these countries have higher rates of cancer
nuclear wastes of the 50 states. What options do we have for waste or other diseases? Why isn’t the United States generating more elec-
storage? Do you think all the waste should be stored in one place? tricity from nuclear energy?
Should we try to separate and use the radioactive isotopes? What 12. Do you think that nuclear power is a productive idea, or a dan-
are the factors—social, political, and economic—that will help ger to the environment? Try to find as much information as possible
determine what happens to this nuclear waste? to support the opposing viewpoint (i.e., if you think nuclear power
9. Investigate the Three Mile Island nuclear power accident and is dangerous, find all relevant scientific publications that suggests its
compare it to the Chernobyl accident. What design flaws caused the relative safety, and vice versa).
Chernobyl accident to be deadly and the Three Mile Island accident
to be relatively benign?
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13
The Ultimate Structure of Matter
How can antimatter be used to probe the human brain?
PHYSICS
Matter is
composed of six
kinds of quarks and
leptons, whose actions
are governed by a
single unified
BIOLOGY force. CHEMISTRY
Positrons, a form of Elementary particles

antimatter, play an can be detected by
important role in the measuring the
study of the living changes they cause
brain. in stable atoms.
All matter is made

of quarks and
leptons, which are GEOLOGY
the most fundamental
building blocks of
The largest particle the universe that Earth’s structure is
accelerators use we know. stable because of the
electromagnets with balance between
superconducting chemical and
wire. gravitational forces.
TECHNOLOGY
The Sun and other

stars produce cosmic Particle accelerators
rays, which gave are now used in the
scientists their first treatment of some
view of elementary types of cancer.
particles. = other applications,
= applications of the some of which are
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Science Through the Day Looking at Sand
Peter Cade/Getty Images

s you lie on the beach you let a handful of sand sift through your fin-
A gers. Look at a single tiny grain, and think about its microscopic
structure. Imagine that you could magnify that grain a thousandfold, a
millionfold, even more. What would you see?
At a thousand magnification the rounded grain would appear rough
and irregular, but no hint of its atomic structure could be seen. At a mil-
lion magnification individual atoms, each about a ten-billionth of a meter
across, would begin to be visible. And at a trillion magnification the atomic
nuclei would appear as tiny points, surrounded by almost nothing.
But is that it? Or is there even more to the submicroscopic structure
of the atom? What are the ultimate building blocks of matter?
Of What Is the Universe Made?
THE LIBRARY •
The next time you head over to the library, wander through the stacks and think about
what constitutes the fundamental building blocks of the library. Your first reaction might
• Figure 13-1 In a library, letters be to say that books are fundamental building blocks—row after row, shelf after shelf, of
form words and words form books. bound volumes (Figure 13-1). But a library is not just a collection of books; the volumes
Letters can thus be thought of as the are arranged with an order to them. You could describe the set of rules that dictates how
fundamental unit of the library. books are arranged in libraries—the Dewey decimal system or the Library of Con-
gress classification scheme, for example. Thus a complete description of a library at
this most superficial level includes two things: books as the fundamental building
blocks and rules about how the books are organized.
Inside a book, the various volumes are not as different from each other as they
might seem at first. They are all made of an even more fundamental unit—the
word. You could argue that the word is the fundamental building block of the
library; and, as was the case for cataloged books, we require a set of rules, called
grammar, that tells us how to put words together to make books. Words and gram-
mar, then, take you down to a more basic level in your probe of a library’s reality.
You probably wouldn’t be content very long with the notion of the word as
the fundamental building block, because all of the thousands of words are differ-
ent combinations of a small number of more fundamental things—letters. Only
26 letters (at least in the English alphabet) provide the building blocks for all the
thousands of words on all the pages in all the books of the library. Furthermore,
we need a set of rules (spelling) that tells us how to put letters together into
words. The discovery of letters and spelling would constitute perhaps the ultimate
description of a library and its organization.
So the library can be described in this way: We use spelling to tell us how to
James Stachan/Stone/Getty Images put letters together into words. Then grammar tells us how to put words
272
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Of What Is the Universe Made? | 273
together into books. Finally, we use organizing rules to tell us how to put books
together into a library.
And this, as we shall see, is how scientists attempt to describe the entire physical
universe.
R EDUCTIONISM •
How many different kinds of material can you see when you look up from this book?
You may see a wall made of cinder block, a window made of glass, a ceiling made of
fiberglass panels. Outside the window you may see grass, trees, blue sky, and clouds. We
encounter thousands of different kinds of materials every day. They all look different—
what possible common ground could there be between a cinder block and a blade of
grass? They all look different, but are they really?
For at least two millennia, people who have thought about the physical universe
have asked this question. Is the universe just what we see, or is there some underlying
structure, some basic stuff, from which it’s all made? You could even say that herein lies
one of the most fundamental scientific questions.
The quest for the “ultimate building blocks” of the universe is referred to by
philosophers as reductionism. Reductionism is an attempt to reduce the seeming com-
plexity of nature by first looking for underlying simplicity, and then trying to understand
how that simplicity gives rise to the observed complexity. This pursuit is a continuation
of an old intellectual belief that the appearances of the world do not tell its true nature,
but that its true nature can be discovered by the application of thought and, in the case
of science, experiment and observation.
The Greek philosopher Thales (625?–546 BC) suggested that all materials are made
of water. This supposition was based on the observation that, in everyday experience,
water appears as a solid (ice), a liquid, and a gas (water vapor). Thus, alone among the
common substances, water seemed to exhibit all the states of matter (see Chapter 10).
To Thales, this observation suggested that water was in some sense fundamental. We no
longer accept the idea that water is the fundamental constituent of matter, but we do
believe that we can find other fundamental constituents.
THE B UILDING B LOCKS OF MATTER •

To many people, the library analogy presents a profoundly satisfying way of describing
complex systems. Some would even argue that everything you could possibly want to
know about the library is contained in letters and their organizing principles. In just the
same way, scientists want to describe the complex universe by identifying the most fun-
damental building blocks and deduce the rules by which they are put together.
At first, you might say the most fundamental building block of the universe is the
atom. All the myriad solids, liquids, and gases are made of just 100 or so different kinds
of chemical elements. The complexity of materials that appears to the senses results from
the many combinations of these relatively few kinds of atoms. The rules of chemistry tell
us how atoms bind together to make all of the materials we see.
Early in the twentieth century, scientists learned that atoms are not really funda-
mental but are made up of smaller, more fundamental bits—nuclei and electrons. These
particles arrange themselves according to their own set of rules, with massive neutrons
and protons in the positively charged nucleus, and negatively charged electrons in shells
around the nucleus. A picture of the universe with only three fundamental building
blocks—protons, neutrons, and electrons—is very simple and appealing. Protons and
neutrons together form nuclei, and electrons surround the nucleus to form atoms. Elec-
trons combine and interact with each other to form all the materials we know about.
But just as words and grammar gave us a false level of simplicity in the analogy of the
library, this simple picture of the universe didn’t stand up to more detailed experiments
and observations. As we have hinted, the nucleus contains much more than just protons
and neutrons, although this fact did not become clear to physicists until the post–World
War II era. If we are going to follow the reductionist line in dealing with the universe, we
have to start thinking about what makes up the nucleus. By common usage, the particles
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274 | C HAP TE R 13 | The Ultimate Structure of Matter
10–9 m 10–10 m 10–15 – 10–14 m 10–15 m Less than 10–18 m

+ +
+
+
+ + +
+
+
Molecule Atom Nucleus Neutron (or proton) Quark

• Figure 13-2 The modern picture of the fundamental building blocks of the universe.
Molecules are made from atoms, which contain nuclei, which are made from elementary par-
ticles, which in turn are made from quarks. In some modern theories, the quarks are thought
to be made from still more elementary objects called strings.
that make up the nucleus, together with particles such as the electron, were called ele-
mentary particles to reflect the belief that they comprised the basic building blocks of the
universe (Figure 13-2). The study of these particles and their properties is the domain of
a field known as high-energy physics, or elementary-particle physics.
Discovering Elementary Particles

Nowhere in nature is the equivalence of mass and energy more obvious than in the inter-
actions of elementary particles. Imagine that you have a source of protons traveling at
very high velocities, approaching the speed of light. This source might be astronomical
in nature, or it might be a machine that accelerates particles. Once the proton has been
accelerated, it has a very high kinetic energy. If this high-energy proton collides with a
nucleus, the nucleus can be split apart. In this process, some kinetic energy of the origi-
nal proton can be converted into mass according to the equation E ⫽mc 2. When this
happens, new kinds of particles that are neither protons nor neutrons can be created.
C OSMIC R AYS •
During the 1930s and 1940s, physicists used a natural source of high-energy particles,
so-called cosmic rays, to study the structure of matter. Cosmic rays are particles (mostly
protons) that rain down continuously on Earth’s atmosphere after being emitted by
stars in our galaxy and in other galaxies.
Space is full of cosmic rays. When they hit the atmosphere, they collide with mole-
cules of oxygen or nitrogen and produce sprays of very fast-moving secondary particles.
These secondary particles, in turn, can make further collisions and produce even more
particles, building up a cascade in the atmosphere. It is not uncommon for a single
incoming particle to produce billions of secondary particles by the time the cascade
reaches Earth’s surface. Indeed, on average, several of these rays pass through your body
every minute of your life.
• Figure 13-3 In a typical cosmic Physicists in the 1930s and 1940s set up their apparatus on high mountaintops and
ray experiment, cosmic rays hit a observed what happened when fast-moving primary cosmic rays or slightly slower-
lead nucleus, producing a spray of moving secondary particles collided with nuclei. A typical apparatus incorporated a gas-
particles. filled chamber several centimeters across (Figure 13-3). Midway in the chamber was
Cosmic ray located a thin sheet of target material—lead, for example. Cosmic rays occasionally col-
lided with one of the nuclei in the piece of lead, producing a spray of secondary parti-
cles. By studying particles in that spray, physicists hoped to understand what was going
on inside the nucleus.
By the early 1940s, when the international effort in physics research shut down tem-
Lead porarily because of World War II, physicists working with these cosmic ray experiments
sheet
had discovered particles in addition to the proton, neutron, and electron. And when the
Spray of research effort started up again after the war, these discoveries multiplied as more and
particles more particles were found in the debris of nuclear collisions, both by cosmic ray physi-
cists and by those working at the new particle accelerators we will discuss shortly.
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Discovering Elementary Particles | 275
The net result of these discoveries was that the nucleus could no longer be consid-
ered as a simple bag of protons and neutrons. Instead, we had to think of the nucleus
as a very dynamic place. All kinds of newly discovered elementary particles in addition
to protons and neutrons were found there. These exotic particles are created in the
interactions inside the nucleus, and they give up their energy (and, indeed, their very
existence) in subsequent interactions to make other kinds of particles. This constant
dance of the elementary particles inside the nucleus has been well documented since
these early explorations.
TECHNOLOGY •
Detecting Elementary Particles

If elementary particles are smaller even than an individual nucleus, how do we know
they’re there? Experimental physicists have raised detection of elementary particles to a
fine art over the years. Nevertheless, the basic technique used in any detection process is
the same: the particle in question interacts with matter in some way, and we measure the
changes in matter that are the effects of that interaction.
If an elementary particle has an electrical charge, it may tear electrons loose as it
goes by an atom. Thus a charged elementary particle moving through material such as a
photographic emulsion will leave a string of ions in its wake, much as a speedboat going
across a lake leaves a trail of troubled water.
A more modern detection method is to allow the particles to pass though a grid of
thin conducting wires (usually made of gold). As a particle passes a wire, it exerts a force
on the electrons in the metal, creating a small pulse of current. By measuring the time
that this pulse arrives at the end of the wire, and by putting together such information
from many wires, a computer can reconstruct the particle’s path with high precision.
Uncharged particles such as neutrons are much more difficult to detect because they
do not leave a string of ions in their path. Typically, the passage of an uncharged particle
cannot be detected directly; instead, we wait until it collides with something. If that col-
lision produces charged particles, then we can detect them by the techniques just out-
lined and can work backward and deduce the property of the uncharged particle. •
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS: THE E SSENTIAL TOOL • • Figure 13-4 Ernest O. Lawrence

posed in the 1930s with his inven-
For a time, physicists had to sit around and wait for nature to supply high-energy particles tion, the cyclotron, which was the
(in the form of cosmic rays) so that they could study the fundamental structure of matter. first particle accelerator.
The arrival of cosmic rays could not be controlled, and it could be very time consuming
Courtesy Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

waiting for one to hit. Physicists quickly realized that they had to build machines that
could produce streams of “artificial cosmic rays”—particle accelerators that scientists
could turn on and off at will and that would take the place of the sporadic cosmic rays in
experiments. At the beginning of the 1930s at the University of California at Berkeley,
Ernest O. Lawrence began producing a new kind of accelerator called a cyclotron, an
invention for which he won the 1939 Nobel Prize in physics (Figure 13-4).
One aspect of Maxwell’s equations that we didn’t talk about in Chapter 5 is that
when a charged particle moves in a magnetic field, that field exerts a force on the particle.
The effect of the force is to make the particle move in a circular path, and this is the basic
working principle behind the operation of the cyclotron. As the particles move in a circu-
lar path between two large disk shaped magnets, at one point in their path, they
encounter intense radio waves producing a large acceleration according to Newton’s sec-
ond law (force⫽mass ⫻acceleration; see Chapter 2). The radio waves are encountered
over and over again, and the particles are accelerated almost to the speed of light. Once
they have acquired this much kinetic energy, they are allowed to collide with other parti-
cles. Those collisions provide the interactions that scientists wish to study.
Lawrence’s first cyclotron was no more than a dozen centimeters (about 5 inches)
across and produced energies that were pretty puny by today’s standards. A modern
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particle accelerator is a huge, high-tech structure capable of producing energies as high

as all but the most energetic cosmic rays. Called a synchrotron, its main working part
is a large ring of magnets that keep the accelerated particles moving in a circular track.
As a particle in a synchrotron moves around the circle, the large electromagnets are
adjusted to keep its track within a small chamber (typically several centimeters on a
side) in which a near-perfect vacuum has been produced. This chamber, in turn, is bent
into the large circle that marks the particle’s orbit. Each time the particles come around
to a certain point, an electric field boosts their energy. As the velocity increases, the
field strength in the magnets is also increased to compensate, so that the particles con-
tinue around the circular track. Eventually, the particles reach the desired speed, and
they are brought out into an experimental area where they undergo collisions. The
machine gets its name because the magnetic field has to be synchronized with the
particle speed during acceleration.
As the energy required to stay at the frontier of particle physics increases, so too
does the size of accelerators. For many decades at the end of the twentieth century, the
highest-energy accelerator in the world was at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
(Fermilab) outside of Chicago, Illinois (Figure 13-5a). There, protons move around a
ring almost 2 kilometers (about a mile) in diameter and achieve energies of a trillion volts.
In 2008, the title “World’s Largest Accelerator” passed to a machine called the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) located at the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN)
in Geneva, Switzerland (Figure 13-5b). The machine is described in the “Technology”
section below.
• Figure 13-5 Giant particle accelerators like these are the main working tool of particle
physicists. We show (a) Fermilab, (b) the new Large Hadron Collider outside of Geneva,
Switzerland, and (c) the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.
Bill W. Marsh/Photo Reserarchers

Courtesy Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
(a)
Courtesy CERN
(c)
(b)
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The Elementary Particle Zoo | 277
The linear accelerator provides an alternative strategy for making high-velocity par-
ticles. This device relies on a long, straight vacuum tube into which electrons are injected.
The electronics are arranged so that an electromagnetic wave travels down the tube, and
electrons ride this wave more or less the way a surfer rides a wave on the ocean. The
largest linear accelerator in the world, at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in
California, is about 3 kilometers (almost 2 miles) long (Figure 13-5c).
TECHNOLOGY •
The Large Hadron Collider

The Large Hadron Collider is arguably the largest and most complex technological pro-
ject ever undertaken (Figure 13-6). Located in a 27 kilometers (about 15 miles) long tun- Science News
nel that runs between 50 and 175 meters underneath the Swiss-French border near
Geneva, this machine provides scientists with their first look at collisions whose energy is
The Large Hadron Collider
almost ten times that found in previous accelerators.
The main ring of the machine works on the same principle as an ordinary synchro- Go to your WileyPLUS course
tron. In the ring are two beams of counterrotating protons, each accelerated to an to view video on this topic.
energy equivalent to 7 trillion volts. (The protons move at 99.9999991% of the speed of
light.) At four places around the ring the proton beams are allowed to collide head-on.
Each of these intersection points is surrounded by a huge apparatus designed to detect
particles produced in the collisions.
Martial Trezzini/epa/©Corbis-Bettman
Because of the huge cost involved in building a machine like the LHC, this sort
of science can no longer be carried out by a single nation. Indeed, countries
throughout the world (including the United States) contributed to the machine and
its detectors, and scientists from many countries will participate in the experiments
there. If and when a successor machine is built, we can be sure that it will be a world
project. •
Accelerators in Medicine
The ability to build machines that accelerate charged particles has had an important
effect in many areas of medicine, most notably in the treatment of cancer. Often the
goal of this treatment is to destroy malignant cells in tumors, and subjecting those cells
to high-energy X-rays or gamma rays is a particularly effective way of doing this for
some cancers.
To produce a beam of gamma rays for cancer therapy, a small accelerator produces an
intense beam of high-speed electrons. These electrons are then directed into a block of
heavy metal such as copper, where they are stopped abruptly. As we learned in Chapter 5, • Figure 13-6 One of the gigantic
electrically charged objects that are accelerated (or, in this case, decelerated) emit electro- detectors that will monitor collisions
magnetic waves. In the case of electrons accelerated to an appreciable fraction of the between protons at the LHC.
speed of light and suddenly stopped, those waves will be in the form of gamma rays. The
direction of the electron beam is arranged so that the gamma rays pass through the tumor,
killing cells as they pass through. •
The Elementary Particle Zoo

At the beginning of the 1960s, the first generation of modern particle accelerators
began to produce copious results, and the list of elementary particles known to reside
inside the nucleus began to grow rapidly. The list now numbers in the hundreds. A
few important groups of particles are summarized in the following sections and in
Table 13-1.
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Table 13-1 Summary of Elementary Particles

Type Definition Examples
leptons do not take part in holding together the nucleus electron, neutrino
hadrons participate in holding nucleus together proton, neutron, roughly 200 others
antiparticles particles with same mass, but opposite charge and other properties positron
LEPTONS •
Leptons are elementary particles that do not participate in the strong force that holds
the nucleus together, and they are not part of the nuclear maelstrom. We have encoun-
tered two leptons so far—the electron, which is normally found in orbit around the
nucleus rather than in the nucleus itself, and the neutrino, a light neutral particle that
hardly interacts with matter at all. Since the 1940s, physicists have discovered four addi-
tional kinds of leptons, for a total of six. If you keep in mind that the electron and the
neutrino are typical leptons, you will have a pretty good idea of what they’re like. The six
leptons seem to be arranged in pairs—in each pair there are a particle like the electron,
which has a mass, and a specific kind of neutrino.
HADRONS •
All of the different kinds of particles that exist inside the nucleus are referred to collec-
tively as hadrons, or “strongly interacting ones.” The array of these particles is truly
spectacular. Hadrons include particles that are stable like the proton, particles that
undergo radioactive decay in a matter of minutes like the neutron (which undergoes
beta decay), and still other particles that undergo radioactive decay in 10–24 seconds.
The latter kind of particles do not live long enough even to travel across a single nucleus!
Some hadrons carry an electrical charge, while others are neutral. But all of these parti-
cles are subject to the strong force, and all participate in holding the nucleus together;
thus they help in making the physical universe possible.
ANTIMATTER •
For every particle that we see in the universe, it is possible to produce an antiparticle.
Every particle of antimatter has the same mass as its matter twin, but the particles have
opposite charge and opposite magnetic characteristics. The antiparticle of the electron,
for example, is a positively charged particle known as the positron. It has the same mass
as the electron but a positive electrical charge. Antinuclei, composed of antiprotons and
antineutrons and orbited by positrons, can form antiatoms.
When a particle collides with its antiparticle, both masses are converted completely
to energy in a process called annihilation, the most efficient and violent process that we
know in the universe. The original particles disappear, and this means that energy
appears as a spray of rapidly moving particles and electromagnetic radiation. This fact
has long been adopted by science fiction writers in their descriptions of futuristic
weapons and power sources. (The starship Enterprise on Star Trek, for example, has mat-
ter and antimatter pods as its power source.)
Although antimatter is fairly rare in the universe, it is routinely produced in particle
accelerators. High-energy protons or electrons strike nuclear targets, and the energy of
the particles is converted to equal numbers of other particles and antiparticles. Thus the
existence of antimatter is verified daily in laboratories.
The Discovery of Antimatter

In 1932, Carl Anderson, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, was
performing a rather straightforward cosmic ray experiment of the type described in the
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Courtesy Californaia Institute of Technology
Courtesy Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

(a) (b)
• Figure 13-7 Carl Anderson identified the positron (the antiparticle of the electron) from
the distinctively curved path left in a bubble chamber. In Anderson’s original photograph
(a) the positron path curves upward and to the left. In a more recent photograph (b) an
electron (e–) and a positron (e+) curve opposite directions in a magnetic field.
text. Cosmic rays entered a type of detector called a cloud chamber. In Anderson’s cloud
chamber, a cosmic ray particle would move through a moisture-laden gas, leaving behind
a string of ions. By pulling out a piston at the bottom of the chamber, the gas pressure
was lowered, and the liquid (usually alcohol) that had been in gaseous form condensed
out into droplets. The ions acted as nuclei for the condensation of these droplets, so that
the path of the particle was marked by a string of droplets in the chamber.
The key innovation in Anderson’s experiment was the positioning of the cloud cham-
ber between the poles of powerful magnets. These magnets caused electrically charged
cosmic rays to move in curved tracks, with the amount of curving dependent on the parti-
cle’s mass, speed, and charge. Furthermore, the tracks of positively and negatively charged
particles curved in opposite directions under the influence of the magnetic field.
Soon after he switched on his apparatus, Anderson saw tracks of particles whose mass
seemed to be identical to that of the electron, but whose tracks curved in the opposite
direction from those of electrons being detected (Figure 13-7). This feature, he concluded,
had to be the result of a “positive electron,” a phrase he contracted to positron. Although
no one realized it at the time, Anderson was the first human being to see antimatter. •
Stop and Think! How might Anderson have interpreted his results if
he had seen tracks of particles curving the same direction as electrons,
but curving a different amount? (Hint : Remember Newton’s second law
of motion.)
How Does the Brain Work?

The study of elementary particles often seems quite abstract, but situations do arise
where elementary particles play a very important role in understanding the real world.
The fascinating technology of positron emission tomography (PET), for example, helps
scientists probe the mysterious workings of the brain. In this medical technique, mole-
cules such as glucose (see Chapter 22) that have been made using an unstable isotope of
an element like oxygen (an isotope produced in nuclear reactors) are injected into a
patient’s bloodstream. Organs in the body, including the brain, take up these molecules.
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Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers 280 | C HAP TE R 13 | The Ultimate Structure of Matter
Visuals Unlimited
(a) (b)
• Figure 13-8 Positron emission tomography, commonly called the PET scan, reveals activ-
ity in the human brain. (a) A patient undergoing a PET scan. (b) A scan of a normal brain is
seen at the top of the figure. The bright spots are places where large amounts of glucose (a
simple sugar used by most cells for energy) are being used by the brain. The bottom half of
the figure shows a scan of a person suffering from Alzheimer’s disease.
They will go to the parts of the brain that need it; the parts that require extra energy at
the time (see Figure 13-8). Alternatively, they may be molecules shaped in such a way
that they attach to specified spots on the cells in the brain (see Chapter 21).
The isotopes are chosen for this technique because they emit a positron, the antipar-
ticle of an electron, when they decay. These positrons quickly annihilate with nearby
electrons, emitting energetic gamma rays in the process. These gamma rays are relatively
easy to detect from outside the body. A PET scan works like this: After the material is
injected into the bloodstream, the patient is asked to do something—talk, read, do
mathematical problems, or just relax. Each of these activities uses a different region of
the brain. Scientists watching the emission of positrons can see those regions of the brain
“light up” as they are used. In this way, scientists use antimatter to study the normal
working of the human brain without disturbing the patient, as well as to detect and
study abnormalities that can perhaps be treated. •
Q UARKS •
When chemists understood that the chemical elements could be arranged in the periodic
table, it wasn’t long before they realized what caused this regularity. Different chemical
elements were not “elementary,” as Dalton had suggested, but were structures made up
of things more elementary still. The same thing is true of the hundreds of elementary
hadrons, or nuclear particles. They are not themselves elementary but are made up of
units more elementary still—units that are given the name quark (pronounced “quork”).
First suggested in the late 1960s, quarks have come to be accepted by physicists as the
fundamental building blocks of hadrons. Even though they never have been (and proba-
bly cannot be) seen in the laboratory, the concept of quarks has brought order and pre-
dictability to the complex zoo of elementary particles. (It is important to remember that
only hadrons, not leptons, are made from quarks.)
Quarks are different from other elementary particles in a number of ways. Unlike
1 2
any other known particle, they have fractional electrical charge, equal to ± – or ± –, the
3 3
charge on the electron or proton. In this model of matter, quarks and antiquarks in pairs
or triplets make up all the hadrons, but once they are locked into these particles, no
amount of experimental machination will ever pry them loose. Quarks existed as free
particles only briefly in the very first stages of the universe (see Chapter 15).
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In spite of these strange properties, the quark picture of matter is a very Table 13-2 Quark Properties
appealing one. Why? Because instead of dealing with numerous hadrons, Name of Quark Symbol Electrical Charge*
only six kinds of quarks (and six antiquarks) occur in the universe. The 1
down d ––
quarks, like many things in elementary-particle physics, have been given 3
2
fanciful names: up, down, strange, charm, top, and bottom (see Table 13-2). up u +–
3
We have seen elementary particles that contain all of these six. (Experimen- 1
tal confirmation of the top quark was announced in May 1994.) charm c ––
3
From these six simple particles, all of the hadrons that we know strange s +–
2
3
about—all those hundreds of particles that whiz around inside the 1
nucleus—can be made. The proton, for example, is the combination of two bottom b ––
3
up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is the combination of 2
top t +–
two down quarks and one up quark. In this scheme, the charge on the pro- 3
ton, equal to the sum of the charges on its three quarks, is: *Quarks with the same charge differ from each other in
mass and other properties.
⫹ ⫹ a ⫺ b ⫽ ⫹1
2 2 1
3 3 3
while the charge on the neutron is:
⫹ a⫺ b ⫹ a⫺ b ⫽ 0
2 1 1
3 3 3
In the more exotic particles, pairs of quarks circle each other in orbit, like some impossible
star system.
Q UARKS AND LEPTONS •

The quark model gives us a picture of the universe that restores the kind of simplicity
that was brought by both Dalton’s atoms and Rutherford’s nucleus. All of the elemen-
tary particles in the nucleus are made from various combinations of six kinds of quarks.
These elementary particles are then put together to make the nuclei of atoms. The six
different leptons—primarily the electrons—are stationed outside the nucleus to make
the complete atoms, and different atoms interact with each other to produce what we
see in the universe. In this scheme, the quarks and leptons are the letters of the universe;
they are the basic stuff from which everything else is made. The fact that there are six
leptons and six quarks has not escaped the notice of physicists. This phenomenon is built
into almost all theories of elementary particles. The question of why nature should be
arranged this way remains unanswered.
Q UARK C ONFINEMENT •
It would be nice to be able to study individual quarks in the laboratory, and physicists
have conducted extensive searches for them. Yet there has been no generally accepted
experimental isolation of a quark, and many particle theorists suspect that quarks can
never be pried loose from the particles in which they exist. In these theories, once a
quark is taken up into a particle, it is “confined” in that particle forever.
Here’s an analogy that may help you think about quark confinement. Suppose you
cut a rubber band and then try to isolate just one end of it. (Think of the rubber band
as being a particle and the very end of it as being the quark.) You could grab hold of the
rubber band and pull it, perhaps even break it. You would then have two shorter rubber
bands, but you would never have the end of a rubber band by itself. No matter how
many times you broke the rubber band apart, you would get the same result. There just
is no such thing as an “end” not attached to something else.
Elementary particles seem to be the same. You can hit them as hard as you like in an
attempt to shake the quarks loose, but every time you start to pull out a quark, you’ve
also supplied enough energy to the system to make more quarks and antiquarks, and
those new particles will immediately be taken up into ordinary particles. If you hit one
particle hard enough, you will wind up with lots of other elementary particles, the things
that correspond to the short pieces of the rubber band in our analogy.
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The Four Fundamental Forces

In our excursion into the library, finding the letters of the alphabet wasn’t enough to
explain what we saw. We had to know the rules of spelling and grammar by which letters
are converted into words and then books. In the same way, if we are going to understand
the fundamental nature of the universe, we have to understand not only the quarks and
leptons, but also the forces that arrange them and make them behave the way they do.
One useful analogy is to think of the quarks and leptons as the bricks of the universe.
The universe appears to be built of these two different kinds of bricks that are arranged in
different ways to make everything we see. But you cannot build a house using bricks alone.
There has to be something like mortar to hold the bricks together. The “mortar” of the
universe—the things that hold the elementary particles together and organize the physical
universe into the structures we know—are the forces. At the moment, we know of only
four fundamental forces in nature. Two of these, gravity (Chapter 2) and electromagnetism
(Chapter 5), were known to nineteenth-century physicists and are part of our everyday
experience. They are forces with infinite range—that is, objects such as stars and planets
can exert these forces on each other even though they are very far apart.
The other two forces are less familiar to us because they operate in the realm of the
nucleus and the elementary particle. They have a range comparable to the size of the
nucleus (or smaller) and hence play no role in our everyday experience. The strong force
holds the nucleus together, while the weak force is responsible for processes such as beta
decay (see Chapter 12) that tear nuclei and elementary particles apart.
Each of the four fundamental forces is different from the others in strength and
range (see Table 13-3). The important point about the four forces is that whenever any-
thing happens in the universe, whenever an object changes its motion, it happens because
one or more of these forces is acting.
F ORCE AS AN E XCHANGE •
We know that forces cause matter to accelerate—nothing happens without a force. We
B A
have talked about the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong force,
and the weak force. Each has its own distinctive effects on nature. We have not, how-
ever, asked how these forces work.
The modern understanding of forces may be thought of schematically as illustrated
in Figure 13-9. Every force between two particles corresponds to the exchange of a
third kind of particle, called a gauge particle for historical reasons. That is, a first particle
(an electron, for example) interacts with a second particle (say another electron) by the
exchange of a gauge particle. The gauge particles produce the fundamental forces, such
as electricity, that hold everything together.
• Figure 13-9 The exchange of a In Chapter 2 we used the analogy of someone standing on skates throwing baseballs
baseball between two skaters pro- to explain Newton’s third law of motion. Suppose a person on skates throws a baseball,
vides an analogy for the exchange of and another person standing on skates catches the baseball some distance away. The per-
a gauge particle. Skater A, who throws
son who threw the baseball would recoil, as we discussed. The person who subsequently
the ball, recoils, and skater B recoils
when the ball reaches her. Thus both caught the baseball would also recoil. We could describe the situation this way: Two
skaters change their state of motion, people stand still before anything happens. After some time, the two people are moving
and, by Newton’s first law, we say that away from each other. From Newton’s first law, we conclude that a repulsive force had
a force acts between them.
Table 13-3 The Four Forces
Force Relative Strength* Range Gauge Particle
–39
gravity 10 infinite graviton
1
electromagnetic —
137
infinite photon
–13
strong force 1 10 cm gluon
weak force 10–5 10–15 cm W and Z
*Relative to the strong force
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The Four Fundamental Forces | 283
acted between those two people. Yet it’s very clear in this
Courtesy American Institute of Physics

analogy that that repulsive force is intimately connected
with (a physicist would say “mediated by”) the exchange Deflected by
force
of the baseball.
In just the same way, we believe that every funda- Exchange of gauge
mental force is mediated by the exchange of some kind particle
of gauge particle (Figure 13-10a). For example, the
electrical force is mediated by the exchange of photons.
That is, the magnet holding notes onto your refrigera-
tor is exchanging huge numbers of photons with atoms
inside the refrigerator metal to generate the magnetic
Incoming
force. particles
In the same way, the gravitational force is thought
to be mediated by particles called gravitons. Right now
you are exchanging large numbers of gravitons with
Earth, an exchange that prevents you from floating up
into space. The four fundamental forces and the gauge (a) (b)
particles that are exchanged to generate each of them are • Figure 13-10 (a) Exchange dia-
listed in Table 13-3. gram, introduced by (b) physicist
The two familiar forces of gravity and electromagnetism act over long distances Richard Feynman (1918–1988), pro-
because they are mediated by massless, uncharged particles (of which the familiar photon vides a model for particle interac-
is one). The weak interaction, on the other hand, has a short range because it is mediated tions and the fundamental forces.
Two incoming particles (such as two
by the exchange of very massive particles—the W and Z particles—that have masses electrons) exchange a gauge particle
about 80 times that of the proton. Like the photon, the W and Z are particles that can be (a photon) and thus are deflected by
seen in the laboratory—they were first discovered in 1983 and are now routinely pro- the force.
duced at accelerators around the world.
The situation with the strong force is a bit more complicated. The force that holds
quarks together is mediated by particles called gluons (they “glue” the hadrons together).
These particles are supposed to be massless, like the photon, but, like the quarks, they are
confined to the interior of particles.
U NIFIED F IELD THEORIES •

Although a universe with six kinds of quarks, six kinds of leptons, and four kinds of forces
may seem to be a relatively simple one, physicists have discovered an even greater underly-
ing simplicity. The four fundamental forces turn out not to be as different from each other
as their properties might at first suggest. The current thinking is that all four of these “fun-
damental” forces may simply be different aspects of a single underlying force.
Scientists suggest that the four forces appear to be different because we are observ-
ing them at a time when the universe has been around for a long time and is at a rela-
tively low temperature. The situation is somewhat analogous to freezing water. When
water freezes it can adopt many apparently different forms—powdered white snow, solid
ice blocks, delicate hoarfrost on tree branches, or a slippery layer on the sidewalk. You
might interpret these forms of frozen H2O as very different things, and in some respects
they are distinct. But heat them up, and they are all simply water.
Similarly, the four forces look different at the relatively low temperatures of our pre-
sent existence, but heat matter up to trillions of degrees and the different forces are not
really different at all. Theories in which fundamental forces are seen as different aspects
of one force are called unified field theories.
The first unified field theory in history was Isaac Newton’s synthesis of earthly grav-
ity and the circular motions observed in the heavens. To medieval scientists, earthly and
heavenly motions seemed as different as the strong and electromagnetic forces do to us.
Nevertheless, they were unified in Newton’s theory of universal gravitation. In the same
way, scientists today are working to unify the four fundamental forces.
The general idea of these theories is that if the temperature can be raised high
enough—that is, if enough energy can be pumped into an elementary particle—the
underlying unity of the forces will become clear. At a few laboratories around the
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• Figure 13-11 The four forces

become unified at extremely high
temperatures, equivalent to those
at the beginning of the universe. At Elect
rowea
10–43 second after the moment of k
creation, the universe had already
cooled sufficiently for gravity to Gravity
Energy
have separated from the other three Strong
forces. The strong force separated Electromagnetic
at 10–33 second, while the weak and Weak
electromagnetic forces separated at
10–10 second.
Time
world, it is possible to take protons and antiprotons (or electrons and positrons),
accelerate them to extremely high energies, and let them collide. (As we have noted,
proton–antiproton collisions involve the process of annihilation between particle and
antiparticle.) When these collisions occur, for a brief moment the temperature in the
volume of space about the size of a proton is raised to temperatures that have not been
seen in the universe since it was less than a second old. In the resulting maelstrom,
particles are produced that can be accounted for only if the electromagnetic and weak
forces become unified.
In 1983, experiments at the European Center for Nuclear Research and the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center demonstrated that this kind of unification does
occur. When protons and antiprotons (at the former laboratory) or electrons and
positrons (at the latter) were accelerated and allowed to collide head-on, W and Z
particles were seen in the debris of the collisions. Not only were the reactions seen,
but the properties of the resulting particles and their rates of production were
exactly those predicted by the first unified field theories.
THE STANDARD M ODEL •

• Figure 13-12 Scottish physicist
Peter Higgs, who first suggested the At energies now available in our accelerators, we can see the unification of the electro-
existence of the particle that bears magnetic and weak forces into what is called the electroweak force (Figure 3-11). At still
his name. higher energies, energies much higher than those that might be reached by any fore-
Fabrice Coffrini/epa/©Corbis
seeable accelerator, we expect the strong and electroweak forces to unify. The theory
that describes this unification has been given the somewhat prosaic name of the “Stan-
dard Model.” Although we cannot test the unification directly, the theory makes many
predictions of the details of interactions we can actually see in our laboratories. Since
the theory has proved to be remarkably successful in its predictions, scientists feel that
it gives us the correct description of the last-but-one unification of forces. This will be
important in Chapter 15, when we discuss the earliest stages in the evolution of the
universe.
One prediction of the Standard Model is that there is yet another kind of particle in
nature. It is called the Higgs, after Scottish physicist Peter Higgs, the man who first pre-
dicted its existence (Figure 13-12). The best way to think about the Higgs particles is to
imagine them as a kind of thin molasses pervading all of space. According to the Standard
Model, other particles acquire their mass by interacting with this background. Some parti-
cles have a big interaction with the Higgs and are slowed down a lot by the “molasses,” a
fact which we interpret as the particle having a large mass. Similarly, other particles interact
less strongly with the Higgs, are slowed down less, and are perceived to have a small mass.
Thus, the Higgs particle is thought to explain the existence of mass. The Large Hadron
Collider described previously has the capability of producing the Higgs, providing the last
bit of experimental evidence for the Standard Model.
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Quantum Gravity, Strings, and Theories of Everything | 285
Quantum Gravity, Strings, and Theories of Everything

As things stand now, we have successful theories that describe the unification of the
strong, electromagnetic, and weak forces. This leaves only the force of gravity to be
incorporated into the unification scheme. The search for such a theory involves an
area that physicists call “quantum gravity,” and would require that we understand
gravity as arising from the exchange of gravitons, just as the electrical forces arises
from an exchange of photons. Nobel Laureate Steven Weinberg calls this the “Final
Theory,” and other scientists often refer to it as a “Theory of Everything” (TOE). In
spite of the best efforts of theoretical physicists over the past several decades, we do
not yet have such a theory. It remains the final goal of our theory of the structure of
the universe.
The best candidates for the TOE are called “string theories.” In these theories the
quarks and leptons are seen as being made from tiny vibrating strings, with different
quarks corresponding to different vibration modes of the string (think of a violin string
with its overtones). These types of theories turn out to be very difficult mathematically,
and they have not yet been developed to the point where they can make experimentally
verifiable predictions.
String theories have the unusual feature that, unlike a violin string that vibrates in
three dimensions, the theories demand that the fundamental strings vibrate in 11 or
more dimensions (don’t try to picture this—you can’t). One way to think about the
question of how our ordinary four-dimensional world (three space dimensions plus
time) could arise from a world in which the fundamental materials have many
more dimensions is to consider a simple analogy. If you look at an ordinary garden
hose close up, you see it as a three-dimensional object. There is the length of the hose,
which is basically a two-dimensional line, and there is the roundness of the hose,
which can be thought of as a third dimension. If you look at the same hose from far
away, however, you don’t see that third dimension—all you see are the two dimen-
sions that describe the length of the hose. In just the same way, scientists argue, when
we look at an 11-dimensional world from the human viewpoint, all the dimensions but
4 are basically invisible, and we have to get down inside the elementary particles
before we see them.
Thinking More About Particle Physics
BASIC R ESEARCH IN PARTICLE THEORY On the other hand, others point out that in the past,
money spent on apparently useless basic research has
One aspect of research in elementary particle physics should resulted in huge benefits to humanity. The development of
be obvious from our description of the current generation of the theory of electromagnetism in the nineteenth century
particle accelerators—it is expensive. The cost of the giant and quantum mechanics in the twentieth, for example, have
machines needed to probe into the heart of matter runs into both changed the human condition for the better. It’s hard
billions of dollars, and this creates problems. In 1993, for to put a price tag on something like the ability to generate
example, the United States Congress terminated a project electricity or to process information in a computer. Basic
called the Superconducting Supercollider, a machine even big- research has always paid off big in the past, they argue, so we
ger than the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). At the time, the should support it now.
machine was under construction south of Dallas and had a How much money do you think the federal government
price tag of over $10 billion. should spend on research like this, whose benefits may be a
Are projects of this magnitude justified? Some people generation in the future? What percentage of your tax dollars
argue that with all the problems in the world—hunger, poverty, would you be willing to allocate to this task?
terrorism—it makes no sense to spend large amounts of money
on machines that will produce no immediate benefit, or whose
benefits may be far off.
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How can antimatter be used to probe the human brain? • Matter-antimatter reactions have practical application in a num-
ber of domains, including medical imaging.
• As we saw in Chapter 8, matter is composed of particles. For
every particle in the universe, it is possible to produce an º Three-dimensional images of functional processes within the
human body and brain are possible with a nuclear medicine imag-
antiparticle. These antiparticles are known as antimatter.
ing technique known as positron emission tomography (PET).
º Every particle of antimatter has the same mass as its matter
twin, but the opposite charge and magnetic characteristics. º In PET, a positron-emitting radioactive tracer is injected into
the body. Three-dimensional computer images are generated
The antiparticle of the electron, for example, is a positively
via the gamma ray emissions of the tracer.
charged particle known as the positron, which has the same
• Many newer PET systems incorporate X-ray Computed Tomog-
mass as the electron but a positive electrical charge.
raphy (PET-CT). Computer-generated images from both tech-
º When a particle (e.g., an electron) collides with its antiparticle nologies are systematically combined into a single image. This
(e.g., a positron), both masses are converted completely to
technology offers dramatic diagnostic benefits compared with
energy in a process called annihilation, the most efficient and
imaging technologies only a decade old.
violent process that we know in the universe. Nothing from
the collision of the original particles survives except energy.
S UMMARY •
High-energy physics, or elementary-particle physics, deals with bits of matter that we know. Each of these particles has an antimatter
matter that we cannot see, and forces and energies that we can barely particle, such as the positron, the positively charged antiparticle of
imagine. Nevertheless, the study of the subatomic world holds the the electron.
key to understanding the structure and organization of the universe. The four known forces—gravity, electromagnetism, the strong
All matter is made up of atoms, which are made up of even force, and the weak force—cause particle interactions that lead to all
smaller particles—electrons and the nucleus—but these are not the of the organized structures we see in the universe. Particle interac-
most fundamental building blocks of the universe. Physicists origi- tions are mediated by the exchange of gauge particles, with a differ-
nally examined collisions between energetic cosmic rays and nuclei to ent gauge particle for each of the different forces. Two masses, for
study elementary particles. They now employ particle accelerators, example, will exchange gravitons (the gauge particle of gravity) as
including synchrotrons and linear accelerators, to collide charged par- they attract each other, and two charged particles will exchange pho-
ticles at near-light speeds. These scientists have discovered hundreds tons, much the same way that two skaters will be “repelled” by each
of subatomic particles. other if a mass is thrown (exchanged) from one to the other.
One class of particles, the leptons (including the electron and While the four known forces appear to us to be quite different
neutrino) are not subject to the strong force and thus do not par- from each other, scientists speculate that early in the universe, when
ticipate in holding the nucleus together. Nuclear particles called temperatures were extremely high, the four forces were unified into
hadrons (including the proton and neutron), according to present a single force. At the forefront of modern physics research is the
theories, are made from quarks—odd particles that have fractional search for a unified field theory that describes this single force. String
electrical charge and cannot exist alone in nature. Together, lep- theories, the most prominent type of unified field theory, envision
tons and quarks are the most fundamental building blocks of quarks as made of fundamental units called strings.
K EY TERMS •
high-energy physics, or particle accelerator leptons quarks
elementary-particle physics synchrotron hadrons unified field theory
cosmic rays linear accelerator antimatter string theories
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Rutherford bombarded gold foil with alpha particles, most of the Cover a cardboard or plywood with a plain sheet of paper. Cut
particles passed right through the foil, and a few bounced back. This out different shapes like a circle, triangle, hexagon, and rectangle
indicated the presence of a positively charged nucleus inside an from the Styrofoam and ask someone to tape a shape down on the
atom and also proved that the atom was mostly empty space. Sub- cardboard. They should then cover the shape so that it is not seen.
atomic particles are too small and therefore are difficult to be mea- Mark a point on the paper as the starting point. Roll the marble or
sured. In order to measure them indirectly you will need a large the ball on the board from the starting point and draw its path as it
piece of Styrofoam, cardboard or plywood board to be used as a slides to the other side. Repeat the procedure at least 10 to 15 times
ramp, and small rubber balls or large marbles. (it is advisable to change the starting point each time). Try to predict
c13.qxd 9/10/09 2:43 PM Page 287
the shape of the Styrofoam. How does the shape relate to the angle experiment relate to Rutherford’s discovery? Make a comparison of
of deflection? Repeat the procedure using different shapes. How your experiment with a particle accelerator.
close was your predicted shape to the actual shape? How does this
1. What is reductionism? 9. Describe how quarks and leptons are put together to make all
2. What are the building blocks of a library? Why is there more the matter we see.
than one correct answer? 10. Explain what it means for quarks to be confined.
3. What are “cosmic rays”? How were they used to study the structure 11. List the four fundamental forces from strongest to weakest.
of matter? 12. Under what conditions do scientists speculate that the four
4. What is a particle accelerator? How do scientists use particle fundamental forces were unified into a single force?
accelerators to study subatomic particles? 13. What particle is exchanged to generate each of the four funda-
5. Why are leptons, such as electrons and neutrinos, said to be mental forces?
weakly interacting particles? 14. What is a unified field theory? Give an example.
6. Why are there so many different kinds of hadrons but only a few 15. What is a theory of everything (TOE)? What is the most
kinds of leptons? Are hadrons or leptons more elementary? prominent TOE?
7. What is antimatter, and how do we know it exists? What is the 16. Why is “big science” needed in the study of elementary particles?
antiparticle of an electron? Who provides the funding for “big science”?
8. How do quarks differ from other elementary particles? Is there
any way to prove that quarks exist?
1. How might the underlying simplicity of nature give rise to the 5. Why is a universe made up of only six types of quarks more
complexity observed in the world around us? appealing to physicists than one built from hundreds of hadrons?
2. What are the roles of experimentation and observation in reduc- 6. Describe Carl Anderson’s experiment, and the observations that
tionist science? Identify what might be considered the “fundamental led him to conclude that he had discovered a particle with the same
units” and rules of organization of (a) a large city, (b) the human mass as the electron, but with a positive electrical charge.
body, and (c) a family. How many levels of organization can you 7. In theory, when were the four fundamental forces unified? What
identify? (Remember, not all questions have only one correct does it mean to say that all four fundamental forces were unified?
answer.) 8. How might you detect the presence of a charged elementary particle?
3. Which particle–antiparticle interaction releases more energy: an 9. How will we know when we have identified the truly fundamental
electron–positron annihilation or a proton–antiproton annihilation? building blocks?
How does the law of conservation of energy come into play?
10. What medical technologies (e.g., PET) rely on the physics of
4. How old is the search for the basic building blocks of nature? elementary particles? What are the benefits of noninvasive proce-
How do the ideas from antiquity foreshadow modern particle dures such as PET?
physics? How are they different from modern ideas?
P ROBLEMS •
1. What is the electrical charge of an antiproton? an antineutron? Why? 4. A particle called the pi-meson is made from an up quark and an
2. What is the electrical charge of a positron? How does this parti- antidown quark. What is the charge of this particle?
cle differ from a proton? 5. The proton is a combination of which quarks? Calculate the charge
3. A hadron called the lambda particle is made from two down quarks of a proton based on its constituent quarks. (Hint: See p. 281)
and one strange quark. What is the charge of the lambda particle?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Read Michael Riorden’s book, The Hunting of the Quark. How aren’t real? You might want to think about the question of the reality
does the discovery of quarks illustrate the scientific method? What of atoms (see Chapter 8) for a historical precedent to this situation.
experimental evidence convinced scientists of the existence of quarks? 5. Investigate the philosophies of Thales and Democritus. What
2. Locate the nearest PET-scan facility and arrange a visit. Where questions did they seek to answer? Has modern science answered
do the physicians obtain the special form of glucose used in the the questions that they posed?
procedure? What kind of educational training would you need to 6. What does the term Gestalt mean? Investigate the philosophical
operate such a facility? arguments against reductionism in science. How might these argu-
3. Watch an episode of Star Trek and discuss the use of matter and ments be answered by a modern scientist or modern philosopher?
antimatter in the propulsion system of the Enterprise. Can you find How has reductionism benefited humankind?
any other uses of antimatter in science fiction stories? 7. In what ways has modern physics improved our ability to study
4. What does it mean that the fundamental building blocks of the uni- and understand our behavior and our brains? Investigate the under-
verse are things we can never isolate and study? Does that mean they lying physics of fMRI, MRI, EEP, and PET technologies.
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14
The Stars
How much longer can the Sun sustain life on Earth?
PHYSICS
The
Sun’s heat
energy flows
outward from its
core into space first
by conduction, then
BIOLOGY primarily by
CHEMISTRY
convection, and
finally by
radiation. All chemical
The Sun provides elements heavier
virtually all of the than hydrogen are
energy for life on being produced in the
Earth. (Ch. 21) nuclear reactions of
stars.
The Sun ENVIRONMENT

and other Since
A variety of stars use nuclear the Sun first
entered its main
satellite fusion reactions to sequence, the total
observatories detect
a wide range of
convert mass into energy. amount of energy
generated has
electromagnetic Eventually, when a star’s increased slowly,
radiation from nuclear fuel is providing a stable
stars. energy supply for
depleted, the star life on Earth.
must burn
TECHNOLOGY out.
A star’s life cycle

can be measured in The Sun’s radiant
stages that energy drives Earth’s
correspond to the weather patterns.
way the energy is (Ch. 18)
generated.
Exposure to
ultraviolet radiation
ASTRONOMY emitted by the Sun
GEOLOGY
increases the risk of
skin cancer. (Ch. 24)

HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Sunshine
he glaring Sun blazes down with

T midday brilliance. You make sure to
use sunblock before stretching out on
the beach towel. It’s hot, but that’s the
way it’s supposed to be at the beach. And
the cooling ocean is just a few steps away.
What is the Sun—this distant glowing
object that gives our planet light and
warmth? Is the Sun unique? Has it always
graced Earth’s sky? Will it ever stop
shining?
Ben Hall/The Image Bank/Getty Images
The Nature of Stars

Astronomy, the study of objects in the heavens, is perhaps the oldest science. When
you examine the night sky, the most striking feature is the thousands of visible stars
(Figure 14-1). Each star is an immense fusion reactor in space—a large ball of gas,
consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, which are the two most abundant ele-
ments in the universe. Every star is held together by gravity, and every star radiates
energy that is generated via nuclear fusion. The Sun, the nearest star to Earth, is just • Figure 14-1 Thousands of stars
one of countless trillions of stars in our universe. are visible in the night sky.
You have already learned enough about the way the universe works to understand
Jim Ballard/Stone/Getty Images

some of the implications of your nighttime view of the stars. The fact that you can see the
stars, for example, means that they are emitting electromagnetic radiation in the form of
photons (see Chapter 6). Every star you see sends this radiant energy into space—energy
that provides the essential data for all astronomers. Your eye intercepts a tiny fraction of
that energy and converts it into the image you see, but similar amounts of energy radiate
out in every direction from the star.
The laws of nature, including the laws of thermodynamics that describe the behavior
of energy, apply everywhere in the universe. If a star sends radiant energy out into space,
then the star must have a source of that energy. Furthermore, because every star is a finite
object, it must have a finite store of energy. This simple observation leads to perhaps one
of the most profound insights about the universe.
All stars have a beginning and an ending.
In other words, the magnificent display that we see in the nighttime sky is a temporary
phenomenon. It has lasted from the time that stars first formed until the present, a span
of about 14 billion years. However, the view we see in the heavens will not last forever.
Each star will eventually run out of energy. Before we look at the life cycle of stars, it’s
worth examining the kinds of data that astronomers use to understand the history and
dynamic processes of stars.
289
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290 | C HAP TE R 14 | The Stars
M EASURING THE STARS WITH TELESCOPES AND SATELLITES •

Our primary source of data on distant stars is electromagnetic radiation—energy in the
form of photons streaming through space at 3 x 108 meters per second. The art and sci-
ence of astronomy lies in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of these data. Most
astronomers spend their lives measuring four aspects of photons from space:
1. Their wavelength, which is measured by spectroscopy
2. Their intensity, which is measured by a device like a light meter
3. Their direction, which is measured by recording two angles—one up from the horizon
(called the altitude), and the other around from north (called the azimuth)
4. The variations of these wavelengths, intensities, and positions with time
These data, in turn, enable astronomers to understand many aspects of stars, including
their distribution in space, their physical characteristics such as mass and composition,
and their histories and future behavior. For example, astronomers find that many stars
possess spectra that are virtually identical to that of the Sun. The fact that the intensity
of light from these stars is many orders of magnitude weaker than the Sun indicates that
they are very far away.
TELESCOPES •
To collect and analyze radio waves, microwaves, light, and other radiation, astronomers
have devised a variety of telescopes, which are devices that focus and concentrate radia-
tion from distant objects.
The first telescopes could examine only visible light, and when most people use the
word “telescope” today, they mean an instrument for gathering and concentrating this
form of radiation. The classic reflecting telescope (see Figure 14-2a) has a large mirror
that reflects and focuses light to produce an image of the object being studied. (See
Chapter 6 for a review of the reflection and refraction of light.)
Many modern light-gathering telescopes are built differently. Instead of having a solid
block of glass for a mirror, they have an array of small, independently controlled, lightweight
• Figure 14-2 Schematic diagrams of telescopes. (a) In an optical telescope, light strikes a
curved mirror and is focused on a light-sensitive detector such as the eye or a electronic
detector. (b) In a radio telescope, radio waves from space strike a curved metal dish that
focuses the waves onto an antenna. Signals are amplified and processed by computer.
Radio waves
Detector
Focus
Light
waves
Cable
Dish reflector
Amplifier Computer
(a) (b)
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The Nature of Stars | 291
mirrors that, taken together, produce an image. The Keck Telescope on
David Nunuk/Photo Researchers

Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the model for the world’s largest telescope, and
has been in operation since 1992 (Figure 14-3). It is a collection of more
than a dozen mirrors which, taken together, give it a collecting surface of
about 10 meters (30 feet). In 2007, the Gran Telescopio Canarias, mod-
eled on the Keck but slightly larger, saw “first light” at its base in the
Canary Islands.
The next-generation optical telescope is under construction in the
Andes mountains, at Las Campanas, Chile. The Giant Magellan Tele-
scope (Figure 14-4) is scheduled for completion in 2017; it will have a
collecting surface equivalent to more that 24 meters (80 feet), and will
produce images 10 times sharper than the Hubble Space Telescope
(see below). Other factors being equal, the larger a telescope is, the
more light it will gather and the more detailed the data it produces.
In the 1930s astronomers built radio receivers that did for
radio waves what the reflecting telescope did for light waves (see
Figure 14-2b). For the first time, they could look at another kind of
electromagnetic radiation. Today, large radio telescope facilities can
be found all around the world. • Figure 14-3 The Keck Telescopes
in Hawaii are some of the world’s
largest.
O RBITING O BSERVATORIES •
Except for visible light and radio waves, Earth’s atmosphere is largely opaque to the
electromagnetic spectrum. Most infrared and all ultraviolet radiation, short-wavelength
microwaves, X-rays, and gamma rays entering the top of the atmosphere are absorbed
long before they can reach instruments at the surface. The use of satellite observatories
during the last half of the twentieth century has ushered in a golden age of astronomy.
In this period, we have been able to put instruments into orbit far above the atmosphere
and, for the first time, record and analyze the entire flood of electromagnetic radiation
coming to us from the cosmos. NASA (the National Aeronautic and Space Adminis-
tration) is in the process of creating a fleet of observatories high above atmosphere that
will allow astronomers to probe every part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some
important observatories in orbit today are:
• Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Launched in 1990, HST is a reflecting telescope with
a 2.4-meter mirror designed to give unparalleled resolution in the visible and ultravi- • Figure 14-4 Artist’s rendering of
olet wavelengths (Figure 14-5). Despite a troubled beginning, the HST has proven the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT)
to be one of the greatest scientific instru- in its enclosure.
ments in history. The HST was designed
Giant Magellan Telescope—Carnegie Observatories

so that astronauts in the Space Shuttle
could visit it periodically and install
updated equipment, most recently in
2009. Thus, although the telescope has
been in orbit for over two decades, it con-
tinues to be the premier astronomical
instrument in the world. (Indeed, in 2008
the HST completed its 100,000th orbit
around Earth, having logged 2.7 billion
miles.) HST accomplishments include
photographs of the comet Shoemaker-
Levy hitting Jupiter in 1994, detection of
the most distant supernovae and most distant
quasars (1997), and accurate determina-
tion of the Hubble constant (2001). The
servicing of the HST in 2009 was the last
scheduled maintenance for the instrument,
and it will be retired at the end of its cur-
rent tour of duty.
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Courtesy NASA
• Chandra X-Ray Observatory. Launched in 1999, the Chandra produces
high-resolution X-ray images of objects in the sky. Its orbit carries it high
above the belts of charged particles that surround Earth, giving it a clear
view of the X-ray sky. It is named for the Indian-American astrophysicist
Subramanian Chandrasekar, the first scientist to understand the final stages
in the lives of stars like the Sun.
• Fermi Gamma Ray Telescope. In 2008, NASA launched a large orbiting obser-
vatory whose goal was to explore the highest energy part of the electromag-
netic spectrum. It is named after the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi,
who was responsible for producing the first controlled nuclear fission reactor
in 1942. This instrument will explore the most energetic events in the uni-
verse, such as the regions around supermassive black holes and collisions
between neutron stars.
• Planck Observatory. In 2009, The European Space Agency launched the Planck
mission. This observatory will orbit 1.5 million miles from Earth and will make
detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background (see Chapter 15).
• Figure 14-5 The Hubble Space
Telescope.
The Anatomy of Stars

Astronomical observations reveal that stars are much more than uniform balls of gas.
They have a complex and dynamic interior structure that is constantly changing and
evolving. The Sun is the only star that is near Earth, and thus it’s the only star for which
we have the kind of detailed knowledge that allows us to talk about how the various
parts function. In this sense, the Sun is not only the giver of life on our planet, but also
the giver of knowledge.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE S UN •

Based on comparisons with literally millions of other, more distant stars, the Sun
appears to be a rather ordinary star. While we can’t peer into the Sun’s center, theorists
have learned to apply the principles of nuclear reactions to model processes deep
• Figure 14-6 The surface of the inside stars. At its center is the stellar core, comprising about 10% of the Sun’s total
Sun, showing hot material following volume. This core is the Sun’s furnace, where nuclear reactions rage, and energy gen-
magnetic field lines.
erated in the core streams out from the center. Deep
Courtesy NASA
within the Sun, this energy transfer takes place largely

through collisions of high-energy particles—gamma
rays and X-rays, for example—that are generated by
the core’s nuclear reactions. About four-fifths of the way
out, however, the energy-transfer mechanism changes,
and the hydrogen-rich material in the Sun begins to
undergo large-scale convection. This outer region,
comprising the turbulent upper 200,000 kilometers
(about 125,000 miles) of the Sun, is called the convection
zone. Thus energy is brought from the core to the sur-
face in a stepwise process, first by collisions, then by
convection.
The only part of the Sun that we actually see is a
thin outer layer (Figure 14-6). We can observe perhaps
150 kilometers (about 100 miles) into the Sun; any
deeper and the stellar material becomes too dense to be
transparent. The outer part of the Sun, the part that actu-
ally emits most of the light we see, is called the photo-
sphere. The Sun does not have a sharp outer boundary, but
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The Anatomy of Stars | 293
• Figure 14-7 The Sun’s chromo-
Courtesy National Center for Atmospheric Research

sphere and corona become visible
during a total eclipse. This halo of
incandescent plasma is normally
blotted out by light from the Sun’s
main disk.
gradually becomes thinner and thinner farther away from the surface. These gaseous layers
are not usually visible from Earth. During a total eclipse of the Sun, however, when the
Moon passes in front of the Sun, the Sun’s spectacular halo, called the chromosphere and the
corona, may become visible for a few minutes (Figure 14-7).
The Sun constantly emits a stream of particles—mainly ions (electrically charged
atoms) of hydrogen and helium—into space around it. This stream of particles, called
the solar wind, blows by Earth and the other planets all the time. Because the particles
are charged, they affect the magnetic fields of the planets, compressing the fields on the
“upstream” side and dragging them out on the “downstream” side (Figure 14-8a).
The interaction of the solar wind with the outer reaches of Earth’s atmosphere also
gives rise to the aurora borealis, or northern lights (Figure 14-8b).
As we pointed out above the flow of energy from the Sun is a complex affair. Begin-
ning with the conversion of mass in fusion reactions, the energy slowly percolates outward,
first in collisions and later in great convection cells under the solar surface. It takes a few
tens of thousands of years for the energy to work its way to the photosphere, but only
eight minutes for photons to cover the distance between the Sun and Earth.
Once the sunlight reaches our planet, a tiny fraction of it is converted by the process of
photosynthesis in plants into chemical energy stored in large molecules (see Chapter 21).
This is the primary source of energy for most living things on the planet. Another fraction of
the energy in sunlight heats the air at the equator and, as we shall see in Chapter 18, drives
Earth’s weather patterns.
• Figure 14-8 (a) Earth’s magnetic field is swept out into a long tail by the solar wind.
(b) Northern lights result from interactions of the solar wind with the Earth’s magnetic field.
George Lepp/Stone/Getty Images
Solar wind
Magnetic field lines
Solar wind
(a) (b)
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Why Is the Visible Spectrum Visible?
In Chapter 5 we saw that, of all the possible waves in the electromagnetic spectrum, the
human eye can detect only the small interval of wavelengths between red and violet.
One reason why the human eye is made this way was discussed in
Chapter 5—Earth’s atmosphere is transparent to these wavelengths,
Visible light
so it is possible for the waves to travel long distances through the air.
But there is another aspect to the development of the human eye
that has to do not with Earth, but with the Sun. Because of the
fusion reactions at its core, the temperature of the outer part of the
Sun is quite high, about 5500ºC (for reference, gold melts at about
Amount of Energy
1065º C). Every object above absolute zero radiates electromag-

netic waves, and both the total amount of energy and the wave-
lengths of the radiation depend on the body’s temperature.
Sun's energy output In Figure 14-9, we show the amount of energy that the Sun radi-
ates at each wavelength, with the visible spectrum represented by the
vertical lines. We see that the Sun’s peak output of energy is in the
middle of the visible spectrum. Thus the wavelengths between red
and violet are visible for two reasons: the air is transparent to them,
and the Sun, our main source of light, emits the greatest proportion
of its energy in that form.
0 0.5 1 2 3
Science fiction writers often use this fact when they portray
Wavelength (micrometers) imaginary beings from other planets. Those from planets around
cooler stars than the Sun may be given large eyes so they can
• Figure 14-9 The Sun’s peak out- absorb more of the scarcer photons. For the reasons we have cited, however, humans
put of energy is in the middle of the
don’t require such large optical collectors. •
visible spectrum, with lesser amounts
of energy emission at different
wavelengths.
THE S UN’S E NERGY S OURCE: F USION •
Once people came to understand conservation of energy—that energy has to come from
somewhere, and that the total amount of energy in a closed system is constant—two key
questions about the stars arose naturally: What is their energy source? How can they
continue to burn, emitting huge amounts of energy into space, yet remain seemingly
unchanged for such long periods of time?
In the nineteenth century, several scholars attempted to explain the Sun’s energy
source. One astronomer, for example, calculated how long the Sun could burn if it were
composed entirely of the best fuel available at that time—anthracite coal. (The answer
turns out to be about 10,000 years.) The Sun’s energy source also figured in the famous
debate at the end of the nineteenth century regarding Earth’s age (see Chapter 3).
Today, we understand that the Sun is indeed using a fuel but that fuel is hydrogen,
which is consumed through nuclear fusion reactions (see Chapter 12). Stars are made
primarily of the element hydrogen, the most common material in the universe. As a star
forms, gravity pulls the hydrogen into a dense ball that heats up. Electrons are torn from
the hydrogen and other atoms, creating a plasma made up primarily of protons (the
nucleus of the hydrogen atom) and electrons.
Normally, protons would repel each other (see Chapter 5). As matter accumulates in
the new star, however, the protons move faster as the temperature increases. Eventually,
they acquire enough energy to overcome the electrical repulsion between them. They
start to fuse.
The nuclear fusion process in the Sun’s core does not take place all at once, with
four particles suddenly coming together to make a helium-4 nucleus. Instead, it takes
place in three steps.
Step 1: P ⫹ P S D ⫹ e⫹ ⫹ neutrino ⫹ energy

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The Anatomy of Stars | 295
Two protons (P) come together to form a deuterium nucleus (D, the isotope hydrogen-2,
made up of one proton and one neutron), a positron (e+, the antiparticle of the electron as
described in Chapter 13), and a neutrino.
Step 2: D ⫹ P S 3He ⫹ photon ⫹ energy
Another proton collides with the deuterium produced in the first step to form the isotope
helium-3, which has two protons and one neutron in its nucleus. A photon in the form of
an energetic gamma ray is also produced.
Step 3: 3He ⫹ 3He S 4He ⫹ 2 protons ⫹ photon ⫹ energy
Two helium-3 nuclei collide to form helium-4, two protons, and a photon (another
gamma ray).
This three-step fusion process is called hydrogen burning (though these nuclear reac-
tions are not the same as the chemical reactions that we commonly call burning). The net
effect of this process is that four protons are converted into a helium-4 nucleus with a few
extra particles thrown in. As we saw in Chapter 12, the sum of the masses of all the particles
produced in this reaction amounts to less than the mass of the original four protons. The
lost mass has been converted into energy—the nuclear energy that powers the Sun and
eventually radiates out into space.
How long could the Sun consume hydrogen at its present rate? If you simply add up
all the hydrogen in the Sun and ask how long it could last, the answer turns out to be
something like 75 billion years. Actually, no star ever consumes all of its hydrogen in this
way. The hydrogen burning process is generally confined to a small region in the center of
the star called the core. The best current estimate of the total lifetime of our Sun is about
11 billion years—that is, our star is almost halfway through its hydrogen-burning phase.
Stop and Think! Why do you suppose fusion proceeds in a stepwise

manner, rather than having four protons come together all at once?
• Figure 14-10 Scientists inspect

THE O NGOING P ROCESS OF S CIENCE • the Super Kamiokande neutrino
detector in Japan.

The Solar Neutrino Problem
Our explanation of the Sun’s energy source is a theory—a very plausible one—that
is subject to experimental verification. In fact, a great deal of observational evidence
supports the notion that hydrogen-burning reactions account for the Sun’s energy.
One crucial piece of evidence, however, seemed to indicate that we might not have
known as much about the interior of the Sun as we’d like to think. Beginning in the
early 1970s, a large experiment located a mile underground in a gold mine in Lead,
South Dakota, has been returning results that were puzzling, to say the least.
The idea behind this experiment is that, as we have just seen, nuclear fusion
reactions in the Sun’s core produce neutrinos. Most of these neutrinos escape from
the Sun without being absorbed or changed, and arrive at Earth unchanged. Most
of them will pass through Earth as well, but occasionally one will interact with an
atom in the apparatus of this experiment, so that it can be detected. Thus the exper-
iment provides us with a “telescope” that can “see” right down to the center of the
Sun. If we believe we know what reactions are going on there, we should be able to
predict how many neutrinos should be seen.
When these measurements were taken, scientists saw only about one-third to
one-half of the number of neutrinos they had expected to see. Other experiments
of this type, run in Europe, the former Soviet Union, and Japan (Figure 14-10),
bore out this result. Explaining the missing one-half to two-thirds of the expected
neutrinos was known as the “solar neutrino problem.”
Today we understand that this result has to do with the fact that, as we
saw in Chapter 13, there are actually three different types of neutrinos. If one
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 296
type of neutrino is produced in nuclear reactions in the Sun, by the time those original
neutrinos get to Earth some will have changed identity—roughly speaking, only a
third will still be of type that was produced in the Sun. Thus, the “solar neutrino
problem” turns out to tell us something about the nature of neutrinos, rather than
the nature of the Sun. •
TECHNOLOGY •
The IceCube Neutrino Detector
Today, the attention of scientists has turned to looking at neutrinos given off in all sorts
of violent cosmic events, as well as from the Sun. The world’s premier neutrino detector
is called IceCube (Figure 14-11a). Located at the South Pole, this is a cubic kilometer of
Science News instrumented ice and is scheduled to come online in 2011. The way it’s built is simplic-
ity itself—hot water is used to create a mile-deep hole in the ice, a cable (string) with 60
Project IceCube detectors attached is lowered into the hole, and the ice is allowed to freeze up around it.
Go to your WileyPLUS course The final target of 80 strings and 4800 sensors will detect light emitted from particles
to view video on this topic. with which the passing neutrinos have interacted (Figure 14-11b).
The idea is that this huge instrument will not be looking up into the sky, but down,
finding neutrinos that have come through the entire Earth before interacting with atoms in
the rocks underneath the ice cap (or with the ice cap itself). It is projected that during its
lifetime (about 10 years), IceCube will log over a million neutrino collisions—thousands of
times our current inventory.
Unfortunately, IceCube will be sensitive mainly to signals coming from the north-
ern sky (i.e., particles that pass through the entire Earth on their way to the South Pole).
This means that to do a thorough survey of the neutrino sky, we will need another
detector in the northern hemisphere. There are plenty of candidates for this honor. The
Europeans have already built detectors in which instrument strings are lowered into the
Mediterranean off the coast of France and around the Greek Islands. A cubic kilometer
instrument is on the drawing boards for construction in the Mediterranean sometime
after 2010, and the Russians are going ahead with plans for a similar instrument in Lake
Baikal in Siberia. •
• Figure 14-11 (a) The IceCube Lab. (b) In the IceCube array, instruments are lowered into
the ice, which freezes around them. Neutrinos interact and they produce particles that give off
light that is seen by the detector array.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. OPP-9980474 (AMANDA)
and OPP-0236446 (University of Wisconsin, Madison)
Strings
Blue light
passing
through
Sensors
(a) (b)
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The Variety of Stars | 297
The Variety of Stars

Knowing how one star, our own Sun, works should help us understand the variety of Remote stars
other stars we see. When you look at the stars in the night sky, one of the first things you
notice is that they don’t all look the same. For example, some stars appear reddish, while
others are almost blue. Your everyday experience with flames provides a simple explana-
tion: different stars must be at different temperatures. Very hot flames, such as a gas
burner, emit a greater percentage of high-energy blue photons; cooler fires feature
lower-energy orange and red photons. Nearby star
Stars also differ in their brightness; some appear as brilliant points of light, while
others are barely visible. Differences in brightness arise from two factors—distance and
energy output. Brightness varies in part because the stars are different distances from
Earth. An unusually bright star located far away will appear dim to us, while an average
star located nearby might appear relatively bright. The brightness of a star is also related
to the amount of energy it is producing. Astronomers often refer to the total energy
emitted by a star as its luminosity. These differences in a star’s appearance are taken into
account by distinguishing between a star’s apparent brightness, which is the brightness it Sun Earth
appears to have when viewed from Earth, and its absolute brightness, which is the bright-
ness it would have if viewed from a standard distance.
Much of the differences in the stars’ appearances arise from the many varieties of
stars themselves. Some stars shine a thousand times brighter than the Sun, while others
are a thousand times dimmer. Some stars contain 40 times more mass than the Sun,
while others have much less. As we shall see, we can bring order to this tremendous
diversity of stars by recognizing that the behavior of every star depends primarily on just
two factors: its total mass and its age.
First photograph Second photograph
of stellar region of same stellar
region, six months
THE ASTRONOMICAL D ISTANCE S CALE • later
When we look at the sky, we see a two-dimensional display—all stars look equally distant. • Figure 14-12 The triangulation of
Before characterizing the different varieties of stars, we need to add the third dimension, to stellar distances. By measuring the
determine their distances. Only then can we relate apparent brightness (what we see from angle of sight to a given star from
Earth) to absolute brightness (the luminosity or energy output of the star). Astronomers two points of known separation, we
can determine the star’s distance
customarily measure these great distances in light-years, which is the distance light travels from us.
in one year, or about 10 trillion kilometers (about 6.2 trillion miles).
In practice, no single method can be used to find the distance to every star. Just as you
might use a ruler, a tape measure, and a surveyor’s tape to measure successively larger dis-
tances, astronomers measure distances to stars with a series of “yardsticks,” each appropriate
to a particular distance scale.
For short distances (up to a few hundred light-years), several different methods • Figure 14-13 Annie Jump
Cannon (left) and Henrietta Swan
involving simple geometry can be used. For nearby stars, the angle of sight to the star
Leavitt (right) contributed important
measured at opposite ends of Earth’s orbit (Figure 14-12) can be used to work out the studies of the spectroscopy of stars
distance. For centuries, navigators on Earth’s surface have used a similar method, called at the Harvard College Observatory.
triangulation, to determine the position of ships.
Courtesy Harvard College Observatory

For greater distances, a standard type of star called a Cepheid variable is used.
These stars, the first of which was discovered in the constellation of Cepheus, show a
regular behavior of steady brightening and dimming over a period of weeks or months.
Henrietta Leavitt (1868–1921) of Harvard College Observatory showed that the
absolute magnitude of these stars is related to the time it takes for them to go through
the dimming–brightening-dimming sequence (Figure 14-13). Thus we can watch a
Cepheid variable for a while and deduce how much energy it is pouring into space. This
measurement, together with knowledge of how much energy we actually receive, tells
us how far away it is.
The method of Cepheid variables can be used to measure distances of many millions
of light-years. As we shall see in Chapter 15, it was a crucial ingredient in the birth of
modern cosmology.
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The Cepheid variable scale is an example of what astronomers call a “standard candle.”
The idea is that if you know how much energy an object is giving off, and compare that
with how much energy you are actually receiving, you can figure out how far away from you
the object is. The development of other kinds of standard candles is a major thrust of mod-
ern research.
THE H ERTZSPRUNG-R USSELL D IAGRAM •

Early in this century, two astronomers, Ejnar Hertzsprung of Denmark and Henry
N. Russell of the United States, independently discovered a way to find order among the
diversity of stars. The product of their work, called the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) dia-
gram, is a simple graphical technique widely used in astronomy. It works like this: On a
graph’s vertical axis, astronomers plot the amount of energy given off by a star, as measured
by estimating the star’s distance and brightness. On the graph’s horizontal axis, they plot
the star’s surface temperature, as determined by its color, or spectrum (see Chapter 6).
Each star has its own characteristic combination of energy and temperature, and so it
appears as a single point on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. The Sun, for example, is one
of the points highlighted in Figure 14-14.
When stars are plotted this way, the majority (the ones like the Sun) fall on a band
that stretches from the upper left to the lower right in the diagram. That is, most stars
conform to a trend from very hot stars emitting lots of energy, down to relatively cool
stars emitting less energy. Objects in this grouping are called main-sequence stars. All of
these stars are in the hydrogen-burning phase of their lives, and their energy is produced
in the fusion reactions that we described earlier in this chapter.
Two additional clumpings of stars appear in the H-R diagram. One clumping, in the
upper-right corner, corresponds to stars that emit a lot of energy but whose surfaces are
very cool. These stars must be very large—many times the size of our Sun—so that the
low temperature (and thus the low-energy emission of each square foot of surface area)
is compensated by the large surface area. Stars of this type are called red giants, and they
often do appear somewhat reddish in the sky.
Another grouping of stars appears in the lower-left corner of the H-R diagram.
These stars, called white dwarfs, have very low emission of energy but very high surface
temperatures. Consequently, white dwarf stars must be very small, typically about the
size of Earth. Both red giants and white dwarfs play crucial roles in the life cycles of stars,
as we shall see shortly.
• Figure 14-14 A Hertzsprung- 106
Russell diagram plots a star’s Red
temperature versus its energy output. Giants
105 Betelgeuse
Stars in the hydrogen-burning stage,
including the Sun, lie along the main
104
sequence, while red giants and white
dwarfs represent subsequent stages of
stellar life. 103 Canopus Giants
Antares
Energy Output (Sun = 1)
Spica Regulus
2 Aldebaran
10 Ma
in Sirius A
Se Capella
qu Vega Procyon A
1 en
10 ce
1
Sun Alpha Centauri B
–1
10
10–2 White Dwarfs

Sirius B
10–3 Procyon B Barnard's Star
10–4
60000 40000 20000 10000 6000 4000 2000
Surface Temperature (K)
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 299
The Life Cycles of Stars | 299
The Life Cycles of Stars
Courtesy NASA
Every star passes through a cycle that includes formation from dust and gas, a period of
nuclear fusion, and an end to nuclear reactions. As we shall see, the duration and vio-
lence of that cycle depend almost entirely on the initial mass of the star.
THE B IRTH OF STARS •

All stars are born in the depths of space, in clouds of gases and other debris. The mod-
ern theory of star and planet formation was first put forward by the French mathe-
matician and physicist Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827). His was a simple idea that
takes into account many of the distinctive characteristics of our solar system, which
contains both the Sun and planets (see Chapter 16). According to the model, called
the nebular hypothesis, long ago (about 4.5 billion years ago based on radiometric dat-
ing) a large cloud of dust and gas collected in the region now occupied by the solar
system. Such dust and gas clouds, called nebulae, are common throughout our galaxy,
the Milky Way (Figure 14-15). They typically contain more than 99% hydrogen and
helium, with lesser amounts of all the other naturally occurring elements.
Under the influence of gravity, a nebula slowly, inexorably, collapses on itself. This col- • Figure 14-15 The Eagle Nebula,
a birthplace of stars.
lapse causes the cloud to spin faster and faster. The rapid spin means that some of the mate-
rial in the outer parts of the nebula begins to spin out into a flat disk. This common
consequence of fast rotation is familiar to anyone who has watched a pizza maker create a
flat disk of dough by spinning a mass overhead. You can imagine a nebula at this stage of its
formation as a large pancake with a big lump in the middle. The big lump represents mate-
rial that eventually will become a star, and the material in the thin flattened disk eventually
will become the planets and the rest of the solar system (Figure 14-16). As a new star begins
to form, and as more and more mass pours into it from the surrounding region of the neb-
ula, the pressure and temperature at the center of the proto-star begins to climb.
Once this central mass achieves a critical size, the pressure and temperature deep inside
will become high enough to initiate nuclear fusion reactions. At that moment, a star is born.
THE MAIN S EQUENCE AND THE D EATH OF STARS •

Every star begins as an immense ball of hydrogen and helium, formed by the gravita-
tional collapse of a nebula. The ultimate fate of any given star, however, depends on the
total mass of hydrogen and helium. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram provides the key
to understanding the very different fates of stars.
Stars Much Less Massive Than the Sun
All stars begin their lives in the hydrogen burning stage—the stage represented by main
sequence stars on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. If a star is much less massive than the
• Figure 14-16 As the nebula that

Stages in the formation of a planetary system formed the solar system collapsed,
it began to rotate and flatten into a
disk. The stages in solar system
formation include (a) a slowly rotat-
ing nebula, (b) a flattened disk with
massive center, (c) planets in the
process of birth represented as mass
concentrations in the nebula, and
(d) the solar system.
(a) (b) (c) (d )

Slowly Flattened disk Planetesimals Solar system
rotating with
nebula clump center
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 300

6
10 Sun—perhaps only 10% of the Sun’s mass—it will be just
barely large enough to begin hydrogen burning in a slow
10
5 Red giant and fitful way. Such a small star, called a brown dwarf, shines
stage
4
faintly compared to the Sun, with surface temperatures of
10
4
3 only a few thousand degrees. Nuclear fusion proceeds rela-
tively slowly, so such a star will continue to glow steadily for
Energy Output (Sun = 1)
Gravitational
10
3 collapse a hundred billion years without any significant change in
size, temperature, or energy output.
M
ai
2
n
2 Stars About the Mass of the Sun
se
10
qu
The Sun and other stars of similar mass enjoy a more cen-
en
Helium burning
ce
10
1 tral position on the Hertzsprung-Russell main sequence
(Figure 14-17, point 1). The greater mass of the Sun, rela-
Hydrogen burning tive to brown dwarf stars, means that core temperatures and
1 White dwarf 1
(0.65 solar mass) 1 solar mass
pressures are much higher and hydrogen burning proceeds
10
–1 5 at a much faster rate. Consequently, the Sun has a higher
surface temperature, and it completes its hydrogen-burning
10
–2 phase much more quickly—in a matter of a few billion years.
100000 60000 40000 20000 10000 6000 4000 2000 One way to look at the life of a star like the Sun is to
Surface Temperature (K) think of it as a continual battle against the force of gravity.
• Figure 14-17 The life cycle of the From the moment when the Sun’s original gas cloud started
Sun on a Hertzsprung-Russell to contract, the force of gravity acted on every particle, forcing it inward and trying to make
diagram. The Sun started hydrogen the entire structure collapse on itself. When the nuclear fires ignited in the core of the Sun
burning in its core more than 4.5 billion years ago, gravity was held at bay. The increase in temperature in the center
4.5 billion years ago on the main
raised the pressure in the star’s interior and balanced the inward pull of gravity. But in the
sequence (at point 1), and it will
remain near that point on the diagram long view of things, this balance can be only a temporary state of affairs. The Sun can stave
for several billion years more. As the off the inward tug of gravity only as long as it has hydrogen to consume. When hydrogen
hydrogen in the core is consumed, fuel in the core is depleted, the amount of energy generated in the core will decrease, and
however, a short period of helium gravity will begin to take over. The Sun will begin to contract and heat up.
burning (point 2) will move the Sun’s This dramatic situation will have two effects. First, the temperature in the region
position on the diagram rapidly immediately surrounding the core will begin to rise. Any remaining hydrogen in that
upward toward the red giant stage
region, which had not been consumed because it had been at too low a temperature, will
(point 3). Once the helium is con-
sumed, the nuclear fusion reactions begin to undergo nuclear fusion reactions. Thus a hydrogen-burning shell will begin to
will cease and gravitational collapse form around the extinguished core. The second effect is that the temperature in the core
will cause the Sun to heat up (point 4). will rise until helium, the “ash” of hydrogen burning, will begin to undergo nuclear
Eventually, the Sun will cool to a white fusion reactions. The net reaction will be:
dwarf (point 5).
4
He ⫹ 4He ⫹ 4He S 12C ⫹ energy
This is a process called helium burning, in which the helium in the core undergoes
nuclear fusion reactions to make carbon. The Sun will then resemble an onion, with a
helium-burning core surrounded by a layer where hydrogen is being fused. At this stage
the Sun will begin to move off of the main sequence (Figure 14-17, point 2).
This notion that the “ashes” of one nuclear fusion process serve as fuel for the next
fusion process is central to an understanding of what goes on in stars. In stars like the
Sun, the temperature never gets high enough to initiate fusion of the carbon, so helium
burning is the final energy-producing stage. In more massive stars, this process of suc-
cessive nuclear fusion cycles can go on for quite a while, as we shall see.
The Sun will maintain more or less its present size and temperature for billions of
years more. Since it first entered the main sequence 4.5 billion years ago, for example,
the amount of energy generated by the Sun has increased by only about 30%. This long-
term stability has important implications for the development of life on this planet. But
in its final stages, our star will undergo dramatic changes. When the core consumes all of
its nuclear fuel, the hydrogen-burning shells surrounding the central region will be
pulled in. This temporary collapse will increase the amount of energy generated by
fusion, and the increased energy will cause the surface of the Sun to balloon out. At its
maximum expansion, the dying Sun will extend out past the orbit of Venus. Because the
solar wind will also increase during this period, however, the Sun’s mass will drop and
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 301
the planets will move outward. In the end, only Mercury and perhaps venus will be
swallowed up. During this phase of its life, the Sun will emit almost 10,000 times more
energy than it does today, but it will do so through a much larger surface. Consequently,
that surface will appear to be very cool—red hot to our eyes. In fact, our Sun will
become a red giant, and the helium in the Sun’s core will undergo nuclear fusion reactions
to produce an inner core primarily of carbon (Figure 14-17, point 3).
As carbon accumulates in the core, a slow collapse will ensue until some other force
intervenes. In the case of the Sun, that force will come from the Pauli principle—the prin-
ciple (see Chapter 8) that tells us that no two electrons can occupy the same state. As the
core starts to collapse, its electrons will be compressed into a smaller and smaller volume.
For a time the Sun will continue to emit prodigious amounts of energy through a shrinking
surface that reaches temperatures in excess of 70,000 degrees (Figure 14-17, point 4). Ulti-
mately, the electrons will reach the point (what we called the “full parking lot” in Chapter 8)
where they can no longer be pushed together. At this point, the Pauli principle will take
over, and the collapse will stop for the simple reason that the electrons can’t be pushed
together any closer than they already are. A permanent outward force will be exerted on
every element in the star, an outward force that will cancel the inward force of gravity.
When the Sun reaches this stage, it will be rather small—probably about the size of
Earth (though still hundreds of thousands of times more massive than Earth)—and it
will no longer be generating energy through nuclear reactions. It will be very hot and
will take a long time to cool off. During this phase, the temperature of each part of the
Sun’s surface will be very high, but, because the Sun will be so small, the total amount
of radiation coming from it will not be very large. It will be, in other words, a white
dwarf (Figure 14-17, point 5). Most of the carbon that is the end product of helium
burning will remain locked in the white dwarf and will not be returned to the cosmos.
Stars up to five or six times the mass of the Sun will follow approximately the same
path on the H-R diagram (Figure 14-17). Such stars will have different lifetimes; one of
the paradoxes of astronomy is that larger stars—those with the most hydrogen fuel—
have the shortest lifetimes. This paradox arises because the largest stars have to burn
hydrogen at a prodigious rate in order to overcome the intense force of gravity. Thus a
star four times as massive as the Sun will complete its cycle in a relatively short time, less
than a billion years, compared to the Sun’s 11-billion-year span. But all of these stars will
have essentially the same life history: main sequence S red giant S white dwarf.
Very Large Stars
Stars more than 10 times as massive as the Sun end their lives quite differently, in explo-
sions of unimaginable power. For these stars, the pressure exerted by gravity is high
enough so that the helium in the core not only burns to carbon, but the carbon can also
undergo fusion reactions to produce oxygen, magnesium, silicon, and other larger nuclei.
For such a star, the successive collapses and burnings will produce a layered, onion-like • Figure 14-18 The interior of a
large star displays concentric shells of
structure such as that shown in Figure 14-18.
fusion reactions, yielding progressively
In fact, in the largest stars this chain of nuclear burning goes on heavier elements toward the core.
until iron, the element with 26 protons, is produced. As we noted
in Chapter 12, iron is the most tightly bound nucleus. The addition Helium
of energy is required to break the iron nucleus apart (nuclear fis- Carbon-oxygen
sion) and to add more protons and neutrons to it (nuclear fusion). Magnesium, silicon,
Thus it is impossible to extract energy from iron by any kind of sulphur, oxygen,
neon, etc.
nuclear reaction.
The cores of large stars will eventually fill up with iron “ash,” Silicon
and, no matter how high the pressure and temperature get, iron Iron core
simply will not burn to produce a countervailing force to gravity.
In fact, the iron core builds up until the force of gravity becomes
so great that even the pressure of the electrons pushing for elbow
room cannot prevent collapse. At the incredible pressures and tem- Hydrogen envelope
peratures at the center of the star, the electrons actually combine
with protons inside the iron nuclei, forming neutrons, a process
that is the exact opposite of radioactive beta decay (see Chapter 12).
Within a second or so all of the protons in the iron nuclei are
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Courtesy NASA 302 | C HAP TE R 14 | The Stars
turned into neutrons, and all of the electrons disappear. At this point, the core of the
star begins a catastrophic collapse. The collapse will go on until another force appears
on the scene to counteract gravity. In this case, the force is provided by the degener-
acy pressure of the neutrons, which, like electrons, are subject to the Pauli exclusion
principle.
The core collapses so fast that it falls inward beyond the point where the degeneracy
pressure of the neutrons can balance gravity. Like an acrobat jumping on a trampoline,
the star’s falling matter first bounces inward and then rebounds as the neutrons exert a
counter pressure. Meanwhile, the outer gaseous envelope of the star has suddenly lost its
support and begins a free-fall toward the interior of the star. When the collapsing enve-
lope of dense gas meets the rebounding core of neutrons, intense shock waves are set up
in the star, and the entire outer part of the star literally explodes. From a distance the star
suddenly appears to brighten in the sky, usually in a matter of a day or so. We call this
dramatic event a supernova.
During the explosion, intense shock waves tear back and forth across the exploding
• Figure 14-19 The striking NASA star, raising the temperature enough to form all of the chemical elements in the periodic
Hubble Space Telescope picture table. In a complex set of collisions, some of the nuclei up to iron that have been created by
shows three rings of glowing gas the successive fusion reactions soak up neutrons and undergo beta decay (see Chapter 12)
encircling the site of supernova
1987A, a star that exploded in
to form nuclei up to uranium and beyond. All elements beyond iron are created in the
February 1987. short-lived maelstrom of the supernova explosion.
Supernovas probably happen about every 30 years in our own Milky Way galaxy. We
don’t see most of these events because of intervening dust, but we do see them in neigh-
boring galaxies. On February 23, 1987, for example, a supernova was seen in the Large
Magellanic Cloud, a small galaxy-like structure near the Milky Way galaxy. Although the
supernova was 170,000 light-years from Earth, it caused a great stir in science because it
was the first supernova to be observed with modern observatories, including satellites. It
was seen by large neutrino detectors and many ordinary telescopes on Earth, and by X-ray
and gamma-ray observatories above the atmosphere. Because it was the first supernova
observed in 1987, it was given the name “1987A” (Figure 14-19). Perhaps the biggest
surprise to come out of the experience was that there were so few surprises. The intricate
theories of nuclear reactions that take place in those incredibly complex few hours when a
star explodes were largely confirmed.
N EUTRON STARS AND P ULSARS •

• Figure 14-20 Jocelyn Bell
Burnell detected the first pulsars For a while after a star explodes, the supernova is surrounded by a cloud of ejected
in 1967. material. This expanding cloud dissipates into interstellar space, leaving behind the
Courtesy Royal Observtory, Edinburgh
core of neutrons that was created in the collapse. A star that is being held up by degen-
eracy pressure of neutrons, called a neutron star, is in essence a giant nucleus—
incredibly dense and very small. A typical neutron star might be 10 miles across, small
enough to fit within the city limits of even a moderate metropolis. Several significant
changes occur when a large star shrinks down into something the size of a city. For
one thing, the rate of rotation of the star goes up substantially. Just as an ice skater
increases her spin when she pulls in her arms, a star rotates faster and faster as it con-
tracts. In fact, some neutron stars in our galaxy rotate 1000 times a second. Compare
this to the sedate motion of the Sun, which rotates once every 26 days.
Neutron stars do not give off much light, and they would probably have gone unde-
tected if some of them didn’t exhibit unusual behavior in the radio part of the spectrum.
The reason for this behavior can be understood if you follow the collapse that leads to
the neutron star. As the star collapses, the strength of its magnetic field increases. If a
normal star has a dipole field (see Chapter 5), for example, then during the collapse the
field lines are dragged in with the material of the star so that the field becomes much
more concentrated and intense. Some neutron stars in our galaxy possess fields as much
as a trillion times that of the magnetic field at Earth’s surface.
These two effects—a strong magnetic field and rapid rotation—may combine to
produce a special kind of neutron star, which astronomers call a pulsar. The first pulsars
were discovered in 1967 by Jocelyn Bell (see Figure 14-20). Fast-moving particles speed
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 303
Rotation axis
• Figure 14-21 A schematic
low diagram of a pulsar reveals its two
le f
artic key attributes—rapid rotation and an
e dp
arg intense magnetic field. This combi-
Ch
Radio nation of traits produces a pulsing,
axis telescope
net
ic lighthouselike pattern of energetic
g
Ma radiation.
S
Neutron Earth
star
N Magnetic field
out along the intense magnetic field lines of the rotating neutron star, and these acceler-
ating particles give off electromagnetic radiation, as shown in Figure 14-21. Most of this
radiation is in the radio range, so the neutron star’s signal is seen primarily with radio
telescopes.
One way of thinking about a pulsar is to imagine it as being somewhat like a search-
light in the sky. Radio waves are continuously emitted along an axis that goes between
the north and south magnetic poles of the neutron star, and this line describes a circle in
space as the neutron star rotates. If you are standing in the line you will see a burst of
radio waves every time the north or south pole of the pulsar is pointing toward you, and
nothing when it’s not. You will, in other words, see a series of pulses of radio waves. The
signature of a pulsar in the sky is a series of regularly spaced pulses, typically some tens to
thousands per second. The pulsar represents one possible end state of a supernova. All
pulsars are neutron stars, although all neutron stars are probably not seen as pulsars by
earthbound astronomers.
We know of several pulsars that are the remnants of previous supernovas. One of the
first pulsars discovered lies at the core of the Crab Nebula, a supernova seen from Earth
in AD 1054. Likewise, Supernova 1987A is also expected to reveal a pulsar when all the
dust clears.
Our current theories of stellar evolution say that stars more than 10 times as massive
as the Sun will go through the supernova process we’ve just described, and eject large
amounts of heavy elements into space.
B LACK H OLES •
Occasionally, a large star may die in a way that does not lead to the formation of a pulsar.
If a star is large enough—perhaps 50 or more times as massive as the Sun—there may be
processes, as yet only imperfectly understood, by which even the degeneracy pressure of
neutrons is overcome and the star collapses. The result is the ultimate triumph of gravity,
a black hole. A black hole is an object so dense, a mass so concentrated, that nothing, not
even light, can escape from its surface.
We do not know how often black holes are formed. Astronomers recognize many
black holes, one of which occurs in our galaxy. We can’t see that object, a supermassive
black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, but it causes nearby stars to careen
wildly in tight orbits, some of which take only a dozen years to complete.
The search for other nearby black holes concentrates on double star systems in
which one star has evolved into a black hole. Such a “stellar black hole” would be
smaller than the galactic black hole described above. The idea is that even though we
can’t see these black holes themselves, we can see their effects on partner stars. We can
also search for effects of material falling into the black hole. The enormous gravitational
energy released in the process is partially converted into X-rays and gamma rays, which
can be detected by orbiting observatories.
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Thinking More About Stars
G ENERATION OF THE C HEMICAL E LEMENTS In large stars, however, all the elements up to uranium
(the element with 92 protons) and beyond are made and
Think about the remarkable range of elements you can buy at spewed back into the interstellar medium in the titanic explo-
your local shopping center. The hardware store stocks aluminum sions we call supernovas. These heavy elements enrich the
siding, copper wire, and iron nails. The drugstore sells iodine for surrounding galaxy, and when new stars are formed these
cuts, zinc and calcium compounds as dietary supplements, and elements are incorporated into them. The Sun, which
perhaps bottles of oxygen for patients with breathing difficulties. formed fairly late in the history of our own galaxy, thus
The jeweler displays rings and necklaces of silver, gold, and plat- incorporated many heavy elements that had been made in
inum set with diamonds, a form of carbon. And your local elec- previous supernovas.
tronics dealer offers an amazing assortment of audio and video You can think of the history of our galaxy as successive
equipment made possible by integrated circuits of silicon, perhaps and cumulative enrichments by nuclear processing in large,
doped with small amounts of aluminum or phosphorus. short-lived stars. These stars, with lifetimes as short as tens of
It may come as a surprise to you that almost everything millions of years, take the original hydrogen in the galaxy and
you see about you was made in a supernova. Your body, for convert it into heavier elements. Thus we expect that older,
example, is made primarily from elements that formed in some smaller stars that have been shining since the early history of
distant exploding star more than 4.5 billion years ago. We say the universe will have fewer heavy elements than relatively
this because, as we shall see in Chapter 15, the universe began young stars like the Sun, a prediction that is borne out by
its life with only light elements—hydrogen, helium, and small astronomical observations.
amounts of lithium. These elements formed the first stars and Think about what this means as you look around you. All
were processed in the first stellar nuclear fires. In stars like the the objects in your life—this book, your clothes, even your skin
Sun, elements heavier than helium may be made, but they and bones—are made of atoms that formed in the hearts of
remain in that star and never return to the cosmos. giant stars long ago.

How much longer can the Sun sustain life on Earth? º The extreme temperatures produced by the burning hydrogen
increased the outward pressure and balanced the inward pull
• The star at the center of our solar system, which we call the Sun, of gravity.
provides the energy for Earth’s living systems. Without the Sun,
º The interplay of gravity and expansion will only continue as
our planet would be unable to sustain any form of life. long as the Sun’s core has hydrogen to consume.
• As a star, the Sun has a finite life span. Like the billions of other • Ultimately, the life span of any star depends upon its mass.
stars in the universe, the Sun began as an immense sphere of
º The more massive a star, the faster it burns its fuel and the hotter
hydrogen and helium formed by the gravitational collapse of a it gets. The hotter it gets, the quicker it exhausts its fuel supply.
nebula. The quicker it exhausts its fuel supply, the faster it begins to die.
• In many ways, the life of a star may be viewed as a continual º The Sun, which is approximately 4.5 billion years old, has used
struggle against the force of gravity. about half of its nuclear fuel (i.e., hydrogen) and will survive
º From the moment the Sun’s original cloud of gas and dust another 5 billion years.
began to contract 4.5 billion years ago, gravity forced it to • The Sun will maintain its present size and temperature for
collapse on itself. billions of years. Nevertheless, in its final stages in a few billion
º As it collapsed, the intense pressure caused hydrogen to begin years our star will undergo dramatic changes that will lead to the
to burn in its core. extinction of all living systems on Earth.
S UMMARY •
Astronomy is the study of objects in the heavens. Astronomers have helium and heat energy. Ignition of these nuclear fires creates an out-
discovered much about the nature and origins of stars. We study stars ward flow of particles, called the solar wind. The fusion reaction pro-
with telescopes, instruments that gather and focus electromagnetic ceeds in three steps, in which (1) two protons come together to form
radiation. Earth-based telescopes detect visible and radio waves, deuterium, (2) a proton and a deuterium nucleus come together to
while orbiting observatories detect all other regions of the electro- form helium-3, and (3) two helium-3 nuclei fuse to make helium-4.
magnetic spectrum. The most powerful telescopes can detect stars This energy creates the pressure that balances the force of gravity that
that are hundreds of millions of light-years away. pulls the star inward.
Extreme temperatures and pressures deep inside a star cause its Stars such as our own Sun form from giant clouds of interstellar
hydrogen core to undergo nuclear fusion reactions, burning to create dust called nebulae—clouds that gradually collapse under the force of
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Discovery Lab | 305
gravity. This collapse subjects the star’s atoms, primarily hydrogen, to Eventually, however, nuclear fuel must be exhausted. Gravity will
tremendous temperatures and pressures. The life of a star is a contin- dominate and the carbon-rich star will collapse to a very small, very
uous struggle against this gravitational force. hot white dwarf.
Stars that are burning hydrogen to produce energy are said to be Stars much larger than the Sun may evolve beyond hydrogen
main-sequence stars. Larger stars burn hotter and emit more energy, and helium burning. If temperatures and pressures are high enough,
while smaller stars are cooler and radiate less energy. Main-sequence carbon can undergo additional nuclear reactions to form elements as
stars are found in a simple band-like pattern on a Hertzsprung-Russell heavy as iron, the ultimate nuclear ash. Once iron is formed, how-
diagram, which graphs a star’s energy output versus its temperature. ever, there can be no more energy produced by these reactions and
When a star like the Sun consumes most of its core hydrogen, a burning will cease. The sudden extinguishing of a star causes a cata-
helium-rich central region remains. The star once again begins to col- strophic gravitational collapse and rebound—a supernova—in which
lapse under gravity, and internal temperatures rise again. Hydrogen the star literally explodes and spews all the chemical elements into
burning begins in shells outside the core, while the core’s helium may the heavens. A dense, spinning neutron star or pulsar may be the
also combine in nuclear fusion reactions to form carbon. These new only remnant of the original star. The largest stars may collapse into
nuclear processes may cause a star like the Sun to expand briefly and a black hole, an object so massive that not even light can escape its
become a red giant, a star whose relatively cool outer layers glow red. gravitational pull.
K EY TERMS •
astronomy light-year nebulae pulsar
star main-sequence star supernova black hole
telescope red giant neutron star
solar wind white dwarf
D ISCOVERY L AB •
You have learned about reflecting telescopes and orbiting observato- umbrella and hold it upside down with your other hand. Slowly bring
ries in this chapter. A reflective telescope concentrates radiant energy the umbrella toward and underneath the radio. The signal should get
to a focal point with a large bowl-shaped mirror. In this experiment stronger and the sound should be louder. Experiment with different
you will need an umbrella, a roll of aluminum foil, and a hand-held umbrella angles, holding the umbrella in various positions and direc-
AM/FM radio with a built-in antenna. tions. Move the radio near the handle and stem area in various posi-
First, line the entire inside of the umbrella with aluminum foil, tions until you hear the strongest signal. Can you explain and
folding the excess foil down over the edge of the umbrella’s rim. demonstrate on paper how the radio signal gets stronger? Can the
Next, turn the radio on and find a weak station. Hold the radio in one same basic result be reached, with radiant energy from the stars being
hand, extending that arm out from your chest. Now take the focused into a reflective telescope?
AM/FM radio
Aluminum foil
(lined interior)
Umbrella
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1. What is a star? Is the Sun a star? 12. What causes stars to vary in brightness? In color?
2. What is our primary source of data on distant stars? 13. What are the advantages of placing a telescope in orbit?
3. What conditions are present in stars that cause hydrogen to form 14. What is a “standard candle” in astronomy?
helium? What is this process called? 15. What is a “light-year”?
4. What are the major layers of the Sun? Which layer produces 16. Describe two ways to determine the distance to another star.
most of the light we see? 17. How are stars formed?
5. What two properties of stars do scientists plot on a Hertzsprung- 18. Why must the Sun eventually burn out? What changes will the
Russell diagram? Why do they choose these properties? Sun undergo before it burns out?
6. In what ways is the Sun a typical star? 19. Why don’t larger stars burn longer than smaller stars?
7. What are the effects of the solar wind on Earth? 20. What is a black hole? By what process is a black hole formed?
8. What is a neutrino? What happens to some of them as they travel 21. Why won’t the Sun become a supernova or a black hole?
to Earth? 22. How are supernovas and neutron stars related to each other?
9. What are four aspects of photons that astronomers measure? 23. How are neutron stars and pulsars related to each other?
10. What forms of radiation do telescopes examine? 24. If iron is the ultimate nuclear ash, where do elements heavier
11. What parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are absorbed than iron come from?
before they reach the surface of Earth? 25. Why is it difficult to detect a black hole from Earth?
1. Why might astronomy be the oldest science? 9. Most stars we see are on the main sequence. Stars spend most of
2. Why do we see stars only at night? Do they shine during the day? their lives consuming their initial stock of hydrogen. Is there a con-
3. How are light telescopes similar to radio telescopes? How are nection between these two statements? If so, what is it?
they different? 10. What are stars made of?
4. How might you determine the age of a star from an Earth-based 11. What are nebulae? Why are they mostly light elements such as
telescope? What measurements might you make? hydrogen and helium? What force causes them to collapse?
5. How long does it take for the energy produced in the Sun’s core 12. What is the Sun’s source of energy? What “fuel” is being
to reach the photosphere? How long does it take a photon at the “burned”?
edge of the photosphere to reach Earth? 13. How does the energy produced at the core of the Sun reach
6. In what part of the electromagnetic spectrum does the Sun pro- the photosphere?
duce most of its energy? How have animals, including humans, 14. Is a Dyson sphere a practical idea for energy conservation? Why
evolved to take advantage of this? or why not?
7. How can we talk about the evolution of stars over billions of 15. What are the roles of gravity, temperature, and pressure in the
years when human beings have been observing stars for only a few formation and death of a star?
thousand years? 16. What are the effects of solar winds on Earth?
8. How does the principle of conservation of energy apply to a
supernova?
P ROBLEMS •
1. How far away is Alpha Centauri, the nearest star? How long Hubble Space Telescope? (Hint: Light-gathering ability is propor-
would it take to get there at a speed of 2000 miles per hour (the tional to the area of the mirror.)
speed of a fast jet plane)? 3. How many protons are needed to form a deuterium nucleus
2. How much more light-gathering ability does the Keck telescope during the process of nuclear fusion? What else is produced?
with its 10-meter diameter mirror array have than the 2.5-meter
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Locate some stars in the sky and find out their apparent magni- 3. Astronomers often debate the relative merits of Earth-based ver-
tude. (You might want to start with some familiar stars such as sus orbiting telescopes. What are some of the arguments on both
those in the Big Dipper.) sides of this issue?
2. The Crab Nebula formed from a supernova event that was 4. You can set up an analog to the astronomical distance scale by
sighted on Earth almost 1000 years ago. It must have been visible using two “yardsticks”—a ruler and a tape measure, for example—
as a brilliant object for several days. What cultures left a record of to measure distances. Measure the dimensions of your classroom
this astronomical event? How did they explain what they saw? this way. How would you make sure that distances on each yardstick
c14.qxd 9/11/09 3:03 PM Page 307
were the same? Does this exercise suggest a way for astronomers to Although Whitman was unimpressed by the facts and figures of the
check the consistency of their distance scale? “learn’d astronomer,” astronomers of the past century have
5. The nineteenth-century American poet Walt Whitman changed the way we think about our place in the universe. In this
(1819–1892) wrote the following poem about astronomy: respect, how does science complement poetry? How do poetry and
astronomy differ as ways of understanding why we are here? How
When I Heard the Learn’d Astronomer would you answer the poet today?
When I heard the learn’d astronomer, 6. Investigate the effects of light pollution in your area. Is it a
When the proofs, the figures, major problem for amateur astronomers?
were ranged in columns before me, 7. Where is the largest terrestrial telescope located?
When I was shown the charts and diagrams, 8. Find out when the next meteor shower or solar eclipse in your
to add, divide, and measure them, area is due. Grab a blanket and some friends and enjoy one of
When I sitting heard the astronomer where he nature’s finest exhibitions.
lectured with much applause in the lecture-room, 9. Find the constellation that is associated with your astrological
How soon unaccountable I became tired and sick, sign. Determine the distances to each. Why is the constellation
Till rising and gliding out I wander’d off by myself, only an illusion and not really the outline of a bull, a crab,
In the mystical moist night air, and from time to time, or a fish?
Look’d up in perfect silence at the stars.
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15
Cosmology
Will the universe end?
PHYSICS CHEMISTRY
At
The
the moment
relative cosmic
of creation, the
abundances of the
four fundamental
elements hydrogen,
forces were unified as
helium, and lithium
a single force. They
were established
have subsequently
before the universe
“frozen” into the
was 500,000
forces we see
years old.
today.
The universe began

billions of years ago in
the big bang, and it has
been expanding ever
since.
The
The Hubble cosmic
Space Telescope microwave
and other orbiting background, the
observatories have universal expansion,
provided key data for and the abundance of
understanding the light elements provide
origin of the strong evidence for
universe. the big bang
theory.
TECHNOLOGY ASTRONOMY

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Science Through the Day A Glowing Charcoal Fire
hile you were lying down, soak-

W ing up the Sun’s rays, a couple
of your friends started a charcoal fire
on a small grill. If you observe closely,
you may notice that the color of the
coals in the fire changes, depending
on how hot the fire is. They are ordi-
narily red, but in a roaring blaze they
can glow blue-white. Then, as the fire
starts to go out, the coals glow a dull
orange and eventually stop glowing
altogether.
But even when the coals aren’t
glowing, they are giving off energy in
the form of infrared radiation, which
you can feel if you put your hand out
to the fire. Even the next day, you
might still be able to feel the radia-
tion given off by the cooling embers.
Believe it or not, a phenomenon ©Tim McGuire/©Corbis-Bettman
like this campfire experience led twentieth-century scien-

tists to a completely new understanding of the structure
and history of the universe in which we live.
Edwin Hubble and the Discovery of Galaxies

On any given night, as we look into the sky with modest-sized telescopes, we can see • Figure 15-1 Edwin Hubble
that the hazy band of the Milky Way is composed of countless millions of stars. Those (1889–1953) at the 100-inch tele-
stars appear as tiny pin-pricks of light. But there are lots of other less distinct objects that scope of California’s Mount Wilson
appear as fuzzy masses, too distant to resolve. And those cloudlike objects, called nebulae, Observatory.
The Hale Observatoreis/Courtesy AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives/American Institute of Physics
were the subject of intense debate in the early twentieth century.
THE N EBULA D EBATE •

Some astronomers thought nebulae were nearby dust clouds that are illuminated by
other stars. In that case, they would be fairly close by and have no resolvable structures,
even in the most powerful telescope. Other astronomers suggested that nebulae were
much more distant clusters of stars. They’re composed of lots of individual stars but are
much too far away for those stars to be resolved.
As so often happens in science, improved instruments were the key to discovery. In
this case a larger telescope, quite literally, resolved the issue. In 1900, the world’s largest
telescopes were reflectors with mirrors in the range of 50 or 60 inches in diameter—not
large enough to reveal nebular structure. So it was that the Carnegie Institution of
Washington decided to build a mammoth new telescope with an unprecedented 100-inch
diameter mirror on Mount Wilson, near Los Angeles, California. At the time, Mount
Wilson was a lonely outpost on the outskirts of a small city. Today it has been engulfed by
the Los Angeles metropolitan area, but in those days it afforded astronomers a chance to
look at the sky through clear, unpolluted air.
In 1919, the young American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889–1953), fresh from
distinguished service in World War I, went to work at Mount Wilson and used this mag-
nificent instrument to tackle the mystery of the nebula (Figure 15-1). Because his new
309
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310 | C HAP TE R 15 | Cosmology
Top view telescope allowed him to see individual Cepheid variable stars in some nebulae, which
no one had been able to do before, Hubble was able to measure the distance to them.
(Recall from Chapter 14 that Cepheid variable stars can be used as standard candles.) It
m
ar turned out that the Cepheid variable stars were extremely faint, so the distance to the
us
arm
gn
us
nearest one, located in the Andromeda nebula, was some 2 million light-years, far out-
Cy
m
e
ar side the bounds of the Milky Way. Thus, with a single observation, Hubble established
rs
n
Pe
one of the most important facts about the universe we live in: it is made up of billions of
io
arm
Or
galaxies, of which the Milky Way is but one.

ius
Sun ar We now know that each of these countless galaxies is an immense collection of millions
to hundreds of billions of stars, together with gas, dust, and other materials, that is held
tt
gi m
Sa together by the forces of mutual gravitational attraction. In making these discoveries, Hub-
ar
a
rm ble set the tone for a century of progress in the new branch of science called cosmology,
No
which is devoted to the study of the structure and history of the entire universe.
30,000 ly K INDS OF GALAXIES •

Nucleus (core)
Disk The Milky Way is a rather typical galaxy. As shown in Figure 15-2, it is a flattened disk
Sun about 100,000 light-years across. A central bulge known as the nucleus holds most of
Nuclear bulge our galaxy’s hundreds of billions of stars. Bright regions in the disk, known as spiral
120,000 ly
arms, mark areas where new stars are being formed (Figure 15-3). About 75% of the
Halo brighter galaxies in the sky are of this spiral type.
Side view Globular cluster
• Figure 15-2 A map of the Milky Stop and Think! What is the connection between the flat, spiral shape of
Way galaxy, showing the nucleus our galaxy and the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky?
and spiral arms.
Other galaxies, known as ellipticals, resemble nothing so much as cosmic footballs. The
brightest elliptical galaxies tend to have more stars than spiral galaxies do and comprise about
20% of bright galaxies (Figure 15-4). In addition to the relatively large and bright
Courtesy NASA
elliptical and spiral galaxies, the universe is littered with small collections of stars
known as irregular and dwarf galaxies. Even though these galaxies are faint and
therefore difficult to detect, many of them have been identified. Astronomers
thus think that these are probably the most common galaxies in the universe.
The total number of galaxies in the universe has been estimated by taking
long exposure photographs of small regions in the sky with no stars—regions that
would appear as black voids in smaller telescopes. The results of these so-called
deep-field images are astonishing (Figure 15-5). The more we look, the more
galaxies we see—perhaps 100 billion galaxies, each with countless stars.
Larger elliptical and spiral galaxies and smaller irregular and dwarf galaxies
can be thought of as quiet, homey galaxies, where the process of star formation
and death goes on in a stately, orderly way. But a small number of galaxies—
perhaps 10,000 among the billions known—are quite different and are referred
• Figure 15-3 A typical spiral to collectively as active galaxies. The most spectacular of these unusual objects
galaxy, with a bright core and spiral are the quasars (for quasi-stellar radio sources).
arms where new stars are forming. Celestial Image Co./Photo Researchers
Quasars are wild, explosive, violent objects, where
as-yet-unknown processes pour vast amounts of
energy into space each second from an active center
no larger than our solar system. Astronomers sug-
gest that the only way to generate this kind of
energy is for the center of a quasar to be occupied
by an enormous black hole (with masses, in some
cases, millions of times greater than that of the
Sun) and for the energy to be generated by huge
• Figure 15-4 A typical elliptical amounts of mass falling into this center. Because
galaxy. This one is known as M84 and they are so bright, quasars are the most distant
is located in the constellation Virgo. objects we can see in the universe.
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The Redshift and Hubble’s Law | 311
Courtesy NASA
• Figure 15-5 This deep-field image of galaxies depicts a tiny patch of apparently “empty”
sky. Several hours of exposure by the powerful Hubble Space Telescope reveals more than
100 galaxies—evidence that the universe holds tens of billions of galaxies, each with hundreds
of billions of stars.
The Redshift and Hubble’s Law

Hubble’s recognition of galaxies other than our own Milky Way wasn’t the end of his
discoveries. When he looked at the light from nearby galaxies, he noticed that the dis-
tinctive colors emitted by different elements seemed to be shifted toward the red (long-
wavelength) end of the spectrum, compared to light emitted by atoms on Earth.
Hubble interpreted this redshift as an example of the Doppler effect (see Chapter 6),
the same phenomenon that causes the sound of a car whizzing past to change its pitch.
Hubble’s observation meant that distant galaxies are moving away from Earth. Further-
more, Hubble noticed that the more distant a galaxy, the faster it moves away from us
(Figures 15-6 and 15-7).
On the basis of measurements of a few dozen nearby galaxies, Hubble suggested
that a simple relationship exists between the distance of an object from Earth and that
object’s speed away from Earth. Comparing two galaxies—one twice as far away from
Earth as the other—the farther galaxy moves away from us twice as fast. This statement,
which has been amply confirmed by measurements in the subsequent half-century, is
now called Hubble’s law. Hubble’s law says:
In words: The farther away a galaxy is, the faster it recedes.
In equation form:
galaxy s velocity ⫽ 1Hubble s constant2 ⫻ 1galaxy s distance 2
, , ,
In symbols:
v⫽H⫻d
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Courtesy California Institute of Technbology
• Figure 15-6 Photographs of galaxies as seen through a telescope (on the left), with
spectra of those galaxies (on the right). The distance to each galaxy in megaparsecs is
also given. Double dark lines in the spectra, characteristic of the calcium atom, are
shifted farther to the right (toward the red) the farther away the galaxy is. Thus more dis-
tant galaxies are traveling away from us at higher velocities. This phenomenon was used
by Edwin Hubble to derive his law.
Hubble’s law tells us that we can determine the distance to galaxies by measuring the
redshift of the light we receive, whether or not we can make out individual stars in them.
Most astronomers now accept a value of close to 70 kilometers per second per megaparsec
(a megaparsec, or Mpc, is a distance of a million parsecs or 3.3 million light-years). In this
view of the cosmos, the redshift becomes the final “ruler” in the astronomical distance
scale (see Chapter 14).
One way of interpreting Hubble’s constant is to notice that if a galaxy were to travel
from the location of the Milky Way to its present position with a velocity v, then the
time it would take to make the trip would be distance divided by speed:
d
t⫽
v
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The Redshift and Hubble’s Law | 313
Substituting for v from Hubble’s law:

d
t⫽
1H ⫻ d2
1
⫽
H
Thus, the Hubble constant provides a rough estimate of the time that the expansion has
been going on and, hence, of the age of the universe. A Hubble constant of 70km/s/Mpc
corresponds to an age of the universe of about 14 billion years. Milky Way galaxy
EXAMPLE 15-1
T H E D ISTANCE TO A R ECEDI NG G ALAXY
Astronomers discover a new galaxy and determine from its redshift that it is moving
away from us at approximately 100,000 km/s (about one-third the speed of light).
Approximately how far away is this galaxy?
Reasoning: According to Hubble’s law, a galaxy’s distance equals its velocity divided by
the Hubble constant.
Solution:
velocity 1in km>s2
Distance 1in Mpc2 ⫽
• Figure 15-7 Illustration of Hubble
3 Hubble s constant 1in km>s>Mpc 2 4
, expansion. The more distant a galaxy
1100,000 km>s2
is from Earth, the faster it moves away
⫽ from us.
170 km>s>Mpc 2
100,000
⫽
70 Mpc
⫽ 1429 Mpc
Remember, a megaparsec equals about 3.3 million light-years, so this galaxy is almost
5 billion light-years away. The light that we observe from such a distant galaxy began
its trip about the time that our solar system was born.
Table 15-1 Some of Hubble’s Data

S CIENCE BY THE N UMBERS • Distance to Galaxy Velocity
(in megaparsecs) (in km/s)
Analyzing Hubble’s Data
In his original sample, Hubble observed 46 galaxies but was able to determine distances 1.0 620
to only 24. Some of his data are given in Table 15-1. 1.4 500
How does one go about analyzing data like these? One common way is to make a 1.7 960
graph. In this case, the vertical axis is the velocity of recession of the galaxy, and the hori- 2.0 850
zontal axis is the distance to the galaxy. In Figure 15-8a we show the data as originally plot- 2.0 1090
ted by Hubble, while Figure 15-8b presents a more recent compilation of many galaxies.
1500 200,000
100,000
50,000
Velocity (km/s)
Velocity (km/s)
1000
20,000
10,000
500 5000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3
Distance (Mpc) Distance (Mpc)
(a) (b)
• Figure 15-8 (a) Hubble’s original distance versus velocity relationship. (b) Modern graphs
of distance versus velocity record data from hundreds or thousands of galaxies.
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Looking at the original data, the general trend of Hubble’s law is obvious—the farther
you go to the right (i.e., the farther away the galaxies are), the higher the points (i.e., the
faster the galaxies are moving away). You also notice, however, that the points do not fall
on a straight line but are scattered. Confronted with this sort of situation, you can do one
of two things. You can assume that the scattering is due to experimental error and that
more accurate experiments will verify that the points fall on a straight line; or you can
assume that the scatter is a real phenomenon and try to explain it. Hubble took the first
alternative, so the only problem left was to find the line about which experimental error
was scattering his data.
The way this is usually done is to find the line for which the sum of the distances
between the line and each data point is smaller than for any other line. In effect, you find
the line that comes closest to all the data points. The slope of this line, which measures
how fast the velocity increases for a given change in distance, is the best estimate of
Hubble’s constant. •
The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe

The Milky Way is part of a group of galaxies known as the Local Group, made up of our-
selves, the Andromeda galaxy, and perhaps a dozen small “suburban” galaxies. The
Andromeda galaxy is visible with the naked eye from Earth—you can see it from a dark
spot on a clear summer night as a fuzzy patch of light in the northeast. The Local Group,
• Figure 15-9 Results from the in turn, is part of the Local Supercluster, a collection of galaxies about 100 million light-
Sloan Digital Sky Survey showing years across.
how galaxies are distributed in
We now know that literally billions of galaxies populate the universe, each a collec-
space. Each dot is a galaxy of about
100 billion stars, and the clustering tion of billions of stars. Like the Milky Way, most galaxies seem to be clumped together
of galaxies can be seen. into groups and clusters, many of which, in turn, are grouped into larger collections called
superclusters of thousands of galaxies.
Courtesy of Sloan Digital Sky Survey
In the 1980s, astronomers began to

make “redshift surveys” of the sky, in which
they observe distant galaxies and mea-
sure their redshifts so we know how far
the galaxies are. In this way, it is possible
to construct a full, three-dimensional
picture of the distribution of matter in
the cosmos. With the results from these
observations, originally led by the team of
Margaret Geller and John Huchra at the
Harvard-Smithsonian Astrophysical Obser-
vatory, astronomers have put together a
picture of the universe that is very different
from what you might expect. Instead of
finding galaxies scattered more or less at
random through space, they find that
galaxies are collected into large structures
that run for billions of light-years across
the sky. In fact, you can get an excellent
picture of the structure of the universe by
imagining the distribution of galaxies as
something like a big pile of soapsuds. The
result will give you a structure in which
large empty spaces are surrounded by soap
film. In exactly the same way, matter in the
universe seems to be concentrated in super-
clusters on the surfaces of large empty areas
called voids (Figure 15-9). Attempting to
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The Big Bang | 315
• Figure 15-10 Apache Point
Courtesy of Sloan Digital Sky Survey

Observatory in the Sacramento
Mountains of New Mexico. The
Sloan Digital Sky Survey’s 2.5-meter
telescope is on the left.
understand the reason for this very complex structure in the universe remains one of the
major tasks of modern cosmology.
In 1998, a major multiyear mapping project got underway when a 2.5-meter
telescope located on Apache Point in New Mexico saw first light, initiating the Sloan
Digital Sky Survey (Figure 15-10). The ultimate goal of this project is to produce
detailed maps of at least a quarter of the sky, detecting and measuring the red shift of
over a million galaxies. The project requires massive data management capability as
well as more traditional astronomical skills. As its data becomes available, it is posted
on the project’s website for public use. The detailed information coming from the
survey has already produced a number of surprises in the astronomical community,
including the discovery of several dwarf companion galaxies to the Milky Way.
The Big Bang

Hubble’s law reveals an extraordinary aspect of our universe: it is expanding. Nearby
galaxies are moving away from us, and far-away galaxies are moving away even faster. The
whole thing is blowing up like a balloon. This startling fact leads us, in turn, to perhaps
the most amazing discovery of all. If you look at our universe expanding today and imag-
ine moving backward in time (think of running a videotape in reverse), you can see that
at some point in the past the universe must have started out as a very small object. In
other words:
The universe began at a specific time in the past, and it has been expanding
ever since.
This picture of the universe—that it began as an infinitely hot, dense concentration of

energy and has been expanding ever since—is called the big bang theory. This theory
constitutes our best idea of what the early universe was like.
Think how different the big bang theory of the universe is from the theories of the
Greeks or the medieval scholars, or even the great scientists of the nineteenth century
whose work we have studied. To them, Earth went in stately orbit around the Sun, and
the Sun moved among the stars, but the collection of stars you can see at night with your
naked eye or with a telescope was all that there was. Suddenly, with Hubble’s work, the
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universe grew immeasurably. Our own collection of stars, our own galaxy, is just one of
perhaps 100 billion known galaxies in a universe in which galaxies are flying away from
each other at incredible speeds. It is a vision of a universe that began at some time in the
distant past and will, presumably, end at some time in the future.
S OME U SEFUL ANALOGIES •

The big bang picture of the universe is so important that we should spend some time
thinking about it. Many analogies can be used to help us picture what the expanding
universe is like, and we’ll look at two. Be forewarned, however: none of these analogies
is perfect. If you pursue any of them far enough they fail, because none of them captures
the entirety and complexity of the universe in which we live. And yet each of the analo-
gies can help us understand aspects of that universe.
1. The Raisin-Bread Dough Analogy
One standard way of thinking about the big bang is to imagine the universe as being anal-
ogous to a huge vat of rising bread dough in a bakery (Figure 15-11). If raisins scattered
• Figure 15-11 The raisin-bread through the dough represent galaxies, and if you’re standing on one of those raisins, then
dough analogy of the expanding you would look around you and see other raisins moving away from you. You could
universe. As the dough expands, all watch as a nearby raisin moves away because the dough between you and it is expanding.
raisins move apart from each other.
A nearby raisin wouldn’t be moving very fast because there isn’t much expanding dough
The farther apart two raisins are, the
faster the distance between those between you and that raisin, while more distant raisins would be moving faster because
two raisins increases. there is more dough between them and you.
Stop and Think! How fast would a raisin that is three times farther away
from you than a nearby raisin move away?
The raisin-bread dough analogy is very useful because it makes it easy to visualize
how everything could seem to be moving away from us, with objects that are farther
away moving faster. If you stand on any raisin in the dough, all the other raisins look as
though they’re moving away from you. This analogy thus explains why Earth seems to
be the center of the universe. It also explains why this fact isn’t significant—every point
appears to be at the center of the universe.
But the expanding dough analogy fails to address one of the most commonly asked
questions about the Hubble expansion: What is outside the expansion? A mass of bread
dough, after all, has a middle and an outer surface; some raisins are nearer the center
than others. But we believe that the universe has no surface, no outside and inside, and
no unique central position. In this regard, the surface of an expanding balloon provides
a better analogy.
2. The Expanding Balloon Analogy
Imagine that you live on the surface of a balloon in a two-dimensional universe. You
would be absolutely flat, living on a flat-surface universe (similar to the way we are
three-dimensional, living in a three-dimensional universe). Evenly spaced points cover
the balloon’s surface, and one of these points is your home. As the inflating balloon
expands, you observe that every other point moves away from you—the farther away the
point, the faster away it moves (Figure 15-12).
Where is the edge of the balloon? What are the “inside” and “outside” of the bal-
loon in two dimensions? The answers, at least from the perspective of a two-dimensional
being on the balloon’s surface, are that every point appears to be at the center, and the
universe has no edges, no inside, and no outside. The two-dimensional being experi-
ences one continuous, never-ending surface. We live in a universe of higher dimension-
• Figure 15-12 The expanding- ality, but the principle is the same: our universe has no center and no inside versus
balloon analogy of the universe.
All points on the surface of the outside.
expanding balloon move away from The balloon analogy is also useful because it can help us visualize another question
each other. The farther apart the that is often asked about the expanding universe: What is it expanding into? If you think
points, the faster they move apart. about being on the balloon, you realize that you could start out in any direction and
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The Big Bang | 317
keep traveling. You might come back to where you started, but you would never come
to an end. There would never be an “into.” The surface of a balloon is an example of a
system that is bounded (in two dimensions) but that has no boundaries.
EVIDENCE FOR THE B IG BANG •

In Chapter 1 we pointed out that every scientific theory must be tested and have exper-
imental or observational evidence backing it up. The big bang theory provides a compre-
hensive picture of what our universe might be like, but are there sufficient observational
data to support it? In fact, three pieces of evidence make the big bang idea extremely
compelling to scientists.
1. The Universal Expansion
Edwin Hubble’s observation of universal expansion provided the first strong evidence
for the big bang theory. If the universe began from a compact source and has been
expanding, then you would expect to see the expansion going on today. The fact that we
do see such an expansion is taken as evidence for a big bang event in the past. It is not,
however, conclusive evidence. Many other theories of the universe have incorporated an
expansion but not a specific beginning in time. During the 1940s, for example, scientists
proposed a steady-state universe. Galaxies in this model move away from each other, but
new galaxies are constantly being formed in the spaces that are being vacated. Thus the
steady-state model describes a universe that is constantly expanding and forming new
galaxies, but with no trace of a beginning.
Because of the possibility of this kind of theory, the universal expansion, in and of
itself, does not compel us to accept the big bang theory.
2. The Cosmic Microwave Background
In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, two scientists working at Bell Laborato-
ries in New Jersey, used a primitive radio receiver to scan the skies for radio signals. Their
motivation was a simple one. They worked during the early days of satellite broadcast-
ing, and they were measuring microwave radiation to document the kinds of back-
ground signals that might interfere with radio transmission. They found that whichever
way they pointed their receiver, they heard a faint hiss in their apparatus. There seemed
to be microwave radiation falling on Earth from all directions. We now call this radiation
the cosmic microwave background radiation.
At first they suspected that this background noise might be an artifact—a fault in
their electronics, or even interference caused by droppings from a pair of pigeons that
had nested inside their funnel-shaped microwave antenna. However, a thorough testing
and cleaning made no difference in the odd results. A constant influx of microwave radi-
ation of wavelength 7.35 centimeters flooded Earth from every direction in space. And
so the scientists asked: Where is this radiation coming from?
In order to understand the answer to their question, you need to remember that every
object in the universe that is above the temperature of absolute zero emits some sort of
radiation (see Chapter 6). As we saw in the “Science Through the Day” that opened this
chapter, a coal on a fire may glow white hot and emit the complete spectrum of visible
electromagnetic radiation. As the fire cools it will give out light that is first concentrated in
the yellow, then orange, and eventually dull red range. Even after it no longer glows with
visible light, you can tell that the coal is giving off radiation by holding out your hand to it
and sensing the infrared or heat radiation that still pours from the dying embers. As the
coal cools still more, it will give off wavelengths of longer and longer radiation.
One way to think about the cosmic microwave background, then, is to imagine that
you are inside a cooling coal on a fire. No matter which way you look, you’ll see radia-
tion coming toward you, and that radiation will shift from white to orange to red light
and eventually all the way down to microwaves as the coal cools.
In 1964, a group of theorists at Princeton University (not far from Bell Laboratories)
pointed out that if the universe had indeed begun at some time in the past, then today it
would still be giving off electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range. In fact, the
best calculations at the time indicated that the radiation would be characteristic of an
object at a few degrees above absolute zero. When Penzias and Wilson got in contact
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Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Courtesy NASA
(a) (b)
• Figure 15-13 (a) Artist’s conception of the Cosmic Background Explorer, which first made
detailed measurements of the microwave background. (b) The Cosmic Background Explorer
(COBE) satellite produced this map of microwave radiation from the entire sky. Blue indicates
regions that are 0.01% cooler than average, whereas red indicates 0.01% warmer regions.
This map indicates that the early universe was not perfectly uniform, a situation that led to the
present “clumpiness” of the universe.
with these theorists, the reason they couldn’t get rid of the microwave signal became
obvious. Not only was it a real signal, it was evidence for the big bang itself. For their
discovery, Penzias and Wilson shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1978—not a bad
outcome for a measurement designed to do something else entirely!
We said before that it is possible to imagine theories, such as the steady-state theory,
in which the universe is expanding but has no beginning. However, it is difficult to
imagine a universe that does not have a beginning but that produces the kind of
microwave background we’re talking about. Thus Penzias and Wilson’s discovery put an
end to the steady-state theory.
In 1989, a satellite called the Cosmic Background Explorer was launched with the
express purpose of making extremely accurate measurements of the comic microwave
background (Figure 15-13). Data from this satellite established beyond any doubt that we
live in a universe where the average temperature is 2.7 kelvins (K). This finding reaffirmed
the validity of the big bang theory in the minds of scientists.
3. The Abundance of Light Elements
The third important piece of evidence for the big bang theory comes from studies of the
abundances of light nuclei in the universe. For a short period in the early history of the
universe, as we’ll see at the end of this chapter, atomic nuclei could form from elementary
particles. Cosmologists believe that the only nuclei that could have formed in the big bang
are isotopes of hydrogen, helium, and lithium (the first three elements, with one, two, and
three protons in their nuclei, respectively). All elements heavier than lithium were formed
later in stars, as discussed in Chapter 14.
The conditions necessary for the formation of light elements were twofold. First,
matter had to be packed together densely enough to allow enough collisions to produce
a fusion reaction. Second, the temperature had to be high enough for those reactions to
happen, but not so high that nuclei created by fusion would be broken up in subsequent
collisions. In an expanding universe, the density of matter will decrease rapidly because
of the expansion, and each type of nuclei can form only in a very narrow range of condi-
tions. Calculations based on density and collision frequency, together with known
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The Evolution of the Universe | 319
nuclear reaction rates, make rather specific predictions about how much of each isotope
could have been made before matter spread too thinly. Thus the cosmic abundances of
elements such as deuterium (the hydrogen isotope with one proton and one neutron in
its nucleus), helium-3 (the helium isotope with two protons and one neutron), and
helium-4 (with two protons and two neutrons) comprise another test of our theories
about the origins of the universe.
In fact, studies of the abundances of these isotopes find that they agree quite well
with the predictions made in this way. The prediction for the primordial abundance of
helium-4 in the universe, for example, is that it cannot have exceeded 25%. Observations
of helium abundance are quite close to this prediction. If the abundance of helium differed
by more than a few percent from this value, the theory would be in serious trouble.
The Evolution of the Universe

Our vision of an expanding universe leads us to peer back in time, to the early history of
matter and energy. What can we say about the changes that must have taken place during
the past 14 billion years?
SOME GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EXPANDING UNIVERSE •

Have you ever pumped up a bicycle tire with a hand pump? If you have, you may have
noticed that after you’ve run the pump for a while, the barrel gets very hot. All matter
heats up when it is compressed.
The universe is no exception to this rule. A universe that is more compressed and
denser than the one in which we live would also be hotter on average. In such a universe,
the cosmic radiation background would correspond to a temperature much higher than
2.7 K (where it is today), and the wavelength of the background radiation would be
shorter than 7.35 centimeters.
When the universe was younger, it must have been much hotter and denser than it
is today. This cardinal principle guides our understanding of how the universe evolved.
In fact, the big bang theory we have been discussing is often called the “hot big bang”
to emphasize the fact that the universe began in a very hot, dense state and has been
expanding and cooling ever since.
In Chapter 10 we saw that changes of temperature may correspond to changes of
state in matter. If you cool water, for example, it eventually turns into ice at the freezing
point. In just the same way, modern theories claim, as the universe cooled from its hot
origins it went through changes of state very much like the freezing of water. We will
refer to these dramatic changes in the fabric of the universe as freezings, even though
they are not actually changes from a liquid to a solid state.
In fact, we can identify six such “freezings” in the history of the universe (Figure 15-14).
The most recent three involve changes in the predominant state of matter. In essence, as we
go back in time and the temperature increases, matter is stripped down to its most funda-
mental constituents. The earliest three “freezings,” on the other hand, involve the kind of
unification of forces discussed in Chapter 13. Going from the most recent freezing to the
earliest, we have the following important events in the evolution of the universe:
Several Hundred Thousand Years: Atoms
Before this time the temperature was so high that if an electron attached itself to a
nucleus to form an atom, it would be torn loose in the next collision. After this time,
the temperature had dropped to the point that if an electron attached to a nucleus, the
atom would survive subsequent collisions. Thus, the predominant form of matter in the
universe became the atom. The most important consequence of this freezing was that
matter became transparent to light. The photons that form the cosmic microwave back-
ground were emitted at this time, and have been traveling through the expanding universe
ever since.
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10 −10 seconds: freezing of weak and

10 −43 seconds: freezing of all forces electromagnetic forces
10 −35 seconds: freezing of 10 −5 seconds: elementary particles form
electroweak and from quarks
strong forces
3 minutes: nuclei form
500,000 years: atoms form
10 −40 10 −30 10 −20 10 −10 1 10 10 10 20

Big bang
Time (in seconds) after the big bang
Strong force
Electromagnetism
All
forces Weak force
unified
Gravity
Greater
Energy
• Figure 15-14 The sequence of “freezings” in the universe since the big bang. The earliest
freezings involve the splitting of forces, while later freezings involve forms of matter.
Three minutes: Nuclei

Before three minutes, if a proton and a neutron came together to form a simple nucleus,
subsequent collisions would tear them apart. Thus after about three minutes the nuclei
of atoms could be stable. As we pointed out above, there was only a short period when
nuclei could form, since the Hubble expansion would quickly carry elementary particles
away from each other. The only nuclei formed in the big bang were isotopes of hydro-
gen and helium, along with a small amount of lithium.
10-5 seconds: Elementary particles
We are now back to the first second of the life of the universe. Before this time, matter
had been in the form of quarks and leptons (see Chapter 13). At this point, the quarks
coalesced into the elementary particles that would eventually form nuclei and atoms.
10-10 seconds: The unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces
At this point, the “freezings” involve forces rather than the state of matter. Before
this time, there were only three forces—strong, gravitational, and the unified elec-
troweak. Ever since this time, the four forces with which we are familiar operated in
the universe.
This milestone is important for another reason. It represents the farthest back we
can go in time and still be able to reproduce the state of the universe in our laboratories.
At particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider (see Chapter 13), particles are
smashed together at such high energies that for a fleeting moment, the temperature in a
volume the size of a proton approaches what it was at this moment in the life of the uni-
verse. Thus, this freezing is the limit beyond which direct experimental verification of
our theories is possible.
10-35 seconds: The unification of the strong and electroweak forces
The theories that describe the fundamental forces—what we called the ‘Standard Model’ in
Chapter 13 tell us that at this time the temperature of the universe was high enough so
that the strong and electroweak forces would unify. Before this time, there were only two
forces operating in the universe: the strong-electroweak and gravity. After this time there
were three forces: the strong, the electroweak, and gravity.
This is also the time when our theories tell us that two other important events
took place. These are:
1. Inflation—an extremely rapid expansion of the universe, taking it (roughly) from some-
thing smaller than a proton to something about the size of a grapefruit (Figure 15-15).
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What Is the Universe Made Of? | 321
Inflation Quark-electron Quarks Nucleo- Matter–photon decoupling

soup form synthesis Superclusters, galaxies
protons form
Quantum
gravity
BIG
BANG
• Figure 15-15 The evolution of the universe through the succession of freezings discussed
in the text. Note the rapid expansion associated with the inflationary period.
2. Elimination of antimatter—small differences between the production of matter and anti-

matter in accelerator experiments indicate that it was at this time that antimatter was
removed from the universe. The theories tell us that for every 100,000,000 antimatter
particles produced in the inflationary period, there were 100,000,001 particles of ordi-
nary matter. When the matter and antimatter particles annihilated with each other, there
was one particle of ordinary matter left, and this is what we see in the universe today.
This time also represents the farthest back we can go in time using our best theory—
the Standard Model.
10-43 seconds: The unification of all forces
When we finally find a theory in which gravity is unified with the other forces of nature,
this is the time we expect that it happened. Since we do not have such a theory, however,
descriptions of events at this so-called “Planck time” and of earlier events remain in the
realm of speculation.
What Is the Universe Made Of?

Looking out at the starry sky, with or without a telescope, it is natural to assume that the
splendid display you are seeing is pretty much all there is. After all, we are made from
quarks and leptons, as is our planet and our star, so what else could everything else be
made of? Over the last quarter century, however, scientists have made two discoveries
that not only call this easy assumption into question, but show that it is simply not true.
In a series of observations that many have compared to Copernicus’ removal of Earth
from the center of the universe, these scientists have shown that ordinary matter—the
sort of stuff with which we are familiar and which we have been discussing in this
book—makes up only a small fraction of the universe. In fact, we now know that most of
the universe is made up of two mysterious substances called, respectively, dark matter
and dark energy. (Keep in mind that in spite of their similar names, these two are very
different from each other.)
Science News
DARK MATTER • The Mystery of Dark Matter
In the early 1970s, astronomer Vera Rubin of the Carnegie Institution of Washington Go to your WileyPLUS course
was making some rather mundane measurements of distant galaxies. Using recently to view video on this topic.
c15.qxd 9/11/09 3:06 PM Page 322
developed instruments, she was trying to find what astronomers call the rotation curve
of those galaxies. Basically, this is a measurement of how fast stars and other objects are
moving at different distances from the galactic center.
At first the results were what everyone would have expected. Close in to the galac-
tic center, gravity locks the stars tightly together, and the entire stellar assemblage turns
together, like an impossibly gigantic wheel. The farther from the center a star is, the
faster it moves. Farther out a different kind of rotation was seen. In this region, all the
stars were moving at the same speed, like runners in different lanes on a curved track.
Since stars farther from the center had farther to go, they tended to fall behind stars
located closer to the center.
Stop and Think! How does the fact that stars away from the galactic center
move at the same speed produce the familiar spiral pattern of galaxies like the
Milky Way?
Everyone expected that if you looked still farther out, you would see yet another
pattern. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (see Chapter 2) tell us that if objects are in
orbit around a massive central object (like the planets in the solar system orbiting the
sun), then the farther away from that central object something is, the slower it will
move. Rubin expected that when she looked at the thin hydrogen gas located outside
the place where stars were found in her galaxies, she would see the velocity falling off as
Kepler had predicted. After all, in this case each individual hydrogen molecule could be
thought of as a small “satellite” of the distant galaxy.
Much to Rubin’s surprise, she saw nothing of the kind. Instead of dropping off, the
velocity of the hydrogen gas stayed the same as far out as her instruments would take her
(Figure 15-16). This surprising result has been duplicated hundreds of times since her
first measurement, on many galaxies. The question: why should the far reaches of the
visible galaxy behave this way?
• Figure 15-16 The speed of stars We can understand the rotation curve only if we assume that the entire galaxy—stars
in a galaxy as you move away from
the center should follow this pattern. as well as hydrogen gas—is locked into a massive sphere of material that we can’t see.
Near the center, there is “wheel This material doesn’t interact with electromagnetic radiation (otherwise we’d see it
flow,” with stars farther away from emitting or absorbing that radiation) but would make its presence known only because
the center moving faster than stars it exerts a gravitational force. The material came to be called dark matter.
close in. At intermediate distances, We now believe that 90% of the mass of galaxies like the Milky Way is composed
all the stars should move at the same of dark matter, and this matter forms a sphere in which the familiar starry spirals are
speed. Finally, there should be a situ- embedded. We see further evidence for dark matter in large galactic clusters, where
ation where the farther away a star is,
the more slowly it moves. The failure
it seems to provide a kind of gravitational glue to keep the galaxies from flying away
to see this sort of rotation led to the from each other. The best current estimate is that dark matter makes up about 22%
discovery of dark matter. of the mass of the universe.
But what is it? It turns out that there are a
number of particles that could play the role of dark
matter. Some of these, such as neutrinos that have a
small mass, we already know about. The other can-
didates have been proposed based on various theo-
ries of elementary particle physics. Thus, although
Equal velocities
Velocity
the actual identity of dark matter is still an open

Solid question, most scientists believe that it will turn
body out to be composed of some kind of elementary
rotation Kepler
rotation particle.
Because of this belief, a number of experi-
ments are going on around the world—experiments
whose goal is to detect the elusive dark matter
particles. The basic idea is that if the galaxy is
Distance really embedded in a sphere of dark matter, then
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What Is the Universe Made Of? | 323
the motion of Earth in its orbit must create a dark matter “wind,” just as a moving
car creates a “wind” on a still day. This dark matter wind is sweeping through your
body as you read this, but because the particles in the wind interact only through the
(very weak) force of gravity, most of the dark matter particles pass on through with-
out having an effect.
The experimental searches involve putting a very sensitive detector—a block of pure
silicon cooled to almost absolute zero, for example—in a sheltered place like a deep
mine or tunnel. The scientists then try to detect the extremely rare interactions of the
dark matter particles with the material in the detector.
DARK E NERGY •
Like dark matter, dark energy came on the scene because of an expected observational
result. The basic question that scientists were trying to solve involved the future of the
Hubble expansion. As galaxies move outward as part of the expansion, you can see that
there will be a gravitational force on them exerted by other galaxies. This force will act
to pull the outward moving galaxy back. Thus, if gravity is the only force acting, we
would expect the Hubble expansion to slow down over time.
Traditionally, astronomers have distinguished between three different scenarios
when they thought about the future of the universe:
Open universe: In this case, the mass of the universe (and hence the gravitational
force exerted on the outward moving galaxies) isn’t large enough to stop the expan-
sion. Therefore, the future of the universe is an eternal expansion, but an expansion
that slows with time.
Closed universe: On the other hand, the gravitational force may be big enough to
stop and reverse the Hubble expansion. In this case, the current expansion is a tem-
porary phase and will be replaced in the future by a contraction, perhaps even a
return to the original hot dense state with which everything began. Astronomers
call this situation a closed universe, and refer, somewhat facetiously, to the coming
“Big Crunch.”
Flat universe: A flat universe is one that has just enough mass to stop the Hubble
expansion after an infinite time, but not enough to reverse it. You can think of the
flat universe as the boundary between the open and closed cases discussed above.
Most modern cosmological theories predict that the universe is flat.
With these options for the future, the task of the astronomer is clear: he or she has to
go out and count up all the matter in the universe and see if there is enough to make the
universe flat. (The way they say this is that they are looking for enough mass to “close”
the universe.) This is why the discovery of dark matter was greeted with such excitement,
because the gravitational effects of dark matter have to be taken into account when you
add up the forces acting to slow the expansion.
As we pointed out above, if gravity is really the only force acting on the expansion,
then it should slow down over time. In particular, the rate of expansion billions of years
ago should have been higher than the rate of expansion today. This means that if we
look at distant galaxies, galaxies whose light has been traveling through space for billions
of years, we should be able to see that slowdown.
The problem is that to get the expansion rate, we have to be able to measure both
the distance to the galaxy and its speed. The speed is easy—we just need to look at the
redshift. Getting the distance, however, is a different story. If we look at a distant galaxy,
our telescopes aren’t good enough to allow us to pick out individual Cepheid variable
stars, so we can’t use the standard candle that Hubble used to establish the expansion in
the first place.
During the 1990s, astronomers at the University of California at Berkeley and the
University of Michigan worked to establish a new standard candle that could be used
for very distant galaxies. They settled on an event known as a Type Ia supernova.
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These events occur in double star systems in which one of the partners is a white dwarf
(see Chapter 14). If the two stars in the system are close enough together, the dwarf
will pull hydrogen away from its partner, and over time a layer of hydrogen will build
up on its surface. When this layer is thick enough, the pressure ignites a fusion reac-
tion and the entire star explodes like a giant hydrogen bomb. Since all white dwarves
are the same size, all Type Ia supernovae will, in principle, give off the same amount of
light, which means that they can be used as a standard candle. They also give off a
tremendous amount of light, so that they are easily visible in even the most distant
galaxies.
It took the researchers some time to work out all the details of this scheme, but by
1998 they announced their first results for the rate of expansion of the universe billions of
years ago. To everyone’s amazement, they found that the expansion was not slowing
down at all. In fact, the rate of expansion back then was less than it is today. The Hubble
expansion is speeding up!
• Figure 15-17 The composition of This finding was quickly verified by other astronomers. There is only one way to
the universe, with ordinary matter being
explain it: gravity cannot be the only force acting in the universe. There must, in fact, be
only a small fraction of the whole.
another force—a sort of antigravity—acting to push the galaxies apart. Astrophysicist
Michael Turner of the University of Chicago gave it the name dark energy.
You can think of the universal expansion, then, as being something like your car.
There is gravity acting to slow the expansion down—the brake—and there is dark energy
acting to speed it up—the gas pedal. In this scheme the flat universe, where neither brake
or gas pedal is engaged, can be thought of as “coasting.”
Detailed studies, in fact, show clear evidence for the interplay between dark energy
and gravity. For the first five million years of the existence of the universe, galaxies were
close together, gravity overcame dark energy, the “brakes” were on, and the expansion
actually did slow down. After about five billion years, galaxies were farther apart, gravity
became weaker than dark energy, the universe tromped on the gas pedal, and the expan-
sion started to accelerate.
One result of the discovery of dark energy is that we now have a clear picture of the
composition of the universe (Figure 15-17). It is 74% dark energy, 22% dark matter, and
only 4% ordinary matter. The stuff we’re made of, in other words, makes up only a very
small part of the universe. Taken together, this particular collection of materials seems to
be enough to “close” the universe. In the words of Michael Turner, we now have all the
ingredients we need to make the cake, and all we have to do is figure out how they’re
supposed to be put together.
The inclusion of dark energy gives rise to two related questions: (1) what is it?, and
(2) what effect will it have of the fate of the universe?
Cosmologists regard finding the answer to the first question as the most important
task facing scientists in the early twenty-first century. Unlike the situation we saw for
dark matter, there are no experimental programs under way to detect dark energy. The
primary theoretical idea is that it is, in some way, a property of space and time—the
“cost of having space” as one astronomer put it.
As far as the future of the universe is concerned, it depends on the properties of dark
energy. We can imagine several scenarios:
1. There is a fixed amount of dark energy. In this case, the Hubble expansion will even-
tually dilute it, gravity will reassert itself, and we’ll be back in a universe whose expan-
sion is slowing. The brakes, in other words, will eventually come on again.
2. The density of dark energy in the universe stays the same. In this case, new dark
energy will be created as the universe expands and the current acceleration will
continue more or less at its present rate. The gas pedal will stay down as matter
thins out.
3. The density of dark energy increases with time. If this happens, then the future will
be truly spectacular as the repulsive force grows. It could even get to the point where
it would overcome not just gravity, but electromagnetism as well. In this case, you
can imagine a future in which atoms themselves are torn apart.
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Summary | 325
Thinking More About Cosmology
THE H ISTORY OF THE U NIVERSE evidence is so overwhelming that the existence of the war is
universally accepted.
The story of the big bang that we have just recounted has one But what about events farther back in time—the Cru-
clear feature: there were no human beings around to observe any sades, for example, or the Thirty Years War? The evidence
of the events we’ve just described. In 1999, creationists on the here is weaker than that for the Civil War. What about events
Kansas Board of Education used this fact as a reason to ban ques- that occurred before the invention of writing—the arrival of
tions about the big bang from statewide high school scientific the first humans in North America, for example? Here the
achievement tests. Let’s think for a moment about the kind of evi- evidence is exclusively in the form of archeological data. And
dence we require to establish the existence of events in the past. what about geological events where the evidence is in the
How do you know there was an event called the Ameri- rocks themselves?
can Civil War? No one alive today actually took part in the The evidence for the big bang has been outlined in this
Civil War, yet no one suggests that we should doubt its exis- chapter. How does it compare to the evidence for other events
tence. The reason is that there is all sorts of evidence in the in the past? How much evidence is required to establish the
form of texts, artifacts, documents, and even recorded sto- existence of such events? Why do you suppose so few scientists
ries told by survivors before they died. The weight of this agree with the decision of the Kansas School Board?

Will the universe end? • If the mass and density of the universe are both great enough
to overcome the amount of dark energy present, then gravity
• In 1931, Edwin Hubble published his data and observations of
will stop the expansion and eventually force the universe to
Cepheid variable stars. His work, in concert with evidence of
contract back into a single hot dense point in space.
cosmic background radiation, provides support for the theory
• This scenario is known as the “big crunch.”
that our universe began with the big bang and has been expand-
ing for billions of years. º If we live in an open universe, the density of dark energy stays
the same. Therefore, new dark energy will be created as the
• Most scientists agree that the universe as we know it has a begin-
universe expands and the current acceleration of expansion will
ning, so the ultimate fate of the universe (i.e., its end) is a logical
continue more or less at its present rate.
question for cosmologists.
• How the universe will end depends on the properties of the uni- º If the density of dark energy increases with time, then the future
will be truly spectacular. As the repulsive force grows, it could
verse, such as its mass and overall density, its rate of expansion,
reach the point where it would overcome not just gravity, but
and the total amount of energy contained within it.
electromagnetism as well. In this case, you can imagine a future
• Many theories have been proposed about the probable future of
in which atoms themselves are torn apart. This scenario is
our universe depend on the properties of dark energy. Several
known as the “big rip.”
scenarios are possible.
º In a closed universe with a fixed amount of dark energy, the Hub-
ble expansion might eventually dilute the dark energy, so gravity
will reassert itself and universal expansion might slow down.
S UMMARY •
Early in the twentieth century, Edwin Hubble made two extraordi- microwave background radiation and the relative abundances of
nary discoveries about the structure and behavior of the universe, the light elements, in addition to expansion, support the big bang
science we call cosmology. First, he demonstrated that our home, the theory.
collection of stars known as the Milky Way, is just one of countless We can think of the history of the universe as being composed
galaxies in the universe, each containing billions of stars. By measur- of a series of events we called ‘freezings’. Moving backward in time
ing the redshift of galaxies, he also discovered that these distant from the present, the most recent freezing took place when the
objects are moving away from each other. According to Hubble’s universe was about 500,000 years old. Before this time, it was too
law, the farther the galaxy, the faster it is moving away. This relative hot for atoms to stay together, whereas after this time atoms, once
motion implies that the universe is expanding. formed, could survive. After the universe was three minutes old,
One theory that accounts for universal expansion is the big nuclei could stay together, whereas before this only elementary
bang—the idea that the universe began at a specific moment in particles existed. When the universe was 10-5 seconds old, quarks
time and has been expanding ever since. Evidence from the cosmic coalesced into elementary particles.
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The earlier freezings involved the unification of forces. At 10-10 The search for dark matter—mass that we cannot see with our
seconds, the electromagnetic and weak forces unified, while at 10-35 sec- telescopes—is a research frontier that may help us determine whether
onds the strong force unified with the electroweak. At this time the the universe will continue expanding forever. Recent data tells us that
universe underwent a rapid expansion known as inflation and anti- the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an effect that scientists
matter was eliminated. Finally, at 10-43 seconds, gravity unified with attribute to something called dark energy.
the other forces.
K EY TERMS •
Milky Way redshift cosmic microwave background dark matter
galaxy Hubble’s law radiation dark energy
cosmology big bang theory
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Light behaves like a wave. When a source of light moves away from a given position,
the waves are spread apart. This is called redshift. Galaxies emit energy in the form of
waves. The spectrum from the galaxies indicates that the galaxies are moving away from
us. In this experiment you will need a clear glass baking dish, water, rubber tubing,
bricks, straw, lamp (or other portable light source), and a large piece of plain paper
(or a piece of 8.5 ⫻11 inch white poster board). Poster board
Fill the baking dish with water and place it on the bricks. Put the lamp under
the dish and turn it on. Turn off other lights in the room. The light will reflect off
the water and will shine directly above the dish on a large piece of paper (or poster
Reflection
board) that is held a few feet away. Put the straw into the rubber tube and have
of waves
someone blow through the straw into the water, moving the air flow from one end
of the dish to the other. Observe the waves in the water and draw the reflection of Rubber
the waves on the paper held above the dish. Repeat the experiment by holding the tube with
paper above the water at a different distance than used earlier. Compare the wave- straw
length in front of the rubber tube with the one behind the rubber tube. Which
waves have high energy? Which waves have high frequency? How would you com- Baking dish
pare this to redshift? with water
Brick
support
Light source
1. What is cosmology? How does cosmology differ from 7. How does the abundance of light elements provide support
astronomy? for the big bang picture of the universe?
2. What is a galaxy? How are galaxies distributed in the universe? 8. How is the redshift related to the Doppler effect? What does
3. What are “deep-field” images? How do they help astronomers the redshift say about the universe?
estimate the total number of the galaxies in the universe? 9. What is the significance of the discovery by Penzias and Wilson
4. How did Edwin Hubble discover that there are galaxies in the of cosmic microwave background radiation?
universe other than the Milky Way? 10. Is the universe getting warmer or colder? Give evidence to
5. Name the different types of galaxies and their distinguishing support your answer.
characteristics. 11. What are “freezings” and why are they important?
6. Describe Hubble’s law. How did Hubble discover it? 12. What is dark matter, and what evidence exists for it?
1. What was the Nebula debate? Why is argumentation insufficient 2. Why does Earth seem to be at the center of the Hubble expansion?
to resolve scientific debates? What role did the improvements in 3. What are the limitations of the raisin-bread dough and expanding
technology play in addressing the mystery of the Nebula? balloon analogies of the universe?
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4. Is the universe getting hotter or colder as it expands? In what 100-inch Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson. What other major
way will the cosmic background radiation change as the universe discoveries in cosmology have relied on improvements in existing
changes temperature? apparatus?
5. Why was the steady-state theory of the universe abandoned? 9. Is there a force opposing gravity and “pushing” the galaxies
How does this episode fit into the discussion of the scientific apart?
method in Chapter 1? 10. What is the ultimate fate of a closed universe? an open universe?
6. What were the conditions of the early universe that allowed for a flat universe?
the creation of light elements? Why is there an abundance of lighter 11. Many religions have beliefs about the “birth” and “death” of
elements in the universe? the universe. For example, some religions believe that the universe
7. Louis Pasteur once said that “chance favors only the mind that is has a cyclic nature in which all matter is destroyed and recreated
prepared.” Apply this saying to the discoveries of Edwin Hubble, over and over again for all eternity. Which type of universe is con-
and of Penzias and Wilson. sistent with this belief? What is the difference between scientific
8. Some advances in our knowledge have been made possible theories and these religious beliefs?
through better equipment, such as Hubble’s discoveries using the
P ROBLEMS •
1. Assuming a Hubble constant of 70km/s/Mpc, what is the 5. Some theories say that in the inflationary period, the scale of the
approximate velocity of a galaxy 100 megaparsecs (Mpc) away? universe increased by a factor of 1050. Suppose your height were to
2500 Mpc away? 50,000 Mpc away? increase by a factor of 1050. How tall would you be? Express your
2. If a galaxy is 500 Mpc away, how fast is it receding from us? answer in light-years and compare it to the size of the observable
3. An observer on one of the raisins in our bread-dough analogy universe.
measures distances and velocities of neighboring raisins. The data 6. Suppose a proton (diameter about 10–13cm) were to inflate by
look like the following: a factor of 1050. How big would it be? Convert the answer to light-
years and compare it to the size of the observable universe.
Distance (cm) Velocity (cm/hr) 7. How fast is a galaxy 10 billion light-years from Earth moving
0.9 1.02 away from us? What fraction of the speed of light is this?
1.9 2.00 8. The average temperature of the universe is 2.7 K. What is that tem-
perature in degrees Farenheit? How far above absolute zero is that?
3.4 2.90
9. If you allow the thickness of a dollar bill to represent one light-
5.1 4.05
year, how high would a stack of dollar bills have to be to represent
7.0 5.90 the distance to the Sun? to the nearest galaxy? temperature?
9.4 7.10 10. Make a table with ages of the universe in the left column
(10–43 seconds, 10–35 seconds, 10–10 seconds, 10–5 seconds,
Plot these data on a graph and use the plot to estimate a “Hubble 3 minutes, 380,000 years) and the major events in the history
constant” for the raisins. of the universe in the right column.
4. From the data in Problem 3, estimate the time that has elapsed 11. The Milky Way has a radius of approximately 100,000 light-years.
since the dough started rising. Estimate the largest and smallest How many miles is that? How long would it take you to travel across
values of this number consistent with the data. our galaxy if you were traveling at 50% the speed of light?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. The Milky Way is a band of stars that, seen from Earth in the sum- 4. Investigate the cosmologies of other societies. How do they
mer months, stretches all the way across the sky. Given what you know think the universe began? Do they predict how it will end?
about galaxies, why do you suppose that our own galaxy appears this 5. What agencies or organizations fund cosmological research?
way to us? Who was the first natural philosopher to figure this out? What was the role of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in
2. Will the constellation of Andromeda be above the horizon Edwin Hubble’s research?
tonight? If so, go out and try to spot the Andromeda galaxy. 6. Investigate the difference between cosmology and
3. Look up the “Great Attractor.” How does the existence of such cosmogony.
an object fit in with the concept of the Hubble expansion? How 7. The computer and the Hubble telescope were major advance-
would you modify the raisin-bread dough analogy to put in the ments in technology. What new advances in technology may prove
Great Attractor? useful for astronomy and cosmology?
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16
Earth and Other Planets
Is Earth the only planet with life?
PHYSICS
The force of
gravity caused the
solar nebula to
BIOLOGY collapse on itself, CHEMISTRY
forming our solar
system.
The
Earth’s early
ancestors of living
atmosphere was rich
things could not
in the elements
have come into
carbon, hydrogen,
existence until after
oxygen, and
the great
nitrogen.
bombardment.
ENVIRONMENT
Large
Scientific
instruments on
Earth, one of the meteors or
comets, left over
board the planets that orbit the from the initial
and satellites have Sun, formed 4.5 billion period of planetary
provided detailed
years ago from a formation, still
images and information
occasionally hit Earth
about the outer great cloud of and may cause mass
planets in our
solar system. dust. extinctions.
(Ch.25)
TECHNOLOGY
Earth and the

other planets in
Differentiation
our solar system
caused Earth’s
orbit in the same
interior to become
direction around the
layered into the core,
Sun and are more or
mantle, and crust.
less in the same
plane. The low force of
gravity in space may
cause gradual bone
ASTRONOMY deterioration and thus
GEOLOGY
limit the duration of
long space
voyages.
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day The Sun and the Moon
Tim Fitzharris/Minden Pictures, Inc.

t’s shortly after noon; the Sun is blazing
I overhead. As you scan the horizon you see a
perfect half Moon rising in the east. The
rough, cratered surface stands out even in
daylight. But you recall that just a few days
ago you saw the Moon as a thin crescent in
the evening sky. And a couple of weeks before
that, the night’s full Moon was so bright you
could almost read by it. The Moon, like other
objects in our solar system, is constantly
changing in the sky.
As you stare at our nearest neighbor in
space, it’s amazing to think that a few
decades ago humans actually walked on that
hostile world and brought precious pieces of
its surface back to Earth. What did scientists
learn from those alien rocks? What do they
tell us about the ancient origin and dynamic
state of our home, the solar system?
The Formation of the Solar System

Walk outside and look at the sky tonight just after sunset. Chances are you will find two
or three particularly bright objects that stand out among the stars, even in the haze and
illumination of a city. They don’t seem to twinkle like stars but shine steadily. If you look
at them through binoculars, they appear to be small disks.
If you look at the same bright objects on successive nights, you’ll notice that over a
period of weeks or months, they seem to wander among the stars, never appearing in
exactly the same place two nights in a row. The Greeks called them “wanderers,” or planets,
and assigned them the names of the gods (although today we use the Roman names). In
the evening and morning, for example, you are likely to see Venus, named for the goddess
of love, and swift-moving Mercury, the messenger of the gods; and the night sky is often
dominated by Jupiter, the king of the gods.
Today we know that those disks of light in the sky are objects similar in many ways to
our own planet, Earth. They show us that we are part of a system that includes not only
Earth, but the Sun, the other planets, and dozens of moons, and innumerable other
smaller objects as well. Our probes have visited most of them and landed on several,
including Mars and Venus. Visionaries talk of the day when science fiction will become
reality and human beings will work and live on these, our nearest neighbors in the cosmos.
In every sense of the word, the planets are the next frontier.
CLUES TO THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM •

The Copernican revolution radically altered human perceptions of our place in the
universe (see Chapter 2). Rather than occupying what was assumed by many to be
the center of creation, Earth became just one of a number of planets orbiting the
Sun. The solar system, which includes many worlds—the Sun, the planets, and their
dozens of moons, plus all other objects gravitationally bound to the Sun—displays
several distinctive characteristics. Describing these features and explaining in detail
how they came to be remains one of the main challenges faced by planetary scientists
329
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330 | C H A PTER 16 | Earth and Other Planets
today. Indeed, the study of these many other worlds

helps us to understand the origin and evolution of our
own planet.
How can we deduce the origin and present state of
the solar system? Until recently, all our observations of
the Sun and planets had been made from Earth’s surface.
We see points of light moving in the sky, but how can
that information be translated into a vivid picture of a
dynamic system?
Humans have studied the solar system for thou-
sands of years, making observations and proposing
models. Ancient scholars recorded the changing posi-
tions of the brightest planets, such as Venus and Jupiter.
Application of the telescope by Galileo and many subse-
quent astronomers (see Chapter 2) led to the discovery of
numerous new, faint objects, including several moons and
other small bodies. More recently, orbiting space probes
and flyby missions have returned close-up photographic
images of several planets, while spacecraft have landed on
Venus and Mars. Our present understanding of the solar
system, therefore, represents the cumulative effect of cen-
• Figure 16-1 The solar system. turies of observation.
As astronomers gathered data on the solar system, they noticed several striking regu-
larities regarding the orbits of planets and the distribution of mass—patterns that provide
clues to understanding the evolution of our home (Figure 16-1).
Clue #1: Planetary Orbits
Think about what Newton’s laws tell us regarding satellites orbiting a central body. A
satellite can go in any direction: east to west or west to east, around the equator or over
the poles. There are no constraints regarding the orientation of the orbit, and planets
could orbit any which way around the Sun. Yet in our solar system we see three very
curious features:
1. All planets, and most of their moons, orbit in the same direction around the Sun, and
this direction is the same as that of the rotation of the Sun.
2. All orbits of planets and their larger moons are in more or less the same plane. The
solar system resembles a bunch of marbles rolling around on a single flat dish.
3. Almost all planets and moons rotate on their axes in the same direction as the planets
orbit the Sun.
Stop and Think! If you had only the preceding information, what scenarios
for the origin of the solar system would you construct?
Clue #2: The Distribution of Mass

You could imagine a solar system in which mass is evenly distributed, with all planets
more or less the same size and same chemical composition. But our solar system is not
that way at all (Figure 16-2). Instead:
• Virtually all of the material of the solar system is contained within the Sun, with only a
small fraction in the planets and other objects in orbit.
• There are two distinct kinds of planets. Near the Sun, in the “inner” solar system, are
planets like Earth—relatively small, rocky, high-density worlds. These are called the
terrestrial planets and include Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and (although it isn’t
really a planet) Earth’s Moon. Farther out from the Sun, in the “outer” solar system,
are huge worlds made primarily of hydrogen and helium. We call them “gas giants,” or
Jovian planets, and they are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The terrestrial
and Jovian objects are now considered to be the only things in the system that should
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The Formation of the Solar System | 331
The jovian planets
The
terrestrial planets
Pluto
Sun
Mercury Earth Mars
Venus Uranus Neptune
Asteroids Saturn
Jupiter
• Figure 16-2 Most of the mass in the solar system is in the Sun, and most of the rest is in
the Jovian planets. (Distances in this figure are not to scale.)
be called planets. The planets of the solar system and some of their characteristics are
listed in Table 16-1.
• Interspersed with the planets are a large number of other kinds of objects. All the
planets except the innermost, Mercury and Venus, are orbited by one or more
moons. While some moons are little more than boulders a few kilometers across, oth-
ers are much larger, and Saturn’s largest moon Titan is about the same size as Mer-
cury. Saturn and the other Jovian planets also have dramatic rings composed of
millions of tiny moons. Small, rocky asteroids that circle the Sun like miniature plan-
ets are found primarily in orbits between Mars and Jupiter, in what is called the
asteroid belt, although some have orbits that cross Earth’s.
• Starting at about the orbit of Pluto and extending far beyond we find a collection of
rocky objects in a huge disk known as the Kuiper Belt. In the Kuiper Belt are many large,
planet-like objects known as plutoids. Pluto itself, which has traditionally been thought
of as the outermost planet, is now seen as the innermost plutoid. Finally, in a gigantic
sphere surrounding the entire system, we find a swarm of icy comets with compositions
something like a “dirty snowball.” Occasionally, one is jostled loose from its orbit and
becomes part of the realm of the planets, creating a spectacular display in the sky.
These regularities in the distribution of the solar system’s mass, combined with data
on planetary orbits, add support to the nebular hypothesis—our best model of how the
solar system was formed.
Table 16-1 The Planets and Their Characteristics

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Diameter (km) 4,880 12,104 12,756 6,787 142,800 120,000 51,800 49,500
Mass (Earth 1) 0.0558 0.815 1.0 0.108 317.8 95.2 14.4 17.2
3
Density (gm/cm ) 5.44 5.20 5.52 3.93 1.30 0.69 1.28 1.64
(water 1)
Number of moons 0 0 1 2 61 30 21 11
Length of day 1416 5832 24 24.6 9.8 10.2 17.2 16.1
(Earth hours)
Period of one 0.24 0.62 1.00 1.88 11.86 29.50 84.00 164.90
revolution around
Sun (Earth years)
Average distance 58 108 150 228 778 1427 2870 4497
from Sun (millions of km)
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The Nebular Hypothesis

In Chapter 14 we examined the modern theory of star formation—the nebular hypothe-
sis, which was first put forward by the French mathematician and physicist Pierre Simon
Laplace (1749–1827). His model of star formation also helps to explain many of the dis-
tinctive characteristics of the solar system—the rotation of the Sun, the orbits of the
planets, and the distribution of mass into one large central object and lots of much
smaller orbiting bodies. According to the nebular hypothesis, long ago (about 4.5 bil-
lion years ago based on radiometric dating) a large cloud of dust and gas collected in the
region now occupied by the solar system. Such dust and gas clouds, called nebulae, are
common throughout our galaxy, the Milky Way. They typically contain more than 99%
hydrogen and helium, with lesser amounts of all the other naturally occurring elements.
Under the influence of gravity, the nebula slowly, inexorably, started to collapse on
itself. As was the case for the formation of stars from a nebula, the collapse caused the
cloud to spin faster and faster. The rapid spin had several consequences. For one thing, it
meant that some of the material in the outer parts of the cloud began to spin out into a flat
disk. As we saw in the previous chapter, the solar system at this stage of its formation can
be thought of as a large pancake with a big lump in the middle. The big lump represents
the material that will eventually become the Sun and the material in the thin, flattened disk
will eventually become the planets and the rest of the solar system (Figure 16-3).
The flattening of the nebula into a disk explains another feature of the solar system.
The planets had to form in this rotating disk of material, and hence their eventual orbits
had to lie close to the disk’s plane. The fact that all planetary orbits lie near the same
plane, then, is a simple consequence of the solar system’s rapid rotation as the nebular
cloud began to contract.
In any clump of matter like the spinning disk, by chance, matter is more densely col-
lected in some regions than elsewhere. These regions exert a stronger gravitational force
than their neighbors, so that nearby matter tends to gravitate to them. Once the nearby
matter has come in, the concentration of matter at that point is even greater, and it will
pull even more material into it. As material accumulates, solid grains start to stick together.
This ultimate consequence of gravitational force leads to the rapid breakup of the
disk into small objects called planetesimals, which range in size from boulders to masses
several kilometers across. Once this has happened, the process of gravitational attraction
goes on at a grander scale. Planetesimals collide with each other; larger objects capture
smaller ones and continue growing.
Our primary method of investigating this phase of the formation of the solar sys-
tem is through the use of computer models. Many of these models describe an early
solar system with many Mars-sized objects hurtling around, colliding with each
• Figure 16-3 As the nebula that

formed the solar system collapsed, it Stages in the formation of a planetary system
began to rotate and flatten into a disk.
The stages in solar system formation
include (a) a slowly rotating nebula,
(b), a flattened disk with massive
center, (c) planets in the process of
birth represented as mass concentra-
tions in the nebula, and (d) the solar
system.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Slowly Flattened disk Planetesimals Solar system
rotating with
nebula clump center
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The Nebular Hypothesis | 333
other, breaking up, reforming, and even being completely ejected
Courtesy NASA
from the solar system before things settled down to something like
our present state of affairs.
About the time that this process was going on in the early solar sys-
tem, the material at the center—more than 99% of the nebula’s original
mass—began to turn into a star. Light energy began to radiate out from
the Sun, and temperature differences began to develop in the disk.
Those parts nearest the Sun warmed up, while those farther out
warmed only a little. As a result, the inner and outer solar systems devel-
oped differently. In the warm inner system, compounds such as water,
methane, and carbon dioxide were in gaseous form, while farther out
they were frozen into solids.
Thus, everyday physical processes having to do with phases of
matter and the response to temperature—processes as familiar as boil-
ing water and making ice—explain one of the crucial facts about the
solar system. The terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars, were formed from those materials that could remain
solid at high temperatures. Consequently, they are small, rocky
worlds (Figure 16-4).
Farther out in the solar system we find the Jovian planets, including Jupiter, Sat- • Figure 16-4 The inner planets,
urn, Uranus, and Neptune. The compositions of those planets are essentially the same like Mars, are small and rocky.
as the material concentrated in the original nebula; that is, they contain large amounts
of hydrogen and helium (Figure 16-5). These planets formed from material that con-
NASA Media Services

densed and accumulated under the condition of lower temperatures so far from the
Sun. Consequently, these outer Jovian planets have a markedly different chemical com-
position from the inner terrestrial planets of the solar system.
In passing, we should note that the Jovian planets probably had their own com-
plement of high-density materials. Scientists suspect that beneath the thousands of
kilometers of helium, hydrogen, and other condensed gases on these planets is con-
cealed a core like a small terrestrial planet, whose composition is much like that of
Earth and its neighbors. But this rocky matter represents only a small fraction of these
planets’ total mass.
Some astronomers argue that the largest planets, Jupiter and Saturn, formed by a
process more like that of a small star than through the accretion of planetesimals. The
details of the structure and formation of the Jovian planets remain a rich ground for
debate in the sciences.
Just as any construction site has a pile of leftover materials lying around when the
building is finished, so too does the solar system have its “scrap pile.” These leftovers take • Figure 16-5 Gas giant planets,
the form of the rocky asteroids and icy comets that still orbit the Sun. They represent the like Jupiter, are large and are com-
matter that never got taken up into planets. posed mainly of hydrogen and
helium. Note the Great Red Spot—a
storm that has raged on Jupiter for
centuries.
THE SCIENCE OF LIFE •
Gravity and Bones

The objects in our solar system vary greatly in mass, from tiny Pluto with only 1/500th
the mass of Earth, to Jupiter, which is 317 times more massive than our own planet.
Consequently, the force of gravity at the surface of each planet is different; you would
weigh a small fraction of what you do now on the surface of Pluto, but many times your
present weight on Jupiter. (The connection between mass and weight is reviewed in
Chapter 2.)
In humans, bones in the skeleton support our weight (Figure 16-6). Bone is not as
rigid a material like concrete; rather, it must be flexible in response to its environment. It
constantly rebuilds itself, replacing the calcium-rich minerals that form the solid struc-
ture. In fact, you can think of what goes on in bones as being analogous to the remod-
eling of a house. First, the old material is removed (a process called resorption), then
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new material is added. If a bone is subject to unusual stress (or lack of it), it will change
Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library/NY
gradually in response, adding or subtracting mass.

On the surface of the Moon, for example, you would weigh one-sixth of your
Earth weight. Your bones would start to remodel themselves in response to the lower
force of gravity, unless you kept them under stress by an extended program of vigor-
ous exercise. Astronauts spending a few weeks or months in the weightless environ-
ment of space have experienced significant bone loss that, fortunately, is eventually
made up after they return to Earth. Scientists are less certain, however, of the
extremely long-term effects of low gravity on bone loss. What might happen during
the long months of a space flight to Mars, for example? Studies on astronauts now
may well determine whether such ambitious interplanetary flights take place in the
foreseeable future. •
Stop and Think! What advantages to a living thing do you suppose arise
from the features of bones we’ve just discussed? Why do you suppose
bones aren’t built like bridges, which are designed to carry the heaviest
load possible?
• Figure 16-6 Bones respond to
the absence of gravitational stress.
THE FORMATION OF EARTH •
The collapse of the solar nebula into the Sun and planets began the solar system’s evo-
lution. Following the formation of planets, each object evolved in its own distinctive
way. For Earth and the other terrestrial planets, this history had to do
Steve Munsinger/Photo Researchers
with the churning, colliding, roiling cloud of planetesimals. Once

planetesimals were formed, the formation of planets followed quickly.
As planetesimals moved in their orbits, they collected smaller plan-
etesimals through the process of gravitational attraction. Then these
larger planetesimals collided and coalesced into the beginnings of a
planet. As the process of accumulation went on, the growing planet
gradually swept up all the debris that lay near its orbit.
If you had been standing on the surface of the newly forming
planet Earth during this stage, you would have seen a spectacular dis-
play. A constant rain of debris left over from the initial period of plan-
etary formation fell to the surface, steadily adding mass to the planet.
During this period, called the great bombardment, the large
amounts of kinetic energy carried by the shower of stones were con-
• Figure 16-7 An artist’s impres-
sion of Earth’s surface during the verted into heat, which was added to the newly forming planet (Figure 16-7). By some
great bombardment. accounts, much of the planetary surface would have glowed bright red from this accu-
mulating heat and each large impact would have been accompanied by a spectacular
splash of molten rock. Although in the case of Earth the addition of material has slowed
considerably since the beginning, it has not stopped. Every time you see a meteor
(often called a shooting star), for example, you are seeing an object roughly the size of
a grain of sand being added to our planet. Scientists estimate that Earth’s mass grows
by about 20 metric tons (20,000 kg, or 2 107 g) per day by accretion of material
falling from space.
When the nebular hypothesis was first proposed in the eighteenth century, there
seemed little chance that any direct observational evidence could be found to support it.
In 1992, astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope (see Chapter 14) detected thick
masses of dust encircling newborn stars in a region of space called the Orion nebula.
Subsequent observations have confirmed the existence of numerous disks around young
stars (Figure 16-8). It appears that in these cases we are seeing distant solar systems in
the process of being born—observations that give us a measure of confidence in our
model of how planets come into existence.
c16.qxd 9/11/09 3:10 PM Page 335
Courtesy NASA
• Figure 16-8 These Hubble
Space Telescope pictures show a
disk around a young star.
SCIENCE BY THE NUMBERS •

Earth’s Growth
Earth’s mass is approximately 6 1027 grams. If 2 107 grams are added per day, how
long would it take to double Earth’s mass?
Reasoning and Solution: First, we have to calculate how many grams are added to Earth
each year by multiplying the daily added mass by the number of days in a year. Earth’s
total mass, divided by the mass added each year, gives us the time it would take to dou-
ble the present mass.
First we determine the yearly mass added to Earth.
mass added per year 1365 days>year2 12 107 g>day 2
730 107 g>year
7.3 109 g>year
Then, divide Earth’s total mass by the mass added every year.
16 1027 g 2
number of years
17.3 109 g>year 2
0.82 1018 years
8.2 1017 years
This number is the time (in years) that would be required to double Earth’s mass at its
present rate of growth. This immense time, nearly a billion-billion years, is vastly greater
than the lifetime of our planet, which is a paltry 4.5 billion years. From this calculation
we see that the total amount of mass now being added to Earth is trivial, so that most of
the planet’s mass must have accumulated in the beginning. •
DIFFERENTIATION •
Each time another planetesimal hit the young Earth, all of its kinetic and potential energy
was converted into heat. That heat diffused through the planet. Earth’s surface glowed
red hot and the deep interior reached temperatures of thousands of degrees. Eventually,
Earth either melted completely or else was heated to high enough temperatures so that it
was very soft all the way through. Heavy, dense materials (like iron and nickel) sank under
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Earth
the force of gravity toward the center of the planet, while lighter, less-dense materials
6378 km floated to the top. The result of this process, called differentiation, is that the present-
day terrestrial planets have a distinctively layered structure. (Earth’s structure is shown in
Figure 16-9.)
In a sense, what happened to these planets long ago isn’t too different from what
happens to a mixture of oil and water that is shaken up and then allowed to stand. Even-
tually, the lighter oil will float to the top and the heavier water will sink to the bottom
under the influence of gravity. Earth also separated into layers of different density when
it underwent differentiation.
At Earth’s center, with a radius of about 3400 kilometers (2000 miles), is the core,
made primarily of iron and nickel metal. Temperatures at Earth’s center are believed to
exceed 5000ºC, but pressures are so high—about 3.5 billion grams per square centime-
ter (almost 50 million pounds per square inch)—that the iron-nickel inner core is solid.
A little farther out the pressures are somewhat lower, so that the outer region of the
iron-nickel core is actually a liquid.
The metal core is overlain by a thick layer, the mantle, which is rich in the elements
2900 km
Mantle
oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and iron. Metallic bonding predominates in the core, but the
1200 km of rock mantle features minerals with primarily ionic bonds between negatively charged oxygen
Solid (?)
inner core ions and positively charged silicon, magnesium, and other ions. Mantle rocks are similar in
composition to some familiar surface rocks, but the atoms in these high pressure materials
2270 km
Liquid iron
are packed together in much denser forms.
outer core 8-70 km At Earth’s very outer layer is the crust, which is made up of the lightest materials.
Crust
The crust’s thickness ranges from less than 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) in parts of
the oceans to as much as 70 kilometers (about 45 miles) beneath parts of the conti-
• Figure 16-9 The layered Earth.
nents. The crust is the only layer of the solid Earth with which human beings have had
The principal layers, which differ in
chemical composition and physical contact, and it remains the source of almost all the rocks and minerals that we use in
properties, are the core, the mantle, our lives.
the crust, and the atmosphere (not You might wonder how scientists could describe parts of Earth’s interior that no human
shown). When looked at in detail, being has ever seen. In the next chapter we introduce seismology, a branch of science that
each of these layers is itself com- has provided (among other things) our present picture of Earth’s interior.
posed of smaller layers.
TECHNOLOGY •
Producing World-Record High Pressures
The force of gravity, pulling inward on all of Earth’s layers, results in immense internal pres-
sures, exceeding 3 million times the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s center. What changes
affect rocks and minerals at these extreme conditions? High-pressure researchers, who have
learned to sustain laboratory pressures greater than those at Earth’s center, are providing
• Figure 16-10 Researchers attain surprising answers.
high pressures, equivalent to those Of all the materials from Earth’s deep interior, none holds more fascination than dia-
deep inside Earth and other planets,
using the diamond anvil cell. Looking
mond, the high-pressure form of carbon. This magnificent gemstone is also the hardest
through such diamond cells you can known substance and the most efficient abrasive for machining the tough metal parts of
observe pressurized samples such as modern industrial machines. Until the mid-1950s, diamonds were available only from few
this high-pressure ice crystal that was natural sources, but in 1954 scientists at General Electric discovered how to manufacture
formed at room temperature by diamonds by duplicating the extreme temperatures and pressures that exist hundreds of
squeezing water. kilometers beneath Earth’s surface. The researchers squeezed carbon between the jaws of
Courtesy Van Valte
a massive metal vise and heated their sample with a powerful electrical current. Early
experiments yielded only a fraction of a carat of diamond, but large factories now produce
dozens of tons of diamonds annually, an output exceeding the total amount of diamonds
mined since biblical times.
Earth taught us how diamonds are made, and now scientists use diamonds to learn how
Earth was made. The highest sustained laboratory pressures available today are obtained by
clamping together two tiny pointed anvils of diamond. Samples squeezed between the dia-
mond-anvil faces are subjected to pressures of several million kilograms per square centimeter,
greater than at Earth’s center. At such extreme conditions, rocks and minerals compress to
new, dense forms occupying less than half their original volumes (Figure 16-10). Dramatic
c16.qxd 9/11/09 3:10 PM Page 337
changes in chemical bonding are also observed, with many ionically and covalently bonded
compounds transforming to metals at high pressure. •
THE FORMATION OF THE MOON •

The origin of the Moon, the only large body in orbit around Earth, poses one of the
oldest puzzles in planetary science. The Moon is one of the largest bodies in the solar
system—larger than the planets Mercury and Pluto, and almost as large as Mars. The
Moon’s density and chemical composition, subjects of intense study by the astronauts
of the Apollo lunar missions, are quite different from Earth as a whole, though they
are remarkably similar to those of Earth’s mantle. (Roughly speaking, Earth as a
whole has a density about five times that of water, while that of the moon is only
three times that of water.) The problem of the Moon’s origin can be stated simply:
How could such a large body have arisen in the same region of space as Earth, when
its composition is so different?
Computer models suggest a solution to this puzzle. In these models, Earth under-
went differentiation as described above, so that the heaver material sank to the core and
the lighter material floated up into the mantle. At this point, one of the Mars-sized objects
that were moving around the solar system collided with Earth, blowing a large amount of
mantle material into space (Figure 16-11). Some of this material went into orbit around
Earth and, in a process much like that which formed the planets, formed the Moon. In this
scheme, the Moon’s low density can be understood as consequences of the process of
Earth’s differentiation.
As for Earth, the theories predict that as a result of the collision, large-scale melting
occurred so the surface reformed without any crater. When the planet cooled off, no trace
of the mammoth impact was left.
EXAMPLE 16-1
T HE D ENSITY OF THE M OON
Scientists can measure the mass of the Moon by observing satellites in orbit or by mea-
suring tides on Earth. This mass is approximately 7.4 1022 kg. They can also measure
the radius of the Moon by observing its apparent size in the sky. Its radius is approxi-
mately 1.7 106 km. What is the average density of Earth’s nearest neighbor?
Reasoning: The density of an object is defined to be its mass divided by its volume. The first
step, then, is to find the volume of the Moon. Once we have this, the density will be given by:
mass of Moon
density
volume of Moon
The volume of a sphere of radius R is given by:
volume of sphere 4>3 p radius3
Solution: The volume of the Moon is then:
volume 4>3 3.14 11.7 106 2 3
2 1019 m3
So that the density is:
7.4 1022 kg
density
2 1019 m3
3700 kg>m3
For reference, the density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and Earth’s average density is about
5500 kg/m3. Thus, the overall density of the Moon is considerably less than that of
Earth. In fact, it is about the same as the comparatively light material in Earth’s mantle,
a fact that plays an important role in our theories of the Moon’s formation.
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Time: 403s Time: 1204s Time: 2003s

(a) (b) (c)
• Figure 16-11 The current theory of the Moon’s formation points to a gigantic impact of
a Mars-sized body with Earth (a). A large quantity of material from Earth’s mantle was blasted
into orbit (b) and eventually coalesced into the Moon (c).
PLANETARY IDIOSYNCRASIES •
The natural processes that occurred during Earth’s formation affected the other planets
as well. Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, for example, display surface cratering that sug-
gests that large chunks of rock bombarded all of these planets late in
Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
their formation. Earth undoubtedly looked like this over 4 billion years
ago, but all evidence of those early craters has been weathered away. On
Mercury and the Moon, which have no atmosphere, no weathering has
affected the craters and so they are still there.
The early bombardment may also have affected other characteristics of
the terrestrial planets. The direction of rotation of Venus, for example, is
opposite that of Earth. (Planets revolve around the Sun, but rotate about
their axes.) Earth’s axis of rotation, furthermore, is tilted at 23 degrees to
the plane of its orbit, while Uranus has its axis of rotation close to the plane
of its orbit, a full 90 degrees from an upright orientation. Current thinking
is that these differences resulted from the more or less random collisions
with large objects, perhaps hundreds of kilometers in diameter, which
• Figure 16-12 The 1200-meter- marked the end of the main phase of planetary formation. You might expect
wide Meteor Crater in Arizona formed that the details of these late-stage collisions were different for each planet. Thus the nebular
from a collision about 20,000 years hypothesis not only explains how it is that the planets all have their orbits in the same plane
ago. The meteorite was approximately and move in the same direction around the Sun, but also allows us to explain why the rota-
the size of a small car. tions of individual planets can be so different.

When Could Life Begin?
This scenario for Earth’s formation also has important implications for the origins of
life on our planet. During the period of the great bombardment, Earth was con-
stantly being hit by huge objects—chunks of rock the size of a state or even a coun-
try (Figure 16-12). At the very least, the tremendous energy released by such collisions
would be enough to vaporize any oceans that had formed. Each collision would, quite
literally, sterilize the planet. Even if life had come into existence during this period, it
would have been wiped out by the impacts. Thus the ancestors of modern living things
could not have gotten their start until the end of the bombardment, which occurred
between 4.2 and 3.8 billion years ago. This fact will become very important when we
discuss the origins of life in Chapter 25. •
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THE EVOLUTION OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES •

Earth didn’t always have the kind of atmosphere it has today. In fact, scientists now suggest
that originally it had no atmosphere at all, and that once an atmosphere formed, its chemi-
cal composition gradually evolved to its present form. The question of how Earth’s atmos-
phere arose and changed is extremely important, because this history is inseparable from
understanding the origin and evolution of life on our planet.
Early Earth may have collected some gases by gravitational attraction. During the
early formation of the Sun, large amounts of material and radiation were thrown off.
This flood of materials would have blown off any atmosphere Earth had accumulated.
Thus, for all intents and purposes, Earth’s early atmosphere was an airless ball of hot (or
even molten) rock.
During the period of cooling that followed the great bombardment and melting, large
amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases would have been released from
deep within Earth’s solid interior. Countless volcanoes and fissures, all belching steam and
other materials, would have blown their gases into the newly forming atmosphere. In
other words, the gases that formed the ancestor of today’s atmosphere were probably orig-
inally locked into the rocks near Earth’s surface when the original atmosphere was swept
away. Subsequently, a process called outgassing released a completely new atmosphere.
Outgassing, which was violent and rapid early in Earth’s history, has not ended today.
We tend to think of volcanic eruptions as involving the flow of red-hot lava, but if you
remember pictures of eruptions, you probably recall large clouds of smoke and steam that
accompany the glowing lava flows. Even today, more than 4.5 billion years after the
planet’s formation, volcanoes release large amounts of gases from Earth’s interior.
One estimate is that the principal result of outgassing in the early Earth was the pro-
duction of an atmosphere composed primarily of nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen (H2), and water (H2O), though scientists are engaged in a spirited debate on
the subject of the exact atmospheric composition. Presumably, the same sort of process
was occurring on the other terrestrial planets. For a time, Earth’s atmosphere was prob-
ably too hot for water to condense from a gas to a liquid, but eventually the atmospheric
temperature dropped and torrential rains began to fill the ocean basins.
Once a planet has acquired an atmosphere by outgassing, there are several ways that
its atmosphere can evolve and change. The simplest is gravitational escape. The molecules
in an atmosphere heated by the Sun may move sufficiently fast so that appreciable fractions
of them can actually escape the gravitational pull of their planet. The Moon, Mercury, and
Mars are examples of bodies that had denser atmospheres early in their history, but lost
much of these gases through gravitational escape long ago. Most of the light elements
such as hydrogen and helium were presumably lost in the same way from Earth, but the
heavier gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor remained because they were too
heavy to escape Earth’s gravitational force.
A second cause of atmospheric change that operates only on Earth is the effect of liv-
ing things. To the best of our knowledge, no life exists anywhere else in the solar system
(although some scientists argue that simple forms of life might survive beneath the sur-
face of Mars or Jupiter’s moon, Europa). By the time Earth was 2 billion years old, pho-
tosynthetic organisms had evolved to use the Sun’s energy to power the chemical
reactions essential for life. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are taken into the
structures of living things, and oxygen is given off as a waste product (see Chapter 21). As
life flourished on the planet, the amount of free oxygen increased as well, until today it
comprises about 20% of the atmosphere.
We tend to think of oxygen as a benign and beautiful substance, but from a chemi-
cal point of view it’s really rather nasty stuff. As we saw in Chapter 8, oxygen reacts vio-
lently with many materials (think of fire burning or the explosion of hydrogen or
gasoline). In fact, the production of oxygen by living things on early Earth can be
thought of as the first global pollution event. Thus, life forms both affect and are
affected by the atmosphere of the planet on which they reside. In fact, many scientists
now suggest that you can tell whether a planet has life on it simply by looking at its
atmosphere.
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Exploring the Solar System

Courtesy NASA/JPL
We live in a time of intense exploration of our planetary neighbors. Dozens of missions by

NASA and agencies in other countries have led to remarkable discoveries of new objects
and unexpected features in our solar system. Let’s look at just a few of these efforts.
THE INNER SOLAR SYSTEM •

Space probes have visited all of our nearest neighbors—the terrestrial planets Mercury,
Venus, and Mars. Mercury and Venus, the two planets closest to the Sun, are too hot to
sustain life. Thus, of the terrestrial planets, the exploration of Mars continues to gener-
ate the greatest interest. Of all our planetary neighbors, Mars is the body most likely to
have harbored life (Figure 16-13). In fact, for the last two decades NASA has sent a ver-
itable flotilla of probes to the Red Planet, including devices that have landed and
explored the Martian surface. Over the years the “rovers,” which can be thought of as
remote controlled mobile laboratories, have grown in size from something the size of a
• Figure 16-13 The surface of large suitcase to vehicles the size of a small car.
Mars might have been covered by an
In the 1990s the Pathfinder mission and the Mars Global Surveyor collected unmis-
ocean at one time.
takable evidence that there was once liquid water on the Martian surface—perhaps even
a large ocean. The Mars Odyssey mission (2001–2002) and the Spirit and Opportunity
rovers (2004–2005) provided new striking evidence that a substantial quantity of water
remains locked in the Martian crust, a finding that was reinforced by the Phoenix Mars
Lander (Figure 16-14), which landed in the north polar region of the planet in 2008
and found water ice mixed with Martian soil. In fact, the current thinking is that early in
its history, before it lost its atmosphere to gravitational escape, Mars would have looked
much like Earth. And, so the reasoning goes, since life seems to have developed quickly
on Earth, it may well have done the same on Mars. Even if the cooling and loss of
atmosphere wiped out that early life, we should be able to find evidence for it in the
form of fossils.
Current plans call for several Mars orbiter and lander missions during the next
decade, with both life detection and sample return missions to be launched toward
Mars sometime after 2010. NASA planners are working closely with the Centers for
• Figure 16-14 (a) An artist’s conception of the Phoenix Lander on Mars. (b) The Lander
dug into the Martian surface and found ice. (c) The ice evaporated after several days.
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/Texas A&M/SPL

NASA/Science Source
6/15/2008 6/19/2008
Lumps No
of ice ice
(a) (b) (c)

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Exploring the Solar System | 341
John Kobal Foundation/Hulton Archive/Getty Images, Inc.

Disease Control to ensure that these samples neither contaminate nor
are contaminated by microbes from Earth. A high-security contain-
ment structure will be constructed to house the Mars samples when
they return.
SCIENCE OF LIFE •
Why Look for Life on Mars?
The idea that life exists on Mars has been a staple of science fiction for
decades, with writers depicting Martian life as either immensely threaten-
ing to Earth (Figure 16-15) or as something like one of our own ancient
civilizations. In the early part of the twentieth century, the American
astronomer Percival Lowell even claimed that he could see “canals” on
the Red Planet, which he took to be proof positive of life. • Figure 16-15 Science fiction
As we have learned more about our neighbor, however, we have seen that these ideas writers have often thought of Mars as
are simply not true. Lowell’s “canals,” for example, turned out to be a combination of the home of an advanced civilization,
optical illusions and wishful thinking. Nevertheless, the hope persisted that some sort of as in this old 1940 Buck Rogers
microbial life might exist on Mars, and every Mars Lander has carried equipment movie showing “Ming the Merciless”
as the Martian ruler.
designed to detect signs of living organisms. To date, no such signals have been seen.
The consensus view today is that life probably existed on Mars early on, when it had
oceans on its surface, but went extinct billions of years ago. As a result, one of the prime
goals of the sample return mission will be to bring back a rock that can be examined for
fossil evidence of past life (see Chapter 25). And this, of course, raises the question of
why we should care that life once existed on our neighbor.
The reason is very simple. As we shall see in Chapter 25, all of the living things on
our planet descended from a single common ancestor and share the same chemical
makeup. All living things that we know about, in other words, are the result of a single
experiment. We simply have no idea whether life is common in the universe or whether
what we see around us is the result of some sort of cosmic fluke. If we found evidence
that life had evolved on Mars, even if it is now extinct, it would tell us that we can expect
to find it elsewhere in the galaxy. • • Figure 16-16 A theoretical
view of the interior of Jupiter, one
of the Jovian planets. Most of the
planet’s volume is highly compressed
hydrogen and helium.
THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM •
Jupiter
A number of space probes sent out from Earth since the 1970s have visited most of the 70,000 km
outer planets and provided a new view of the outer solar system. The distances to the
giant outer planets are immense. The closest gas giant, Jupiter, orbits at five times
the Earth–Sun distance, over 800 million kilometers away. Saturn is twice that far,
while Uranus and Neptune are several billion kilometers away. This far out in the sys-
tem, the Sun looks like a small marble in the sky, and its warming effects are feeble
indeed. Compounds that are normally gases on Earth, such as carbon dioxide, nitro-
gen, and methane, are found in liquid or even solid form under the intense pressures
Solid
that exist in the interiors of the Jovian planets. core
Liquid
The structure of the outer giant planets is layered, like that of the terrestrial planets, metallic
hydrogen
but they do not have a well-defined solid surface like Earth and the Moon. Moving
down from space into the body of Jupiter or Saturn would be a strange experience. You
Liquid
would move through progressively denser and denser layers of clouds and then pass hydrogen
imperceptibly into a layer where the gases change into liquids because of the high pres-
sure. In fact, landing on Jupiter would be more like landing on a giant ice cream sundae Visible
130K
than landing on Earth or the Moon. In Figure 16-16, we show a typical structure for clouds
Clear atmosphere of
one of the Jovian planets. 40,000K hydrogen / helium gas
During the mid-1990s, astronomers got two unique opportunities to study the
11,000K
atmosphere of Jupiter. One of these was fortuitous. From July 16 to 22, 1994, a 3x106 atm pressure
string of objects known collectively as Comet Shoemaker-Levy collided with Jupiter
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(Figure 16-17). For days, most of the telescopes on Earth were trained on Jupiter as
NASA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers
one impact after another roiled its upper layer of swirling gases. The collisions were
more powerful than thousands of hydrogen bombs. The effect of these collisions was
to bring gases that normally lie hundreds of miles deep up to the top of the atmos-
phere where scientists could see them. Shoemaker-Levy gave astronomers a chance to
test their ideas about what was beneath the visible part of the Jovian atmosphere, as
well as theories about how the atmosphere would cause the ripples created by the
impacts to damp out. The net effect of the impacts, other than providing a spectacu-
lar show, was to allow astronomers to fine-tune their notions about the composition
of the Jovian atmosphere.
In December 1995, the spacecraft Galileo arrived in orbit around Jupiter to begin
a study of the planet. Galileo was launched on October 18, 1989. Its orbit took it
around the Sun and Earth for an extra boost from gravity. When it arrived at Jupiter,
the satellite launched a small probe into the Jovian atmosphere. Its descent slowed by a
parachute system, the probe sank into the atmosphere, sending back information about
• Figure 16-17 This infrared the material through which it was passing. After 57 minutes of operation, the probe (as
image of Jupiter shows the many
impact sites, or splashes, due to
expected) was destroyed, but during its brief lifetime it gave scientists a library of new
fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy information about the atmosphere of the largest planet. After that, Galileo spent several
9 in July 1994. years in orbit around Jupiter, sending back a treasure trove of information about that
planet and its moons. On September 21, 2003, the aging spacecraft was deliberately
plunged into the atmosphere of Jupiter to guard against possible future contamination
of Europa.
Then, in June 2004, NASA’s Cassini became the first spacecraft to enter orbit around
Saturn, where it continues to return spectacular images and masses of data on the beauti-
ful ringed planet (Figure 16-18). At more that 5000 kilograms, Cassini is by far the largest
and most complex space probe ever launched. As we shall see, its main task has been a
detailed exploration of Saturn’s moon, particularly Titan. The variety of these moons is
staggering—they range from small bare rocks to bodies whose size rivals the terrestrial
planets.
MOONS AND RINGS OF THE OUTER PLANETS •

Astronomers have found dozens of moons circling Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
These bodies range from small rocks to planet-sized objects. Each of these moons is its
own world, with its own history and formed by its own unique collec-
Courtesy NASA
tion of physical processes. Each can be thought of as a small laboratory

that sheds some light on the formation of terrestrial planets, but three
are of special interest.
Io
The moon Io, which circles close to Jupiter, is the only moon in the solar
system known to have active volcanoes. Scientists think that Jupiter’s
powerful gravitational forces flex and twist the moon to produce the
energy to drive those volcanoes.
Europa
Jupiter’s second moon has become one of the most studied objects in
the solar system, because the Galileo spacecraft results suggest the possi-
bility that conditions there may be appropriate for the development of
life. The Voyager spacecraft photographs of Europa showed a smooth
surface made of water ice. The relative absence of craters means that the
• Figure 16-18 Saturn with its surface must have formed recently, which would be puzzling in a moon in the frigid outer
rings and moons. depths of the solar system.
Stop and Think! Why should the absence of craters indicate a young
surface on Europa?
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Detlev van Ravenswaay/Photo Researchers, Inc.

When Galileo arrived at Jupiter, it sent back close-up photographs of the surface
of Europa that looked more like the Arctic ice pack than a perpetually frozen world.
Giant blocks of ice seemed to be jumbled together, welded together at their bound-
aries by what looked like ridges of freshly frozen material. Scientists began to speculate
that under Europa’s icy surface, heated by the same kind of gravitational twisting that
powers Io’s volcanoes, there might actually be liquid water—an entire ocean, in fact
(Figure 16-19). Later measurements showed that Europa has a magnetic field that could
arise from a salty ocean in its interior, and pictures of craters were produced that look as
if they had been filled in by a slushy fluid after impact. Right now, the consensus is that
Europa might have the only nonterrestrial ocean in the solar system, although results
from the Cassini spacecraft suggest that Saturn’s moon Enceladus might have a similar
structure.
Since life on Earth developed in the oceans, the possibility exists that life (in microbial
form, at least) might have arisen on Europa. NASA is busy planning a major exploration
effort for this moon, with the possibility of sending robot probes to melt their way
through the ice to explore this new and totally unexpected environment.
Titan
Scientists believe that Saturn’s moon Titan, which is about the same size as the planet
Mercury, may well serve as a laboratory for chemical reactions that took place billions of
years ago on Earth. One of the first tasks of the Cassini space probe when it arrived at • Figure 16-19 An artist’s concep-
Saturn in 2004 was to drop a probe into Titan’s atmosphere. The probe, named Huy- tion of the oceans of Europa. It
gens, after the seventeenth-century Dutch astronomer who discovered the moon, shows the rocky ocean floor on the
descended on a parachute and broadcast data back to Cassini for over three hours before bottom, the liquid ocean, and, on
it succumbed to the cold and the pressure. As a result, we now know that Titan is made top, the thick layer of ice covering
the water.
primarily of rock and water ice, with liquid methane (CH4, or natural gas) raining down
and forming large lakes. On top of this surface in places is a black goo, suggesting to sci-
entist that the chemical reactions that form organic compounds are taking place on
Titan, slowed down by the cold. The thought is that these reactions happened much
more quickly in the balmy oceans of early Earth, and that Titan thus constitutes a kind
of museum of Earth’s early chemistry.
Rings
In addition to these numerous moons, each of the four Jovian planets has a system of
rings that are formed from countless small particles of ice and rock. Saturn features the
most spectacular of these ring systems—an array of dozens of fine bands, separated by
larger objects called shepherd satellites.
PLUTO AND THE KUIPER BELT •

Pluto has traditionally been regarded as the outermost planet, but that designation always
caused problems for astronomers. For one thing, Pluto is small—it has only about 0.3% of • Figure 16-20 Artist’s conception
of Pluto (in back) orbited by its large
Earth’s mass. For another, its orbit is tilted out of the plane of other planetary orbits, and it moon, Charon.
spends part of each of its “years” inside the orbit of Neptune. Finally, it
Detlev van Ravenswaay/Photo Researchers, Inc.

is circled by a moon, Charon, which is almost as large as Pluto itself
(Figure 16-20).
During the last half of the twentieth century, scientists discovered
that there is, in fact, a large disk-shaped collection of comets and rocky
objects left over from the formation of the solar system outside the
orbit of Pluto. This collection is called the Kuiper Belt, after Gerard
Kuiper, the Dutch astronomer who first suggested its existence. The
discovery of the Kuiper Belt led to a new understanding of Pluto.
Instead of being an oddball last planet in the solar system, it is, in fact,
the first typical object in the Kuiper Belt. In 2008 the International
Astronomical Union recognized this new status by conferring the
name plutoid on any large planet-like object orbiting farther out than
Pluto. A number of these objects have already been found and named,
and scientists expect more to be seen in the future.
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In 2006, NASA launched the New Horizons space probe. After having passed by
Jupiter in 2007, this probe is now on its way to a rendezvous with Pluto in 2015. It will
be the first man-made object to visit this mysterious body. After flying by Pluto, New
Horizons will go on to explore the Kuiper Belt.
SCIENCE IN THE MAKING •
The Discovery of Pluto

Five of the planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—are easily visible to
the naked eye and have been known from ancient times. The other three, most-distant
Science News planets—Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto—were discovered after the invention of the tele-
scope. A more recent discovery of a planet occurred on February 18, 1930, by 23-year-old
Pluto is No Longer a Planet Clyde Tombaugh, who had been brought up on a Kansas farm. Employed as a technician
Go to your WileyPLUS course at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, Tombaugh uncovered convincing evidence
to view video on this topic. for the existence of a new planet.
As a teenager, Tombaugh had built a small telescope, using parts from an old
cream separator to make its stand. He drew sketches of the surface of Mars and sent
them to Lowell Observatory, which was then engaged in observations of the red planet.
The sketches, made with a small amateur’s instrument, corresponded so well to what
astronomers at Lowell were seeing through their state-of-the-art telescope that Tombaugh
received a job offer by return mail.
At Lowell, he began a systematic search for what was then called Planet X. The
founder of the observatory, American astronomer Percival Lowell, had predicted the
existence of such a planet based on some rather questionable data on variations in
the orbit of Neptune. Tombaugh’s task was straightforward, if tiring. He would take
photographs of each section of the sky, then a second photograph of the same sec-
tion a few days later. The two photographs were then put into a machine that would
show first one photograph, then the other, in an eyepiece (Figure 16-21). As the
photographs were “blinked,” any object that had moved between the time of the
two photographs would appear to jump back and forth, while stars would remain
stationary.
The main problem is that the plane of the solar system is littered with asteroids, each
of which could show up as a moving light on such photos. The key point wasn’t that
Tombaugh found something out there that moved—there were plenty of such objects.
The point was to find a point of light that moved by as much as Kepler’s laws tell us that
a planet out beyond Neptune would move in a few days. That is exactly what Tombaugh
found on that day in February, some 10 months into his search.
After becoming one of only three human beings to have discovered a new planet,
Tombaugh went back to college. Much to his surprise, he was not allowed to take intro-
ductory astronomy. “They cheated me out of four hours!” he said. And his old telescope?
When one of the authors (J.T.) asked him, before his death in 1997 at the age of 90,
whether he was going to donate it to the Smithsonian Institution, the 83-year-old
astronomer replied, “They want it, but they can’t have it. I’m not through using it yet!” •
• Figure 16-21 The discovery

Courtesy Lowell Observatory
photos for Pluto reveal the shift of

one point of light between January
23, 1930 (a), and January 29, 1930
(b). The red arrows point to Pluto.
(a) (b)
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SCIENCE IN THE MAKING •
The Voyager Satellites

On August 20, 1977, a rocket blasted off from Cape Canaveral in Florida, to set a small
space probe on its course. Sixteen days later, another rocket did the same. These two
probes, called Voyager 1 and 2, respectively, spent the next 15 years moving past the planets
of the outer solar system, providing scientists with their first close-up look at the Jovian
planets and their moons.
Each spacecraft had 10 scientific instruments on board, each designed to measure a dif-
ferent aspect of the deep-space environment. The ones that had the greatest public impact
were the cameras that took pictures of moons, rings, and planets, but measurements were
also made of magnetic fields, cosmic ray abundances, and infrared and ultraviolet radiation.
Taken together, the Voyager probes produced a good deal of the detailed information about
the outer solar system contained in this chapter.
One interesting feature of spaceflights like this is that by the time a spacecraft has been
in flight for a while, all of its instrumentation has become obsolete. Between its encounters
with Jupiter and Neptune, for example, the computers on Voyager 2 were reprogrammed
to make significant changes in the way they analyzed and transmitted data. As a result, the
rate of transmission during the Neptune flyby in 1989 was not significantly different from
that of the Jupiter encounter in 1979, despite the greater distance and lower light levels at
Neptune.
Among their discoveries, the Voyagers found ring systems around all the Jovian plan-
ets, recorded a volcanic eruption on Io, tripled the number of known moons around
Uranus, and clocked record winds on the surface of Neptune. Today, both Voyagers,
together with a couple of earlier space probes called Pioneers, have moved out of the solar
system and into interstellar space, passing what scientists call the “termination shock,”
where the solar wind blends with the interstellar medium of the galaxy. Voyager 2 is
expected to keep returning data until its plutonium power supply runs down, sometime
around 2020. By that time, it may have reached the place where the Sun’s magnetic field
blends into the magnetic field of our galaxy, thereby becoming the first human-made
object to have broken free from all the dominant influences of the Sun. •
ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND METEORS •

As the solar system formed, not all the material in the planetary disk was taken up into
the bodies of the planets and moons. Even after hundreds of millions of years of accu-
mulation and bombardment, a lot of debris was still floating around out there and
remains even today. This debris comes in two main forms, asteroids and comets, which
in a sense mimic the compositional differences of the inner and outer planets.
Asteroids
Asteroids are small rocky bodies in orbit around the Sun, like miniature versions of the
inner terrestrial planets. Most asteroids are found in a broad, circular asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter—material thought to be a collection of planetesimals that never managed
to collect into a stable planet. The most likely explanation is that the nearby planet Jupiter
had a disrupting gravitational effect. In addition, many asteroids possess orbits that cross
Earth’s orbit, and they produce occasional large impacts on our planet.
Comets
Comets can best be thought of as “dirty snowballs.” Unlike asteroids, they consist of
chunks, sometimes many miles in diameter, of material such as water ice and methane ice
in which a certain amount of solid, rocky material or dirt is embedded. Also, unlike
asteroids, most of the comets in the solar system circle the Sun outside the orbit of
Pluto. Two main reservoirs of comets are found in the solar system. One of these is a
large spherical array called the Oort cloud (named after Dutch astronomer Jan Oort,
1900–1992, who first postulated its existence), located far from the solar system. The
other is part of the Kuiper Belt.
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©Lynette Cook
Occasionally, when the orbit of a comet is disturbed, the comet will
be deflected so that it falls toward the Sun. When this happens, the
increasing temperature of the inner solar system begins to boil off mate-
rials, and we see a large “tail,” blown away from the Sun by the solar
wind, that reflects light to us (Figure 16-22).
Sometimes a comet will be captured and fall into a regular orbit
around the Sun. The most famous of these periodic comets is Halley’s
comet (see Chapter 2), which returns to the vicinity of Earth about
every 76 years. Halley’s return in 1910 was quite spectacular, because
the comet passed near Earth when it was at its highest temperature and
therefore had its largest and most spectacular tail. The return in 1986
was much less spectacular because the comet was on the far side of the
Sun when it was at its brightest. The next predicted return in 2061,
• Figure 16-22 A comet develops unfortunately, will probably be just as unspectacular.
a tail as it approaches the Sun. Astronomers have actually detected many objects in the inner Kuiper Belt with the
Hubble Space Telescope. These objects are several hundred miles across. Current think-
ing is that over the course of time, collisions in the Kuiper Belt have gradually removed
most of the original comets from it, leaving these objects as the last occupants.
Stop and Think! How do you suppose astronomers knew that the Oort
cloud and Kuiper Belt existed before objects in the latter could actually
be seen?
Scientists can study comets in the usual way, observing them with telescopes and other
instruments. They can also, however, use space probes to get even more detailed informa-
tion. There have been many such missions. In 1999, for example, NASA launched the
probe Stardust, which collected material from the tail of comet Wild 2 (pronounced
“Vild,” after its discoverer). In 2005, NASA’s Deep Impact mission dropped a projectile
into the nucleus of comet Tempel 1 and monitored the material that came out.
One of the most ambitious projects is the European Space Agency’s probe Rosetta,
launched in 2004. The probe flew by an asteroid in 2008, and will fly by several more
before its rendezvous with comet Churynumov-Gerasimeno in 2014. The plan is to
have the probe go into orbit around the comet’s nucleus and collect detailed data on its
structure.
Comet rendezvous missions don’t always turn out well. NASA’s ambitious Contour
probe, designed to visit several comets during it lifetime, is presumed lost in space after
it broke off contact with ground control in 2003.
Comets and Life on Earth

In addition to providing us with one of the first historical tests of the law of universal grav-
itation, comets may have had an important effect on the evolution of life on Earth. Many
scientists suspect that the impacts of comets or asteroids may have drastically altered Earth’s
climate and produced mass extinctions, or killings, at various times in Earth’s history (see
Chapter 25). Most Earth scientists, for example, now believe that the dinosaurs and other
life-forms that thrived 65 million years ago were driven to extinction following the impact
of a large comet or asteroid that hit Earth at a site near Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula. •
Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites

Meteoroids are small pieces of ancient space debris in orbit around the Sun. Occasionally
one of these bits, perhaps the size of a sand grain, will fall into Earth’s atmosphere where
it becomes briefly visible as a meteor. Most meteors burn up completely to microscopic
particles of ash that slowly, imperceptibly, rain down on Earth. The meteors’ bright
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Extrasolar Planets | 347
Table 16-2 Major Meteor Showers

Hourly Rate
Name Date for Maximum Extreme Limits of Meteors
Quadrantid January 3 January 1–4 30
Aquarid May 4 May 2–6 5
Perseid August 12 July 29–August 17 40
Orionid October 22 October 18–26 13
Taurid November 1 September 15–December 15 5
Leonid November 17 November 14–20 6
Geminid December 14 December 7–15 5
streaks of light record the path of this burning. Occasionally, if the object is big enough
so that only the outer surface burns, a piece of rock may actually reach Earth’s surface.
Any such rock that has fallen to Earth from space is called a meteorite.
Meteor showers are spectacular, regularly occurring events in the night sky. During
a shower, every minute or so you can see brilliant streaks in the sky, each one caused
by the collision of Earth with swarms of small debris that travel around the orbits of
comets. Some of these swarms may be comets that were broken up by the gravita-
tional pull of one of the planets. Table 16-2 lists some of the most spectacular meteor
showers.
Meteorites are extremely important in the study of the solar system because they
represent the material from which the system was originally made. They are analyzed
intensely by scientists, both to get a notion of how and when Earth was made, and to
learn what kinds of materials human beings will find when they leave Earth to explore
the rest of the solar system.
Extrasolar Planets
The question of whether others stars have planets circling them is a very old one in
astronomy. Because planets shine only by reflected light from their star, direct detection
is very difficult. One astronomer compares it to the problem of seeing a birthday candle
next to a searchlight in Boston by looking through a telescope in Washington DC. Con- • Figure 16-23 Periodic changes in
the redshift or blueshift of light may
sequently, astronomers had to develop indirect ways of finding “extrasolar” planets (the
reveal the presence of a planet. This
term simply means “planets outside the solar system”). graph illustrates such a red-blueshift
In fact, the best way to search for these planets is to use the Doppler effect (see versus time for a nearby star. These
Chapter 6). Imagine that you are looking at a star that has a planet in orbit. When the data indicate a planet that orbits the
planet lies between the star and you, its gravity will pull the star star every 4.4 days.
toward you. Half a “year” later, however, when the planet is on the
far side of the star, that same gravity will be pulling the star away 100
from you. Consequently, you will see the star executing a regular
back and forth motion as the planet moves in orbit.
Relative red-blueshift
50
When the star is moving toward you, the frequency of the light
it emits will be shifted toward the blue, while when it is moving
away from you the light will be shifted toward the red. Thus, as
0
you observe the star you will see a regular change in the frequency
of the light, as illustrated in Figure 16-23. This, in fact, is how vir-
tually all extrasolar planets have been detected.
–50
It can, however, happen that the plane of the planet’s orbit
lies directly in our line of sight from Earth. In this case, the planet
will pass in front of the star and we will be able to detect a slight
–100
drop in the intensity of the emitted light (Figure 16-24). A few 5 10 15 20 25 30
such detections have been made by astronomers. Day
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• Figure 16-24 Artist’s conception
Paul and Lindamarie Ambrose/Getty Images, Inc.

of the transit of a planet in front of a
star in a distant solar system.
The first extrasolar planet was discovered in 1994 by Alexander Wolszczan at Penn
State University. In this case, the planet was circling a pulsar, and changes in the pulsar’s
radio emissions were monitored. Since we learned in Chapter 14 that pulsars are what is
left after a supernova, this particular planet is something of an anomaly, probably a body
formed from debris after its parent star exploded.
The first normal extrasolar planet was discovered in 1995 by a team of Swiss
astronomers. This was a planet circling a star called 51 Pegasi, located about 42 light-years
from Earth. As time has gone by, many more extrasolar planets and planetary systems have
been found, until today we have seen literally hundreds of them, including many systems
with multiple planets. As this data has accumulated, a strange fact has emerged: solar sys-
tems like ours, with terrestrial planets moving in almost circular orbits close to the stars, do
not seem to be common in the galaxy.
In fact, most of the planets we have found have been what are called “Hot Jupiters.” By
this, astronomers mean that these planets are very large (typically many times the mass of
Jupiter) and located close to their stars (typically well inside what would correspond to the
orbit of Mercury). Furthermore, these stars seem to move in highly elliptical orbits—orbits
quite different from those of planets in our own system.
Stop and Think! Why should the fact that we detect extrasolar planets
through the use of the Doppler effect make it more likely that we will detect
Hot Jupiters than planets like Earth? (Hint: What kind of planet will exert
the largest gravitational force on its star?)
The prevalence of Hot Jupiters poses several problems. In the first place, as we saw
earlier in this chapter, a planet forming close to a star should be terrestrial, not Jovian. In
the second place, if a large planet does indeed form far away from the star, how can it
migrate to a close orbit? And if it starts to migrate, what stops it from falling into the star
at the end?
Current thinking on this problem is that the Hot Jupiters did, indeed, form far from
their stars, but in solar nebulae with a much denser cloud of dust than was present in our
own system. Thus, in these systems large planets lost energy and migrated to a closer
orbit. Indeed, computer models suggest that solar systems forming with too little gas
will consist primarily of small, rocky, terrestrial type planets. In these computer models,
planetary systems like our own, with a mix of terrestrial and Jovian planets, turn out to
be rather rare, comprising only a few percent of the planetary systems.
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This conclusion, if it turns out to be right, has important
Courtesy NASA
consequences for the question of whether life is common in
the universe. If, as we shall argue in Chapter 25, life is most
likely to occur on planets that have liquid water on their sur-
face, we can argue that life could not develop on Hot
Jupiters. They are too close to their stars, and their highly
elliptical orbits guarantee that their environments would be
too changeable for life to start. If our own solar system is
something of an anomaly among planetary systems—a con-
clusion that seems to be supported by current data—it may
well be that life is not as common among the stars as science
fiction writers have assumed.
The current trend in the search for extrasolar planets
is to search for transits—the temporary dimming of a star
when its planet passes between it and the earth. In 2009
the Kepler satellite was launched by NASA (Figure 16-25). It will monitor thousands of • Figure 16-25 The Kepler satellite
was launched in 2009. It will monitor
stars to look for this effect. Scientists hope that it will be able to discover Earth-type thousands of stars to find those that
planets circling other stars. dim temporarily as planets pass in
front of them.
Thinking More About Planets
HUMAN SPACE EXPLORATION On the other side of the issue, scientists advocating space
exploration by astronauts argue that no machine has the flexi-
Since before astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first human bility and ingenuity of a human being. They note that no matter
to walk on the surface of the Moon in 1969, the scientific com- how well designed a machine might be, when it is millions of
munity has debated the question of how the exploration of the miles from Earth things can go wrong, and only a trained astro-
solar system should be carried out. The question is this: Should naut can salvage the mission. They point out that even a mam-
future missions to the planets carry people, or should they carry moth project like the Hubble Space Telescope needed astronauts
only machines? to replace flawed optical systems. Besides, they argue, if one goal
Those who advocate exploration by machines point to the of the space program is to establish human colonies on other
enormous technical difficulties involved in providing a safe habi- bodies in the solar system, you can’t do that with machines.
tat for human beings in the harsh environment of space. Why, What do we hope to learn from our studies of the solar sys-
they ask, should we make the enormous, expensive effort to put tem? Is colonization of the rest of the solar system the real
a human being on the surface of Mars, for example, when just as long-term goal of the space program? How much extra effort
much can be learned by sending instrument packages and robots (and taxpayers’ dollars) is it worth expending to put people
controlled from Earth? instead of machines on the surface of Mars?
RETURN TO THE I NTEGRATED SCIENCE QUESTION •

Is Earth the only planet with life? • As we will see in Chapter 25 (evolution), Miller and Urey’s
experiment in 1953 demonstrated that organic compounds such
• Astrobiology (Chapter 25) is the study of life originating outside
as amino acids, carbohydrates, and other essential building
of Earth (i.e., extraterrestrial life). While there is no credible evi-
blocks of life (Chapter 22) can be synthesized by naturally
dence that extraterrestrial life exists, the possibility remains an
interesting hypothetical question. occurring processes. These organic compounds serve as life’s
structural elements and they provide chemical energy that serves
º All forms of life on Earth require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and a number of other elements (e.g., sulfur, all metabolic processes (Chapter 3).
phosphorus). • Many of the processes that produced organic molecules during
º Life on Earth also requires liquid water (H2O), the most ubiqui- the formation of our planet may have occurred as other planets
tous solvent known to science. Water provides an ideal medium were formed elsewhere in the universe.
for chemical reactions, as well as the transport of life-sustaining • Given the vast extent of our universe, it could be that extrater-
oxygen and vital energy substrates. restrial life exists. Nonetheless, the development and evolution
• Since all planets, including Earth, were formed from the same kinds of life on Earth is the culmination of many interdependent
of materials (i.e., interstellar dust from collapsing nebulae), the processes that have yet to be observed elsewhere in our
building blocks of organic matter exist throughout the universe. universe.
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SUMMARY •
Earth formed along with the Sun and other planets in our solar system The solar system’s outer Jovian planets, including Jupiter, Sat-
from a nebula—a large gas and dust cloud rich in hydrogen and urn, Uranus, and Neptune, are quite different from the inner plan-
helium—approximately 4.5 billion years ago. As that cloud began to ets. Lying beyond the strong effects of solar heat and wind, they
contract as a result of gravitational forces, it also began to rotate and accumulated large amounts of gases such as hydrogen, helium,
flatten out into the disk that now defines the planetary orbits. More ammonia, and water. These outer planets are thus giant balls of ice,
than 99% of the original nebula’s mass concentrated at the center, with thick atmospheres and great frigid oceans of nitrogen,
which became the Sun. methane, and other compounds that are gases on Earth. All of the
Gradually, the matter in the flat disk began to form clumps under planets except Mercury and Venus, the two closest to the Sun, have
the influence of its own local gravitational forces. The largest of these moons in orbit.
masses swept up more and more debris as they orbited the early Sun, Beyond the Jovian planets lies a disk of debris left over from the
and they began to define a string of planets. Terrestrial planets, those formation of the solar system known as the Kuiper Belt. Pluto, tradi-
nearest the Sun, were subjected to high temperatures and strong solar tionally thought of as the outermost planet, is now seen as the first
winds, so that most gases such as hydrogen, helium, and water vapors body in the Kuiper Belt.
were swept out into space. Thus the inner four planets, including Interspersed with the planets and their moons are many other
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, are dense, rocky places with a rela- kinds of objects. Small, rocky asteroids, most of which are concen-
tively low content of gaseous elements. trated in an asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, circle the Sun
Earth’s formation was probably typical of these planets. After like miniature planets. Far outside the solar system, swarms of
most of Earth’s mass had been collected together, additional “dirty snowballs” called comets are concentrated in the Oort cloud.
rocks and boulders showered down in the great bombardment, If a comet’s distant orbit is disturbed, it may fall toward the Sun
adding matter and heat energy to the planet. Dense iron and and create a spectacular display in the night sky. When a piece of
nickel separated from lighter materials by the process of differen- interplanetary debris hits Earth’s atmosphere, it creates a meteor,
tiation and sank to the center to form a metallic core. Most of sometimes called a shooting star, which burns up with a fiery trail.
Earth’s mass concentrated in the thick mantle, while the lightest Occasionally, a meteor fragment will hit Earth and become a
elements formed a thin crust. The Moon, Earth’s only large satellite, meteorite.
may have formed when a planet-sized body hit Earth early in its
history.
KEY TERMS •
solar system nebula Pluto Oort cloud
terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, great bombardment Kuiper Belt meteor
Earth, Earth’s Moon, Mars) differentiation Plutoid meteorite
Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, core asteroids
Uranus, Neptune) mantle asteroid belt
moons crust comet
DISCOVERY LAB •
Comets are similar to small planets and are created from the Oort and corn syrup into it. Mix all the ingredients, stirring constantly,
cloud. A comet has three major parts. The head of the comet con- until well mixed. Put a plastic bag into another and then add a
sists of nucleus which is made up of ice, rock, dust, and gas, and is third one. Put the dry ice into the bags and crush the dry ice with
surrounded by the coma which is made up of water and gas. Its tail a meat pounder (use gloves while handling dry ice). Add the
is made from dust particles and gas. You can make a comet at crushed dry ice to the rest of the ingredients in the plastic bowl
home with simple ingredients such as 2 cups of water, 2 cups of and mix them thoroughly. With your gloves on, make a huge ball
dirt, 2 cups of dry ice, a little ammonia, a little bit of dark corn from the mixture. Use the plastic bag as a wrapping while making
syrup, a mixing bowl (preferably plastic), a meat pounder, a few the ball. Place the comet (ball) on the table and use a blow dryer
spoons for mixing, newspaper, rubber gloves, a hair dryer, and to supply heat to the comet. Observe what happens to the comet
some garbage bags. when it gets closer to the sun. Where do the comets come from?
Spread the newspaper on a table and place the plastic bowl on What are they made up of? Why do they change? How is your
it. Line the bowl with a garbage bag and pour water, dirt, ammonia, model similar to the real comets?
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Garbage bag Mixture:

2 cups water
2 cups dirt
2 cups dry ice
Ammonia
Dark corn syrup
Apply heat Plastic bowl
Ball of mixture
REVIEW QUESTIONS •
1. Identify three distinctive characteristics of the orbits of planets 11. Describe the “big splash” theory of the Moon’s origin.
and moons in the solar system. 12. Explain the importance of outgassing to Earth’s history. Is it
2. Identify two distinctive characteristics of the distribution of mass still going on today?
in the solar system. 13. Explain the role of gravity in the evolution of a planet’s
3. Briefly describe two classes of planets found in the solar system. atmosphere.
4. What are nebulae? What forms of matter are found in nebulae? 14. How are comets different from asteroids? Of what are comets
5. How are nebulae related to the formation of planetary systems made? And asteroids?
like the solar system? 15. What is the asteroid belt? Where is it located?
6. What are planetesimals, and what role do they play in the forma- 16. What is the difference between a meteor and a meteorite?
tion of planets? 17. What determines the orbit of a comet?
7. What is differentiation? How has this process affected Earth? 18. How could asteroids and comets affect life on Earth?
8. Describe the layered structure of Earth’s interior. 19. Do all the planets in the solar system have moons?
9. How does the high pressure in the core affect chemical bonds? 20. If Titan is almost as large as the planet Mercury, why is it con-
10. What is Earth’s mantle? Of what elements is it made? sidered a moon and not a planet?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS •
1. Was the formation of Earth unique, or was it similar to the 7. How does Clyde Tombaugh’s work fit into the scientific method?
processes which created all the planets in the solar system? 8. Why was the formation of planets like Jupiter and Saturn more
2. What distinctive characteristics of Earth make it suitable for life? like the development of the Sun than like the development of the
How has life altered the chemistry of Earth’s atmosphere? terrestrial planets?
3. What is the difference between rotation and revolution? Why is 9. Why do you suppose scientists worry about material from Earth
the rotation of Venus different from that of Earth? contaminating the Mars sample when it is brought back?
4. The temperature of Earth’s core is estimated to be greater than 10. What is the goal of human space exploration? Is it worth the
5000ºC. Is the core temperature of a planet like Jupiter hotter or investment of our resources?
colder? Why? Does the distance from the Sun affect the core tem- 11. Jupiter is known as a gas giant planet. What are the most
perature? common gases in Jupiter’s composition?
5. Why do Mercury and our Moon lack an atmosphere? 12. Did gravity play a role in the evolution of our skeletal system?
6. What sources of data might help us determine more about how 13. Why do our bones lose minerals and density as we travel in
Earth’s Moon formed? space?
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PROBLEMS •
1. Given the diameters of the planets in Table 16-1, what are the 4. If the average thickness of Earth’s crust is 30 kilometers, what frac-
relative volumes of Earth, Mercury, Saturn, and Jupiter? From the tion of the solid Earth’s total volume is in the crust? What fraction is
same table, what are the relative masses? Which planets are most in the mantle? and the core?
similar? Why? 5. If Earth had the diameter of Jupiter, and the speed of rotation
2. From the values of mass in Problem 1, calculate the densities (mass was the same, how fast would an object on the equator be travel-
divided by volume) for Earth, Mercury, Saturn, and Jupiter. Why do ing? Is that faster or slow than an object on the equator currently
you think they are different? Which planets are most similar? Why? moves?
3. How many asteroids 100 kilometers in diameter would be
required to make a planet about the size of Earth? Neglect the
effects of compression in the planet’s interior.
INVESTIGATIONS •
1. Investigate the history of unmanned planetary probes. What are 7. There are many more meteor showers than the ones listed in
the names, dates, and target planets of these probes? What countries Table 16-2. Find out which ones may be coming in the next month
sponsored them? What kinds of data did they return? or two and plan a meteor-watching party.
2. What planetary missions are now planned or under way? When 8. Scientists are attempting to document the paths of asteroids with
will they begin to return data? What kinds of data are going to be Earth-crossing orbits. Investigate this research and comment on the
gathered? probability that a large asteroid might hit Earth. Should we increase
3. Read a history of the Apollo missions to the Moon. What theo- funding for asteroid monitoring?
ries about the Moon’s origins prevailed before these missions? What 9. What is the average cost of a Space Shuttle mission? Is this a pro-
new data changed theories about the origin of the Moon? ductive way to spend tax dollars? What advancements have come
4. Investigate the discovery of the planet Uranus by William Herschel. from these types of missions?
What other astronomical contributions did members of the Herschel 10. We currently use the Roman names for our planets; what are
family make? the Greek equivalents? Investigate the names that other cultures
5. How would you respond to an argument that goes as follows: have used for the planets in our solar system.
No one was present when Earth was formed, so how can scientists 11. Research the intended path of an unmanned planetary probe.
talk about the details of the formation process? Why do the probes circle the Sun and Earth a number of times
6. Listen to The Planets, a suite for orchestra by the British com- before venturing out into deep space?
poser Gustav Holst. In what ways do the musical descriptions of 12. How many satellites are orbiting Earth? What are the purposes
each planet reflect the physical characteristics of that planet? of most of these devices? What equipment do you use in your daily
What other sources of inspiration, besides scientific data, did life that depends on satellites?
Holst use in creating these pieces? Which planets did he omit 13. How does the GPS (Global Positioning System) work? How
and why? accurate is it? Who owns this technology?
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17
Plate Tectonics
Can we predict destructive earthquakes?
PHYSICS
Heat energy
moves from Earth’s
core to the surface
BIOLOGY primarily by the CHEMISTRY
process of mantle
convection.
The shifting of Chemical

continents has processes contribute
affected the to the gradual
distribution of land weathering of rocks.
animals on Earth. (Ch. 18)
ENVIRONMENT
Sensitive Scientists
instruments have speculated
developed to detect
Earth is changing due that giant volcanic
submarines during to the slow convection of eruptions 250 million
World War II were later soft, hot rocks deep years ago caused
used to measure the mass extinctions of
magnetism of rocks within the planet. life on Earth.
on the seafloor. (Ch. 25)
TECHNOLOGY
Radio
astronomers have New crustal rocks
used distant quasars are created at
to measure the slow divergent plate
process of seafloor boundaries.
spreading.
New
buildings in
earthquake-prone
ASTRONOMY regions are designed
GEOLOGY
to withstand violent
wave-like motions of
the ground.
HEALTH & SAFETY
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:14 PM Page 354
Science Through the Day Windblown Sand
arly afternoon at the beach: A cooling

E breeze has picked up off the water. The steady
flow of air is wonderfully refreshing, though occa-
sional gusts of wind kick up sand and grit. Some
of that sand blows onto your beach towel and into
your hair.
The wind constantly moves soil at Earth’s sur-
face, slowly altering the landscape. Shifting sand
may seem a trivial phenomenon, but such gradual
tiny daily changes add up to extraordinary trans-
formations of the land over countless millions of
years. Similar gradual movements of matter deep
within our planet accomplish even more remark-
able changes. Earth’s seemingly permanent conti-
nents and oceans are also in constant motion. The
continent of North America is about a meter far-
ther from Europe than it was when you were born,
the result of forces deep within Earth’s interior.
Earth’s surface is always changing. No fea-
ture of our planet—no desert or broad plain, no
mountain or ocean—is permanent. Every feature Adelman-Cohen/Taxi/Getty Images
is constantly evolving into something different.
The Dynamic Earth

Think about the last time that you passed a new construction site after a rain shower.
You could probably see little valleys freshly carved by water running over the bare earth,
and shallow pools where fine-grained material collected in layers—features that are
small-scale examples of the erosion of soil by rain. If the earthmovers had dug a deep pit,
you might have noticed different layers of earth and rock freshly exposed—layers that
represent sediments deposited by water long ago.
These sorts of small-scale changes in Earth’s surface are mirrored by much more
dramatic large-scale changes. When Mount St. Helens, a volcano in Washington State,
erupted in 1980, the entire side of a mountain was blown away and many square kilo-
meters of forest were flattened. Large earthquakes in our lifetime will change the course
of rivers and destroy villages and towns.
But how do we know that Earth’s surface is changing at larger scales? We rarely
observe significant changes in the landscape, but you can make a simple estimate that
will convince you that Earth must be a very dynamic planet. Mountains appear to be
as permanent as anything could be, yet, as we see in the following section, it’s easy to
convince yourself that mountains must wear away in times much shorter than Earth’s
4.5-billion-year age. We’ll also see that the arrangement of our planet’s great continents
is not as permanent as it appears to be.

How Long Could a Mountain Last?
Although there is no such thing as a “typical” mountain (Figure 17-1), for the purposes of
this rough estimate let’s think of a mountain as a rectangular mass about 2 kilometers high,
354
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:14 PM Page 355
The Dynamic Earth | 355
4 kilometers long, and 4 kilometers wide (that’s about 1.2 miles by 2.5 miles
Masterfile
by 2.5 miles). The volume of this midsized mountain is
volume ⫽ length ⫻ height ⫻ width
⫽ 2 km ⫻ 4 km ⫻ 4 km
⫽ 32 km3
Expressed in cubic meters, that is
2000 m ⫻ 4000 m ⫻ 4000 m ⫽ 3.2 ⫻ 1010 m3
Think about a stream running down a mountainside. You know that such
a stream carries a certain amount of sand, silt, and dirt with it. You can see this
because the stream has a sandy bottom, and you can watch it depositing sand
in little eddies and still water along its side. You might also see gravel and boul-
ders in the stream—evidence that, from time to time, heavy rains cause much
more violent movement of material down the mountainside. That material
had to be worn off of materials higher up on the mountain, so the existence of
the stream means that the mountain is constantly being eroded away. • Figure 17-1 Pike’s Peak near
You can estimate how long a mountain might survive against erosion by a stream. Colorado Springs, Colorado, may
Suppose, for example, that four principal streams run off the sides of the mountain, and be approximated as a 2⫻4⫻4 km
that each stream carries an average of one-tenth of a cubic meter of earth per day off the rectangular block of rock.
mountain. (The actual amount would vary from day to day depending on the kind of
rock, the amount of water flowing downhill, and other factors.) One-tenth of a cubic
meter per day is not very much material. It’s like a pile of sand, dirt, and gravel about
50 centimeters (a foot and a half) on a side—a pile that could fit under an ordinary
kitchen chair. If you think about the amount of material you might collect if you put
your hand down into a stream for a while, you’ll see that the number is reasonable. Over
a period of a year, the four streams might thus remove
4 streams ⫻ 0.1 meter 3>stream-day ⫻ 365 days>year ⫽ 146 meter 3>year
Every year, therefore, close to 150 cubic meters of material—about six dump trucks
full—could be removed from a mountain by normal erosional processes of streams.
If the mountain streams remove about 150 cubic meters each year, then the lifetime
of the mountain can’t be much longer than the volume of the mountain divided by the
volume lost each year:
3.2 ⫻ 1010 m3
⫽ 0.0213 ⫻ 1010 years
1150 m3>year 2
⫽ 213,000,000 years
This estimate, though very rough and not directly applicable to any specific mountain,
tells us that under normal circumstances mountains can’t last more than a few hundred
million years. All mountains must disappear and be eroded away to low, rounded hills in
times much shorter than Earth’s 4.5-billion-year age. •
THE CASE OF THE D ISAPPEARING M OUNTAINS •

We must conclude that if the erosion of mountains takes a few hundred million years, then
any mountain that existed when Earth first formed 4.5 billion years ago would have been
worn away long ago, and Earth’s surface by now should be smooth and featureless. The
only way that mountains could still exist on Earth is for mountains to be continuously
formed.
Everyday observations of erosion and some very simple arithmetic thus lead us to a
startling conclusion: tremendous forces must be acting on Earth, creating new moun-
tain chains as the old ones are worn down. Earth’s surface cannot be static. Although
mountains seem to human beings to symbolize eternal solidity, they are transitory. Geol-
ogists who map the distribution and ages of rocks have shown that the Appalachian
Mountains were formed a few hundred million years ago, and the Rocky Mountains
only about 60 million years ago (Figure 17-2).
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356 | C HAP TE R 17 | Plate Tectonics
Adam Jones/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Michael Wickees/The Image Works
(a) (b)
• Figure 17-2 Steep slopes and angular peaks characterize young mountains such as the
65-million-year-old Rocky Mountains in Alberta, Canada (a) photographed from Mount Rae.
The 400-million-year-old Great Smoky Mountains in Tennessee (b) display the rounded
character of older mountains.
Newton’s laws of motion (Chapter 2) tell us that nothing happens unless a force acts.
What forces could create entire mountain ranges? Until recently, this question remained
one of the greatest puzzles in geology.
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES—EVIDENCE

Science News OF EARTH’S I NNER FORCES •
Most geological processes such as mountain building and erosion are slow by human
Plate Tectonics and Tsunamis standards and take thousands or millions of years to produce noticeable change. But vol-
Go to your WileyPLUS course canoes and earthquakes may transform a landscape in an instant, thus revealing the
to view video on this topic. tremendous energy stored in our dynamic planet (Figure 17-3).
• Figure 17-3 Mount St. Helens is an active volcano in Washington State. (a) In March 1980
prior to the eruption the volcano displayed a large bulge caused by a buildup of internal
pressure. (b) The violent eruption that took place on May 18, 1980, killed 57 people. (c) The
eruption literally blew the top off the mountain.
Science Source/USGS/Photo Researchers, Inc.
US Geological Survey/SLP/Photo Researchers, Inc. Calvin Larsen/Photo Researchers, Inc.
(a) (b) (c)

c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 357
Volcano • Figure 17-4 A cross section of a

Tephra volcano reveals a magma chamber,
Flow which stores molten rock, and a
system of pipes, cracks, and vents
that lead to the surface. The terms
in the orange area refer to the
kinds of rock formations resulting
from cooled magma. Xenoliths are
Dike the original rocks encased in this
Volcanic cooled magma.
pipe
Laccolith
Sill
Stock
Stock
Baron Wolman/Stone/Getty Images, Inc.

Dike
Batholith
Xenoliths
Volcanic eruptions provide the most spectacular process by which new mountains
are formed. In a typical volcano, subsurface molten rock called magma, concentrated
in Earth’s upper mantle or lower crust, breaks through to the surface, as shown in
Figure 17-4. This breakthrough may be sudden, giving rise to the kind of dramatic • Figure 17-5 The San Andreas
Fault in California is the site of many
events seen when Mount St. Helens exploded in 1980, or it may be relatively slow, with
earthquakes
a stately surface flow of molten rock, known as lava. In both cases, however, magma
eventually breaches the surface and hardens into new rock.
An earthquake occurs when rock suddenly breaks along a more or less flat surface,
called a fault. Have you ever stretched a thick, strong elastic band, only to have it snap • Figure 17-6 The December 2004
back painfully against your hand? You gradually added elastic potential energy to the band, tsunami in the Indian Ocean, which
and that energy was suddenly released—converted to violent kinetic energy. The same was triggered by an underwater
thing happens in an earthquake when stressed rock suddenly snaps (Figure 17-5). earthquake, caused great damage
When a brittle rock breaks, tremendous amounts of potential energy are released. and loss of life.
REUTERS/Beawiharta/Landov LLC
The two sides of a fault can’t fly apart like an elastic material can, so the energy is trans-
mitted in the form of a sound wave or seismic wave (see Chapter 6). These waves, trav-
eling at speeds of several kilometers per second, cause the ground to rise and fall like the
surface of the ocean. Normally “solid” ground sways and pitches in a motion that can
cause severe damage to buildings and other structures.
If an earthquake occurs under or near a large body of water, violent motions of the
ground can transfer energy into great ocean waves that can travel thousands of miles and
devastate low-lying coastal areas. Such waves are often referred to as “tidal waves,” though
they aren’t caused by tides. A more correct term is tsunamis, a Japanese word for harbor or
bay waves. The devastating tsunami of December 26, 2004, which killed hundreds of
thousands of people in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and other countries bor-
dering the Indian Ocean, was triggered by a strong earthquake off the west coast of North
Sumatra. Most of the death and destruction was caused by powerful waves that raced miles
inland across the shallow, populous coastal areas (Figure 17-6).
Fortunately, such destructive earthquakes and tsunamis are relatively rare, but smaller
earthquakes, barely noticeable to the average person, occur every day by the thousands.
Earthquakes were traditionally rated on the Richter scale, named after Charles Richter, the
American geologist who devised it. Technically, the Richter scale refers to the amount of
ground motion that would be measured by an instrument a fixed distance from the center
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 358
of the earthquake. The scale is such that each increase of 1 unit corresponds to 10 times
more ground motion. Thus an earthquake that measures 7 will have 100 times more
ground motion than one that measures 5, and so on. Today, a similar magnitude scale,
based on energy release, is used.
Earthquakes that measure around 5 on the magnitude scale will be felt by most peo-
ple but will do little damage in areas with well-constructed buildings. An earthquake
between 6 and 7 will do considerable damage to buildings, and a magnitude 8 earth-
quake will level large areas. The earthquake that occurred in the San Francisco Bay area in
October 1989 measured 7.1 and was dubbed the “Pretty Big One” by Californians who
are waiting for what they call the “Big One.” The powerful December 2004 earthquake
that triggered the Indian Ocean tsunami measured 8.9 on the magnitude scale. No earth-
quakes greater than 9 on the magnitude scale have ever been recorded, probably because
no rocks can store that much energy before they rupture.
The puzzle remains, however: Where does all the energy that powers volcanoes and
earthquakes come from?
THE M OVEMENT OF THE C ONTINENTS •

Geologists have faced other mysteries as well. Think about a large map of the world. In
your mind, move North and South America eastward toward Eurasia and Africa. Have
you ever noticed how the two coastlines seem to fit together (Figure 17-7)?
English statesman and natural philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626) pointed out
this fact in 1620, though he had no simple explanation for the observation. It wasn’t
until the beginning of the twentieth century, however, that anyone took the parallel
coastlines seriously enough to ask about the origin of this pattern. In 1912, a German
meteorologist named Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) proposed that Earth’s continents
are in motion. The reason that the Americas fit so well into the coastline of Europe and
• Figure 17-7 A map of the world’s continents reveals the similar shapes of coastlines on
the two sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Arctic Circle
Asia
60˚
Europe
North
America
40˚
Tropic of Cancer
India
20˚ Africa
Equator
0˚
South
America
20˚
Tropic of Capricorn Australia
40˚
60˚
160˚ 140˚ 120˚ 100˚ 80˚ 40˚ 20˚ 0˚ 20˚ 40˚ 60˚ 80˚ 100˚ 120˚ 140˚ 160˚
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 359
Africa, he suggested, is that they were once joined and have since
Marie Tharp 1977/2003. Reproduced by permission of Marie Tharp Oceanographic Cartographer, South Nyack, NY
been torn apart.
Wegener’s theory, called continental drift, was eventually dis-
missed by most Earth scientists. He amassed some geological evi-
dence to back it up, such as the matching locations of distinctive rock
formations on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. But most of this
evidence was fragmentary and unconvincing to other scientists;
indeed, some of Wegener’s arguments later turned out to be wrong.
More importantly, he failed to provide any reasonable mechanism by
which continents could move. For most of the twentieth century,
continental drift was regarded as a far-fetched exercise in theory, and
few geologists paid much attention to it. Beginning about 1960,
however, geologists and oceanographers obtained new evidence to
support one aspect of Wegener’s notion—the idea that the conti-
nents are not fixed.
The discovery that continents do indeed move required the
merging of very different kinds of newly acquired geological
evidence—topographic profiles of the oceans’ floors, maps of rock
magnetism, and data on rock ages.
1. Ocean Floors
When the contours of ocean floors were mapped in the years fol-
lowing World War II, oceanographers discovered remarkable,
unsuspected features. Most scientists thought that the deep ocean
bottoms were simply flat plains, passively collecting the sediments
that gradually eroded off the ancient continents. Instead they found
steep-walled canyons and lofty mountains, indicating that the
seafloor is as dynamic and changing as the continents themselves
(Figure 17-8). The longest mountain range on Earth, for example,
is not on a continent, but in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. • Figure 17-8 A topographic map
Called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, this feature extends from Iceland in the North Atlantic to of ocean floors reveals dramatic
the South Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic. Similar long ridges, which are found mountain chains, deep flat plains,
beneath all of Earth’s oceans, are sites of continuous geological activity, including canyons, and trenches. These fea-
numerous earthquakes, volcanoes, and lava flows. In fact, oceanographers have now tures suggest that ocean basins are
mapped more than 85,000km of ocean ridges. active geological regions.
2. Magnetic Reversals
To understand the nature of magnetic data, the second kind of evidence that pointed to
continental motion, you have to recall that Earth has a magnetic field with north and
south magnetic poles. For reasons that are not fully understood, this field changes direc-
tion sporadically over time—something like an electromagnet in which the direction of
current in the coils changes occasionally (see Chapter 5). More than 300 reversals of
Earth’s magnetic field have been recorded in ancient rocks spanning about 200 million
years. During recent episodes of reversed fields, Earth’s north magnetic pole was located
somewhere in what is now Antarctica, and the south magnetic pole somewhere above the
Arctic Circle in the Canada-Greenland region.
When lava flows out of a fissure, it contains small crystals of natural iron oxides, includ-
ing the naturally magnetic mineral magnetite. These bits of iron ore act as tiny magnets, and
because the rock is still in a fluid state, their magnetic dipoles are free to turn around and
align themselves in a north-south direction parallel to Earth’s magnetic field. Think of these
mineral grains as small compass needles embedded in the fluid rock. Once the rock hardens,
however, the bits of magnetite are frozen in place—they can no longer move. Thus the vol-
canic rock carries within it a memory of where the magnetic north pole was when the rock
solidified. If we examine the tiny compass needles, we can tell whether Earth’s magnetic
field was oriented as it is today or whether it was reversed. The field devoted to the study of
this sort of effect is called paleomagnetism, and it came into maturity in the early 1960s.
In the mid-1950s, an oceanic exploration ship named Pioneer began taking magnetic
measurements near the ocean floor off the coast of Washington State. At first the data
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 360
made little sense, but as more and more profiles were

obtained, a puzzling pattern of stripes on the ocean floor
began to emerge. It seemed that there were parallel strips
of rock in which the magnetic direction in neighboring
strips alternated. (We show some of the original data in
Figure 17-9.) Through the mid-1960s, Earth scientists col-
lected more and more data of this type, and it soon became
clear that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the East Pacific Rise,
and many other places on ocean floors show the same pat-
tern of alternating magnetic stripes.
How could these magnetic stripes be explained? In an
environment in which the orientations of north and south
magnetic poles were switching back and forth over time,
the only way to get the observed striping is shown in
Figure 17-10. The seafloor must be getting wider, a process
called seafloor spreading, as new molten rock comes from
deep within Earth and erupts through fissures on the ocean
bottom. Over time, this new rock will be pushed aside as
the continents move apart and as more magma comes up to
take its place. The “compass needles” in this newer rock
will point to the location of the magnetic north pole when
they reach the surface. Each new batch of magma will solid-
ify and lock in the current magnetic orientation, despite any
further reversals. Each time Earth’s magnetic field reverses,
the dipole direction of the planet’s magnetic field changes
and gets locked into the newly formed rock. Thus, over long
periods of time, we would expect to see alternating bands of
magnetic orientation—exactly the kind of zebra-striped pat-
tern of alternating north and south compass orientations
• Figure 17-9 Measurements in the shown in Figure 17-10.
late 1950s and early 1960s revealed 3. Rock Ages
magnetic stripes running nearly par- The conclusions from magnetic data were reinforced by studies of the age of volcanic
allel to the coastlines of Vancouver rocks in the oceanic crust. Volcanic rocks contain radioactive isotopes that can be used to
Province in Canada and Washington
measure how long ago they erupted (see Chapter 12). Rocks near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
State.
and other similar features were found to be quite young, a few million years old or less.
Rocks collected successively farther away from the ridge proved to be successively older.
• Figure 17-10 Magnetic stripes
that parallel ocean ridges must form
as new magma wells up from the fis- Stop and Think! Given what you know about the scientific method, why
sure and pushes out to the sides. In do you suppose scientists accept the movement of continents as a fact today,
this cross-sectional view, older rocks but didn’t accept it in Wegener’s time?
lie farther from the ridge. The
“lithosphere” is the relatively cool
and rigid outer portion of Earth’s sur-
face that includes the uppermost
N EW S UPPORT FOR THE THEORY •
mantle and all of the crust. It moves The new data on the topography of ocean floors, as well as the magnetic properties and
as a unit because of its rigidity. ages of its rocks, suggested to many scientists that the width of the Atlantic Ocean must
Oceanic be increasing yearly as the seafloor spreads. Eurasia and North America, it
ridge Newest crust
appears, are moving apart. Could the hypothesis that this distance is
Oldest increasing be tested by an experimental measurement?
crust
Up until the late 1980s no one was able to measure the motion of
continents directly. The breakthrough came from an unexpected source—
radio astronomy. Astronomers in North America and Europe trained
radio telescopes on distant quasars (see Chapter 15). By measuring the
times of arrival of the crests of the same radio wave, astronomers were able
to get very accurate measurements of the distance between their tele-
Oceanic Lithosphere Magma Lithosphere scopes. By repeating these sorts of experiments over a period of a few
crust moves rises years, they were able to measure exactly the separation of the continents.
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Plate Tectonics: A Unifying View of Earth | 361
Their work shows that North America is separating from Europe at the rate of about
5 centimeters (about 2 inches) a year.

The Age of the Atlantic Ocean
If continents are constantly moving at speeds up to several centimeters per year, what
would a map of Earth’s surface have looked like millions of years ago? We can make an 240 million years ago
educated guess by using present rates of movement and “reversing the tape,” so to
speak. We know, for example, that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean is spreading at about
5 centimeters per year. Assuming that the rate of spreading has remained more or less
constant, how old is the Atlantic Ocean?
To calculate the answer, we need to apply the familiar equation for travel time:
distance
time of travel ⫽
speed
(You use the same relationship every time you estimate the driving time for a vacation.)
The speed in this equation is the spreading rate, 5 cm per year, and the present width
120 million years ago
of the Atlantic is approximately 7000km, or 7 ⫻108 cm. The Atlantic Ocean began
to open, therefore, at
7 ⫻ 108 cm
time ⫽
15 cm>yr2
⫽ 1.4 ⫻ 108 years
⫽ 140 million years
By this calculation, 140 million years ago Europe and the Americas must have been
joined together because there was no Atlantic Ocean! In fact, by retracing the wander-
ing paths of continents, Earth scientists have discovered that 200 million years ago what
we now call the continents of North America, South America, Eurasia, and Africa were Present
locked together in one giant continent called Pangaea (Figure 17-11). A map of that • Figure 17-11 Once the motion of
ancient Earth would be all but unrecognizable, with a huge landmass on one side of the continents was determined, scientists
globe and a giant ocean on the other. could predict how Earth’s surface
By the same token, 100 million years from now Earth’s continents will have moved might have looked in the past. More
than 200 million years ago, the
thousands of kilometers and appear completely different from today’s arrangement. •
present-day continents were joined
together as the ancient continent
Stop and Think! How much farther apart are Europe and North America Pangaea.
since you were born?
Plate Tectonics: A Unifying View of Earth

The compelling model of the dynamic Earth that has emerged from studies of the ocean
floor, paleomagnetism, rock dating, and much other data is called plate tectonics. “Tec-
tonics” is related to the word “architect” and carries the connotation of building or
putting things together. Plate tectonics develops a picture of the world that explains
many of Earth’s large-scale surface features and related phenomena.
The central idea of the plate tectonics theory is that Earth’s surface is broken up
into about a dozen large pieces (as well as a number of smaller ones) called tectonic
plates (Figure 17-12). Each plate is a rigid, moving sheet of rock up to 100 kilometers
(60 miles) thick, composed of the crust and part of the upper mantle. Oceanic plates
have an average 8–10 kilometer thickness of dense rock known as basalt on top of the
mantle rock. Continental plates have an average 35 kilometer thickness of lower density
rock, such as granite, capping the basalt.
The tectonic plate boundaries are not the same as those of the continents and
oceans. Some plates have continents on all or part of their surface, while some are covered
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 362
Plate
North boundary
American uncertain
Eurasian Plate
Plate Hellenic
a Plate
Iranian Plate Aleutian
Aleutian Trench
Trench Juan de
Fuca Plate Japan Trench
b Anatolian Mariana Trench

Plate Arabian
Plate
Caribbean Philippine
id
M
Plate
-A Plate
Cocos t la Pacific
Pacific Plate Plate nti
cR African Plate
id g e Plate av
J
e
aT
re
is
P er
nc
Pacific R
h
Tonga
South American
u-
Trench
C
hil
Nazca Plate
e
Australian-Indian Plate
Trench
Plate
East
x
Antarctic Plate
Scotia
Antarctic Plate Plate
Oceanic Ridge
Seafloor Trench
Transform Faults
Uncertain Boundaries
• Figure 17-12 Earth’s major tectonic plates form a jigsaw puzzle of our planet’s surface.
The arrows show the relative directions and magnitudes of plate motions.
only by oceanic crust. Most of the North American continent, for example, rests on the
8000-kilometer-wide North American Plate, which extends from the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Plate on the West Coast.
About one quarter of Earth’s surface is covered by continent; the rest is ocean. On
timescales of millions of years, the plates shift about on the planet’s surface, carrying the
continents with them like passengers on a raft. Thus it’s not the motion of the conti-
nents themselves that is fundamental to understanding Earth’s dynamics, but the
constant motion of the underlying plates. Continental motion (what Wegener called
continental drift) is just one manifestation of that plate motion.
THE C ONVECTING MANTLE •

Nothing happens without a force. What force could possibly be large enough to move
not only the continents, but also the plates of which they are a part? Many geophysicists
accept the theory that continents move as a result of the forces generated by mantle
convection deep within Earth—motions driven by our planet’s internal heat energy.
Two sources of energy contribute to Earth’s interior heat. Some of this heat energy
is left over from the gravitational potential energy released during the great bombard-
ment and differentiation of the mantle and core as Earth formed (see Chapter 16). The
decay of uranium and other radioactive elements (see Chapter 12), which are fairly com-
mon throughout Earth’s core and mantle, provides a second important source of heat
energy. These radioactive elements decay over time and produce energetic, fast-moving
decay products—particles that collide with atoms and molecules in surrounding rocks
and give up their energy as heat. Deep inside Earth, all this heat energy softens rocks to
the point that they can flow slowly like hot taffy.
In Chapter 4 we saw that heat energy, once generated, must move spontaneously
toward cooler regions. The heat generated in Earth’s interior, for example, must eventu-
ally be radiated into space. If Earth were somewhat smaller, or if only small amounts of
heat were generated, the energy could be carried to the surface entirely by conduction—
the movement of heat by atomic collisions. This process operates in the Moon and Mars,
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 363
for example. In the case of Earth, however,

there is too much internal heat to be carried
by conduction alone. Rocks in the mantle
have been heated to the point where they are Earth’s
able to flow slowly, and immense convection surface
cells are set up deep within Earth’s mantle.
According to this model, mantle rocks behave
something like water in a boiling pot (see
Chapter 4). Convection Convection
There are, of course, very important dif- cell cell
ferences between Earth’s mantle and a boiling
pot—in particular, the timescales. Solid rock
Outer
cannot flow significantly on timescales compa- core
rable to human lifetimes. But give soft, hot
Mantle Heat
rocks a few hundred million years and they can energy
Inner
move large distances. Earth scientists now esti- core
mate that Earth’s convection cells go through
a full cycle—with hot rocks rising from the
lower mantle, cooling near the surface, and
falling back to be replaced by other, warmer
rocks—on a timescale of about 200 million
years. In effect, Earth behaves something like a
• Figure 17-13 Heat moves from
giant spherical stove, with burners on the inside and circulating rocks bringing the heat to earth’s interior through the process
the surface (Figure 17-13). of convection in the mantle. Hot
At the very top, these partially molten, circulating mantle rocks encounter the compar- magma rises, cools off, and sinks,
atively thin plates that cover the surface in a relatively cool, brittle layer. Along the oceanic moving the plates and their conti-
ridges the brittle plates fracture and basaltic lava erupts, initiating seafloor spreading and nental passengers as it does so.
plate motion. The plates move along with the convection cells underneath them, more or
less as a film of oil on boiling water would move along on top of the water. The plates shift
around, bash into each other, join each other, and are split apart in a constant dance. And
on top of these plates, floating along like a thin scum, with no control whatsoever over their
destiny, are the continents—the places that we call the “solid Earth.”
The theory of plate tectonics caused a revolution in the earth sciences. For the first
time, evidence from many different earth science disciplines had been brought together
to form a single, coherent picture of our planet. This theory includes the oceans, the
landmasses, the planet’s deep interior, and the interconnections among all these systems.
There was a time when geologists of different specialties—women and men who studied
the ocean currents or ancient fossils, ore deposits or the planet’s deep interior—had lit-
tle to say to each other. That situation is no longer true. All of these different disciplines
now share a common way of looking at Earth and thus are able to give each other ideas
and gain breadth and depth from interactions with each other. It may be that your col-
lege or university no longer has a department of geology but instead has a department
called earth sciences or environmental sciences. These changes in name are more than
just bureaucratic shufflings. They represent a very real change in the way scientists view
and study planet Earth.
Reactions to Plate Tectonics

At first, geologists confronted by the observations of magnetic stripes on the ocean
floors, rock ages, and other seemingly odd data tried to find an explanation that did not
require new seafloor to be created. All geologists had been taught a “fixed Earth” model
in their college courses, and that was the standard picture of our planet they used in their
work. Most of these scientists were not prepared to accept this radical new idea, that the
continents might actually move, without a fight.
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Some experts questioned the statistical significance of the magnetic data, and they
wondered whether the distinctive striped patterns weren’t the result of some as-yet
unknown effect (such as small electrical currents running around the ocean floor). Oth-
ers simply tried to ignore the whole thing. But as geologists and oceanographers col-
lected more data—as new measurements of magnetic patterns and more precise rock
ages were obtained—the evidence for seafloor spreading simply became overwhelming.
In a very short time, less than a decade from the time the first puzzling data from the
Pioneer expedition came in, geologists had for the most part accepted a theory that radi-
cally changed many of the central principles of their discipline. This dramatic change in
perspective brings us back to a point we made in Chapter 1. Good scientists will eventu-
ally accept the implications of their observations, regardless of whether those implications
violate conventional ideas. A scientist can’t look at data without some preconceived
notions. Few scientists, for example, took the original continental drift arguments of
Wegener seriously because, in part, no obvious mechanism could cause entire continents
to move.
We should note in passing that, although Wegener’s theory contained one feature of
modern theories, namely, moving continents, continental drift was not plate tectonics.
Wegener predicted, for example, that the average elevation of continents would increase
with time—a prediction not confirmed by careful measurements. But as more and more
data supported the more convincing plate tectonics model, the majority of Earth scien-
tists readily changed their notions as the data demanded it.
The fact that the fixed Earth—one of the most revered and widely accepted geologi-
cal theories—could be abandoned in the space of a few years when confronted by power-
ful contrary evidence indicates that the scientific method works. It also shows that many of
the arguments one hears from the proponents of pseudosciences such as UFOs, astrology,
creation science, and the like—arguments to the effect that the scientific community rou-
tinely closes its mind to new ideas and will not accept them—are simply wrong. Scientific
theories, unlike the untestable claims of pseudoscience, are subject to repeated scrutiny
and can be falsified. When confronted with overwhelming evidence, scientists are, indeed,
prepared to accept new ideas and abandon the old “conventional wisdom.” •
P LATE B OUNDARIES •
The boundaries between Earth’s tectonic plates are active sites that determine much of
the geological character of the surface. Three main types of boundaries separate Earth’s
tectonic plates: divergent plate boundaries, convergent plate boundaries, and transform
plate boundaries.
1. Divergent Plate Boundaries
We saw one aspect of plate motion when we talked about seafloor spreading at the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, where new plate material is formed. We can now understand how such a
• Figure 17-14 A divergent plate spreading feature arises. In Figure 17-14, we show what happens when plates lie above a
boundary defines a line along which zone where magma comes to the surface. Not only does the volcanic action form a chain
new plate material is formed from of mountains, but the motion of the magma also pushes the two adjoining plates farther
volcanic rock. and farther away from each other. The newly erupted molten material cools to rock and
Spreading becomes new plate material. As the brittle tectonic plates crack and separate, shallow
center earthquakes of relatively low energy occur. This mechanism drives the seafloor spreading
Sea level
that gave us our first indication of the nature of continental motion. Such a spreading
Oceanic crust
zone of crustal formation is called a divergent plate boundary.
When a divergent plate boundary occurs on the ocean floor, the seafloor spreads,
basalt lava erupts from the newly created fissures, the two plates are pushed apart, and
any continents that might be located on other portions of those plates are pushed apart
Magma as well. Eurasia and North America, for example, are separating right now at the rate of
rises
about 5 centimeters per year; consequently, the Atlantic Ocean is getting wider. Note
that old spreading centers, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are always located in the
middle of an ocean.
New spreading centers, on the other hand, may begin anywhere, even in the mid-
dle of a continent. If a continent happens to be sitting above what will eventually
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 365
become a divergent plate boundary, then the continent itself will be literally torn
Courtesy NASA
apart. The Great East African Rift Valley, which extends south from Ethiopia, along
the east coastal interior of central Africa to the coast of Mozambique, and north into
Israel and Syria, is a modern-day example of this motion. Millions of years in the
future, an ocean may separate the western part of Africa from the eastern part. In fact,
at the point where the Great Rift Valley crosses the African coast, this sea is already
beginning to form. Look at the Dead Sea, Red Sea, and Gulf of Aqaba and you will see
this rift in progress (Figure 17-15).
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries
Earth is not getting any larger. If new material pushes tectonic plates apart at places such
as the oceanic ridges, then old plate material must be pushed together and taken into
Earth’s interior somewhere else. A place where two plates are coming together is called
a convergent plate boundary.
At most convergent plate boundaries, one plate sinks beneath another to form a
subduction zone. The plate that is subducted, or “taken beneath,” in this way sinks down
to rejoin the mantle material from which it came.
Earth scientists observe three broadly different kinds of surface features associated • Figure 17-15 A satellite photo-
with convergent plate boundaries, all shown in Figure 17-16. First, if no continents are graph of a portion of Africa’s Great
Rift Valley. The narrow body of water
on the leading edge of either of the two converging plates, the result will be a deep ocean
defines a divergent plate boundary
trench. As one plate penetrates into Earth’s interior, it can bend and buckle the adjacent where new plate material is being
plate to produce a deep furrow in the ocean floor (Figure 17-16a). Melting of the sub- created and plates are moving out to
ducting slab at depths of 100 or 200 kilometers can generate magma. The hot magma either side.
slowly rises toward the surface and, if the magma penetrates the overlying ocean crust,
continuing eruptions of lava will build a chain of volcanic islands adjacent to the trench.
The Marianas Trench, the deepest point in the world’s oceans (11 kilometers or about
7 miles deep, 2 kilometers deeper than Mount Everest is high) near the volcanic coast-
line of the Philippines, is an example of just such a subduction zone and volcanic terrain
(Figure 17-16b).
A very different situation occurs if continents ride on top of both converging plates:
they will collide. Continental material will be compressed together like crumpled cloth
and pushed up to form a high, jagged mountain chain (Figure 17-16c). The Himalayas,
for example, which began to form about 30 million years ago, are still growing taller at
about 1 centimeter per year as the once-separate Indian subcontinent collides with Asia
(Figure 17-16d). Similarly, the Ural Mountains mark the point at which Europe and
Asia were welded together, and the Alps mark the point at which the Italian peninsula
was joined to Europe. All of these geological processes involve the production of mid-
continent mountain chains.
Finally, if a continent rests at the leading edge of only one of the two colliding
plates, the denser oceanic plate will subduct beneath the continent (Figure 17-16e). Just
as in the case where two oceanic plates converge, a deep trench may form a short dis-
tance offshore, while the continental material may be crumpled into a coastal mountain
range. In addition, the subducting tectonic slab may partially melt and thus provide
magma that rises to form a chain of volcanic mountains parallel to the coast. The Andes
Mountains of South America and the Cascade Mountains of the northwestern United
States are spectacular examples of this phenomenon (Figure 17-16f).
Roughly speaking, Earth’s oceanic plate material renews itself about every 200 million
years. The process of seafloor spreading and subduction is constantly replacing the
ocean crust, while the lower-density continental plate material experiences no subduction.
This process explains why, whereas some rocks on ancient continents formed billions of
years ago and are still preserved there, no rocks on the ocean floor are older than about
200 million years.
3. Transform Plate Boundaries
The third kind of boundary between plates occurs when one plate scrapes past the other,
with no new plate material being produced. This kind of plate contact is called a
transform plate boundary and is shown in Figure 17-17a. The most famous transform
boundary (and the only active plate boundary in the continental United States) is the
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 366
Deep ocean
Ocean-Ocean trench
Peter Hendrie/Lonely Planet Images

(a) (b)
Continent-Continent
Christophe Boisvieux/AGE Fotostock

Nonvolcanic mountains
Lithosphere
(c)
Deep ocean (d)
trench Volcanic mountains
Ocean-Continent
Marc Adamus/Aurora/Getty Images, Inc.

Oceanic plate
(e) (f)
• Figure 17-16 Convergent plate boundaries may display a variety of surface features,
depending on the distribution of continental material. (a) When neither tectonic plate carries
continental material at the convergent boundary, then a subduction zone is formed. A deep-
ocean trench and chain of island volcanoes are often created in this case. (b) (c) When both
tectonic plates carry continental material at the boundary, the continental materials buckle
and fold to form nonvolcanic mountains. (d) (e) When only one tectonic plate carries conti-
nental material at the boundary, the oceanic plate will subduct beneath the continent.
A deep trench may form offshore and a coastal mountain range will form on land. (f)
San Andreas Fault in California. At the San Andreas Fault, the Pacific Plate is moving
northwestward with respect to the North American Plate at the rate of several centime-
ters a year (Figure 17-17b).
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James Balog/Stone/Getty Images, Inc.

Plate 2
Plate 1
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
(a) (b)
• Figure 17-17 (a) A transform plate boundary, showing the relative motions of the adjacent
plates. (b) The San Andreas Fault in California marks the transform boundary between the
North American Plate and the Pacific Plate.
The process by which two plates slide past each other is not smooth. Over time, the
motion of plates compresses and strains rocks at the boundary. Friction normally prevents
the stressed rocks from moving, but periodically the rocks simply break, moving as much as
several meters in one sudden burst. When they do so, an earthquake occurs. No mountain
building or volcanism is associated with transform boundaries.
Upright Posture
Have you ever wondered why human beings are among the very few animals on Earth
that walk upright? Some scientists speculate that it was the adaptation of upright walk-
ing, which freed our hands, that led eventually to the use of tools and development of
increased brain size in humans. Richard Leakey, a well-known anthropologist, has sug-
gested that our upright posture might have resulted indirectly from movements of
Earth’s tectonic plates.
His argument goes like this: 30 million years ago, most of eastern Africa was covered
by a lush jungle. No fewer than 20 different species of apes, including our ancestral
species, flourished in that environment and were especially well adapted to living in
trees. When a divergent boundary started to pull the continent apart along the East
African Rift Valley, the environment started to change. The forest began to disappear, to
be replaced first by open plains dotted with stands of trees, and finally, 3 million years
ago, by the savannah that exists there today. Most of the apes became extinct long
before our 3-million-year-old ancestors, but Leakey argues that walking upright and
being able to get rapidly from one forest “island” to another would have been a distinct
advantage in that sort of environment. The result, according to Leakey, is that today
there are only three kinds of descendants from those apes in Africa—gorillas, chim-
panzees, and human beings. •
THE G EOLOGICAL H ISTORY OF N ORTH AMERICA •

The epic movements of tectonic plates provided geologists with a new way of thinking
about the history of Earth’s surface. Earth scientists now use our understanding of plate
tectonics to tell us something about the formation of our own continent. The oldest
parts of the North American continent are in northeastern Canada and Greenland. Here
we find large geological formations of rocks several billion years old that form the core
of the continent (see Appendix C for more details for the geological timescale). Over
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Terranes from
the Pacific
Ocean added Rocky
to the western Mountains
United States Appalachian
Sierra
Nevada
Mountains formed
about 450 to 300
Wichita million years ago
Colorado Kansas
Plateaus
• Figure 17-18 The growth of the North American continent involved many different
geological processes, as discussed in the text.
USGS
long periods of time, land was added to this continent by tectonic activity. Most of the
western part of the United States, for example, is made up of small chunks of land called
terranes—masses of rock several hundred kilometers across (Figure 17-18). Originally,
these terranes were large islands in the Pacific Ocean, but they were carried toward the
North American continent by plate activity and added to the mainland as tectonic plates
converged. The hills near Wichita, Kansas, for example, are old mountains that once
marked the addition of a large South American terrane onto what then comprised North
America. (The idea that Wichita might have once had oceanfront property is one of the
strange discoveries that comes out of plate tectonics.)
The Appalachian Mountains, which may at one time have rivaled the Himalayas in
majesty, were formed over a period from about 450 to 300 million years ago when the
continents that are now Eurasia and Africa slowly converged into the continent that is now
North America. A series of long folds and fractures—structures that formed the present-
day Appalachian Mountains—appeared in the surface rocks. This process explains, for
example, why roads in the mountainous regions of the eastern part of the United States
tend to run from southwest to northeast. They follow the mountain valleys that were cre-
ated by erosion of these folded rocks. Thick wedges of sediments eroded off the moun-
tains, forming the Coastal Plains of eastern North America and contributing to the
sediments of the Great Plains.
The dramatic geological features of the western United States record a great variety
of mountain-forming events. The Rocky Mountains rose approximately 60 million years
ago from a broad warping and subsequent folding and fracturing of continental material.
The Colorado Plateau, comprising parts of the states of Colorado, Arizona, and New
Mexico, experienced a more gentle uplift, as rivers incised features such as the Grand
Canyon. The Sierra Nevada range formed more recently when molten rock pushed up a
huge block of sediments. These processes of uplift and erosion continue to this day in
many places around the world.
Another Look at Volcanoes and Earthquakes

Plate tectonics provides us with a dynamic picture of our planet. Plates continually move
over the hot, partially molten rocks in the mantle. They converge together, move apart,
and scrape by each other. In the process, tall mountain chains are slowly and steadily
uplifted and worn down, and wide ocean basins are opened and closed as continents
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Another Look at Volcanoes and Earthquakes | 369
come together and split apart. Nothing on Earth is permanent, Plate Plate
because heat continuously flows from the hot interior to the cooler
surface, and mantle convection provides the primary mechanism for Sea level
that heat transfer. The scale of these ongoing processes is vast, nearly
outside our ability to comprehend, but we are occasionally reminded
of the power of geological processes.
Volcano
For thousands of years humans have realized that Earth’s most
Trench
violent events—volcanoes and earthquakes—do not occur randomly.
Oceanic crust
Earthquakes are common in California and Alaska, but extremely rare
in Kansas or Florida. Volcanoes are commonplace in Hawaii and the Lithosphere
Pacific Northwest but never appear in New York or Texas. Why should
this be? Plate tectonics provides an answer.
Asthenosphere:
weak, hot
P LATES AND VOLCANISM •
The global distribution of volcanoes may be understood in terms of Wet partial melting of
oceanic crust creates
the principles of plate tectonics. Volcanoes are common in three geo- magma
logical situations: along divergent plate boundaries, near convergent
plate boundaries, or above places called “hot spots.”
1. Divergent Plate Boundaries • Figure 17-19 Volcanoes form
above a subduction zone when
The formation of new crust along volcanic spreading ridges of divergent plate boundaries
heated plate material partially melts.
is the principal way that new crustal rocks are formed (see Figure 17-14). New basaltic The hot magma rises through the
plate material forms at the rate of a few centimeters per year along about 85,000km of overlying crust to form a chain of
oceanic ridges around the world. volcanic islands.
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries
Volcanoes are also common near subduction zones, except where two continental tec-
tonic plates collide. As water-rich crustal material plunges into the mantle, it becomes
hotter and may partially melt. This magma, which is highly mobile fluid rock, rises to the
surface to form chains of volcanoes, typically about 200 kilometers inland from the line
of subduction. The “Ring of Fire,” a dramatic string of volcanoes that borders much of
the Pacific Ocean, is a direct consequence of plate subduction (Figure 17-19).
The volcanoes that form the Cascade Mountain chain along the northwestern coast
of the United States (including Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens) are striking
examples of the processes associated with subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a con-
tinent (see Figure 17-16e). Frequent dramatic eruptions of similar volcanoes in Central
America, Japan, and the Philippines point to other places where subduction and volcan-
ism occur in tandem.
3. Hot Spots
Finally, hot spots are a dramatic type of volcanism indirectly associated with plate tecton-
ics. Earth scientists recognize dozens of hot spots around the world, including Hawaii,
Yellowstone Park, Iceland, and others where large isolated chimney-like columns of rising
hot rock, also known as mantle plumes, rise to the surface more or less like bubbles coming
to the surface in water being heated on a stove. These plumes may originate in the lower
mantle or even at the core–mantle boundary. On a geological timescale, sources of hot
spots are relatively stationary, so if a tectonic plate slowly moves over the fixed hot spot, the
result will be a chain of volcanoes like the Hawaiian Islands that are built through a series
of basaltic lava eruptions (Figure 17-20). These islands were created one at a time as the
Pacific Plate moved above the localized hot spot. The present-day volcano Kilauea on the
“big island” of Hawaii, the site of most of the island chain’s active volcanism, is directly
over a hot spot. The volcanic islands to the northwest are progressively older, as well as
smaller owing to erosion, revealing that the motion of the Pacific Plate is also toward the
northwest. In fact, a series of eroded submarine peaks that were islands millions of years
ago stretches hundreds of kilometers farther to the northwest. In several million years, the
most northwesterly of the present Hawaiian Islands will have been eroded beneath the
waves, but new volcanic activity has already begun on the ocean floor southeast of Kilauea,
promising a new island that has already been given the name “Loihi” by islanders.
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NASA/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Hawaiian islands
Kauai
Oahu
Molokai Plate motion
Maui
Hawaii
Fixed hot spot
(a) (b)
• Figure 17-20 (a) The Hawaiian Islands stretch along a northwest-southeast line. (b) The
ages of these islands reveal the northwesterly motion of the Pacific Plate over a fixed hot spot.
As the Pacific Plate moves, new volcanic islands are created to the southeast, while older
islands erode away. The island of Kauai, currently the oldest, is between 3 and 5.5 million
years old, while Hawaii, the youngest island, is less than 0.8 million years old.
E ARTHQUAKES •
Stress builds up in brittle rock for several reasons. Heated rock expands and cooling rock
contracts—changes that cause a solid formation to warp and distort. Rock may also
become stressed in response to changes in pressure, as overlying mountains wear away or
new layers of sediment weigh down. And, of course, stress builds up to extreme levels as
two tectonic plates attempt to move past each other at a transform plate boundary.
Earthquakes may be felt near any plate boundary. Minor shallow earthquakes occur
near divergent plate boundaries as two oceanic plates move apart. Stronger earthquakes,
including “deep-focus” earthquakes originating more than 100 kilometers down, occur
near subduction zones. Many of the most destructive shocks in Japan are of this type. In
the United States, earthquakes at the transform plate boundary along the San Andreas
Fault receive the most attention because of the fault’s unusual activity, length, and prox-
imity to major population centers. There are, however, occasional earthquakes in the
middle of plates—in Missouri, for example. Such events may arise from gradual warping
of the wide, brittle North American Plate, though the origins of these earthquakes are
still not fully understood.
SEISMOLOGY: EXPLORING EARTH’S I NTERIOR

WITH EARTHQUAKES •
Scientists who study earthquakes have discovered that these violent events provide the
best means for exploring the deep interior of our planet. Geologists can’t get their hands
on much more than the outer 10km or so of rock layers. Almost everything we know
about Earth’s interior deeper than a few kilometers has to be obtained by indirect
means. The science of seismology, the study and measurement of sound vibrations
within Earth, is dedicated to deducing our planet’s inner structure.
The basic idea of seismology is simple. When an earthquake or explosion occurs,
waves of vibrational energy (see Chapter 5) move out through the rocks. Some of these
waves travel through Earth’s center, others move along the surface, and still others
bounce off layers deep within the planet.
So-called seismic waves come in two principal types (see Chapter 6). Compressional
or longitudinal waves are like sound—the molecules in the rock move back and forth
in the same direction as the wave. Shear waves, on the other hand, are transverse
waves, like water waves in which the molecules move up and down perpendicular to the
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Another Look at Volcanoes and Earthquakes | 371

Source of the seismic wave • Figure 17-21 Seismic waves
0˚ passing through Earth can take a
variety of paths. The speeds of
30˚ 30˚
compressional waves (shown in
5 m
in red, dashed lines) and shear
waves (in black, dashed lines) are
10 m
n
different depending on the type
mi
ni
5
60˚ 60˚ of rock, its temperature, and the
15 m
5 min pressure. Shear waves, further-
more, cannot travel through the
in
liquid outer core, which results in
min
20 a ”shadow zone” that reveals the
10
size of the liquid outer core.
mi
n
90˚ 10 min 90˚

Outer Inner
core core
103˚ 103˚
25
mi
n
15 min
120˚ 120˚
Mantle
Sh
ad
ow 143˚
zo 20 min
ne 20 min
150˚ 150˚
180˚
direction of wave motion. These kinds of waves travel through rock at different veloc-
ities depending, among other things, on the rock type, its temperature, and the pressure.
After a major earthquake, scientists at laboratories around the world record the intensity
and time of arrival of the various kinds of waves, both those that pass along the surface
and those that pass through Earth’s interior (Figure 17-21). By comparing the arrival
behavior of waves from the same earthquake at many different sites on Earth’s surface, a
computer can construct a picture of the material through which those waves passed.
• Figure 17-22 A seismic tomo-
graph provides a picture of Earth’s
deep interior, based on millions of
THE O NGOING P ROCESS OF S CIENCE • individual measurements of seismic
wave velocities. This image reveals
Seismic Tomography hot rocks (red) around the Pacific
Ocean rim, and cooler rocks (blue)
The picture of Earth we give in Chapter 16, in
under the continents.
which we talk about the solid and liquid core,
Paul Morin
the layered mantle, and the thin brittle crust,
comes from studies of seismic waves. Now, as
more and more seismic data are collected, and
ever-faster computers permit new ways to
process those data, a new branch of Earth sci-
ence called seismic tomography is enabling
geophysicists to obtain astonishing three-
dimensional pictures of Earth’s deep interior,
including deep regions of different rock types
and magma (Figure 17-22). We are now able
to document the basic movements of cold sub-
ducting slabs, hot upwelling mantle plumes,
and the convection cells that characterize plate
tectonics. •
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TECHNOLOGY •
The Design of Earthquake-Resistant Buildings

Most of the people who die in earthquakes die because of falling buildings, not because
of the violent shaking. Over the past few decades, structural engineers have learned a
great deal about how to design buildings so that they do not collapse during an earth-
quake (Figure 17-23). The basic problem they face is how to construct a building that
will maintain its integrity when the ground on which it sits
moves. There are two general solutions to this problem—
Kyodo/Landov
make it flexible or make it rigid.

The first strategy, widely used in designing tall buildings,
is best typified by a tree bending in the wind. A building with
a specially reinforced steel skeleton can be designed so that it
will bend and vibrate as the ground shakes, but come back to
its original orientation without damage when the quake stops.
The second approach is widely used in individual houses and
apartment buildings. The idea is to construct the building so that
it tosses about on the moving surface like a ship on the ocean.
The main preoccupation of the engineers is to guarantee that the
building’s corners are maintained at 90 degrees, no matter how
much it moves around, by reinforcement of corners and rigid
connections to the foundation and roof. Sometimes this rigidity
can be obtained simply by covering all the walls of the building
• Figure 17-23 This experimental with plywood sheets before the outer siding is installed. •
house in Japan is made from Styro-
foam. It is designed to be resistant
to both earthquakes and high winds.
Thinking More About Plate Tectonics
E ARTHQUAKE P REDICTION In their efforts to predict earthquakes, many scientists

search for “precursor events”—measurable phenomena that
One of the most important roles scientists can play in modern precede a quake. A lot of anecdotal evidence suggests that such
society is to provide warnings of natural disasters such as earth- events may indeed occur. Folklore has it that some domesti-
quakes, volcanic eruptions, and large storms. In the fall of 1999, cated animals become highly agitated before a strong earth-
for example, early warnings allowed thousands of Florida resi- quake or that changes are seen in the flow of well water or hot
dents to escape the path of Hurricane Andrew. The storm caused springs. Recognition of such changes enabled Chinese scien-
billions of dollars of property damage, but surprisingly little loss tists to save many lives prior to a major 1975 earthquake. Sim-
of life. Similarly, volcanic eruptions, which are usually preceded ilarly, scientists have noticed changes in the regularity of
by numerous small earthquakes, also can be forecast with some geysers and have recorded swarms of minor quakes just prior to
certainty. The successful prediction of Mount Pinatubo’s 1991 some big earthquakes. Nevertheless, no reliable methods for
eruption in the Philippines gave thousands of people living on predicting earthquakes have yet been devised. At best, we can
the flanks of the long-dormant volcano time to flee. reliably predict the probability that a large earthquake might
Earthquake prediction is another story, however. Earth- occur in a given area during a period of a few decades.
quakes occur because of the predictable and measurable grad- Ironically, if we do develop a way to predict the timing of
ual buildup of stresses in Earth’s crust. But the sudden failure earthquakes precisely, a whole new series of problems could
of rock is not so predictable. You are familiar with this situation arise. Suppose you could predict with 80% certainty that there
if you’ve ever gradually bent a pencil to the breaking point. It’s will be a major earthquake in the Los Angeles Basin sometime
easy to predict that a bent pencil will eventually break, but it’s in the next 30 days. Would you then announce it? What would
very hard to say exactly at what point the failure will occur. happen in the Los Angeles Basin if you made such an announce-
Much of the scientific effort related to earthquake prediction ment? What would happen if you made the announcement
centers on the careful documentation of stress buildup in and the earthquake never occurred? What would happen if you
earthquake-prone areas. But these measurements alone tell us didn’t make the announcement and the earthquake did occur?
little about the exact time when failure will occur. These are not easy subjects to deal with.
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Discovery Lab | 373
Can we predict destructive earthquakes? changes enabled Chinese scientists to save thousands of lives
prior to a major 1975 earthquake. Unfortunately, this same sys-
• As you learned in chapter one, a scientific perspective requires tem failed to predict the deadly Tangshan earthquake one year
that every idea must be tested by using it to make predictions later that killed nearly 250,000 people.
about how a particular system will behave, and then observing • A great deal of seismographic research on earthquake prediction
nature to see if the system behaves as predicted. revolves around detailed observations and measurements of the
• In their efforts to predict earthquakes, many scientists search for stress buildup in earthquake-prone areas. The measurement of
“precursor events” (i.e., measurable phenomena that precede a the gradual buildup of stresses in Earth’s crust that lead to earth-
quake). The goal is that with enough observation and measure- quakes is both simple and accurate. Nevertheless, predicting the
ment of precursor events, a system may be devised to predict moment in time that the sudden failure in rock will occur is not.
earthquakes in order to minimize their destructive consequences. • At the present time, no reliable method for the prediction of
• For thousands of years, many cultures have believed that unusual earthquakes has been developed. However, this does not mean
animal behavior is a “precursor event.” For example, in Chinese that scientific progress is halted. In 2004, DEMETER (Detec-
folklore the odd behavior of chickens climbing onto the roofs tion of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earth-
of their coops has been used for prediction. The reason for this quake Regions) a micro-satellite was launched by the French
behavior may lie in changing underground water levels, which can equivalent of NASA. Its mission over the past few years was to
rise as stress rises in the crust. The rising water drives snakes out of gain information for earthquake prediction. Using sophisticated
their holes, which in turn drives chickens to higher ground. sensors, it detects changes in Earth’s magnetic field and distur-
• The Chinese government has used this quasi-scientific study of bances in the ionosphere. Perhaps in the near future, messages
changes in animal behavior, ground water levels, and foreshocks from satellites in space will inform us of “precursor events” and
for prediction over many years. In 1975, recognition of such hopefully save lives.
S UMMARY •
Earth’s surface constantly changes. Mountains are created and worn continent, an offshore trench and chain of continental volcanoes par-
away, while entire continents slowly shift, opening up oceans and clos- allel to shore result. The collision of two plates that carry continents
ing them again. Plate tectonics, a relatively new theory that explains at their margins produces mountain ranges of crumpled continental
how a few thin, rigid tectonic plates of crustal and upper mantle mater- rocks. Transform plate boundaries occur where two plates scrape past
ial are moved across Earth’s surface by mantle convection, provides a each other.
global context for these changes. According to this theory, plates Most volcanoes form near plate boundaries, either along the
move over a partially molten underlying sections of Earth’s mantle, volcanic ridges of diverging plates or above subducting plates.
like rafts on the ocean, in response to convection of hot mantle rocks. Other volcanoes such as the Hawaiian Islands form above hot spots
Three different kinds of observations—the geological features originating in Earth’s mantle. Earthquakes occur when stressed rock
of ocean floors, parallel stripes of magnetic rocks situated symmetri- ruptures. Earthquakes may be felt at all plate boundaries. The only
cally about volcanic ridges on the ocean floor, and the ages of these plate boundary in the United States, California’s San Andreas Fault,
rocks—provided direct evidence that new crust is being created at is a transform boundary in which one block of crust moves horizon-
divergent plate boundaries. Meanwhile, old crust returns to the man- tally past the opposing block. The science of seismology, which doc-
tle in subduction zones, where plates converge. Convergent plate uments the passage of earthquake-generated waves through Earth,
boundaries in the ocean create deep trenches and associated volcanic is providing new insights into the dynamic processes that drive plate
islands. When an oceanic plate subducts beneath a plate carrying a tectonics.
K EY TERMS •
volcano tectonic plates convergent plate boundary hot spots
earthquake mantle convection subduction zone seismology
plate tectonics divergent plate boundary transform plate boundary
D ISCOVERY L AB •
How are the gliding and colliding tectonic plate movements of the will need a glass baking dish, four Styrofoam cups, a candle, food col-
earth related to convection currents? Convection current is a process oring, aluminum foil, liquid hand soap, baby powder, ice, and water.
of heat transfer observed in fluids. When a fluid is heated it expands, Place a glass baking dish on top of four inverted Styrofoam
its density decreases, and therefore it rises. After the fluid rises its den- cups. Fill the dish a little more than half full with water. Add a tea-
sity increases because it cools down, and therefore it sinks. To observe spoon of liquid hand soap to the water. Place a candle toward one
this phenomenon and how it relates to plate tectonic movement, you end of the pan and place some ice in the dish on the opposite side.
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 374
Light the candle and add a few drops of red food coloring
to the heated water. Why does the red colored water rise? Pieces of
Add green food coloring on the opposite side that has ice aluminum foil
in it. Why does the colored water on this side of the dish
sink? Sprinkle some baby powder on the surface of the
water and observe. Why does the baby powder travel in a
horizontal manner? Place two or three aluminum foil
pieces cut into rectangles on the surface of the water. Red food
Observe what happens to the foil. If these represent tec- color
tonic plates, what would happen if they collided? What
would happen if they glided against each other? How is
Water
this process similar to what happens in the mantle? How is (1 teaspoon Ice cubes
this process different? soap)
Green food
color
Styrofoam cup
1. What evidence suggests that Earth’s surface is dynamic and 9. Identify a mountain range in North America that formed as a
ever-changing? result of plate motions.
2. What two processes can dramatically alter a landscape in a short 10. What does the “Ring of Fire” (i.e., a string of volcanoes that
period of time? What processes take thousands or millions of years surrounds much of the Pacific Ocean) suggest about the type of
to affect the appearance of a landscape? geologic activity in that area?
3. Describe how a volcano can form a new mountain. 11. What North American mountain range may have been the
4. What evidence suggests that Europe, Africa, and North and tallest in the world approximately 300 million years ago?
South America were once joined? 12. How do we know that tectonic plates move? Describe how
5. What evidence pointed to the process of seafloor spreading, or transform plate boundaries differ from divergent plate bound-
diverging plates? aries. What form of geologic activity is exhibited along transform
6. Describe the three kinds of plate boundaries. boundaries?
7. Describe the three different kinds of surface features that might 13. What is the Richter scale? Where might you read about it?
occur at a convergent boundary. 14. How do the ages of rocks on the ocean floor help support the
8. Explain how mountains might form as a result of plate motions. theory of seafloor spreading?
1. Where are the tallest and longest mountain chains on Earth? 10. Geologists estimate that as much as 80% of Earth’s surface is
How were they formed? covered by volcanic rocks. Is this estimate reasonable? What role
2. On what tectonic plate do you live? How many adjacent plates might plate tectonics have played in producing these rocks?
are there? What kinds of boundaries do you find to the north, 11. Geology has been called an integrated science, because it calls
south, east, and west? In which direction are these plates moving? on several scientific disciplines to help explain features and processes
3. What and where is the San Andreas Fault? of Earth. Explain how geologists have used other sciences to answer
the following questions:
4. Based on your understanding of plate tectonics, will the California
coast eventually “slide into the ocean”? Why or why not? a. How old is a piece of rock?
5. Why are all three types of plate boundaries essential if plate b. How is heat transferred from Earth’s deep interior to the
tectonics is to work? What is occurring at each type of boundary? surface?
6. How thick are tectonic plates compared to Earth’s crust and mantle? c. How does Earth’s magnetic field change over time?
7. The continent of Antarctica has rocks with plant and animal fos- d. What is the structure of Earth’s interior?
sils that suggest the Antarctic climate was once temperate. Explain e. What is the topography of the seafloor?
at least two different ways in which these warm-climate fossils might 12. What was Pangaea? How does plate tectonics explain what hap-
have ended up in what is now a polar region. How might you test pened to it? Could Earth’s continents form into a single, Pangaea-like
your hypotheses? mass again? Why or why not? If they could, can you estimate how
8. Why do volcanoes erupt? What forces are at play in this most long it would take for them to do so?
dramatic of geological processes? 13. At some convergent plate boundaries, deep ocean trenches lie a
9. Volcanic islands, including the Azores, Canaries, and Iceland, lay short distance from tall mountains. How are these two contrasting
scattered across the Atlantic Ocean. If you were to date the rocks features related to each other?
on these and other Atlantic islands, what pattern do you predict you 14. Why do most volcanoes form near the boundaries of diverging
would find? or subducting plates?
c17.qxd 9/11/09 3:15 PM Page 375
15. Is it possible to outrun an earthquake in a car? Why or why 16. What role does elasticity and the storage of potential energy
not? How can solid rock travel faster than a car? How is the play in the development of an earthquake?
energy of the earthquake transmitted through solid rock? 17. With respect to the previous question, why will an earthquake
(Hint: see Chapter 6.) of magnitude 15 probably never happen?
P ROBLEMS •
1. If the African Rift Valley opens up at the rate of 5 centimeters 4. Estimate how much wider the Atlantic ocean will be in the
per year, how long will it be before a body of water 1000 kilometers year 3000.
wide divides the African continent? 5. Make a bar graph of the thickness of Earth’s core, mantle, and
2. Estimate the probable lifetime of your favorite mountain. crust. Make a graph of the densities of the core, mantle, and crust.
(Hint: First get its dimensions from a map, then estimate its volume.) What do these graphs portray about the interior of our planet?
3. Mount Everest is now approximately 8850 meters tall, and it has 6. How much more energy does a magnitude 8 earthquake have
been growing taller at a rate of about 2 centimeters per year. Esti- than a magnitude 7? How much less energy does a magnitude 4
mate the approximate age of the mountain. earthquake have than a magnitude 7?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Examine original sources related to Wegener’s continental drift 7. Scientists have recently discovered astonishing deep-ocean com-
theory. Why was this theory rejected by the majority of earth scien- munities of life-forms associated with plate boundaries. Investigate
tists in the 1920s? Compare and contrast the major features of the the nature and distribution of these deep ecosystems. Why are they
continental drift theory with plate tectonics theory. found close to these boundaries and not elsewhere? What energy
2. How did ancient civilizations explain the occurrence of earth- source do they utilize to survive?
quakes and volcanoes? 8. Investigate the history of climbers on Mount Everest. Who
3. Does plate tectonics operate on any other planet or moon in our was the first Westerner to make the ascent? How many people
solar system? Why or why not? have climbed Everest? How many people have died while
4. In your library, examine newspaper reports of major volcanoes attempting to climb her? What is the name of Earth’s second
and earthquakes during the past 20 years (each student could take highest mountain?
one year). Plot these events on a world map. Do you see any obvi- 9. What major cities in the United States are affected by earth-
ous geographic patterns? How do the locations of these events quakes? What type of early warning systems are in place to help pro-
relate to the plate boundaries shown in Figure 17-12? tect inhabitants of these cities? Would you buy a piece of property a
5. Recent satellite images reveal Jupiter’s moon Io to be the most few miles from the San Andreas Fault? Why, or why not?
volcanically active object in the solar system. What is the nature of 10. How many volcanoes are there in the United States? How
these volcanoes? What provides their energy? many are active?
6. A few years ago someone predicted an earthquake on the New 11. Where is the safest place on Earth to live? safest in the United
Madrid Fault in Missouri, the site of a destructive shock in 1812. States? Research the various natural phenomena that affect ecosys-
He was widely believed and schoolchildren were trained in what to tems worldwide (e.g., earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes) and
do in case of an earthquake. The earthquake did not take place and decide where you would like to live. What are the probabilities of
still has not occurred. What evidence did the amateur scientist use these phenomena affecting your life? Which has killed more people
to make his case? How would you analyze that evidence? in the last 100 years, hurricanes or volcanic eruptions?
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18
Earth’s Many Cycles
Will we ever run out of fresh water?
PHYSICS
The movement of
heat by convection
BIOLOGY drives ocean CHEMISTRY
currents.
Coral
reefs are
Earth has a finite
limestone deposits
number of atoms,
built by the gradual
which are constantly
action of microscopic
moving and recycling
plants and animals;
in repositories of
each generation grows
rocks, water, and
on the remains
air.
of the previous
one.
ENVIRONMENT
Humans are
Doppler radar removing water
measures the All matter above and from aquifers faster
motions of air than they can be
currents and thus can beneath Earth’s surface replenished, depleting
detect the approach moves in cycles. the supply of
of violent weather. available
freshwater.
TECHNOLOGY
Variations in
Earth’s rotation and The rock cycle
orbit are partly creates, alters, and
responsible for our destroys Earth’s solid
planet’s cycle of ice materials.
ages.
Elements
move through the
human body in
ASTRONOMY cycles; your body GEOLOGY
depends on a regular
intake of elements to
help replace dying
= applications of the great idea cells. = other applications, some of which
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day A Seaward Breeze
Alan Sirulnikoff/Photo Researchers, Inc.

he beautiful day continues, bright and clear. As the Sun
T gradually arcs overhead into the western sky, the afternoon
shadows begin to lengthen and the cool wind picks up off the
water. By 2 p.m. there’s a steady seaward breeze blowing close
to 20 miles per hour.
Day after summer day it’s the same story at the shore:
refreshing offshore breezes pick up during the day, while warm
onshore breezes blow in the evening. This familiar atmospheric
behavior is just one of Earth’s countless cycles.
Cycles Small and Large

Every place we go, every day of our lives, we experience Earth’s cycles. A day may start
out clear and sunny, with mild temperatures and gentle breezes. But, suddenly, the wind
picks up as a line of dark clouds presses in from the west. With the wind comes the first
threatening rumble of thunder, flashes of distant lightning, and spurts of rain. A heavy
downpour and powerful gusts of wind follow, as thunder booms and lightning illumi-
nates the gray sky around us. Trees sway, windows rattle, and old dead limbs come
crashing down at the height of the storm.
Within an hour skies are sunny again, though the temperature is noticeably cooler. The
air has a fresh, clean smell, and the sky seems more deeply blue than before. In the span of
a few hours we have experienced one of Earth’s many cycles—the atmospheric cycle called
weather.
Day and night, summer and winter, life and death—these and many other cyclical
changes characterize our dynamic planet. As the author of the Book of Ecclesiastes
wrote 3000 years ago:
One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth
forever;
The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to the place where he arose;
The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth
about continually, and the wind returneth again according to his circuits;
377
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378 | C HAP TE R 18 | Earth’s Many Cycles
All the rivers run into the sea; yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the
rivers come, thither they return againp
The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that
which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun.
R ECYCLING •
Think about the last time that you drank a can of soda. What did you do with the alu-
minum can when you were through? You may have taken the time to place the can in a
recycling bin. Alternatively, you may have tossed it into a trash container,
John Wood Photography/Getty Images, Inc.
or even by the side of the road. What difference does it make? Where do
the aluminum atoms end up?
The atoms that make up Earth, with the exception of a few
radioactive isotopes (Chapter 12), will last virtually forever. A single
aluminum atom, for example, will appear in many different guises dur-
ing its lifetime. It may form part of a swirling lava flow in which it is
tightly bonded to oxygen atoms. It may then be incorporated with
those oxygen atoms into a solid rock. As the rock weathers away, the
atom may wind up in soil and become concentrated with other alu-
minum atoms, where it is mined. Giant smelters separate the aluminum
atom—a process that consumes prodigious amounts of energy—to pro-
duce the aluminum metal that made your soda can. Once discarded,
the atom may be recycled into new cans, or it may go back to the soil
where it once again bonds to oxygen.
• Figure 18-1 Recycling cans saves
the energy required to mine and
Stop and Think! One of the main points in Chapter 3 is that energy flows
smelt aluminum.
into and out of the Earth system. Does matter flow in the same way through
Earth? Explain.
Earth has a vast, though finite, number of aluminum atoms that take part in the alu-
minum cycle. The advantage to recycling aluminum is that we save all the energy that
went into finding concentrated aluminum sources and breaking aluminum-to-oxygen
bonds (Figure 18-1). But no matter what you do with your can, the aluminum atoms
still are part of our planet.
THE NATURE OF E ARTH’S CYCLES •

The history of an aluminum atom is just one example of the many paths within the three
great cycles of Earth materials: the oceans, the atmosphere, and rocks. Two central ideas
frame our understanding of the movement of matter in our changing planet:
Earth materials move in cycles.
and
A change in one cycle affects the others.
The story of the aluminum atom suggests a useful two-step strategy for analyzing any of
the many cycles by which each type of Earth material moves. The first step is to make an
inventory of all the different reservoirs in which that substance is found. Earth’s water,
for example, is found in oceans, lakes, rivers, ice caps, and several other reservoirs. The
second step is to identify the varied ways that the material is transferred from one reser-
voir to another. In the case of water, for example, movement may occur by precipitation,
evaporation, or gravity.
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The Hydrologic Cycle | 379
Each of Earth’s cycles illustrates a central theme: our planet’s atoms are constantly
moving and recycling. Water moves from rivers to oceans to glaciers and to clouds as it
takes part in Earth’s dynamic hydrologic cycle. Above Earth’s surface, the gases of the
atmosphere flow in the great cycles of weather, the seasons, and global climate. And the
solid surface of Earth slowly alters, erodes away, and forms again in the stately rock cycle.
Many of Earth’s cycles are driven by the tendency of heat to spread out—to flow from
hot to cold in what we described as the second law of thermodynamics (see Chapter 4).
Earth has two primary sources of heat energy: the Sun, and its own geothermal processes,
each of which drives its own cycles of heat transfer. More heat energy from the Sun falls at
the equator than at the poles, and heat transfer by convection thus moves gases in the
atmosphere and water in the oceans in the great cycles from equator to poles, a process
that controls weather and climate. Similarly, heat energy in Earth’s core and mantle drives
the convection cycles that move the tectonic plates.
Thus Earth’s cycles reflect the most basic properties of matter and energy. These
cycles may be studied at many levels, from an atomic scale for an individual element such
as aluminum, to the global cycles involved in plate tectonics. We find it especially useful
to consider Earth in terms of the three most familiar cycles around us: the cycles of water,
air, and rock.
The Hydrologic Cycle

Water plays a vital role in the unique chemistry of Earth’s outer layers. Water saturates
the air, falls to the ground as precipitation, moves through a complex system of rivers
and streams, and is stored for long periods in underground reservoirs, oceans, and ice.
Water shapes the surface of our planet, and it provided the medium in which life began.
The combination of processes by which water moves from repository to repository
above, below, and on Earth’s surface is called the hydrologic cycle.
R ESERVOIRS OF WATER •
The total amount of water near Earth’s surface has stayed roughly the same from very
early times. Water first reached the surface during the outgassing of the young, volcano-
covered Earth (see Chapter 16). When the planet’s surface temperature finally fell
below 100ºC, this water condensed into liquid form and began to fill the ocean basins.
Relatively minor processes still add and remove small amounts of water from Earth.
High in the atmosphere, ultraviolet rays from the Sun break up water molecules, freeing
hydrogen atoms, which may escape into space because of their low mass. At the same
time, at converging and diverging plate boundaries and other sites of volcanism, small
amounts of new water are emitted from Earth’s deep interior. These losses and gains are
in rough equilibrium, and in any case both are rather small—by one estimate, no more
than one or two Olympic-sized swimming pools of water per year. Thus, for all intents
and purposes, we can treat Earth as if it has had a fixed amount of water at its surface for
billions of years. The water that we have now is all there is.
Earth boasts several major water repositories, as summarized in
Table 18-1. In addition to oceans, lakes, and rivers, significant amounts
of water are locked into Earth’s polar ice caps and glaciers, bodies of ice Table 18-1 Reservoirs of Water
that form in regions where snowfall exceeds melting. Ice caps are layers
Reservoir Percent of Earth’s Supply
of ice that form at Earth’s north and south polar regions. Glaciers are
large bodies of ice that slowly flow down a slope or valley under the Oceans 96.0
influence of gravity (Figure 18-2). Approximately 96% of glaciers (by Lakes, rivers, and streams 0.009
volume) are found in Antarctica and Greenland, while the rest are Ice caps and glaciers 3.0
widely scattered in mountainous areas. All of these places where water Groundwater 1.0
occurs tap into the same central supply. During its lifetime, a given Clouds 0.001
molecule of water will cycle through many different reservoirs, over
Living things 0.0001
and over again.
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:19 PM Page 380
A vast part of the hydrologic cycle remains unseen. Some of the water that falls on
ALASKA STOCK IMAGES/NG Image Collection
the continents does not immediately return to the ocean; rather, it seeps into the soil to
become groundwater. There, it goes into large aquifers—reservoirs that are, in effect,
underground storage tanks of water. By some estimates, more than 98% of the world’s
freshwater is stored as groundwater. Water typically percolates into the ground and fills
the tiny spaces between grains of sandstone and other porous rock layers. Impermeable
materials, such as clay, which keeps the water from seeping away, often bound these
layers of water-saturated rock.
M OVEMENTS OF WATER B ETWEEN R ESERVOIRS •

Earth’s water is in constant motion both within and between reservoirs—a process that
may gradually change the distribution of water near Earth’s surface. The hydrologic
cycle with which most of us are familiar involves the short-term back-and-forth transfer
of water molecules between the oceans and the land. Water evaporates off the surface of
the oceans, forms into clouds, falls as rain on the land, and then returns to the oceans via
rivers and streams. Most terrestrial life depends on this simple cycle (Figure 18-3).
Much of the movement of Earth’s water occurs within the oceans, which are far
from static. Each ocean basin has great currents, which are like rivers of moving water
• Figure 18-2 Glaciers and ice within the larger ocean (see Figure 18-4). These currents play a vital role in redistribut-
caps store a few percent of Earth’s ing heat across the surface of the planet, and thus in determining climate. Some surface
water. In this image a killer whale sur- currents carry warm water from the equator, where a large amount of heat energy from
faces below Chilkat Glacier, Alaska. the Sun is absorbed, toward the cooler poles. At the same time, other surface currents
carry cold water from the poles back to the equator to be heated and cycled again. These
great gyres as they are called have a profound effect on the weather of the land they flow
past. In the North Atlantic, for example, the Gulf Stream current starts in the Caribbean
• Figure 18-3 A diagram of the hydrologic cycle showing the transfer of water molecules
between oceans and land. The numbers in parentheses show the volume of water that
cycles through the continental United States in millions of cubic meters each day.
Sun
Clouds
Atmospheric moisture Solar
(150,000) radiation
Evaporation and transpiration from

surface water bodies, land surface, Precipitation
and vegetation (16,000)
(10,600)
Human use Evaporation
(375) from oceans
Well Storage
in lakes
Ocean
Recharge Streamflow
Water tab to oceans Total surface
le and groundwater
(4650)
flow to oceans
(4900)
Fresh groundwater In ce
f ilt )
r a ti o 75 rf a
n a n d p e r c o l a ti o n ( 3 I nte
Saline groundwater
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:19 PM Page 381
ARCTIC OCEAN
80˚
Greenland
Current
Kamchatka Labrador
(Oyashio) Current North Atlantic
Current Drift
Alaska EUROPE
Current NORTH
North Pacific
AMERICA NORTH
NORTH Current California Gulf
ASIA Current Stream ATLANTIC
Japan OCEAN Canaries
(Kuroshio)
PACIFIC
North Equatorial Current
Current
OCEAN Current Monsoon
Drift
North Equatorial Current AFRICA
Equatorial Counter
Equator Current
0˚ Equatorial Counter Current South Equatorial
Equatorial
SOUTH Current Counter Current
South Equatorial Current
INDIAN AMERICA Benguela South Equatorial

SOUTH Current Current
20˚ East Brazil
OCEAN SOUTH Current
AUSTRALIA Australia Peru ATLANTIC
Current Current
PACIFIC
West Australia OCEAN
Current
OCEAN Falkland Mozambique
40˚ Current Current
SOUTHERN OCEAN
SOUTHERN OCEAN 60˚
60˚ West Wind Drift
West Wind Drift (Antarctic Circumpolar Current)
Warm Current
ANTARCTICA
Cold Current
• Figure 18-4 Ocean currents play a major role in redistributing Earth’s heat. Surface cur-
rents that tend to carry warmer (less dense) water from the equator toward the poles are
shown in red, while deeper colder currents that tend to carry water from the poles toward
the equator are shown in blue.
and flows past the eastern coast of the United States. It comes near England, making the
British Isles much warmer than you might expect them to be based on their latitude,
which is farther north than Maine. A much colder current, on the other hand, flows
along the western coast of Europe back to the tropics to complete the cycle.
In addition to this rather rapid circulation of water at the surface, we find deeper
three-dimensional circulation of water in the ocean. When the effects of surface currents
and wind along a coast act in such a way as to push surface water away from the land,
colder water from the depths comes up to create an area of upwelling. The waters along
the coast of California display this phenomenon, which helps explain why the ocean there
is so cold. On a larger scale, water from the Arctic and Antarctic, which is both cold and
salty because so much freshwater is removed to form ice, sinks to the bottom of the sea
and rolls sluggishly toward the equator. This dense, cold water forms the slow, deep flow
that characterizes much of the bottom currents in the world’s ocean basins.
Humans also participate in the water cycle by tapping into deep aquifers when they
drill wells to supply water for cities and agriculture. One problem with using aquifers as a
water supply is that it may take many thousands of years to fill them, but only a few years
to drain them. For example, when farmers in the central United States take water from
the Ogallala aquifer, one of North America’s great underground reservoirs, they are in
effect mining the water. Underground water is not a renewable resource except over very
long timescales.
Sobering Facts About Water

Although Earth’s supply of water is vast, about 96% is salty and most of the remaining
Science News
freshwater is locked into ice caps and glaciers. Thus less than 1% of Earth’s water is read-
ily available for human use. The Diminishing Colorado River
Modern society places tremendous demands on this limited resource. Agriculture, Go to your WileyPLUS course
industry, and personal needs result in an average daily water consumption of more than to view video on this topic.
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:19 PM Page 382
2000 gallons per person in North America. As supplies of groundwater are reduced and
pollution contaminates other reservoirs, shortages of freshwater may become a serious
concern in the future. •
C HEMICAL CYCLES IN THE O CEANS •

Just as the water in the oceans is in constant physical motion, so too are the chemicals
that make it salty. Scholars once thought that the oceans were passive receptacles for
materials washed into them from the land. The old argument went that rivers flowing
into the ocean carried dissolved minerals and salts with them, and when water evapo-
rated, these minerals were left behind, leaving the oceans saltier and saltier with time. In
this view, the extremely salty Dead Sea in Israel was always cited as a place where salts
had accumulated over the longest period of time.
In fact, we now know that the saltiness of the oceans has not changed appreciably
over several hundred million years, and they probably have been salty since soon after
they formed. Instead of thinking of the oceans as passive receptacles, it is more accurate
to think of them as large test tubes in which a constant round of chemical reactions goes
on that affects and is affected by the input of minerals from the world’s rivers.
The saltiness of the oceans comes primarily from the presence of sodium and chloride
ions, but many other dissolved minerals occur in seawater as well. Each element follows dif-
ferent reactions, and each will remain in solution for different periods of time. Calcium, for
example, may be dissolved out of limestone by water and carried into the ocean. Once
there, an average calcium ion can be expected to float around for about 8 million years, but
eventually it will be taken up into the skeleton of some sea creature and sink to the bottom
when that creature dies. There it may once more be formed into limestone, lifted up by tec-
tonic forces, and eventually carried back to the sea through erosion or dissolution.
The average length of time that an atom will stay in ocean water before it is removed
by some chemical reaction is called the residence time (see Table 18-2). Sodium (one of
the atoms that gives seawater its distinctive taste) enters the ocean after dissolving out of
various kinds of rocks. A sodium ion will stay in suspension on average for
Photodisc/Getty Images, Inc.
about 260 million years before it is incorporated again into various kinds of clay
and mud on the ocean bottom. Once so incorporated, it can go through the
same cycle of uplift and erosion as limestone.
Chloride ions, on the other hand, tend to stay in the ocean almost forever,
though these atoms may leave the ocean for short periods of time in tiny
droplets, or aerosols, of ocean spray. Only when a body of salt water is evapo-
rated, forming dry salt deposits like those surrounding the Great Salt Lake in
Utah, is chlorine removed from its water environment for any appreciable
length of time (Figure 18-5). But even these deposits, slowly buried and com-
pressed, could eventually (in perhaps a few hundred million years) rise to the
surface as salt domes, where they would weather away, returning the salt once
again to the sea.
Thus chemical cycles in the ocean can be simply pictured. Earth’s many
rivers continuously transport various elements into the sea. Each of these
• Figure 18-5 Dry salt deposits, elements resides for a certain amount of time in the ocean and then is
such as these at the Great Salt Lake
in Utah, occur when a body of salt Table 18-2 Some Typical Residence Times for Elements in the Ocean
water evaporates.
Concentration Residence Times
Element (parts per million) (millions of years)
Sodium 10,800 260
Calcium 413 8
Chlorine 19,400 infinite
Gold 0.00005 0.042
Potassium 387 11
Copper 0.003 0.05
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:19 PM Page 383
removed by chemical reactions. The supply of every kind of atom is being constantly
renewed, and the oceans may never be any less salty than they are today.
Element Residence Times

Your body, like the oceans, constantly recycles atoms. Some of your body’s cells, such as
the lining of the intestines, are replaced every few days. You need fresh supplies of car-
bon, oxygen, and nitrogen every day to help replace these cells. Red blood cells last
much longer—120 days on average—but you need a regular intake of iron to produce
these important cells. Failure to digest enough iron can lead to anemia, a condition
characterized by fatigue due to insufficient red blood cells. • Figure 18-6 (a) Healthy porous
Atoms in your bones and tendons last much longer—a decade or more, on average— bone requires constant replacement
but even those atoms are constantly being replaced. Gradual loss of calcium in bone, for of calcium atoms, which recycle over
example, is of special concern in older people who may not consume enough replacement periods of a decade or more. (b) Brittle
bone disease (osteoporosis) occurs
calcium. Osteoporosis, a disease in which bones become weak and brittle, may result
when calcium is not replaced and
from this calcium deficiency (Figure 18-6). bones lose mass.
A similar loss of bone calcium affects astro-
Susumu Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, Inc.
SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

nauts who spend more than a few days in
the weightless environment of space.
Some harmful elements, including lead,
mercury, and other so-called heavy metals,
do not easily recycle once taken into the
body, because we have no effective biologi-
cal process to remove them. Their average
residence times, in other words, are much
longer than a human lifetime. Concentra-
tions of these atoms can thus build up over
time and can result in sickness or even
death. You may hear about local efforts to
test drinking water for high concentrations
of lead that are sometimes found in old
plumbing systems. • (a) (b)
The Ocean’s Gold

We’ve just said that every element can be found in seawater. How much gold is there in
a cubic kilometer of seawater?
According to Table 18-2, gold is present in the ocean at a concentration of 0.00005
parts per million (ppm). A concentration of 1ppm corresponds to 1 milligram (mg) of a
solid dissolved in a liter (l) of water. A liter is a volume measurement equal to a thou-
sandth of a cubic meter (10–3 m3). The total amount of gold in a cubic meter of seawater,
therefore, is 0.00005 milligrams per liter times 1000 liters per meter cubed:
10.00005 mg>l2 ⫻ 11000 l>m3 2 ⫽ 0.05 mg>m3

A gram contains 1000 milligrams, so
10.05 mg>m3 2 ⫻ 11 g>1000 mg 2 ⫽ 0.00005 g>m3

A cubic kilometer contains (1000m)⫻(1000m)⫻(1000m)⫽109 m3, so the total amount
of gold in a cubic kilometer of seawater is
1109 m3 2 ⫻ 10.00005 g>m3 2 ⫽ 5 ⫻ 104 gm

c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:19 PM Page 384
Every cubic kilometer of ocean water holds about 50,000 grams (about 100 pounds) of
gold. At $550 an ounce, that much gold is worth close to a million dollars.
The total amount of gold dissolved in the world’s oceans is vast, but no economical
way to extract these riches is known. The equipment and energy required to process that
much water would cost far more than the value of any gold recovered. •
I CE AGES •
From time to time, much of Earth’s water supply becomes locked into glaciers that
advance across land from the poles—a period called an ice age. We are now in the middle
of an ice age, a period of several million years during which glaciers have repeatedly
advanced and retreated. Within the present ice age we are living in an interglacial period,
which is occurring between two major advances of glaciers. About 20,000 years ago,
massive glaciers began to spread down from eastern and central Canada, covering a good
deal of northern North America and reaching their maximum extent about 18,000 years
ago. These glaciers then gradually receded to Greenland by about 10,000 years ago, as
illustrated in Figure 18-7. Glaciers have come and gone many times, and periods of cyclic
glaciation like the one in which we now live have occurred relatively often during the past
2 million years of Earth history.
The total amount of Earth’s water is fixed, so as ice caps and glaciers grow, the
amount of water available to fill the ocean basins decreases and the sea level drops.
During the most recent maximum advance of glaciers about 18,000 years ago, for
example, as much as 5% of Earth’s water was locked into ice. Sea level dropped to the
point that the eastern coast of what is now the United States was about 250 kilometers
farther east than it is today. A land bridge joining western North America and eastern
Asia made it possible to walk from Alaska to Siberia. This land bridge provided a route
that was taken by the ancestors of many Native Americans when they moved into the
Americas from Siberia.
INDIA
Himalaya
Mountains
CHINA
140˚
JAPAN RUSSIA Scandinavian
(Fennoscandian)
Icesheet
160˚
AFRICA
Novaya Alps
ARCTIC Zemlya Pyrenees
OCEAN
180˚ Siberian (Barents)
North Pole Icesheet
PACIFIC
OCEAN Greenland
Iceland
Icesheet
Arctic
Circle
160˚ 20˚
• Figure 18-7 This map shows the
Rocky ATLANTIC
maximum extent of the most recent 6 0˚
Mountain OCEAN
North American glaciation, approx- Icecap
imately 18,000 years ago, as it Laurentide
140˚ Icesheet ˚
appeared looking down on the North 40 40˚
Pole. Arrows indicate the direction of

˚
the glaciers’ advances across North 20
America, Europe, and Asia. Because 120˚ UNITED 60˚
STATES
of the lower sea level a land bridge
connected what is now Russia and
North America.
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:20 PM Page 385
M ILANKOVITCH CYCLES •
Earth’s rotation and orbit around the Sun determine both long-term and short-term varia-
tions in the climate. The single most important aspect of Earth’s orbit is that the rotation
axis is not perpendicular to its orbital plane, but is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. This
tilt is the cause of the seasons. We experi-
Mark Garlick/Photo Researchers, Inc.

ence summer in the Northern Hemisphere
when the North Pole is tilted toward the
Sun, and winter when the North Pole is
tilted away. That’s why it’s summer in the
southern hemisphere when it’s winter in
the northern hemisphere (Figure 18-8).
The main causes of periodic glacia-
tions, which occur on much longer time
scales than the seasons, were first explained
by Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian civil
engineer, in the early part of the twentieth
century. His theory was simple: The rela-
tionship between Earth and Sun is affected
by a number of variations in Earth’s rota-
tion and its orbit. These variations cause
slight changes in the amount of solar radia-
tion absorbed by Earth.
Perhaps the easiest of the orbital
effects to understand is the precession of
Earth’s axis of rotation. If you have ever watched a child’s top spinning, you know that • Figure 18-8 Earth’s orbit showing
sometimes as the top spins rapidly around its axis, the axis itself describes a lazy circle in the relationship of tilt to the seasons.
Summer occurs in the Northern
space. This circular motion is called a precession. In the same way that a top may precess Hemisphere when that hemisphere
every second or two, Earth’s tilted axis precesses once every 23,000 years (Figure 18-9a). is tilted toward the Sun.
A second important factor in cycles of glaciation involves a slow change in the angle
of the axis of rotation (it rocks back and forth by about a degree and a half every 41,000
years (Figure 18-9b). These changes affect the contrast in temperatures between sum- • Figure 18-9 (a) The precession of
mer and winter months: The bigger the tilt, the greater the contrast. Earth’s axis and (b) small changes in
Additional effects have to do with Earth’s slightly elliptical orbit. At present Earth the tilt of the axis contribute to
is closest to the Sun (about 91.5 million miles away) in early January, and farthest recurring ice ages.
away (about 94.5 million miles) in early July.
Precession of the equinoxes Tilt of the axis
That means Earth’s axis is now oriented such (period = 23,000 years) (period = 41,000 years)
that the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away
from the Sun during the winter months (the N N
period in which Earth is actually closest to 24.5° = maximum tilt
the Sun). But this slightly elliptical orbit
changes in two ways. First, the long axis of
Plane of orbit
Earth’s elliptical orbit slowly moves around Sun
E
the Sun due to the gravitational effects of
the other planets. Consequently, in about S
11,500 years the Northern Hemisphere will Eq
uat
be tilted toward the Sun when the Sun is or
N
closest to Earth, causing a larger contrast
21.5° = minimum tilt
between average summer and winter tem-
peratures than we experience today. In addi-
tion, the shape of Earth’s elliptical orbit Plane of orbit
Sun
changes in a complex way as the result of E
gravitational effects from other planets. The S
orbit thus varies somewhat erratically over S
hundreds of thousands of years, from nearly Wobble of axis
circular to almost twice as elongated as the
present orbit. (a) (b)
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:20 PM Page 386
Milankovitch recognized all of these variables and he proposed that the global cli-
mate varies in cycles (now called Milankovitch cycles) when these effects reinforce each
other. If we find ourselves in a period of decreasing solar energy absorption and increased
precipitation, more snow will fall in the winter and it will stay on the ground longer in the
summer. Snow and ice reflect sunlight, so this extra snow and ice further cool Earth’s sur-
face and more snow falls and stays on the ground even longer. Thus a decline in absorp-
tion of sunlight may trigger a sequence of events that can lead eventually to glacial
advance. By the same token, a period of increased absorption of sunlight will result in
warmer periods during which glaciers will tend to retreat.
Several other factors play a role in controlling the extent and distribution of
glaciers. Large glaciers can form only on landmasses, which gradually shift because of
tectonic motion. The locations of mountain chains also play a significant role by alter-
ing wind and precipitation patterns. Recent evidence also suggests that the amount of
volcanic dust and gases in the atmosphere can cause short-term changes in global tem-
peratures. Finally, some scientists suspect that the energy output of the Sun is cyclical
and that variations in the Sun’s energy output impose a cyclical variation in Earth’s
temperature.
For the record, most scientists think that we are heading into a new phase of
glacial advance within the next 10,000 years. This cooling trend may be offset for a
time, however, by global warming that results from an enhanced greenhouse effect
(see Chapter 19).
Milankovitch Decides on His Life’s Work

Milutin Milankovitch didn’t seem to be headed toward a career in the sciences. Trained
in Vienna as a civil engineer, he designed reinforced-concrete structures in central Europe
prior to becoming a professor of mathematics in his native Belgrade just before World
War I. Swept up in the nationalistic movements that were then (as now) prominent in the
Balkans, he became friendly with some poets who specialized in writing patriotic verse.
One evening, drinking coffee to celebrate a new book of verse, Milankovitch and his
friends came to the attention of a banker at a neighboring table. The banker was so taken
with the poems that he bought 10 copies on the spot.
With new money in their pockets, the friends celebrated with wine. After the first
bottle, Milankovitch says in his journal, “I looked back on my earlier achievements and
found them narrow and limited.” By the third bottle, he had decided to “grasp the
entire universe and spread light to its farthest corners.”
He then methodically set apart a few hours each day to study and interpret climate
records. Even during World War I, when he served as an engineer on the Serbian general
staff and became a prisoner of war, he kept at it. A member of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences arranged for him to have a desk at the Academy after he gave his word of honor
that he would not try to escape, and a good deal of the work described in the text was
done under those conditions. The final work, published in 1920, was quickly recognized
and accepted by the scientific community. •
The Atmospheric Cycle

Earth’s atmosphere and oceans play the most important role in redistributing heat across
the surface of the planet. The atmosphere also has chemical cycles involving oxygen and
carbon, but those cycles are intimately bound up with the presence of living things on
Earth, and we will wait to discuss them until we look at Earth’s ecosystems (Chapter 19).
The circulation of gases near Earth’s surface—both the short-term variations of weather,
and the longer patterns of climate—is called the atmospheric cycle.
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:20 PM Page 387
The Atmospheric Cycle | 387
AIR MASSES: R ESERVOIRS OF THE ATMOSPHERE •

At first glance it might seem odd to speak of an atmospheric cycle. After all, the atmosphere
appears to be one continuous mass of air rather than several different reservoirs. However,
at any one time the atmosphere can be divided into many separate “air masses,” each of
which has more or less uniform properties. Each air mass can be thought of as a separate
reservoir of air, and adjacent air masses differ in physical properties. Adjacent air masses may
occupy different regions close to the ground, such as a low-pressure system in the Midwest
and an adjacent high-pressure system off the New England coast. On the other hand, adja-
cent air masses may represent different atmospheric layers high above the surface.
In order to understand the properties of air masses, we need to define two closely
related terms—weather and climate. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/
time and place. At any given place, the weather is influenced by many factors and may be DLR-FRG/Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis Images
highly variable from day to day, not to mention from season to season. Climate, on the
other hand, is a long-term average of weather for a given region. A regional climate may
be hot or cold, wet or dry, though the weather on any given day might be quite differ-
ent. Climate may remain unchanged for centuries, or it may shift quite dramatically,
often for reasons that are as yet uncertain.
WEATHER •
Five variables define the state of the atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, humidity, cloudi-
ness, and prevailing winds. Your local weather report typically covers all of these variables.
1. The temperature reported in daily weather predictions refers to temperature at
ground level. Temperature varies strongly with altitude above the ground. In fact, the
major layers of the atmosphere—regions such as the stratosphere and troposphere—
are defined by these temperature variations.
2. The second variable that defines the state of the atmosphere is pressure, which
decreases significantly with altitude, because air is compressed by its own weight. At a
height of 5.5 kilometers, air pressure is only half of its value at sea level, whereas in the • Figure 18-10 A satellite photo of
deepest South African gold mines air pressure approaches twice that of the surface. a low-pressure system that is centered
Pressure also varies laterally, because air masses tend to move and rotate with respect over Ireland and moving toward the
to each other. Air piles up in some places to form a high-pressure system, while it European continent. Notice the coun-
stretches out in other places to form a low-pressure system (Figure 18-10). Air in low- terclockwise rotation of the air.
pressure systems tends to rise, which causes cooling and increased clouds; conversely,
high-pressure systems tend to feature warmer, dry air. Significant air pressure differ-
ences, which can arise at boundaries between layers high in the atmosphere, cause
high-speed air currents called the jet stream (Figure 18-11). The jet stream moves
• Figure 18-11 The jet stream is a fast-moving, high-altitude air current above North America.
(a) The jet stream often follows a relatively straight path, with minor undulations. (b) Strongly
developed undulations may pull a mass of cold arctic air to the south.
Jet stream with small undulations Strongly-developed undulations pull a trough of cold air south
Cold air
Cold air
Jet stream
Warm air
(a) (b)
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:20 PM Page 388
Gary Hincks/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Windward side Drier side
• Figure 18-12 Clouds and rain often form on the windward side of mountain ranges as an
air mass is forced to rise up the mountain flanks (blue arrows). On the side of the island away
from the wind is usually much drier (red arrow).
west-to-east across the United States; it causes flights from New York to Los Angeles
to average almost an hour longer than flights from Los Angeles to New York.
3. The third atmospheric variable is humidity, which is a measure of the atmosphere’s
highly variable water content. The bulk composition of the atmosphere is remarkably
uniform; nitrogen and oxygen make up 99% of dry atmosphere. The atmosphere also
always contains some water vapor, though the amount is highly variable, depending
on the temperature and relative humidity. Air on a cold, dry winter day might hold
less than 0.1% water by volume, whereas air on a hot, humid summer day may con-
tain several percent water by volume.
4. Cloudiness, the fourth weather variable, is closely tied to humidity. Clouds are a concen-
tration of tiny water droplets or ice crystals. These substances scatter light, so clouds
appear white. Clouds form when air becomes saturated with water—a process that often
occurs when a mass of air rises and cools. Clouds often dramatically outline the contact
between two adjacent air masses. A band of clouds may mark a front, where two air
masses at different temperatures collide near ground level. Dramatic anvil-shaped thun-
derhead clouds often form when a warmer air mass collides with a cooler air mass. The
warmer air mass is less dense, and so it rides up over the cooler air. This increase in eleva-
tion cools the warm, wet air, causing clouds and rain. Large gradients in temperature and
pressure generate strong winds and violent lightning. Similarly, clouds and rain often
form on the windward side of mountain ranges as an air mass is forced to rise up the
mountain flanks. The side of the island away from the wind, for example, is usually much
drier (Figure 18-12). Some mountainous areas of Hawaii receive more than 100 inches of
rain per year on the eastern side, while experiencing near-arid conditions a few kilometers
away on the western slopes.
5. The fifth atmospheric variable is the direction and strength of winds. Winds are a conse-
quence of atmospheric convection—a process that helps to redistribute heat. Ocean
breezes on a tranquil summer day illustrate how winds can occur. During a sunny day, the
land heats up more than water, so warmer air rises from the land and cooler air flows in
from the water, producing a refreshing sea breeze. In the evening, as the land cools, the
pattern reverses; warmer air over the water rises and the breeze comes from the land.
THE G ENERAL C IRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE •

The atmosphere circulates in vast rivers of air that cover the globe from the equator to the
poles. These prevailing winds arise in much the same way as local winds, though on a
much larger scale. As in local winds, this circulation is powered by the energy of the Sun.
Air in the tropics is heated and rises. If Earth did not rotate, we would expect to have a
situation like the one shown in Figure 18-13. Warm air would rise at the equator, cool
off, and sink at the poles. This pattern of flow is the familiar convection cell we saw in
c18.qxd 9/11/09 3:20 PM Page 389
Cool and falling • Figure 18-13 If Earth did not

rotate, the circulation of the atmos-
phere would take place in convection
cells that create high-altitude winds
from equator to pole, and low-altitude
winds from pole to equator.
Warm
and
rising
Prevailing
westerlies
Northeast
Chapter 4. Such a pattern arises whenever a fluid is heated nonuni- trade
winds
formly in a gravitational field.
If Earth did not rotate, prevailing winds in the Northern Hemi-
Equator
sphere would flow from north to south. In fact, they do nothing of
the kind. The weather patterns in much of the Northern Hemi- Southeast
trade
sphere, including North America, move, in general, from west to winds
east—we live in a region of what meteorologists call prevailing west-
erlies. This behavior of Earth’s atmosphere results from the fact that Convection
cells Prevailing
Earth rotates. This rotation breaks the north-south atmospheric westerlies
convection cell that would exist in its absence into three cells in each
• Figure 18-14 Atmospheric con-
hemisphere as shown in Figure 18-14. In addition, the rotation “stretches out” the
vection on the rotating Earth contrasts
shape of the air circulation pattern in each cell. In the cell nearest the equator, the winds with that for a nonrotating planet (see
at the surface tend to blow from east to west—the so-called trade winds that drove sail- Figure 18-13). A series of band-like air
ing ships from Europe to North America. In temperate zones, the effect is to cause the circulation cells develop. Compare
winds to blow from west to east, creating regions in which weather patterns also usually this diagram with the photograph of
move from west to east. Finally, in the Arctic and Antarctic, the winds blow once again Jupiter in Chapter 16.
from east to west.
• Figure 18-15 Satellite photo of
Similar patterns of atmospheric motion can be seen on all the planets in the solar
hurricane Wilma entering the Gulf of
system that have atmospheres. In some cases, like the planet Jupiter, the rapid rotation Mexico, taken in October 2005.
of the planet and the atmospheric dynamics cause more than three convection cells. Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula is at the
Jupiter, in fact, has no fewer than 11. lower left of the photo. Wilma was a
category 5 hurricane, the strongest
C OMMON STORMS AND WEATHER PATTERNS • and most damaging type of storm.

Many kinds of severe weather conditions affect our world. Tropical storms are severe
storms that start as low-pressure areas over warm ocean water. They draw energy from
the warm water, growing and rotating in great cyclonic patterns hundreds of kilometers
in diameter. Tropical storms that begin in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa or in
the Caribbean Sea and affect North America are called hurricanes; those that begin in
the North Pacific were once called typhoons, though they are often now called hurricanes
by weather forecasters (Figure 18-15). Until recently, these violent weather systems fre-
quently hit unprotected coastlines with little warning. Today, weather satellites spot and
track tropical storms long before they approach land. In 2005, when Hurricane Katrina
approached the New Orleans area, residents received several days’ warning and many
were able to get out of the way of the storm.
Tornadoes, much smaller-scale phenomena than hurricanes, are rotating air funnels
some tens to hundreds of meters across. Tornadoes descend from storm clouds to the
ground, causing intense damage along the path where the funnel touches the ground
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Mike Agliolo/Photo Researchers, Inc.
(Figure 18-16). The largest tornadoes, with air speeds in excess of 500 kilometers (about
300 miles) per hour, are the most violent weather phenomenon known.
El Niño, a weather cycle that recurs every four to seven years, affects weather from the
Pacific Basin to the Atlantic Coast. The name means Christ Child and comes from the fact
that the phenomenon, when it happens, usually begins around Christmastime. El Niño
can cause severe storms and flooding all along the western coast of the Americas, and
drought from Australia to India. El Niño is an example of a coupling between two of
Earth’s cycles—in this case, the atmospheric and water cycles. It requires both winds and
ocean currents to work. Here’s what happens: Normally, the winds off the coast of Peru
blow westward. They move the warm ocean water westward, like water sloshing in a bath-
tub, to the western Pacific. As the surface water moves west, the colder, nutrient-rich water
from the deep ocean wells up and supports marine life and fish-eating birds. Because the
eastern Pacific is cooler, the atmosphere cools and descends there, forming a zone of high
pressure and dry weather off the coast of South America. Meanwhile, the western Pacific is
warmer, so air warms and rises above it in a rainy, low-pressure zone.
Every four to seven years, however, this pattern changes, signifying the beginning of
an El Niño event. Warm surface water sloshes to the east, the water temperature in the
eastern Pacific increases by a few degrees, and the normal atmospheric patterns switch
places. Westerly winds replace the normally easterly flowing trade winds. This wind
• Figure 18-16 Tornadoes descend reversal reinforces the movement of warm water eastward to the coast of South America,
from violent storm clouds to the where air warms and rises, creating rainy conditions. The marine life and birds are no
ground, causing intense damage longer supported by the nutrients of the cold, deep water. The western Pacific becomes
along the path where the funnel relatively cool and dry. Eventually, the water sloshes back and the whole cycle repeats
touches the ground. itself. Historical records tell us that this cycle has been repeating in the Pacific Basin
since the 1600s and may have been going on since the last ice age.
C LIMATE •
Climate, as opposed to weather, seldom changes much on the scale of human lifetimes. In
spite of many uncertainties about climate change, several factors that strongly influence
regional climate are now well documented. Large bodies of water and ocean currents, such
as the Gulf Stream, can greatly change a region’s climate by transferring heat. Oceans and
large lakes can also add moisture to an air mass. Northwest New York State, for example,
receives heavy rains and snows as Canadian air masses pass over the Great Lakes. Mountain
ranges disrupt the movement of air masses, and can efficiently remove moisture from an
air mass. We have seen how tall mountains on Hawaii affect rainfall; nearby locations on
opposite sides of a volcanic mountain can have radically different rainfalls.
These effects of oceans and mountains on climate reveal that movements of tectonic
plates play a major long-term role in Earth’s climate. As plates move, bodies of water
open and close and mountain ranges are formed. In addition, the presence of continents
near one or both poles strongly influences the severity of ice ages, because thick accu-
mulations of ice require a solid base. Thus, Earth’s atmospheric cycle is strongly influ-
enced by other global cycles.
How Steady Is Earth’s Climate?

Through most of recorded history, Earth’s climate has been pretty much as we know it
today, but recorded history covers only 4000 years—a blink of an eye in geological
time—and detailed records of weather have been kept for only a few centuries. Until
recently, scientists assumed that climate change always happened slowly in response to
factors such as the tectonic movement of the continents. However, since the early 1990s
thinking on this subject has started to change. It turns out that Earth’s climate can
change more drastically, and more quickly, than anyone had realized.
Key evidence came from deep-sea cores drilled in the floor of the North Atlantic
Ocean. During times corresponding to the last ice age, scientists found layers of rocks in
these cores, spaced between 7000 and 11,000 years apart, that are identical to rocks
found in northern Canada. The first clue as to what these layers might mean came from
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geophysicist Douglas MacAyael at the University of Chicago. His explanation was based on
the behavior of the ice sheets that covered North America and the rock underneath them.
Over most of northeastern Canada, the underlying rock is hard and strong. In Hudson Bay,
however, the rock is softer. MacAyael’s calculations showed that when the ice over Hudson
Bay piled up several miles deep, the soft underlying rock would fracture and, when mixed
with melted water, turn into a layer about the consistency of toothpaste. When this hap-
pened, the ice sheet would slide out to sea and huge armadas of glaciers would sail out into
the North Atlantic. In this scheme, the mysterious Canadian rocks were simply material
incorporated into the icebergs that dropped to the ocean floor whenever the iceberg melted.
However, from the point of view of climate stability, the important thing about these
events is that they are accompanied by huge swings in temperature—the data seem to indi-
cate that the average temperatures changed by 5ºC (9ºF) in a matter of 10 years or so. For
reference, this change would be roughly like suddenly moving the climate of Florida to
Boston. The most likely explanation is that the freshwater added to the North Atlantic by
melting ice temporarily shut down the ocean currents that distribute heat around the globe,
and that these currents stayed “off” until the water had been mixed and become salty again.
Since the discovery of the first of these sudden climate swings during the last ice age,
scientists have found evidence for many more. Today, scientists are trying to understand
how sudden changes in climate can be caused not only by glaciers, but also by changes
in the brightness of the Sun and a host of other effects. It appears that our comfortable
view of a stable Earth won’t survive long as we unravel the history of the climate. •
U NDERSTANDING C LIMATE •
While the daily weather is often dominated by the position of the jet stream and the cre-
ation of high- and low-pressure zones, the long-term climate depends on more lasting
features of Earth’s surface. These factors include the distribution of heat due to the sta-
bilizing temperature of oceans, and the presence of mountains, which force air masses
up over them. The climate is also extremely sensitive to the amount of sunlight that falls
on the atmosphere and the amount of heat that is radiated back to space.
At the moment, our best attempts at predicting long-term climate depend on com-
plex computer models of the atmosphere called global circulation models (GCMs). In a
typical GCM, a computer splits the world’s surface into squares about 100 kilometers on
a side and slices the atmosphere into about 20 vertical compartments. In each of these
boxes the laws of motion and thermodynamics are used to calculate the amount of heat
that flows in and out, how much water vapor comes out of the air, and so on. The com-
puter balances the inflow and outflow from all of the boxes in the atmosphere and pro-
jects forward in time to try to predict long-term climate trends. Our current models are
still rather crude (they have a great deal of difficulty accounting for the effects of clouds,
for example), but they represent the best attempts to date to understand what affects
Earth’s climate. These models also play a critical role in discussing various types of eco-
logical changes such as global warming (see Chapter 19).
TECHNOLOGY •
Doppler Radar
Radar has been a vital tool for weather forecasters for decades, and you may see radar maps
of local weather conditions on TV every night. The way radar works is simple. Microwaves
are sent out from a central antenna. When they encounter objects such as raindrops,
snowflakes, or ice in the air, the waves are reflected back. Each kind of material produces a
distinct pattern of reflected waves because its density is different from that of the sur-
rounding air. These reflection patterns are used to assemble a map of local storm activity.
Ordinary radar, however, cannot detect winds, even winds of high velocity. The reason
is that the densities of moving air and stationary air are usually not very different, and the
two produce the same reflection pattern. But in many situations it’s important to detect air
currents. Near airports, for example, sudden downdrafts create violent air turbulence called
wind shear, an extremely dangerous condition that we need to be able to detect.
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P. Degginger/Bruce Coleman, Inc.

• Figure 18-17 A computerized
radar weather map shows areas of
cloud cover and precipitation.
Doppler radar is designed to detect motions of the air by using the Doppler effect
(see Chapter 6). It works like this: Reflected waves are analyzed not only for their inten-
sity, as in ordinary radar, but for their frequency as well. From the difference between the
emitted and reflected frequencies, a simple analysis of the Doppler effect yields the veloc-
ity of the object from which the wave was reflected. In this way, high winds and atmos-
pheric turbulence can be detected at a safe distance (Figure 18-17). As you might expect,
Doppler radar requires powerful computers and is much more expensive than ordinary
radar, but the increased safety is well worth the expense. •
The Rock Cycle

When Earth formed there were no rocks. About 4.5 billion years ago, the great bombard-
ment, the process that built Earth from the solar nebula (see Chapter 16), released prodi-
gious amounts of energy as swarms of meteorites crashed into the growing planet,
converting gravitational potential energy into heat. That heat produced a molten ball orbit-
ing the Sun. There was no land, no oceans, and no atmosphere. Only when the bombard-
ment subsided and Earth began to cool did rocks appear. First, as the temperature dropped
below the melting point of surface rocks, the outer crust of Earth gradually solidified
like the first layer of ice on a pond in winter. Then, when surface temperatures dropped
below the boiling point of water, the first rains must have fallen. Together, these two events
began the rock cycle, a cycle of internal and external Earth processes by which rock is
created, destroyed, and altered.
Rock formations, which are bodies of rocks that form as a continuous unit, may be
thought of as the “reservoirs” of the rock cycle. The atoms that make up the solid Earth
spend most of their lives cycling among igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks—
three principal types of rocks that differ in the processes by which they are formed.
I GNEOUS R OCKS •
Igneous rocks, which solidify from a hot liquid and thus were the first solids to appear
on Earth’s ancient surface, come in two principal types. Volcanic or extrusive rocks
solidify on the surface in what are by far the most spectacular of all rock-forming events,
volcanic eruptions. Red-hot fountains and flows of lava ooze down the slopes of the
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The Rock Cycle | 393
Stephen & Donna O’Meara/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Michael Cultson/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Francois Gohier/Photo Researchers
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 18-18 (a) Devil’s Tower in Wyoming represents the neck of a would-be volcano
that may have never quite reached the surface. The surrounding sediments have subse-
quently eroded away. (b) A glowing red-hot flow of basalt lava flows down the side of a
volcano in Hawaii. (c) This piece of porous pumice formed when water in a volcanic rock
boiled, leaving countless tiny gas bubbles.
Chromosohn/John Sohm/Photo Researchers
growing volcanic cone. The most common variety of volcanic rock is basalt, a dark,
even-textured rock rich in oxides of silicon, magnesium, iron, calcium, and aluminum
(Figure 18-18). Basalt makes up most of the rock in Hawaii, as well as most of the new
material formed at mid-ocean ridges. Other volcanoes feature rocks richer in silicon; if
these magmas mix with a significant amount of water or other volatile (easily boiled)
substance, the volcanic rock can become the frothy rock called pumice.
Igneous rocks that harden underground are called intrusive rocks. Dark-colored
basalt often exploits underground cracks near volcanoes to form layers or sheets of
igneous rock. The Palisades on the Hudson River near New York City formed in this
way. Lighter in color and density, granite is perhaps the most common intrusive rock in
Earth’s crust (Figure 18-19). Hard, durable granite, with its attractive pink or gray col-
ors and speckled array of light and dark minerals, makes an ideal ornamental building
stone. New England is particularly famous for its many fine granite quarries.
Igneous rocks are still being formed on Earth—for example, when new plate material
is formed at diverging boundaries (see Chapter 17) or in active volcanoes. In other places, • Figure 18-19 Granite from a
such as the Yellowstone Park region, hot springs and geysers reveal hidden sources of quarry in Barre, Vermont, solidified
underground heat and may indicate places where intrusive igneous rocks are forming today. from magma deep underground.
S EDIMENTARY R OCKS •
When the first rains began to fall on the first igneous rocks, the process of weathering
began. Small grains washed off the recently hardened volcanic rocks, flowed down
through streams and rivers toward the seas, and were deposited in shallow lakes and on
the ocean floor. Weathering also occurred as water dissolved rocks and by the mechani-
cal action of water freezing in cracks. Over time, layers of sediment accumulated, espe-
cially at the mouths of rivers near the shores of Earth’s new oceans. As more and more
sediment collected, these layers became thicker and thicker. In many places on Earth
right now—the Mississippi River Delta that extends into the Gulf of Mexico, for example—
layers of sediment may reach several kilometers in thickness.
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As the first sediments were buried deeper, temperature and pressure on them
increased. In addition, water flowed through the layers of sediments, dissolving and rede-
positing glue-like chemicals—something like the crusty deposits that can build up on an
ordinary faucet when water drips continuously. The net result of all of these processes—
pressure, heat, and the effects of mineral-laden water—was to weld the bits of sediment
together into new layered rocks. This kind of rock, appropriately called sedimentary
rock, is made up of grains of material worn off previous rocks. Other common sedimen-
tary rocks, including salt deposits, may form from layers of chemical precipitates.
While uniform sedimentary rocks can form at the base of a single mountain or cliff,
the collection of grains often comes together from many different places. The grains in a
single fragment of sedimentary rock being formed in the Mississippi delta, for example,
may have come from a cliff in Minnesota, a valley in Pennsylvania, and a mountain in
Texas. Similarly, sediments deposited near the mouth of the Colorado River carry bits of
history from much of the North American West. Deltas inevitably contain particles from
all rocks in their rivers’ drainage area.
As you travel across the United States, you will encounter many common varieties of
sedimentary rock (Figure 18-20). They’re easy to spot in road cuts and outcrops because
of their characteristic layered appearance, like the pages of a book or a many-layered cake.
Sandstone forms mostly from sand-sized grains of quartz (silicon dioxide or SiO2), the
most common mineral at the beach, and from other hard mineral and rock fragments.
Sandstone often formed from ancient beaches, deserts, or stream beds—places where
concentrations of sand are found today. Sandstone usually feels rough to your touch, and
you can just barely see the individual grains that have been cemented together.
Shale and mudstone form from sediments that are much finer grained than sand.
These rocks commonly accumulate beneath the calm waters of lakes or in the deep
ocean basins—places often teeming with life. There organisms, both large and small, die
and are buried in muddy ooze, where they may eventually form into fossils that provide
us with much information about the evolution of life on Earth (see Chapter 25).
Limestone, another distinctive type of sedimentary rock, forms from the calcium car-
bonate (CaCO3) skeletons of sea animals, or by chemical precipitation directly from
ocean water. Some limestone grows from a gradual rain of microscopic debris or broken
shells, while others represent a coral reef that spread across the floor of a shallow sea.
Like shale and mudstone, limestone commonly bears fossils.
Given what we know about plate tectonics and about the constant movement of mate-
rials around Earth’s surface, it should come as no surprise that just because sedimentary
Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers, Inc.

• Figure 18-20 (a) A spectacular
Jonathan A. Meyers/Photo Researchers
example of sedimentary rocks in Utah.

The different colored bands corre-
spond to layers of different kinds of
materials that were deposited on
the floor of a long-vanished ocean.
The surrounding sediments have
been eroded away to provide mate-
rial for new sedimentary rocks
downstream. (b) Limestone is a dis-
tinctive type of sedimentary rock
that forms from the calcium carbon-
ate shells of sea animals or by
chemical precipitation from ocean
water. These deposits are located in
Chattanooga, Tennessee, far from
the nearest ocean.
(a) (b)
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rocks originally formed at the bottom of the ocean, they have not necessarily
stayed there since their formation. Indeed, it’s not at all unusual to see sedimen-
tary rocks in mountain passes thousands of meters above the ocean, or in the mid-
dle of continents thousands of kilometers from the nearest open water. Spectacular
limestone formations form cliffs above Chattanooga, Tennessee, mountains near
El Paso, Texas, and the heart of the Canadian Rockies, all far removed from the
ocean (Figure 18-20b).
One of the best places to get an appreciation of sedimentary rocks is at the
beach. If you pick up a handful of sand, you’ll notice that each grain is different.
Some are dark colored, some are light. Some have sharp, angular edges, some are
smooth and worn down (Figure 18-21). Each of these grains of sand once was part
of a rock in a drainage system of the rivers that feed into the ocean. As the rock
weathered away, each grain was chipped off and carried to the sea by wind and
water. Eventually, the grains of sand you hold in your hand will be formed into solid
rock and subjected to the forces of plate tectonics. That sandstone may someday be
uplifted to an altitude far above sea level, where the grain may be weathered again
and start the whole cycle all over. Each grain of sand in your hand, then, may have
made the trip from rock to beach to sandstone many times in its history.
The story of the grain of sand provides a good model for the way materials
move about Earth’s surface. The atoms of rocks, just like those of the air, water, • Figure 18-21 A microscopic view
or your body, are always shifting around, but it is always the same matter—the of a handful of sand (X50) reveals
same atoms—recycling. grains of many different sized, shapes
and colors.
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are the abodes of countless billions of creatures that build their homes, bit by
bit, from calcium carbonate (Figure 18-22). Reefs thrive in shallow, clear, ocean water
with temperatures above 18ºC (about 64ºF). The Pelican Island by British Art Wolfe/Stone/Getty Images
poet James Montgomery (1771–1854) captures the extraordinary phenome-

non of entire oceanic islands rising from this biological process:
I saw the living pile ascend,
The mausoleum of its architects,
Still dying upwards as their labours closed;
Slime the material, but the slime was turn’d
To adamant, by their petrific touch;
Frail were their frames, ephemeral their lives,
Their masonry imperishable. p
Atom by atom, thus their burthen grew,
Even like an infant in the womb, till Time
Deliver’d ocean of that monstrous birth,
— A coral island, stretching east and west.
Massive limestone reefs like the one in Montgomery’s poem once thrived in • Figure 18-22 Coral reefs form in
ancient shallow seas of New York, Illinois, Montana, Texas, and many other places where the shallow waters around many
limestone ridges or mountains now stand. • Pacific islands.
M ETAMORPHIC R OCKS •
It may happen that sedimentary rocks are slowly buried deep within our planet, where
they are subjected to intense pressure and heat. There they will be turned into yet another
kind of rock, transformed by Earth’s extreme conditions into metamorphic rock. If a
shale or mudstone formation is buried like this it may eventually turn into a brittle, hard
slate, the kind of rock from which roofing shingles (Figure 18-23a) and school black-
boards used to be made. Even higher temperatures and pressure can transform slate
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©Renaud Visage/Age Fotostock America, Inc.
Marli Miller/Visuals Unlimited

(a) (b)
• Figure 18-23 (a) Slate is a brittle, layered metamorphic rock that is commonly used for
roofing material. (b) The Grand Teton Mountains in Wyoming feature intensely folded meta-
morphic rocks. These rocks have been altered by high pressure and temperature deep within
Earth’s crust, and then uplifted and eroded into mountains.
into spectacularly banded rocks, called schists and gneisses, which often boast fine crystals of
garnets and other high-pressure minerals. Roadcuts and outcrops of these metamorphic
rocks can look like an intensely folded cloth or a giant cross section of swirled marble cake
(Figure 18-23b). Sandstone, when exposed to high temperature and pressure, also meta-
morphoses, recrystallizing to a durable rock in which the original sand grains fuse into a
solid mass known as quartzite.
THE STORY OF MARBLE •

Of all the metamorphic rocks, none tells a more astonishing tale than marble, a rock of
extraordinary beauty. If you ever travel the roads of Vermont, chances are you will pass
an outcrop or roadcut of distinctive greenish-white cast, a rock with intricate bands and
swirls. These marbles take a high polish and have been prized for centuries by sculptors
and architects (Figure 18-24). But no works of humans can match the epic process that
• Figure 18-24 The Lincoln Memo- formed the stone.
rial is one of many famous monuments Most marbles began as limestone, which are rocks that originate primarily from the
carved from marble, a metamorphosed skeletal remains of sea life. Over the ages, limestone in the area we now call Vermont was
limestone. buried deeper and deeper, crushed under the weight of many kilometers’
thickness of sand, shale, and more limestone in an ancient sea. But no ocean
Walker Bros. Creations/Photo Researchers
or sea can last forever on our dynamic planet. An ancient collision of the
Eurasian and North American plates compressed and deformed this ocean
basin, crumpling the layered rock into tight folds and subjecting the sedi-
mentary pile to intense temperatures and pressures. The buckled and con-
torted formations were uplifted to high elevations when the Appalachian
Mountains formed several hundred million years ago. During the intense
pressures and high temperatures associated with the converging tectonic
plates, the limestone was metamorphosed to the marble that we use today.
Many millions of years of erosion and uplift have exposed these ancient rocks,
which are gradually weathering away to begin the cycle again. And humans,
in a futile quest for immortality, quarry the marble for their monuments and
tombstones and other transient reminders of Earth’s incessant change.
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Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks all participate in the rock cycle.
Igneous rocks, once formed, can be weathered to form sedimentary rocks, or they can
undergo metamorphism. Layers of sedimentary rocks also can be transformed into
metamorphic rocks. All three kinds of rocks can be subducted into Earth’s interior, par-
tially melted, and reformed as new igneous rocks. Thus the rock cycle never ceases.
Hutton and the Discovery of “Deep Time”

Near the town of Jedburgh in Scotland is a curious cliff that reveals vertical layers of rock
overlain by horizontal layers (Figure 18-25). How could such a sequence have occurred?
In the last decades of the eighteenth century, Scottish scientist James
©C.E. Ford 2004

Hutton (1726–1797), a man who is often called “the father of modern
geology,” studied this remarkable cliff and realized that he was seeing the
result of an incredibly long period of geological turmoil.
Knowing what you now know about sedimentary rocks, you will
realize when you look at this cliff that you are seeing the end product of
a long chain of events (Figure 18-26). First, a series of sedimentary
rocks was laid down in the usual horizontal fashion, one flat layer on
top of another. Then some tectonic activity disrupted those layers,
breaking and folding them until they were tilted nearly vertically. Then,
after still more tectonic activity, the rocks found themselves at the
bottom of an ocean and another layer of sedimentary rocks formed on
top of them. Finally, an episode of uplift and erosion has brought the
rocks to our view.
Hutton realized that geological forces must have been operating
for very long times indeed. Each step of the formation process—gradual
sedimentation, burial, folding, uplift, more sedimentation, and so on—
would require countless generations, based on observations of ongoing
• Figure 18-25 James Hutton rec-
geological processes. In the words of nature writer John McPhee, Hutton had discov- ognized the immense spans of time
ered “deep time.” In order for a formation like the one at Jedburgh to exist, Earth had required to form this spectacular out-
to exist not for thousands of years or even hundreds of thousands of years, but for many crop at Siccar Point, near Jedburgh
millions of years. in Scotland.
Today, we know that Earth’s age is calculated in billions of years, and the existence
of structures like the one at Jedburgh is not surprising. At the time of its interpretation
by James Hutton, however, the rocks at Jedburgh provided a totally new insight into the
inconceivable antiquity of our planet.
In the words of Hutton himself, the testimony of the rocks offered “no vestige of a
beginning, no prospect of an end.” •
THE I NTERDEPENDENCE OF E ARTH’S CYCLES •

We have described the hydrologic, atmospheric, and rock cycles as if they were largely
independent of each other, as if they operated alone in splendid isolation. In fact, each
cycle affects and is affected by the others.
The amount of rainfall in a given location affects the rate of erosion and thus the
amount of sediment being deposited in deltas—and therefore the amount of sedimen-
tary rock being formed. In this way, the atmospheric and water cycles affect the rock
cycle. In the same way, the breakdown of rock is essential to the formation of soils in
which plants grow. The presence of plants, in turn, affects the absorption of sunlight at
Earth’s surface and thus the energy balance that controls the movement of the winds
and ocean currents. And, over hundreds of millions of years, the global cycle of plate
tectonics, which controls the distribution of Earth’s mountains and oceans, influences
all other cycles. Thus, although Earth’s cycles operate on very different timescales, they
constantly influence each other.
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• Figure 18-26 This series of dia- Gradual sedimentation

grams shows several stages in the
history of the Jedburgh outcrop.
(a) Layers of sediment were gradu-
ally deposited in water. (b) Those
sediments, deeply buried, were
compressed and tilted during tec-
tonic activity. (c) Uplift brought the
tilted sediments to the surface,
where they were partly eroded.
(a)
(d) The rocks subsided, and a new
cycle of sedimentation began. Burial and deformation
(b)
Uplift and erosion
(c)
Gradual sedimentation
(d)
Thinking More About Cycles
B EACH E ROSION Beaches, like all other systems in nature, are not static but
change in response to environmental forces. The action of waves
Something about the shore appeals to people. Beachfront transports sand grains from one place and deposits them some-
property is considered to be highly desirable, and over the past where else. Large waves tend to move sand away from a beach
half-century America’s prosperity has resulted in large-scale and deposit it in offshore bars, while smaller waves tend to move
development of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico the sand back toward the beach. Thus a seasonal movement of
coastlines. As a result, Americans are becoming very aware of sand occurs on many beaches—offshore in the winter (when
the effects of natural cycles on property values. storms send in large waves) and onshore during the summer. In
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Summary | 399
addition, waves normally strike a beach at a slight angle,
The News & Observer, Robert Miller/©AP/Wide World Photos

a phenomenon that moves sand along the beachfront.
Large storms may completely destroy beaches and
dunes, which are rebuilt farther inland over time. Thus
every beach is a dynamic, shifting system. Left to itself,
a beach will move around in response to the forces of
wave and storm.
If the beach were left to itself, this cycle of change
would cause no problems. If, however, waterfront
properties worth many millions of dollars have been
developed on or near the beach, such movements have
enormous economic consequences for homeowners
(Figure 18-27). Should governments use public funds
to try to protect such homes? Should the government
provide low-cost insurance to indemnify the owners for
loss? Should insurance be issued to allow people to
rebuild beachfront homes after a storm? • Figure 18-27 Large coastal storms cause millions of dollars in
damage to shorefront homes every year.
Will we ever run out of freshwater? • The ultimate source of freshwater is the hydrologic cycle. Evapora-
tion from the oceans, rivers, and streams eventually falls to Earth
• The term “freshwater” refers to any source of water that contains as precipitation, usually in the form of rain, sleet, or snow.
low concentrations of dissolved salts. Freshwater includes bodies º Some of this precipitation returns to the oceans relatively quickly
of water such as lakes and rivers, as well as the polar icecaps and via rivers and streams. The rest percolates into the ground and
glaciers. becomes part of groundwater aquifers.
• Freshwater is a vitally important renewable natural resource. º It is estimated that 98% of the non-glacial freshwater is contained
Since most species cannot drink saltwater, it is an indispens- in underground aquifers.
able ecological component for the continued survival of terres- • Modern society places tremendous demands upon these aquifers.
trial organisms (i.e., land-dwelling plants and animals). º We often drill deep into these aquifers to supply water for
• While Earth’s water supply is vast, only a small portion is avail- human and livestock consumption, industry, and agriculture.
able for human use. Approximately 96% of the world’s water is º In North America, total per capita water consumption is well
either brackish or saline (i.e., salty). Most of the remaining 4% is over 500,000 gallons per year.
locked in glaciers and icecaps. This leaves less than one percent º These aquifers are a renewable, but limited resource. They
that can be accessed for human needs. may have taken thousands of years to fill, and yet can be
º Freshwater is used for many human activities from drinking to drained in a few decades.
agriculture. º As more freshwater is extracted each year, the potential for
º The United Nations estimates that over one billion people do a shortage of freshwater becomes a distinct and troubling
not have access to fresh drinking water. possibility.
S UMMARY •
Matter that forms Earth’s outer layers follows many cycles, driven by The atmospheric cycle of the weather redistributes solar energy
the energy of the Sun and Earth’s inner heat energy. Each cycle can from the warmer equatorial regions to higher latitudes through the
be analyzed in terms of reservoirs that hold matter and by the move- development of global convection cells of air. The prevailing westerly
ment of matter between reservoirs. flow of weather across North America marks one of these large cells,
The hydrologic cycle traces the path of water as it evaporates from while the jet stream delineates the boundary between this flow and
the oceans, falls back to Earth as rain, and forms lakes, rivers, ice caps, the contrary cell to our north. Climate, in contrast to weather, varies
glaciers, and groundwater reservoirs. During unusually cold climatic much more slowly in response to ocean circulation, the Sun’s energy
periods, more water falls as snow, creating a white reflective blanket output, the positions of continents and mountain ranges, and other
that further reduces the amount of absorbed solar radiation. This sit- relatively fixed conditions.
uation, if prolonged, can lead to an ice age, during which ocean lev- The solid materials of Earth’s crust are subject to the rock cycle.
els drop significantly and great sheets of ice cover the land at high The first solids to form on the cooling planet were igneous rocks, which
and middle latitudes. Temperatures in these latitudes may be moder- are formed from hot, molten material. Volcanic or extrusive igneous
ated, however, by ocean currents that are important in redistributing rocks solidify on the surface, while intrusive igneous rocks cool under-
temperatures at Earth’s surface. ground. The first igneous rocks were subjected to weathering by wind
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and rain, which eventually produced layers of sediment and the first subsequently buried and transformed by Earth’s internal temperature
sedimentary rocks. Sandstone, shale, limestone, and other sedimentary and pressure to form metamorphic rocks. Each of the three major rock
rocks were deposited in ocean basins, layer upon layer, in sequences types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—can be converted
often many kilometers thick. Igneous and sedimentary rocks were into the others by the ongoing processes of the rock cycle.
K EY TERMS •
reservoirs current jet stream sedimentary rock
hydrologic cycle ice age rock cycle metamorphic rock
ice caps atmospheric cycle igneous rock
glaciers weather volcanic or extrusive rock
groundwater climate intrusive rock
D ISCOVERY L AB •
In this chapter you learned about great currents that are like rivers of
both warm and cold moving water within the larger ocean. These Food coloring
currents are very important to various climates of the world in the
redistribution of heat across the planet’s surface area. To simulate
these currents, gather the following items: food coloring, a bowl of
large ice cubes, an extra large and wide cooking pot—preferably
transparent Pyrex, a carton of thin spaghetti, a bowl, and a large,
long-handled spoon.
1.5 inches
First, fill the pot with warm water, about 1.5 inches from the
top rim. Place it on top of the stove burner to boil. Turn the heat Ice cubes Boiling water
all the way up. As you wait for the water to boil, pull out ten
strands of spaghetti and break the spaghetti into small (half-inch) Convection
pieces; placing them in the bowl. After about 15–20 minutes the current
water should be boiling. Turn down the heat a notch or two, and
slowly spill the spaghetti pieces in the boiling pot. (CAUTION! 1/2 inch
spaghetti
Boiling water can scald you badly. Take appropriate safety mea- pieces
sures.) Observe where the spaghetti moves within the convection
currents of hot and less heated water. Stir the spaghetti a few times. cubes are. Do you notice how the food coloring sinks to the bot-
Observe the spaghetti pieces’ movement. Now place a few ice tom? How is this like the cold rivers of water currents sinking down
cubes gently into the water’s surface, and quickly take the food col- from the Artic region and flowing along the coastline of Western
oring and squeeze out eight or nine droplets right where the ice Europe toward equatorial waters?
1. What happens to matter during a cyclical process? 14. What is the difference between weather and climate? Describe
2. What form of energy drives the hydrologic cycle, the movement the weather and climate of your area.
of tectonic plates, and weather patterns? 15. Is the climate of Earth resistant to change? Over what period of
3. What are two steps in the analysis of a cycle of Earth material? time do most climatic changes take place?
4. What are the principal repositories of water on Earth? 16. In what ways are air masses like reservoirs of the atmosphere?
5. Identify three ways that water moves between repositories. 17. What are the five variables that describe the weather?
6. What role does evaporation play in the hydrologic cycle? 18. Why does air pressure vary from place to place?
7. How does water move within the oceans? How does it move 19. What is the jet stream? What is the prevailing direction of the
within glaciers? jet stream? How does it influence your weather?
8. By what process does the amount of water on Earth change from 20. How does the atmosphere distribute heat across
year to year? What is the magnitude of this change from year to year? Earth’s surface?
9. Describe the processes that lead to an ice age. What effect does 21. If land heats up more quickly than water, what does this tell
the formation of large glaciers have on the hydrologic cycle? you about their relative heat capacities?
10. What are the differences between ice caps and glaciers? 22. How is a volcanic eruption part of the “rock cycle”? What
11. What factors might cause glaciers to advance from polar areas other cycles might an eruption affect?
to more temperate zones? 23. Why were igneous rocks Earth’s first rocks?
12. How do ocean currents affect local climate? 24. What are three main kinds of rocks? How do they form?
13. Why do we call groundwater in most areas a “nonrenewable 25. If you were driving past a large road cut through rock, what
resource”? features might you observe to tell you its origin?
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1. Describe how a large volcanic eruption might affect global warming. 9. Why are there offshore breezes at night and onshore breezes
2. What is “deep time”? What does this concept suggest about the during the day? What does this suggest about the relative heat
processes that form the landscape that we see today? capacities of land versus the oceans?
3. In the case of the cycle of an aluminum atom, what are some of 10. Of what are coral reefs made? Are they a living organism?
the reservoirs of aluminum? 11. On the Jovian planets, the amount of heat coming from the inte-
4. Describe three places where you might find volcanic rocks form- rior of the planet is about equal to the amount that falls as sunlight.
ing today. Describe three places where you could watch sedimen- Should this affect the way the atmosphere circulates on these planets?
tary rocks forming today. Where would you have to go to watch Why or why not?
metamorphic rocks form? 12. Why is draining an aquifer akin to mining water? How is
5. Describe the “life cycle” of a grain of beach sand. the water in an aquifer replaced? How long does this process
6. The thickness of polar ice caps depends critically on the location take?
of continents; much thicker ice can accumulate on land than in 13. How would our weather patterns be affected if Earth stopped
water. Where is the only polar continent now? rotating?
7. Why does temperature vary with latitude and altitude? 14. What is the Gulf Stream? What countries are directly affected
8. How do oceans redistribute Earth’s heat? How does the atmos- by the path that it takes?
phere accomplish this? Do rocks redistribute heat? Which global
cycle is most efficient in transferring heat? Why?
P ROBLEMS •
1. How much calcium is in 100 cubic kilometers of seawater? b. Is there a relationship between atmospheric pressure and
(Hint: Refer to Table 18-2.) cloudiness? Why?
2. If copper is worth $8 per kilogram, what is the value of the copper c. Is there a correlation between cloudiness and the difference
in 10 cubic kilometers of seawater? between temperatures at noon and midnight? Why?
3. An impressive limestone deposit in north-central Montana is 2500 d. Try graphing your data again with a different type of graph
meters thick. If limestone grows at an average rate of 1.25 millimeter (e.g., bar, line, pie). Did your original choice of graph affect
per year, how long did it take to form this limestone deposit? how easily you could interpret the data and results?
4. Record the temperature, atmospheric pressure, and cloudiness at
both noon and midnight in your area for a period of at least 15 days.
(You can find these data on the Internet.)
a. Graph the temperature versus pressure. Is there a systematic
trend? Why?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Look at some weather maps in your local newspaper over a 5. What are the “doldrums” and how do they form? What role
period of several weeks and see if observing weather patterns to the have they played in poetry and literature?
west of your location is a good predictor of your weather. Why 6. Many movies have been made about weather disasters—hurricanes,
should this be so? tornadoes, blizzards, and so on. Watch such a movie and comment on
2. Where does water come from at your college? Is the water the accuracy of the science portrayed.
processed or treated in any way? How long might that source of 7. Investigate all the possible sources for global warming. What do
water last? What alternatives exist if that supply is depleted? we know about the Sun’s energy output? Is it stable? Does the core
3. The three kinds of rocks—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic— of Earth supply any energy to the surface?
are described in this chapter as being quite distinct, yet some earth 8. How many ice ages have there been? How many periods of
scientists have engaged in an intense debate about the origins of cer- increasing temperature are associated with interglacial periods?
tain rocks, such as granites, that formed at high temperature deep 9. The next time you walk past a large building, see if you can identify
within Earth. Some scientists claim that these rocks are igneous, while the different types of stone that were used in the construction.
others say they are metamorphic. How could such a debate arise, and
10. Why would a sculptor use a metamorphic rock like marble for
how could it be resolved? (Hint: Think about making taffy.)
a detailed sculpture rather than an igneous rock like granite?
4. Investigate the biological cycle of calcium in your body. Where
11. The next time you are at the seashore, see if you can spot a stone
in your body is calcium used? How often is it replaced? How much
jetty. Why are these constructed? What effect does the construction
calcium do you need to consume each day? What are the best food
of a jetty have on beach erosion? What kind of stone was used?
sources of this element?
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19
Ecology, Ecosystems, and the Environment
Are human activities affecting the global environment?
PHYSICS
Smokestacks
equipped with
electrostatic
precipitators rely on
forces to collect
ash and soot
particles. Burning fossil
Energy in fuels releases
ecosystems flows nitrogen and sulfur
from the Sun through compounds, which
plants to herbivores, react with water in
then carnivores. the air to form
acid rain.
ENVIRONMENT
New methods Ecosystems are A gradual

of recycling, such buildup of
as the use of
interdependent atmospheric carbon
surfactants, play a communities of living dioxide may lead to
significant role in things that recycle global warming
reducing solid waste caused by the
in the United matter while energy greenhouse
States. flows through. effect.
TECHNOLOGY
Acid rain has

The intense output increased the rate
of ultraviolet of weathering of
radiation from the Sun rocks, most notably
is largely absorbed by limestone and other
Earth’s ozone layer. sedimentary rocks
The release used in buildings
of CFCs into the and statues.
atmosphere has
caused a decrease in
ASTRONOMY the concentration of
GEOLOGY
protective ozone and
may contribute to an
increase in skin
= applications of the great idea cancer. = other applications, some of which
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Life Under the Sand
Y ou and a friend decide to take a

walk down the beach, away from
the crowd. Along a deserted stretch
you watch as dozens of small shore-
birds scurry back and forth, poking
their long pointed bills into the wet
sand. They seem to be searching for
food. A closer look reveals tiny air
holes in the sand—the telltale signs
of tiny crustaceans. Farther down the
beach, the sand is littered with small
shiny shells; a golfball-sized crab scur-
ries by, and smelly strands of seaweed
wash up onto the shore.
But those life-forms are only the
most obvious members of the ocean-
side community. If you could take a
small sample of beach sand and exam-
Atlantide S.N.C./Age Fotostock America, Inc.
ine it under a microscope, you would
observe countless bacteria and other tiny organisms that way, a full understanding of our living planet will come if
thrive in the tidal environment. The beach turns out to be a you view it not as a series of isolated individuals but as one
richly varied community of organisms. In much the same vast interconnected community.
Ecology and Ecosystems

Think about the wonderful communities of living things that you’ve seen in your travels—
deep woods and flowering meadows, shallow ponds and ocean beaches, dry deserts and
stagnant swamps. Perhaps you’ve been lucky enough to hike in high-mountain tundra or
go snorkeling at a coral reef (Figure 19-1). Each of these places boasts a collection of
interdependent living organisms in a distinctive physical environment.
Stop and Think! What characteristics do all the living communities that
we have just listed have in common?
The word ecology, derived from the Greek word for household or housekeeping, is the
branch of science that focuses on natural living systems in the broadest sense. An ecosystem
includes all the different kinds of living things that live in a given area, together with their
physical surroundings. In every ecosystem, some organisms, such as plants, act as produc-
ers; they obtain atoms and energy from their physical surroundings and convert them into
the essential carbon-based molecules of life. These biomolecules then sustain other organ-
isms, such as animals, which act as consumers in ecosystems. In addition, still other life-
forms, including bacteria and fungi, act as decomposers that renew the raw materials of life.
Together, these diverse organisms form an interdependent community.
An ecosystem can be as small as a single community of organisms on and near a bush
in a tropical forest. It can be an aquarium in your living room, or a lake, including all the
fish, insects, plants, and microorganisms in it. Or an ecosystem can be a mountain
meadow, a salt marsh, a continent, even an entire planet. No matter what size ecosystem
we talk about, however, the emphasis of ecology is to look at the system—its matter and
its energy—as a whole, rather than as a group of independent parts.
403
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404 | C HAP TE R 19 | Ecology, Ecosystems, and the Environment
Wildlife Pictures/Age Fotostock America, Inc.

Georgette Douwma/The Image Bank/Getty Images
(b)
Gerald C. Kelley/Photo Researchers, Inc.

(a) (c)
• Figure 19-1 (a) Complex coral reef ecosystems are extremely sensitive to changes in
local conditions, such as salinity and water temperature. Large areas of coral near the coasts
of North and South America are endangered by human activity. Other examples of ecosystems
include a pond (b) and a desert (c).
Every living organism, from single cells to complex animals and plants, relies on its
ecosystem to sustain life. Indeed, the continuance of life on Earth is not a property of iso-
lated individual organisms or even of species, but rather of ecosystems. One key to under-
standing living organisms, therefore, is to examine the ecosystems in which they survive.
Much can be learned from looking at living things as part of integrated natural sys-
tems, but this realization is relatively recent. Throughout the nineteenth century, for
example, biologists were concerned with cataloging living things and paid little attention
to how they were affected by (and, in turn, how they affected) their environment. Only
within the last few decades have many of the insights discussed in this chapter come to be
recognized as different aspects of the study of ecology.
C HARACTERISTICS OF E COSYSTEMS •
Ecosystems are richly varied. They occur on virtually every body of water and parcel of
land on Earth, from the deepest ocean trench to the highest mountain range to the
soil in your backyard. Yet, in spite of this diversity, all ecosystems share a few basic char-
acteristics. As you read about these characteristics, think about how they apply to an
ecosystem near your home.
1. Every Ecosystem Consists of Both Living and Nonliving Parts
Nonliving or abiotic parts form the chemical and physical environment of the
ecosystem—the water, soil, atmosphere, and so forth. Local climate, including average
temperature, rainfall, winds, and Sun exposure, are important physical properties of
land ecosystems, whereas water temperature, pressure, salinity, and acidity help to
characterize ecosystems in oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water.
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Ecology and Ecosystems | 405
Living organisms form the biotic part of an ecosystem; they form an ecological com-
munity, which may be defined as all the individuals in an area that interact with each
other to maintain life. In a forest ecosystem, for example, an ecological community will
include trees, shrubs, insects, birds, snakes, and squirrels, as well as fungi, bacteria, and a
host of other microscopic organisms in the soil.
2. Energy Flows Through Ecosystems
The most important interactions of organisms in an ecological community are by way of
a food chain or food web, which indicates who feeds on whom. Each species in a food web
obtains energy and chemicals from other organisms; in turn, each species provides
energy and chemicals for other organisms. Insects eat plants, birds eat insects, bacteria
and fungi in the soil decompose birds and other organisms when they die, and plants
obtain vital nutrients from the soil. Food webs for ecological communities may be
extremely complex.
The flow of energy between trophic levels (see Chapter 3) is an important unifying char-
acteristic of all ecosystems. The first trophic level of photosynthetic plants, which use only
the Sun’s energy, provides energy for herbivores in the second trophic level. Herbivores, in
turn, pass some of their energy to carnivores of the third trophic level and so on. Decom-
posers, including bacteria and fungi, obtain energy from all other trophic levels. In each
energy transfer from one trophic level to another, most of the available energy cannot be
recovered in a useful form; it eventually radiates into space as waste heat (see Chapter 4). In
fact, only about 10% of the energy available at one trophic level normally finds its way to the
next. Thus, as energy flows through an ecosystem, it must be replaced continuously.
3. Matter Is Recycled by Ecosystems
Atoms continuously cycle from one part of Earth to another. Perhaps the easiest way to
understand the cycling of atoms through Earth’s biosphere is to follow the carbon cycle.
This cycle can be illustrated by looking at the possible path of a single atom of carbon that
leaves your lungs the next time you breathe out a molecule of carbon dioxide. This car-
bon atom enters the atmosphere, where many different things can happen to it. It can,
for example, be taken up by a plant during photosynthesis and then be incorporated into
the tissues of a tree or a blade of grass (Figure 19-2a). The plant can then be eaten so that
the carbon atom becomes part of the tissue of an herbivore. Alternatively, the carbon can
simply return to the atmosphere if the plant dies and rots without being eaten.
If the carbon atom is taken into the tissue of an herbivore, then it may show up on
your dinner plate one day and be taken into your body as part of some food you eat. It
might even be incorporated into your own body to stay there until you die, or to move
through the chemical cycles described in Chapter 21. In either case, the carbon atom, in
time, will enter the atmosphere again.
Another possible track for a carbon atom is shown in Figure 19-2b. It can enter the
ocean by being added to a mollusk shell or the skeleton of a microscopic organism.
Upon the death of the organism, these hard parts sink to the ocean bottom, where, in
the form of calcium carbonate, they are turned into limestone. In this case, the carbon
atom can remain locked up for hundreds of millions of years until the limestone is
weathered and the carbon is released into the atmosphere.
A single atom of carbon, in other words, may have gone through many different
chemical reactions during the 4.5-billion-year life of the planet and will continue to do
so as long as Earth has living things on it. The one thing it will not do, however, is leave
the planet. A similar story can be told for an atom of nitrogen or phosphorus or any
other chemical element.
Stop and Think! Some toxic chemicals, such as the heavy metal mercury
and the pesticide DDT, may gradually concentrate to harmful levels in liv-
ing things, because cells have no mechanisms to remove them. These dan-
gerous substances are observed to be most concentrated in species at the
top of the food chain—a phenomenon known as bioconcentration or bio-
logical magnification. Based on the characteristics of ecosystems, why should
this phenomenon occur?
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Carbon cycle in land ecosystem
CO2 in atmosphere
Volcanic eruption
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Combustion
Respiration
Carbon
cycle in
ocean
Producers ecosystem
Dissolved CO2 Bicarbonate
Consumers Plants
Decomposers
Animals
Sedimentation
Fossil fuels
Sediments
Decomposers
(a) (b)
• Figure 19-2 The carbon cycle. (a) Carbon atoms cycle through both living (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic) parts of Earth’s ecosystem. They are found in carbon dioxide in the air,
then taken into plants to become part of their structure. If a plant is eaten, the carbon may
be returned to the air through respiration or become part of an animal’s tissue. When the
animal dies, the carbon dioxide returns to the air. Carbon atoms may also be locked into
sedimentary rocks such as shale and limestone. (b) Another part of the carbon cycle involves
the oceans, for example as dissolved CO2 in ocean water or as the shells of marine animals.
4. Every Organism Occupies an Ecological Niche

The ecological niche, a central concept in ecology, refers to a particular mode of survival—
a particular way of obtaining matter and energy—within an ecosystem. In a forest ecosystem
there may be a niche that can be filled by one or more kinds of warm-blooded, insect-eating,
nocturnal animals—bats, for example. Mushrooms growing in shaded wooded areas may fill
another niche. Each plant or animal in an ecosystem fills an ecological niche, and different
organisms compete for dominance in their preferred ecological niche.
5. Stable Ecosystems Achieve a Balance Among Their Populations
This balance, called homeostasis, reflects the fact that matter and energy are limited
resources that must be shared among all individuals of an ecosystem. An ecosystem in
homeostasis will exhibit some variations in population sizes, as food supplies and other
factors vary from season to season and year to year. But the overall distribution of species
is usually relatively constant. A one-acre sunny meadow, for example, will boast a large
but limited amount of grasses, flowering plants, and other vegetation. Year in and year
out, those plants support a limited population of insects, which in turn will feed perhaps
a few dozen birds.
6. Ecosystems Are Not Permanent, but Change over Time
While ecosystems may appear to be stable, in fact we know that they change over time.
On the longest timescales, the effects of plate tectonics will change the climate in a given
area, converting a desert into a fertile plain, for example. On shorter timescales, the
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The Law of Unintended Consequences | 407
advance and retreat of glaciers can have a similar effect, as can changes in patterns of
precipitation. Even on very short timescales, the introduction of a new species, by humans
or by other natural processes, can profoundly change the pattern of life in a given area.
As the science of ecology progresses, understanding and predicting these sorts of
changes is becoming a major research goal.
The Law of Unintended Consequences

The complex interweaving of living things in their environment leads to a central insight
in the science of ecology, an idea called the law of unintended consequences.
It is virtually impossible to change one aspect of a complex system without

affecting other parts of the system, often in as-yet unpredictable ways.
Whenever we alter something in an ecosystem other changes will follow, and we have to
consider what those changes might be. Examples of this “law” appear in the news almost
daily: building levees on the Mississippi River has caused unintended intensification of
flooding; extracting petroleum and water from underground reservoirs has caused
unintended land subsidence; building jetties into the ocean has resulted in unintended
erosion of beaches. Each of these systems is interdependent, so the whole responds to
every stimulus.
As often happens when scientists and engineers encounter complex systems for the
first time, a good deal of observation and trial and error has to take place before an
understanding of the system begins to emerge. Unfortunately, during that period of
study serious mistakes can be made (see the discussion of Lake Victoria in the following
section). Eventually, however, people learn how to proceed and begin to undertake
large-scale projects with some confidence. At the moment, for example, the largest
reconstruction project ever attempted is being undertaken in the Everglades of South
Florida. The Everglades Restoration Plan is designed to restore the Everglades by
changing the flow of water in the entire southern part of the state. As the plan proceeds,
you can be sure that everyone—engineers and environmentalists alike—will have the law
of unintended consequences firmly in mind.
THE L AKE VICTORIA D ISASTER •

Millions of people who live on the shores of Lake Victoria, the largest freshwater lake in
Africa, know firsthand about the law of unintended consequences. What was once a rich
fishing ground and source of most of their protein has been radically altered by the intro-
duction of a single new species—the Nile perch (Figure 19-3).
About 35 years ago, sport fishermen, seeking a greater challenge for the growing
tourist market, introduced this large, aggressive predator into the lake. The perch
thrived and rapidly ate up populations of smaller fish that not only provided an essen-
tial part of the local diet but also controlled populations of algae and parasite-bearing
snails. Unchecked, live algae spread over the lake’s surface, while dead algae sank,
decayed, and consumed oxygen in deeper water where fish used to live. Snails have also
multiplied and become a serious health hazard because they carry parasites that can
affect humans.
Native fishermen now rely on Nile perch, which weigh up to several hundred pounds
each, rather than smaller fish, but this change carries its own ecological consequences.
Unlike the small fish that were sun dried, Nile perch must be roasted over fires. Lake
Victoria’s shoreline, each year stripped of more trees for this purpose, is suffering exten-
sive soil erosion and further unanticipated changes to the lake’s ecosystem. A single new
species has thus drastically altered a vast ecosystem.
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WALTER ESTRADA/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.

Gerald C. Kelley/Photo Researchers, Inc.
(a) (b)
• Figure 19-3 (a) Lake Victoria, which is home to millions of people, is the largest freshwater
lake in Africa. (b) The ecology of the Lake was drastically altered by the introduction of one
species, the Nile perch.
Stop and Think! The ecologist Garrett Hardin has stated as a principle of
ecology that “We can never do merely one thing.” What do you think he
meant by this?
Island Biogeography
Because ecosystems are so complex, it’s sometimes difficult to draw unambiguous con-
clusions from field studies. In 1963, however, American ecologists Robert MacArthur
and Edward O. Wilson looked at the populations on islands, small ecosystems separated
from the rest of the terrestrial world by water (Figure 19-4). From their study, they were
• Figure 19-4 New species migrate
to islands like this, reestablishing
able to frame a hypothesis: Whenever a new species migrates to an island that already has
ecosystems. a thriving and stable ecosystem, it will flourish only if another species becomes extinct.
According to this so-called equilibrium hypothesis, only a fixed number of
species exist in any ecosystem, and if a new species invades, one of the old
species will be driven to extinction.
The hypothesis was supported a few years later by Wilson and Daniel Sim-
berloff in a classic ecological experiment. They first surveyed all the insects and
crustaceans on a series of small mangrove islands off the coast of southern
Florida. They then removed all living animals on the islands by draping large
plastic sheets over them and fumigating. Over a period of years, they watched
the islands undergo the process of repopulation as new animals migrated from
the mainland or from other islands. As expected, the total number of species on
each island at the end was about the same as it had been at the beginning. Per-
haps less expected, however, was the fact that the kinds of animals on the
repopulated islands were often quite different from those that had been there
before. New species that happened by chance to be carried to an island on the
tides were able to establish themselves in particular ecological niches, which
Thomas Schmitt/The Image Bank/Getty Images were then unavailable to competitors that arrived later.
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Threats to the Global Ecosystem and Environment | 409
In 1995, nature began a similar experiment on its own. A violent hurricane propelled
a large raft of fallen trees along with 15 green iguanas—spiny lizards up to four feet in
length—from the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe to the island of Anguilla, 200 miles
away. A new colony of green iguanas has begun to breed on Anguilla, and it soon will be
competing for resources with the native species of brown iguanas. Ecologists are keeping
close tabs on this dramatic example of changing island ecology. •
Threats to the Global Ecosystem and Environment

The resources of our global ecosystem are vast but limited, and we often don’t know
enough about them to predict accurately how they will respond to change. These two
inescapable facts, coupled with the growing pressure of human populations for energy
and material goods, have led to a number of large-scale environmental problems. We are
going to look at four of those problems—the disposal of solid waste, acid rain, the
degradation of the ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect. All of these problems are seri-
ous, but their solutions entail different levels of national and international commitment.
Taken together, they provide a sense of how ecosystems respond to human activities, as
well as the difficulties that will have to be solved in order for our industrial society to
keep functioning.
THE P ROBLEM OF U RBAN L ANDFILLS •

The fact that nothing is ever really thrown away has become very much a concern in
urban America (Figure 19-5a). The problem is that garbage (so-called solid waste) is
generated at an enormous rate in American cities today. New York City alone adds
17,000 tons of solid waste to its landfill every day (Figure 19-5b).
To make matters worse, the nature of modern landfills is such that the normal
process of breakdown and decay in the carbon and nitrogen cycles is slowed enormously.
In a landfill, solid waste is dumped on the ground and compacted, then covered with a
layer of dirt, then another layer of compacted waste, then another layer of dirt, and so
on. Material in such a landfill is cut off from air and water, and the bacteria that normally
operate to decompose the waste cannot thrive. Archaeologists digging into landfills have
discovered, for example, that newspapers from the 1950s are still readable after having
been buried for a half century! This situation means that, unlike an ordinary garden
compost pile, in which materials are quickly broken down by the action of bacteria, the
landfill is really more like a burial site than a location for recycling.
• Figure 19-5 (a) Typical percentages of different kinds of trash in urban landfills. (b) New York
City produces immense quantities of solid waste.
Other 6%
Wood 4%
Glass 7%
Food
waste Paper 39%
7%
Metals 9%
Hard waste
Plastics 9% 19%
(a) (b)
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Two approaches respond to the problem of solid waste. One strategy is recycling;
every aluminum can that is recycled is one that won’t be taking up space in a landfill.
The other approach is the creation in rural areas of large depositories that are designed
to accept waste shipped from distant locations. Cities pay more to ship and dump trash
in facilities like this, but the costs are relatively modest compared to building new land-
fills close to home.
Trash
How much solid waste is produced in the United States every year? Engineers estimate
that the average American each year is responsible for about 40 tons (80,000 pounds) of
trash, including everything from disposable containers, newspapers, and mail-order cat-
alogs to old automobiles and appliances, as well as the industrial wastes necessary to
manufacture the things we buy. What is the total volume of this waste? Compacted trash
typically weighs about 80 pounds per cubic foot—somewhat denser than water but less
dense than rock (of course, it takes up much more volume before it’s compacted). Forty
tons, therefore, is equivalent to a volume of
80,000 pounds
⫽ 1000 cubic feet
80 pounds per cubic foot
That’s enough compacted trash to fill two large dump trucks for every man, woman,
and child in the United States every year. Thus 250 million Americans produce a total
annual volume of trash of
250,000,000 people ⫻ 1000 cubic feet>person ⫽ 2.5 ⫻ 1011 cubic feet
That’s almost two cubic miles of trash every year, enough to build a solid 500-foot-wide
wall across the Grand Canyon at its widest and deepest point. •
TECHNOLOGY •
The Science in Recycling

Because land that can be used for dumps near big cities is growing ever more scarce, and
because the environmental cost of using materials once and then throwing them away is
growing steadily, governments have recently begun to pay more attention to recycling.
Every recycled plastic milk jug or sheet of paper means less material in landfills, as well as
less petroleum taken from the ground or less energy used to convert wood pulp to paper.
But recycling is not as easy as it sounds. A great deal of science and engineering has to
be done before even the simplest materials can be reused. In addition, the processes that
have to take place to recover one kind of material are, in general, different from those
needed to recover another. The recycling of different kinds of plastics (see Chapter 10), for
example, requires different kinds of chemical reactions, and processes that work for plastic
soft-drink bottles will not necessarily work for ketchup containers. As a result, each kind of
material that is to be recycled poses its own unique problems to an engineer.
Take white paper, for example (Figure 19-6). The average office worker generates
about 250 pounds of high-grade paper waste per year, and many offices around the coun-
try have paper recycling programs. The first step in this process is simple: the paper is
sorted, shredded, and ground up into a pulp and added to water to make a slurry. Ink
particles from typewriters and pens rise to the surface of the slurry and can be skimmed
off, leaving a material that can be added to fresh pulp to make new paper. However, copy-
ing machines and laser printers work by melting bits of carbon mixed with resins onto the
paper. That sort of ink makes heavier particles when the paper is ground up, and those
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Paper waste is collected
Mark Boulton/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Sorted and
shredded
Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Recycled paper rolls are manufactured
Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Paul Eekhoff/Getty Images, Inc.

Ink is
skimmed Ground into
off the water pulp and
Surfactant
water added
Gas Slurry
bubbles
Added Surfactant Added

binds
Clean
paper pulp Ink Paper pulp
• Figure 19-6 The process of recycling paper involves several physical and chemical
procedures.
particles sink to the bottom along with the paper fibers. Until quite recently, such paper
could be recycled only into products such as cardboard or tissue paper, for which color
quality is not important.
The new technology for dealing with this problem involves the addition of sub-
stances called surfactants to the pulp. The molecules in these substances bind to the
heavier ink particles on one end and to bubbles of gas on the other. Once the molecules
are attached to the ink, various gases are bubbled through the slurry. The surfactants
and their load of ink rise to the surface with the bubbles and are skimmed off, leaving
clean paper fibers for reuse.
A national recycling effort will involve hundreds of different processes such as
this, each geared to a specific material, but each doing its part to make a coherent
whole. •
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Corbis Digital Stock

ACID R AIN AND U RBAN AIR P OLLUTION •
Burning—the chemical reaction of oxidation—inevitably introduces
chemical compounds into the atmosphere. For example, carbon dioxide
and water vapor, the common products of hydrocarbon combustion (see
Chapter 11), are always released. But burning produces three other sig-
nificant sources of pollution: nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, and
hydrocarbons.
1. Nitrogen oxides. Whenever the temperature of the air is raised above
about 500º C, nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen to form what are
called NOx compounds (pronounced “nox”): nitrogen monoxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and others. The “x” subscript indicates that
these compounds contain different numbers of oxygen atoms.
2. Sulfur compounds. Petroleum- and coal-based fossil fuels usually contain
small amounts of sulfur, either as a contaminant or as an integral part of
(a) their structure. The result is that chemical combinations of sulfur and
oxygen, particularly sulfur dioxide (SO2), are released into the atmos-
PhotoDisc/Age Fotostock America, Inc.
phere as well.
3. Hydrocarbons. The long-chain molecules that make up hydrocarbons are
seldom burned perfectly in any real-world situation. As a result, a third
class of pollutants, bits and pieces of unreacted hydrocarbon molecular
chains, enters the atmosphere.
The Effects of Air Pollution and Acid Rain

The emission of NOx compounds, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons gives rise
to a number of serious environmental problems. One of these, which has
immediate consequences for urban residents, is air pollution (Figure 19-7).
Sunlight hitting nitrogen compounds and hydrocarbons in the air triggers a
set of chemical reactions that, in the end, produce ozone, a molecule made
up of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two. And whereas ozone in the
stratosphere is essential to life on Earth (see the following section on the
ozone problem), ozone at ground level is a caustic, stinging gas that can cause
(b) extensive damage to the human respiratory system. This “bad ozone” is a
• Figure 19-7 A comparison of major product of modern urban air pollution associated with photochemical smog—the
Los Angeles (a) during a clear day brownish stuff that you often see over major cities during the summer.
and (b) on a smoggy day. Urban air pollution is a serious problem, but it can sometimes seem to be an immedi-
ate and transitory one. If the air quality in a city declines, then people can be alerted about
it immediately as part of the weather forecast. Just like the weather, the intensity of air pol-
lution varies on a daily basis, and it can change swiftly with the arrival of a thunderstorm or
stiff winds.
However, long-term problems are associated with the presence of nitrogen and sul-
fur compounds in the air; these problems may not have an immediate effect on the place
where the emissions occur. When these compounds are in the air, they interact with
water, sunlight, and other atmospheric chemicals to form tiny droplets of nitric and sul-
furic acid. (The latter is the type of acid normally used in automobile batteries.) When it
rains, these droplets of acid wash out and they become, in effect, a rain of dilute acid
rather than water. This phenomenon is known as acid rain (Figure 19-8). (In fact, rain is
normally slightly acid because carbon dioxide dissolves in raindrops to make a weak solu-
tion of carbonic acid. The term acid rain refers to the considerable extra acidity produced
by human activities.)
You can see one effect of this sort of acid rain in cities. Many of the great historical
monuments in European cities, for example, are made from limestone, which is particularly
susceptible to the effect of acid. Over the years, the acid rain simply dissolves the fabric of
the building (Figure 19-9).
In the mid-twentieth century, the local effects of acid rain and other kinds of pollution
in the United States were dealt with by the construction of tall smokestacks, particularly in
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Air pollutants Transport and

• Figure 19-8 Acid rain originates
H2SO4, sulfuric acid from burning in one area, while its
SO2, NOx change, complex
HNO3, nitric acid
Acid precursors oxidation reactions major effects are often felt in faraway
ecosystems. Pollutants from urban
and industrial areas can travel great
Clouds distances, affecting lakes and forests
hundreds of miles away.
Acid rain, snow or fog Acid rain, snow or fog Buildings
Dry and
deposition monuments
Surface runoff
Forest ecosystem Crops

Urban area Urban
power plants River area
vehicles, etc. Lake ecosystem ecosystem
Pollution source
Direction of wind flow and acid rain path (100s of kilometers)
the industrial parts of the Midwest. The effect was to put the
Courtesy Westfalishches Amt fur Denkmalpflege

pollutants high enough in the atmosphere to be taken away by
the prevailing winds. But, in keeping with our dictum, “you
can’t throw anything away,” that approach didn’t really solve
the problem. It merely displaced it. The nitrogen and sulfur
compounds emitted in Midwestern smokestacks fell as acid
rain on the forests of New England.
Acid rain may not be the only cause of damage to forests
and lakes. Other agents, such as local climate changes, may be
responsible in some cases. As in other ecosystems, scientists
cannot be sure of every cause and effect. Nevertheless, in a
society that is more and more concerned with preserving
nature, the added stress on forests and lakes due to acid rain
receives a great deal of attention.
Dealing with Acid Rain • Figure 19-9 One of the dramatic
The response of governments to urban air pollution has centered on reducing the levels effects of acid rain is the slow disso-
of emissions associated with the burning of fossil fuels. In California, for example, strict lution of some kinds of rocks. Over a
new regulations on average automobile emissions are encouraging the production of period of 60 years, this sandstone
hybrid gasoline/electric cars (see Chapter 3). Because of the size of the California auto- statue on a castle in Germany has
mobile market, it is expected that this requirement will lead to the rapid development been completely destroyed.
and reduced cost of hybrid cars nationwide. In addition, in many states large facilities
such as power plants, which emit huge amounts of pollutants, are required to use coal
with low sulfur content or to install complex engineering devices known as scrubbers,
whose job it is to remove the sulfur compounds from the smokestack before they
become part of the atmosphere (Figure 19-10).
Acid rain and air pollution are examples of moderate environmental problems. We
understand in a general way what the problems are, what at least some of the conse-
quences of pollution are, and what has to be done to prevent the pollution. The costs of
dealing with these problems, however, are high so political and economic questions
become very important. How much are we willing to pay for clean air? This is not an
easy question, nor is it a question answerable by science alone.
THE OZONE P ROBLEM •

In Chapter 14 we pointed out that, although the Sun gives off most of its radiation in
visible light, a certain amount of that radiation comes in the form of ultraviolet light
from the higher-energy part of the spectrum. Ultraviolet radiation can be very damag-
ing to living organisms; indeed, it is routinely used to sterilize equipment in hospitals.
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Courtesy Environmental Elements Corp.
(a) (b)
• Figure 19-10 (a) Smokestacks equipped with an electrostatic precipitator create an electric
field that attracts ash and soot and collects them before they can pollute the atmosphere.
(b) When the precipitator is turned off, thick clouds rise from the stacks.
If Earth’s surface were not shielded in some way from the Sun’s ultraviolet rays, life on
land would be very different, if not impossible.
Ozone, which we saw in the previous section contributes to urban air pollution near
the ground, plays a beneficial role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation high in the atmosphere.
If enough ozone molecules exist in the atmosphere, they will absorb most of the ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun and keep it from reaching the ground. In fact, a protective shield of
ozone formed high in Earth’s atmosphere several hundred million years ago, and it was
only after this shield formed that life moved onto land.
The Ozone Layer
Scientists detect ozone in the atmosphere by using several techniques. One is simply to fly
specialized aircraft into the region where ozone is common and collect samples. For the past
several decades this kind of sampling has been done routinely by organizations such as the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (usually called “Noah” after its acronym
• Figure 19-11 The ozone layer. NOAA) and its counterparts in other countries. Another way to detect ozone is to measure
Although ozone is found everywhere characteristic spectral lines given off by the ozone molecule (see Chapter 8). These measure-
in the atmosphere, even at ground
ments can be made from satellites, from aircraft, or by ground-based observers. In general,
level, it is concentrated in a layer
some 20 miles above Earth’s surface. all these techniques are now used to give us a picture of the health of the ozone layer.
The labels in the middle are the stan- Measurements reveal that ozone is a trace gas that constitutes less than one mol-
dard terms scientists use to describe ecule in a million in Earth’s upper atmosphere. Although ozone is found at every alti-
different levels of the atmosphere. tude (you are breathing a small amount
Altitude even as you read this), most of the
ozone is found some 30 kilometers (about
Kilometers Miles
20 miles) up in a region called the strato-
150 93
sphere (Figure 19-11). In this region, con-
140 87
centrations of ozone are significantly higher
130 81
than they are in other parts of the atmos-
120 74
Ionosphere phere, although even here the amounts are
110 68
very small. This region of enhanced ozone
100 62
concentration is called the ozone layer.
90 56
Most of the absorption of ultraviolet radia-
80 50
Mt. Everest,
tion goes on in this layer, but it should not
70 43
Mesosphere highest point on Earth be thought of as anything analogous to a
60 37
8848 meters (5.5 miles) cloud bank in the sky.
50 31
The Ozone Hole
40 25
Ozone layer
In 1985, British scientists working in
30 19
Stratosphere Antarctica noticed that during the Antarc-
20 12
tic spring (roughly the months of Septem-
10 6
Troposphere ber through November) the amount of
ozone in the ozone layer over Antarctica
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dropped significantly. Later studies from satellites and ground-based experiments confirmed
Courtesy NASA
these results. During this period of the year, the concentration of ozone falls by different
amounts in different years. The region over the Antarctic where this phenomenon occurred
was dubbed the ozone hole (see Figure 19-12). The ozone hole is not a place where the
atmosphere has disappeared, but a volume of the atmosphere in which the concentration of
the trace gas ozone has declined significantly. Scientists became concerned about the appear-
ance of the ozone hole, because the ozone layer worldwide is so vital to the existence of life
on our planet.
In the 1950s, scientists introduced a new class of chemicals, called chlorofluorocarbons
or CFCs, that were a boon to industry. Chlorofluorocarbons are very stable and nontoxic
gases; they last a long time and do not break down readily when they are released into the
atmosphere. Inexpensive CFCs were ideal for increasingly popular aerosol spray products,
and they were valued replacements for rather nasty chemicals such as ammonia that had
been used in refrigerators and air conditioners. Thus CFCs played a key role in the great
air conditioning boom that made the southern part of the United States comfortably hab- • Figure 19-12 The dark area
itable during the summer. marks a region of lower ozone con-
In the mid-1970s, before the ozone hole was discovered, a group of researchers centration over Antarctica—the
realized that CFCs might cause destruction of ozone in the atmosphere. Once the ozone hole.
annual appearance of the ozone hole was firmly established in the 1980s, concerns over
the role of CFCs increased. In a classic example of the law of unintended consequences,
seemingly benign CFCs turned out to present a very real danger to Earth’s ozone layer.
Over periods of time that range into the decades, molecules of CFCs work their way into
the upper regions of the atmosphere, where they can be broken apart by high-energy
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The chlorine atoms that are freed in this way act as a
catalyst in a reaction that can be written as follows:
In words: (ozone plus chlorine plus sunlight) become (ordinary oxygen plus chlorine)
In symbols:
2O3 ⫹ Cl ⫹ sunlight S 3O2 ⫹ Cl
Although this reaction proceeds very slowly, each chlorine atom liberated from a CFC
can, over time, destroy millions of ozone molecules before it is safely locked into another
chemical species in the atmosphere.
Over most of Earth’s surface, the effect of the chlorine atoms is not striking because
new ozone molecules are being created all the time. In the Antarctic, however, a num-
ber of unusual circumstances come together to create the ozone hole. For one thing,
during the months immediately preceding the hole, no sunlight falls in the Antarctic
region of Earth. This period of darkness leads to the appearance of high clouds made
entirely of ice crystals, the so-called polar stratospheric clouds. Crystals of ice in these
clouds provide sites on which molecules that contain chlorine atoms undergo a series of
chemical reactions. These chemical reactions proceed up to the final step before ozone
molecules are actually broken down. As soon as high energy in the form of ultraviolet
sunlight returns in the Antarctic spring, the destruction of ozone proceeds very quickly
because large quantities of ozone-destroying chlorine atoms are released all at once. The
ozone is destroyed in a matter of days or weeks, and the ozone hole results.
You might think that the disappearance of the ozone shielding in the Antarctic
spring would not be a major environmental problem. After all, life is sparse on the
Antarctic continent. The real danger of the ozone hole, however, is that it points to
chemical reactions that could have long-term effects on the entire ozone layer. Not only
has the ozone hole grown larger over the past decade, but also recent measurements
suggest that the ozone layer has been depleted by a few percent worldwide.
Dealing with the Threat to the Ozone Layer
In 1986, an international congress meeting in Montreal produced a treaty by which all
the industrial nations of the world agreed first to limit, then to eliminate, their produc-
tion of CFCs. This decision triggered a lot of activity in major chemical companies,
where people started looking to find replacement substances. In 1992, the reduction of
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CFCs was proceeding so quickly that the target date for elimination of most CFCs was
set at 1996. Government mandates prohibited use of Freon in automobile air condi-
tioning systems by 1994 and called for its complete elimination by 1996. Current calcu-
lations suggest that, while the ozone hole still forms over Antarctica during the fall
months, these restrictions in CFC use are having the desired effect and that the ozone
layer will return to normal by the second half of the twenty-first century.
The ozone hole is an example of a serious environmental concern but one that has a
relatively straightforward solution. Scientists have established the cause of the problem.
The effects of the ozone hole, though serious, are not totally devastating to life on
Earth, and the cost of solving the problem is relatively low. The problem of ozone deple-
tion appears to be well on its way to being solved.
THE G REENHOUSE E FFECT •

The temperature at Earth’s surface is determined primarily by the extent to which gases
in the atmosphere absorb outgoing infrared radiation (see Chapter 6). The atmosphere
is largely transparent to the Sun’s incoming visible and ultraviolet radiation that warms
the surface, but it is somewhat opaque to the infrared (heat) energy that radiates out
into space (Figure 19-13). If it were not for the trapping of heat by the atmosphere, the
average temperature of Earth’s surface (i.e., the average day–night, winter–summer tem-
perature) would be about –20ºC. Thus, like a greenhouse, the atmosphere raises Earth’s
temperature from an inhospitable –20ºC to its present more temperate temperature
distribution. This natural temperature increase associated with atmospheric trapping of
heat is the so-called greenhouse effect.
In today’s news, “greenhouse effect” refers to projected increases in global
temperatures—both a change in average global temperature and a change in the tem-
perature contrast between equator and poles. Three points of general agreement
frame debates about global warming.
1. All scientists agree that carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation and acts as a green-
house gas. Our neighboring planet, Venus, which has a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere
and surface temperature exceeding 400ºC (see Chapter 16), demonstrates this effect
most dramatically. In fact, many atmospheric gases contribute to Earth’s less severe
greenhouse effect and CO2 accounts for only about 10% of the total infrared absorption.
Water vapor, especially in clouds, is the dominant greenhouse gas, while the trace gases
methane and CFCs, which make up less than a few millionths of the atmosphere, are
molecule-for-molecule the most efficient infrared absorbers.
• Figure 19-13 The greenhouse Solar radiation passes through the Solar radiation passes through the
effect. Just as the Sun’s energy passes greenhouse glass and is converted atmosphere and is converted to heat,
to heat, which is trapped within which is trapped within the planetary
through the glass of a greenhouse the greenhouse. atmosphere.
and becomes trapped inside as heat,
Solar radiation
the atmosphere acts as a greenhouse
to warm up Earth’s surface.
Atm
osp
and her
oth ic
er sh
gre ell o
en fC
ho O
us
eg 2
Panes of greenhouse glass as
es
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Debates About Global Climate Change | 417
2. All scientists agree that the burning of fossil fuels by human 390
beings has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in Earth’s
Carbon dioxide concentration (ppmv)

380
atmosphere. This dramatic trend is illustrated in Figure 19-14,
which is a graph of the amount of carbon dioxide in Earth’s 370
atmosphere as measured at a high mountaintop observatory in
360
Hawaii during the past several decades. The small wiggles in the
graph correspond to annual cycles by which carbon dioxide is 350
taken into leaves in the spring and then returned to the atmos-
340
phere in the fall.
3. And scientists agree that the average global temperature has 330
increased significantly during the past several decades, with
320
the 1990s being the warmest decade on record and 20 of the
25 warmest years in recorded history occurring since 1980. 310
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Furthermore, 2004 and 2005 were among the four warmest
Year
years on record—at least a full degree warmer than the 30-year
• Figure 19-14 Measurements of
average. Several individual months during that period also set
atmospheric CO2 concentrations
historic records, so there can be little doubt that Earth has reveal an annual cycle, as well as a
become warmer in recent years. gradual increase.
Debates About Global Climate Change

Global warming debates focus on whether increased CO2 is entirely responsible for
the observed increase in global temperature. The reasons for these uncertainties
stem from the fact that our only way of predicting the behavior of Earth’s atmos-
phere is through global circulation models (see Chapter 17). These models, which
break the atmosphere into unrealistic uniform chunks 100 kilometers on a side, are
at best imperfect ways of predicting changes in climate. For example, such a coarse-
grained look at the atmosphere cannot possibly hope to deal with effects of clouds
that typically are only a few miles on a side. Clouds reflect more incident sunlight
into space and thus play a critical role in climate. If the effect of increased carbon
dioxide is to increase atmospheric temperature slightly, one consequence might be
increased evaporation of water from the ocean and, hence, increased formation of
clouds and rainfall on some parts of the globe. Thus, some scientists argue, the
clouds would produce an automatic feedback that counteracts some of the effects of
carbon dioxide.
The world’s oceans are another important effect that is difficult to incorporate in
global circulation models. A constant interplay takes place between water and atmos-
phere at an ocean’s surface, and carbon dioxide moves into and out of the oceans all the
time. In fact, the amount of carbon dioxide locked in the oceans and their sediments is
much greater than that stored in the atmosphere. Even small changes in the way that
oceans interact with atmospheric carbon dioxide can thus have huge effects on the
world’s climate. In addition, as we saw in Chapter 17, ocean currents are instrumental in
spreading heat around Earth’s surface. Small changes in those currents could have enor-
mous effects on Earth’s climate, causing some regions to become warmer, while other
regions experience a lowering of average temperatures.
It’s also conceivable that at least some of the recent observed temperature rise might
be due to a relatively short-term increase in solar energy output. Such solar variations have
occurred in the recent past, for example, during a short period of global cooling—the
“Little Ice Age” from about 1645 to 1715 (Figure 19-15). During that interval the Sun is
estimated to have been about 1% cooler, so it’s essential to get better and longer-term
measurements of the Sun’s energy output.
It has become standard practice in the climate change debate to make all calcula-
tions and predictions about Earth’s temperature for the case in which atmospheric car-
bon dioxide doubles. A group called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former U.S. Vice President
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Archivo Iconografico S.A./Corbis Images
• Figure 19-15 During a period known as the “Little Ice Age” from about 1645 to 1715 Earth’s
temperature was lower than it is now, and canals like this one in Holland froze over all winter.
Al Gore, relies on the participation of thousands of scientists around the world and
issues reports every five years. Their most recent report issued in 2007 states that
warming of the global climate is unequivocal, and suggests that Earth’s temperature
will increase between 2ºC and 6ºC over the next century, with a “best guess” of about
4ºC. The panel also estimates that this rise in average global temperature will be
accompanied by glacial melting and an average rise in sea level of up to 2 feet over the
next century.
The range of possible consequences of greenhouse warming in North America is
also the subject of debate. As a general rule, for every 0.5ºC of greenhouse warming, a
global line of a given temperature will move about 100 miles northward. Thus, for 2ºC
warming, temperatures in Washington DC will become comparable to those in Atlanta,
and temperatures in Minneapolis will be comparable to those in St. Louis. The effects on
Earth’s biosphere and ecosystems might be large or small depending on the magnitude
and rate of warming. The total warming in the Northern Hemisphere after the last ice
age, for example, was about 5ºC and took place over a period of several thousand years.
We know from studies of pollen deposited in the bottom of lakes that this warming,
though large, was sufficiently gradual that plant populations were able to adapt and
migrate north with the retreat of the glaciers. More recently, studies of the northern
Atlantic Ocean have indicated that there have been periods in which the temperature in
that region has changed by 5ºC over a much shorter period, perhaps as little as a few
decades. No known ecological disasters appear to be associated with these events. The
predictions of consequences of greenhouse warming, should it occur, thus are also sur-
rounded with a great deal of uncertainty.
Whatever the consequences, a growing international consensus holds that global
warming is real and should be a matter of concern. You may have heard about a proposed
international agreement on the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions called the Kyoto
Protocol. The U.S. refusal to sign that accord results from a complex political issue that is
confused by controversial ways of calculating each country’s net contribution of green-
house gases to the environment.
From the point of view of government policy, the central question remains: What
will be the social and economic consequences? Unfortunately, it is extraordinarily diffi-
cult to answer this question with the scientific knowledge we now have. Global warming
could cause dramatic changes in coastal flooding, agricultural production, distribution
of infectious diseases, rainfall, number and intensity of hurricanes, and other factors that
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Debates About Global Climate Change | 419
influence the well-being of societies (Figure 19-16). But how much
Associated Press
will it cost in social and economic terms to wean ourselves from the
fossil fuels that emit carbon dioxide? Any effort to reduce drastically
the consumption of fossil fuels will cost consumers money, and they
might require significant changes in lifestyles as well. Just think about
all the ways we use carbon-based fuels. They’re the basic energy
source for automobiles, jet planes, ships, and most of our electric
power plants. Thus, finding ways out of this dilemma is not easy.
Dealing with the Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is both the most difficult and the most poten-
tially alarming of the many environmental problems that face the • Figure 19-16 Global warming
global ecosystem. On the one hand, it is the most difficult to model because the effect could result in dramatic changes in
of adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is uncertain, and the cost of doing some- rainfall, and consequent flooding.
thing about it is very high. The idea that you can take the world economy, which now
runs almost entirely on fossil fuels, and change it over to other sources of energy in a
very short period of time is unrealistic. In the past, it has taken many decades to
make similar changes in a society’s energy use and consumption. Figure 19-17, for
example, shows the transitions from wood to coal and from coal to oil and gas in the
U.S. economy. As you can see, it takes 30 to 50 years for a new fuel to work its way
into the economy. If the more disastrous predictions of greenhouse warming are true,
in about 50 years the warming will already have occurred, and it will be too late to do Science News
anything about it.
In addition, the best scientific estimates now indicate that if warming occurs, it U.S. Policy and the Greenhouse
will not cause severe environmental changes for several decades, far beyond the plan- Effect
ning horizon of corporations, governments, and other major institutions in any soci- Go to your WileyPLUS course
ety. The question comes down to something like this: Are you willing to change your to view video on this topic.
driving habits now because a possibility exists that global warming will adversely
affect the lifestyles of your grandchildren? Human beings find it difficult to suffer real
hardship in the present to prevent an uncertain event from happening in the
future. •
United States energy transitions • Figure 19-17 U.S. energy transi-

100 tions. In the past, it has taken 30 to
50 years to make the transitions from
Wood one type of fuel to another. We
could expect a transition to solar
80 Coal energy (as an example) to take
Oil and gas
about this long.
Total consumption (percent)
60
40
20
Hydro, nuclear, wood, etc.

0
1850 1900 1950 2000
Years of record Nuclear
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Thinking More About Global Warming
H OW C ERTAIN D O YOU HAVE TO B E? higher-end predictions turn out to be true, the consequences
could be severe and far reaching, and include effects like
As we’ve seen, the problem of global warming is a complex increased droughts in many areas of the world and extensive
one. There is no debate within the scientific community that flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
global temperatures are rising and that human use of fossil The problem, of course, is that we have to act now, and
fuels is at least partially to blame. Uncertainties remain about incur real costs, to prevent something that will happen in the
what the effects of the continued use of fossil fuels will be, and future. How much sacrifice should people be willing to make
whatever those effects are, they are unlikely to be made mani- today to reduce risks for the next generation? What sorts of
fest for decades. Nevertheless, decisions will be made over the sacrifices are you willing to make? Would you give up driving
next decade that will, at least potentially, have enormous your car a couple of days a week? Would you buy a lower-
consequences for future generations. In this situation, even performing but more efficient vehicle, or lower the thermostat
doing nothing—pursuing business as usual—is a decision with in your house during the winter? Would you pay more for heat-
consequences. ing and electricity?
On the one hand, if the lower-level predictions of the GCM On the other hand, are you willing to ignore the risks of
turn out to be correct—if Earth warms only 2 or 3 degrees—the global climate change and rising sea levels? Unfortunately, this
consequences will be relatively mild. On the other hand, if the is a problem for which there are no easy answers.
Are human activities affecting the global environment? increases in temperature may cause an increase in sea levels
and atmospheric water vapor via the melting of polar glaciers
• Alterations of the global environment (e.g., climate change) and ice caps.
result from a confluence of natural and human processes. • Water vapor in the form of clouds is one of the most power-
Human activities will at times be the driving force behind some ful of the greenhouse agents. Any significant increase in
biophysical changes while playing little or no role in other atmospheric water vapor could create a dramatic increase in
worldwide changes. global warming.
• There is little scientific doubt that human activities play a central • Despite the fact of global warming, the consequences of this
role in environmental change on the local and regional scale. The large-scale alteration in worldwide ecosystems are unknown.
consumption of natural resources and energy demands are the • The popular media tends to oversimplify the scientific debate
main forces behind this anthropogenic environmental change. surrounding global warming and often seeks dramatic headlines
º As the world becomes more populated, the pressures on local in lieu of informed scientific debate. Drama and sensationalism
ecosystems will increase. rarely lead to productive scientific inquiry, as they tend to
º Current anthropogenic alterations in local ecosystems include: obscure rather than illuminate the topic at hand.
• Slash-and-burn agriculture that leads to deforestation and º Nevertheless, governmental policy makers often seek scientific
the loss of biodiversity via habitat loss. opinion when constructing legislation.
• The burning of fossil fuels that leads to acid rain and º Scientists have a responsibility to gain a perspective not only on
air pollution. the consequences of the anticipated environmental changes but
• Groundwater pollution from the landfilling of solid waste. also on the foundational socioeconomic forces driving the human
º In addition to the local effects, some human activities may activities that are predicted to lead to the anticipated changes.
affect the global or worldwide environment. • Given the complex interweaving of living things in their environ-
• The burning of fossil fuels increases levels of atmospheric ment that is the foundation of the science of ecology, scientists
carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter. and policy makers must always pay heed to the law of unin-
• CO2 is a potent “greenhouse” gas. As such, increasing levels tended consequences as they attempt to direct the flow of
may play a role in increasing global temperatures. These socioeconomic and biophysical forces.
S UMMARY •
Ecology is the branch of science that studies interdependent groups of energy flows through an ecosystem. Matter, on the other hand, is
living things, called ecosystems. Each ecosystem is characterized by its constantly recycled as atoms are used over and over again.
physical environment and its community of living organisms. In While these principles seem simple, the actual behavior of ecosys-
every ecosystem many different organisms, each competing for mat- tems is extremely complex and unpredictable. It’s virtually impossible
ter and energy, occupy their own ecological niches. Photosynthetic to change one aspect of such a complex interdependent network with-
plants in the first trophic level use energy from the Sun; these plants out affecting something else, often inadvertently—a phenomenon
provide the energy for animals in higher trophic levels. In this way, called the law of unintended consequences.
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Review Questions | 421
Human actions are causing changes in Earth’s global atmosphere. Ozone provides important protection on Earth from the
environment—changes that may affect ecosystems. Burning coal and Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, but chlorine atoms from CFCs
other fossil fuels, for example, releases sulfur and nitrogen compounds hasten the breakdown of ozone molecules, thus creating a growing
into the atmosphere—chemicals that contribute to air pollution and ozone hole.
acid rain. Dealing with acid rain will require cleaning up emissions Carbon dioxide, a necessary product of all combustion of carbon-
from automobiles and power-generating plants. based fuels, adds to the atmosphere’s store of infrared-absorbing
The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) during the past several gases and thus contributes to the greenhouse effect. At present, scien-
decades is having a pronounced effect on ozone, a molecule of three tists are not able to predict the consequences of these global changes
oxygen atoms found as a trace gas in the ozone layer of the upper with absolute certainty.
K EY TERMS •
ecology ecological niche ozone ozone hole
ecosystem law of unintended consequences acid rain greenhouse effect
environment air pollution ozone layer
D ISCOVERY L AB •
We have seen that when certain compounds such as nitrogen and Slowly drop
sulfur pollute the air, they interact with sunlight, water, and other in chalk
atmospheric chemicals to form tiny droplets of sulfuric and nitric
acid. When it rains, these acids in the air will wash out in a diluted
acid form we call acid rain. However, even natural rain is slightly
acidic because of the carbon dioxide present in the air, which dis-
solves in rain to make carbonic acid. Statues, tombstones, and other
monuments, are often made from sedimentary rock, like sandstone,
and are gradually destroyed by either natural or acid rain due to this
acidic factor. We can simulate this acidic effect on sedimentary rocks White
vinegar
by simply taking a tall transparent glass, a small bottle of white vine-
gar, and some good sedimentary teacher’s chalk, for an interesting
experiment. Wear your safety goggles for this!
First, fill the glass with white vinegar (a mild acid). Next, slowly
drop the chalk into the vinegar. Observe the effect of the mild acid Chalk
on the chalk, which disintegrates the chalk within the hour. How
would this accelerated effect compare to a sandstone statue, or a
limestone monument dissolving over sixty years or more?
1. What is ecology? How is this branch of science related to other 11. What is the ozone hole? How have governments responded to
branches such as biology and geology? the discovery of the ozone hole?
2. Give an example of an ecosystem near your home. Describe how 12. Why is ozone in the stratosphere considered beneficial whereas
energy “flows through” this ecosystem. ozone at ground level is not?
3. What is an ecological niche? Give an example. Within any given 13. What three pollutants are produced via the combustion of
ecological niche, for what resources are organisms competing? hydrocarbons? What effect do these have on the environment?
4. Describe six characteristics shared by all ecosystems. 14. What is photochemical smog? How is it produced? Why is the
5. What is a trophic level? In which trophic level are you? smog in Los Angeles worse during the summer months?
6. What is bioconcentration? Which trophic levels are most affected? 15. What is acid rain? What steps would have to be taken to solve
7. State the law of unintended consequences. Give an example of the acid rain problem?
the law in operation. 16. What is the greenhouse effect? What are the most potent
8. How does carbon cycle through Earth’s ecosystem? What other greenhouse gases? Are these produced naturally, or are they strictly
elements undergo a similar kind of cycle? anthropogenic?
9. Why doesn’t trash decompose in a modern landfill? What is 17. Why are predictions of global warming so uncertain?
needed for the process of decomposition to begin? 18. What steps would have to be taken to reduce the severity of the
10. What is the ozone layer? Where is it located? Why is it important greenhouse effect?
to life on Earth?
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1. Would you expect the number of species present on an island 10. Suppose that the United States decided today to undergo a
to depend on the size of the island or the number of available conversion from fossil fuels to solar energy. How long do you think
niches/habitats? Why or why not? Is size important? it would take to make a complete transition? What are some of the
2. How variable is solar energy output? How is this measured? How changes that would have to be made? Who would benefit, and who
might variations in the Sun’s energy production affect Earth’s climate? would be hurt by such a change?
3. What environmental changes might result from a global warm- 11. Of what ecosystem is the squirrel on your lawn or the bird flying
ing of 2ºC? What countries might be most affected? Will increased across your campus a part? Are there any threats to the well-being of
agricultural production, via longer growing seasons, offset rising that ecosystem?
oceans? 12. Where do electric cars obtain their energy? Is it true that they
4. Do you think Wilson and Simberloff’s experiment was ethical? do not generate pollution because they have batteries?
Why or why not? Was there any other way to get this information? 13. Suppose that scientists concluded that an appreciable fraction of
5. One of the problems of understanding the workings of ecosystems any measured global warming was due to warming of the Sun or an
is that it is not possible to hold everything constant and change only increase in the amount of geothermal energy reaching the surface of
one variable. Why is this true? What effects might this have on the Earth. What would be the policy implications of such a finding?
interpretation of observations or experiments? 14. What are the nonliving components of an ecosystem or environ-
6. How did you affect your environment today? How did it ment? How do the nonliving components limit the living components?
affect you? 15. What is homeostasis? How does the law of unintended conse-
7. What would the political, social, and economic consequences be quences relate to homeostasis in an ecosystem?
in your community if serious steps were taken to reduce acid rain or 16. Why is the greenhouse effect a current area of scientific concern
air pollution? when Earth has had carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor for
8. How might the law of unintended consequences play a role in several billion years?
the effects of legislation to limit greenhouse gas emissions? What 17. What is the most efficient greenhouse gas? What does cow
industries will be affected? How might this affect your daily life? flatulence have to do with global warming?
9. Does biodiesel, an alternative fuel, still produce greenhouse 18. What is a microclimate? How does the presence of microclimates
emissions? If so, how is it an improvement over petroleum diesel? enhance an ecosystem in terms of biodiversity?
P ROBLEMS •
1. If a global warming of 4ºC takes place, what kind of weather 2. If the average American produces 1000 cubic feet of compacted
might your town experience? (Hint: Find a town to the south of trash each year, how long would it take to fill Yankee Stadium with
you that has that sort of weather now.) one person’s trash? the Grand Caynon?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Do commercial jet airliners fly through the ozone layer? What 7. Read about the “pea-soup fogs” that used to plague London.
effects might this have? What caused them? How many people could be killed in one?
2. How are solid wastes such as plastics handled in your community? 8. When the space shuttle is launched, it punches a large hole in
Does that method represent a long-term or short-term solution to the ozone layer. Investigate how long that hole remains and deter-
the problem? What other options are available to your community? mine if this is a cause for concern.
3. Write a short story chronicling the passage of a nitrogen or 9. What chemicals are used in recycling paper? different types of
phosphorus atom through 10 different stages. plastics? Are the chemicals that are used in the recycling of various
4. What is an environmental impact statement? Are there any projects products more harmful to the environment than the original waste
in your area that have required environmental impact statements? material? What happens to these chemicals?
Where should they be required? 10. What is a “Superfund” site? How many of these sites are the
5. Identify an environmental law or court ruling that has been remains of industrial reclamation and recycling centers?
enacted in the last year. What impact will this law have? Who bene- 11. What is the Kyoto Protocol? How does it affect a country like
fits from the decision? Will anyone lose his or her job as a result? China or India compared to the United States?
6. What happens to your garbage? Is there a recycling program in 12. Watch the film Darwin’s Nightmare. How does the law of
your town? What materials can be recycled? unintended consequences come into play?
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20
Strategies of Life
What is life?
PHYSICS
Stems and trunks

support plants and
allow them to grow
BIOLOGY upward against the CHEMISTRY
force of gravity.
Living things are All life depends

classified according on chemical
to their shared reactions that take
physical place in cells.
characteristics. (Ch. 21)
ENVIRONMENT
Living things use
Evidence
many different from fossils
Microscopes play
an important role in
strategies to deal with suggests that the
average lifetime of a
the discovery of new the problems of species on Earth is a
life-forms (Ch. 21). acquiring and few million years.
using matter (Ch. 25)
and energy.
TECHNOLOGY
Lichens often
grow on rocks to
The Sun
absorb the minerals
provides energy
they need, and thus
for life on Earth.
play an important role
(Ch. 3)
in the breakdown of
rock into soil.
The common mold
was
ASTRONOMY found to secrete a GEOLOGY
substance that kills
bacteria, making it
the first effective
antibiotic.
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day The Diversity of Life
David Nunuk/Photo Researchers

ook at how many different living objects you can find at the
L beach. You’ve already seen birds, seaweed, crustaceans, a variety
of shells, and a crab near the water’s edge. Higher up the beach you
notice an abundance of dune grasses and small weeds, along with
countless flies, ants, and other insects. A rocky tidal pool holds
starfish, sea urchins, and myriad tiny swimming creatures. Schools of
fish roil the surface of the water close to shore, while a few jellyfish
(fortunately not the stinging kind) also inhabit the shallow water.
You even remember seeing a majestic whale spouting far offshore
during an earlier trip to this very beach.
There’s not a place on Earth’s surface where you won’t find liv-
ing things. The frigid Arctic seas teem with life, while the frozen
wastes of Antarctica yield up hardy lichens and single-celled organ-
isms. Living things may be found in the deepest, darkest parts of the
ocean and in the most dry and forbidding deserts. In fact, you could
argue that what makes Earth different from every other place we
know in the solar system (and perhaps even every other place in the
galaxy) is the existence of varied and abundant life.
The Organization of Living Things

Biology is the branch of science devoted to the study of living things, by far the most
complex systems that scientists study. Every single cell is astonishingly complex—vastly
more intricate than the most advanced machines—and each human being contains tens
of trillions of cells. Yet, despite this complexity, living things operate according to the
same laws of nature as everything else we’ve studied. The laws of motion, energy con-
servation, the laws of electricity and magnetism, and the chemical bonding of atoms, for
example, all operate in and govern the behavior of all living things. We have underscored
this point by using examples from biology to illustrate all of the preceding chapters.
WAYS OF THINKING ABOUT LIVING THINGS •

An ant provides a useful way to begin thinking about the study of living things. We can
study the ant in many ways (Figure 20-1). We can, for example, examine it as an individual
organism, in which case we ask questions such as “How big is it?” “How much food does
it consume?” “Where does it get its energy?” We could take a more reductionist or micro-
scopic view and consider the individual ant as a collection of specialized organs. In this case
we might ask about how the ant moves oxygen from the air to its cells, or how its hard
outer covering protects it and supports its weight. Penetrating still deeper, we could look at
the ant as a collection of cells and ask how a single one of those cells operates. Questions
such as “How does this cell carry out its chemical functions?” and “What are the pieces
from which this cell is made?” would then be appropriate. Finally, we could look inside the
cell and think about its ultimate constituents—the atoms and molecules that combine and
424
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The Organization of Living Things | 425
David Maitland/Getty Images, Inc.

(a) (b)
Hans Christian Heap/Getty Images, Inc.
(c)
• Figure 20-1 An ant can be studied at many scales, from individual microscopic mole-
cules and cells to (a) the structure of individual organs and structures, as shown in this micro-
graph of the powerful overlapping serrated jaws, to (b) the behavior of a solitary ant, to (c)
the complex interactions of an ant colony.
react chemically to make the cell what it is. Here we would ask, “What are the molecules
that operate in a cell?” and “How do they interact as chemicals?”
We could also choose to look at the big picture. Instead of probing ever-smaller
parts of the ant, we could choose to view the ant as part of larger and larger structures.
The single ant, for example, is part of the social organization of an ant colony, which in
turn forms part of an ecosystem of living and nonliving things—a sand dune or a field or
a patch of forest. This small community, in turn, represents part of the great global sys-
tem that encompasses all living things on the planet.
Learning about a single living thing such as an ant thus can take place on many lev-
els. Different branches of biology deal with these levels, which we will discuss in the fol-
lowing chapters. The important point to remember, however, is that all of these ways of
viewing the ant are important. Each approach complements, and is complemented by,
the others.
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426 | C HAP TE R 20 | Strategies of Life
In spite of this range of approaches, a profound change occurred in the life sciences dur-
ing the last half of the twentieth century. Traditional biology concerned itself largely with
discovering, understanding, and cataloging organisms and their interactions. Beginning in
the nineteenth century, however, chemists began increasingly to study the cells and mole-
cules found in living systems. This work culminated in the 1950s, when scientists discovered
the singular role played by the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in determining what
traits living organisms inherit from their parents (see Chapter 23). This discovery opened up
an entire new world in the life sciences. As a result, during the past few decades the study of
living things has undergone a fundamental realignment. Today, the great majority of biolo-
gists are studying living systems at the level of molecules rather than at the level of the organ-
ism. Why this should be so will become clear in the following chapters.
What Is Life?
We all have a sense of what it means to be alive. We recognize some living things by their use
of energy to grow and repair themselves, their response to external stimuli, and their ability
to reproduce. But the more we learn about the world around us, the harder it becomes to
provide a precise definition of life. Some objects, such as the mule, are clearly alive but are
unable to reproduce. Certain seeds may lie dormant for centuries without any sign of life,
but then suddenly awaken. Furthermore, as technology advances, machines take on more
and more of the qualities we usually associate with life. As a result of these sorts of problems,
most scientists prefer not to try to define what life is in the abstract, but rather to describe the
collective properties of living systems at some level, as we will do.
Other medical, legal, and ethical questions relating to the definition of life concern
when life begins and when it ends. How should our society define human life? Is it pos-
sible that we could develop machines that are in some way alive? These are ethical ques-
tions that must take scientific knowledge into account, but their ultimate answers lie
outside the realm of scientific inquiry.
THE C HARACTERISTICS OF LIFE •

The diversity of living things is truly staggering. You have only to think of whales, palm
trees, mold, and mosquitoes to recognize this fact. Yet biologists have found that beneath
this diversity many characteristics link all life together. In fact, the general principles that
• Figure 20-2 The chameleon gets
its energy like all animals—by eating govern all living things will occupy us for most of the rest of this book. We list them here,
other living things. however, to make the point that, despite their seeming diversity, living things are really not
that different from one another.
Stephen Dalton/Photo Researchers
1. All living things maintain a high degree of order and com-

plexity. Objects can be ranked according to their complexity,
which is related to the number of different parts that are
organized to make the whole. In this sense, a jet airplane is
more complex than a wristwatch, which is more complex
than a pencil. Even the simplest living thing is vastly more
complex than any object ever constructed by humans.
2. All living things are part of larger systems of matter and
energy. Living things and their surroundings form complex
ecosystems (see Chapter 19). Matter continuously recycles
in a given system, while energy flows through it. All organ-
isms need energy to continue living (Figure 20-2). Plants
use photosynthesis, by which the Sun’s radiant energy is
used to produce energy-rich molecules from water and car-
bon dioxide. Animals and fungi, on the other hand, obtain
energy-rich molecules from plants and other animals.
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What Is Life? | 427
3. All life depends on chemical reactions that take place in
UNEP-Say Boon Foo/The Image Works

cells. As we shall see in Chapters 21 and 22, most living
things share a basic set of molecular building blocks and
chemical reactions. By the same token, specific chemical
reactions are what make one living thing different from
another—what makes you different from a kumquat.
Cells, the chemical factories of life, are the highly orga-
nized building blocks of life. Many organisms such as bac-
teria and blue-green algae are single-celled, whereas
larger organisms such as human beings may incorporate
trillions of interdependent cells.
4. All life requires liquid water. Liquid water possesses several

unusual properties, including its ability as a solvent (see
Chapter 10) and its high heat capacity (see Chapter 4),
which make it an essential medium in the cells of all living
things.
5. Organisms grow and develop. All organisms change in

• Figure 20-3 All organisms, from
form and function at different stages in their lifetimes (Figure 20-3). In this single-celled microbes to these
chapter we will survey some of the varied ways that organisms accomplish these complex hummingbirds, grow and
changes. develop.
6. Living things regulate their use of energy and respond to their environments. During
periods of extreme cold or dryness, for example, many plants will lie dormant and
animals will become sluggish. During warmer or wetter periods, on the other hand,
plants may flower and animals may enter their reproductive cycle. You experience
this kind of change all the time. When your body temperature increases significantly,
you sweat, and heat is removed from the body as the sweat evaporates from your
skin. When you get cold, you shiver and the extra heat generated by your muscles
warms you up.
7. All living things share the same genetic code, which is passed from parent to off-
spring by reproduction. The chemical reactions in a cell are governed by a code
written in the language of the molecule DNA (see Chapter 23). Just as all books
in English are written with the same alphabet, so too the heredity information
that passes traits from parents to offspring uses a single genetic language. Some-
times the process of reproduction can be as simple as the splitting of a single cell
into two offspring, and other times as complex as human sexual reproduction. In
all cases, though, life consists of a chain of parents and offspring moving
through time.
8. All living things are descended from a common ancestor. In Chapter 25 we will review
the long chain of evidence that led Charles Darwin and others to recognize the evo-
lution of life. We will see that the many similarities among living things arise from
their common ancestry.
Measuring Plant Growth

We can see the similarity between biology and the other sciences by looking at how
the scientific method was used to answer an old question. All animals derive their
nourishment from the food they eat, but where do plants get theirs? Throughout
most of recorded history, people thought that plant nourishment must come from
the soil—that plants “eat” soil in the same way that animals eat meat or fruit.
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Andrew Geiger/Getty Images, Inc.
Jan Baptiste Van Helmont (1579–1644), a Flemish physician and the discoverer of
carbon dioxide, reported an experiment that changed this view. He planted a willow tree
weighing five pounds in a pot containing 200 pounds of soil and watered it for five years
as it grew. At the end of that time, he weighed the tree and found that its weight had
increased to 169 pounds while the amount of soil in the pot had decreased by at most a
few ounces. He concluded that all the material used to construct the fabric of the willow
tree came from the water.
Subsequent experiments showed that he was wrong; much of the tissue in plants
comes from carbon dioxide in the air (Figure 20-4). The point of the Van Helmont
story, however, is that in science a good quantitative experiment, even one with an
incorrect conclusion, can clear the way for progress. In this case, Van Helmont’s proof
that plants did not take their fabric from the soil led eventually to our present under-
standing of the role of plants in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and pro-
ducing oxygen. •
• Figure 20-4 Most of the tissues

of trees, such as these giant sequoias,
comes from carbon dioxide in the air.
Classifying Living Things

In Chapter 1 we saw that science begins with observation. People must start their explo-
ration of a new area by looking to see what’s there. Astronomers watched the skies for
thousands of years and named many celestial objects before Newton could explain the
motion of the solar system. Alchemists mixed chemicals and observed countless chemical
reactions long before modern ideas of the atom or chemical bonding were developed.
Similarly, humans spent thousands of years observing and naming living things before they
could begin to recognize order in the variety of organisms they encountered. Taxonomy,
the field devoted to cataloging living things, describing them, and giving them names,
plays a central role in science because our search for patterns in the universe depends on
recognizing similarities and differences.
Classification provides us with more than just a way of describing our world. It helps us
fit new objects and phenomena into an existing framework. Classification enables a biologist
who finds a new organism to group it with similar organisms and thereby to make a number
of intelligent conjectures about that organism—about its diet, for example, or its mating
habits. The same holds true of classification schemes for nonliving objects. Astronomers who
classify stars, for example, know by systematic comparisons that a Sun-like star will have a life-
time of about 10 billion years and will eventually become a white dwarf (Chapter 15).
CATALOGING LIFE •
Biologists, confronted by the amazing variety of living things, realized that they had to find
some systematic way of cataloging life’s diversity. Indeed, the earliest attempts to classify life
must extend back to the origins of language itself. In ancient times, the Greek philosopher
Aristotle (384–322 BC) tackled this problem in his extensive biological writings. He noted,
for example, that whales and dolphins, though fish-like, are actually mammals.
The most successful attempt to devise a systematic classification scheme was begun
by Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778). His work was based on observa-
tion. When you look at living things, it becomes obvious that some characteristics are
shared while others are not. A human being, for example, is more like a squirrel than like
a blade of grass; a sparrow is more like a fish than like algae in a pond. The purpose of
the Linnaean classification was to group all living things according to their shared
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Classifying Living Things | 429
All life
Kingdom: Animal
: Chordates
P h ylu m
am
Class: M mals
r: Primates
O rd e
Genus, Spe
ily, cie
am
F
s
• Figure 20-5 The Linnaean classification scheme recognizes the relationship of each living
thing to every other. We can arrange species into groups that are more and more closely
related. Although human beings are not treated differently from other organisms in this classi-
fication system, we are naturally more familiar with our own species than with any other.
characteristics so that each organism is as close as possible to those other organisms that
it resembles and as far as possible from those it does not (Figure 20-5).
The basic unit of the classification scheme is the species, which we define today as
an interbreeding population of individual organisms that produces fertile offspring. Lin-
naeus, who worked at a time when European scientific institutions were being flooded
with new types of plants from around the world, realized that simply describing species
would not be enough. Instead, he introduced a system in which all species can be placed
into a hierarchy—a sequence of categories that places all species into a larger framework
based on similarities and differences among organisms.
Linnaeus’s original goal was to organize the entire structure of nature, and to this end
he published classification schemes for three “kingdoms” of plants, animals, and minerals.
As you might expect in the first attempt to achieve such an ambitious goal, there were some
errors in his work. (For example, he mistakenly classified the rhinoceros as a rodent.) But
Linnaeus’s work showed that it is possible to define relationships among different species.
The task of classifying living things is something like the problem of pinpointing one
particular building in the entire world—a problem you face every time you mail a letter. You
might start by specifying the continent on which the building stands, then the country, then
the state or province, the town, the street, and finally the street number. Each step in this list
of designations represents a separation, a splitting off. Houses on different continents are
more distant than those on the same continent, houses in different towns more distant than
those in the same town, and so on. Eventually, you get to an exact designation—a street
address in a given town—that specifies the building uniquely.
The modern biological classification scheme uses the same kind of hierarchical
scheme, with narrower and narrower divisions. However, instead of political and geo-
graphical distinctions such as city or country, the Linnaean scheme uses divisions based
on the biological similarities of different species—similarities that point to common
evolutionary pathways (see Chapter 25).
The main categories that biologists use, going from broadest to narrowest, are kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. (A useful mnemonic to help you remember
this sequence is the sentence “King Phillip Came Over For Good Spaghetti.”) As the num-
ber of known species has grown to more than a million, additional divisions such as suborder
(a subdivision of an order) and superfamily (a few closely related families) have been added
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• Figure 20-6 The five kingdoms PLANTS

of the biological classification sys-
ANIMALS Conifers
tem are illustrated by this diagram,
which also suggests the progression Reptiles FUNGI Lycopods Ferns
from simple monera to more Insects Club fungi
complex life-forms. Lobsters Flowering
Birds Water plants
Earthworms molds Horsetails
Sea
Fishes Octopuses Slime Seed plants Mosses
Mammals fungi
Spiders Snails molds Green
Flatworms Brown algae
Nematodes
Sea stars Ribbon worms algae Red
Anemones algae
Protozoans Yellow
Sponges algae
Ciliates
Amoeba PROTISTS
Eukaryotes
Archaebacteria Bacteria
(Eubacteria)
MONERA
Prokaryotes
to the Linnaean scheme. You can think of this classification as being represented by a series
of ever-smaller circles, with the specifications of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus,
and species serving to guide you to ever-smaller groupings. At the end, you come to a single
kind of organism sitting in a circle all its own. Each step in this narrowing process involves a
judgment about which organisms are like each other and which organisms are not.
This narrowing leads ultimately to the familiar two-part scientific names of organisms.
When you go to a zoo or read a biology textbook, you will probably notice that the scien-
tific names of plants and animals are given in terms of two Latin words—Homo sapiens or
Tyrannosaurus rex, for example—that indicate the genus and species. (By convention, the
two words are italicized and the genus is capitalized.) This binomial nomenclature is an
important legacy of Linnaeus’s work.
Biologists have traditionally considered the kingdom to be the broadest classifica-
tion, corresponding to the coarsest division of living things. Until the 1960s, most biol-
ogists recognized only two kingdoms—plants and animals. In subsequent decades most
biologists classified living things into five kingdoms (Figure 20-6), though, as we shall
see, this view is also changing as new data come to light. In the five-kingdom scheme,
two of the kingdoms consist primarily of single-celled organisms.
1. Monera. Single-celled organisms without an internal structure called the cell nucleus
(see Chapter 21). Monera are the most primitive living things (Figure 20-7).
• Figure 20-7 Monera—single-celled organisms without a nucleus—come in a variety of shapes.

These microscope photographs show bacteria in the shape of (a) spheres, (b) rods, and (c) spirals.
David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
(a) (b) (c)

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Science VU/Visuals Unlimited
Tom Adams/Visuals Unlimited

Eric Grave/Science Source/Photo Researchers
(a) (b) LM 136X (c) LM 103X

• Figure 20-8 Some protista (single-celled organisms with a nucleus) develop beautiful
microscopic shells. (a) This shell of foraminifera houses amoeba-like cells. (b) and (c) Pond
waters contain a rich variety of protists.
2. Protista. Mainly single-celled organisms with a cell nucleus, but also a few multicellu-
lar organisms that have a particularly simple structure (Figure 20-8).
The remaining three kingdoms in this classification scheme include multicellular
organisms, in which several different kinds of interdependent cells combine in a single
species. Members of these kingdoms are distinguished primarily by the way that they
obtain energy.
3. Fungi. Multicellular organisms that get their energy and nutrients by absorbing
materials from their environment.
4. Plants. Multicellular organisms that get their energy directly from the Sun through
photosynthesis. (This process will be described in detail in Chapter 21. For now, all
you need to remember is that in photosynthesis, a plant takes carbon dioxide from the
air and combines it with water and sunlight to form the energy-rich molecules known
as sugars, plus some oxygen.)
5. Animals. Multicellular organisms that get their energy and nutrients by eating other
organisms.
A D IFFERENT D IVISION OF LIFE •

In the late 1970s, University of Illinois biologist Carl Woese employed the techniques of
molecular genetics (see Chapter 24) to discover a large group of extremely simple one-
celled organisms that have dramatically altered our view of life’s diversity. These
microbes, collectively known as Archaea, often thrive in extreme environments, includ-
ing acidic springs, arctic ice, deep-ocean hydrothermal vents, and in solid rock kilome-
ters below the surface. Genetic studies reveal that these cells have remarkably distinctive
and varied chemical processes that set them apart from all other cellular life. The pro-
found differences, which are reflected in the unique genetic makeup of Archaea, led
Woese to propose a dramatically new division of life into three distinct domains of life.
According to this dramatically different and now widely accepted view, Archaea and
Bacteria are separate domains of single-celled life without nuclei (i.e., these domains split
the old kingdom of monera in two). Even though these organisms can look quite similar
to each other, they differ in many of their internal chemical mechanisms. The third
domain in Woese’s scheme, Eucaryea, encompasses all life based on cells with nuclei,
including the multicellular kingdoms of plants, animals, fungi, and the single-celled pro-
tista. The three-domain classification scheme reflects the fact that fungi, plants, and ani-
mals are chemically and genetically extremely similar to each other, at least compared to
Archaea and Bacteria.
Stop and Think! Does it matter how many kingdoms or domains biologists
recognize? How might the proposed change to three domains, two of which
are microbes, affect our view of life on Earth?
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How Many Species Are There?

Total number of living species
(organisms currently known)
Biologists are now engaged in a lively debate on one of the most fundamental questions
1,800,000
you can ask about the world: How many species inhabit our planet? Estimates range
from 3 million to 30 million species.
For large animals, such as the birds and mammals that command human attention,
Insects the situation isn’t too bad. All experts agree, for example, that Earth is populated by
53%
about 9000 species of birds and 4000 of mammals, and only a few new ones are discov-
ered each decade. For other kinds of organisms, however, we are still in a state of relative
ignorance. For one thing, there is no central database where information on new species
Other
animals is summarized, so we can’t even make a firm statement about the total number of species
Higher 20% that have been discovered, much less about ones that haven’t been. At the moment, an
plants estimated 1.8 million species have been examined and recorded by scientists somewhere.
17.6%
The distribution of these species is shown in Figure 20-9.
Protozoa Monera Scientists have developed a number of methods for using current data to make esti-
2.2% (e.g., mates about the total number of species on Earth. If we make a graph of the total num-
Algae Fungi bacteria) ber of known species as a function of time, for example, we should get a curve like the
1.9% 4.9% 0.3%
one in Figure 20-10. As time goes by and more species become known, the curve
• Figure 20-9 A pie graph of should flatten. If we assume that the discovery curve for insects, for example, will follow
species distribution among different this same pattern, then by making a guess as to where we are on the curve, we can esti-
kinds of living things reveals that
insects account for more than half of
mate what the final level will be. Using this notion, estimates of the total number of
all known species. insect species of from 5 million to 7 million are obtained.
Another estimation technique is to do an exhaustive survey of
Saturation curve for known bird species organisms in a small geographic area, determine the ratio of known to
100 unknown species in that area, and assume that this ratio applies world-
wide. A study in the Indonesian rain forest, for example, focused on a
particular type of insect of which 1065 species were known. A new
Percentage of species known
exhaustive survey came up with 625 additional species, for a total of

1690 species. Thus the ratio of previously unknown to previously
known species is:
50
previously known species 1065
⫽ ⫽ 1.7
previously unknown species 625
If we assume that this number applies to all insects worldwide (and
that’s a very big if) and accept that there are about 900,000 known
10 species of insects, the total number of insect species in the world would
then be about
1758 1845 1990
Time total species ⫽ 1.7 ⫻ known species
• Figure 20-10 The total number ⫽ 1.7 ⫻ 900,000 species
of species of a given kind of living
thing can be estimated by a graph ⫽ 1,530,000 species
that plots the number of known Other studies of this type, making longer strings of assumptions about how to
species versus time. As fewer and
fewer species remain to be discov-
apply local numbers to the global system, have produced estimates for the number
ered, the plot should eventually flat- of insect species as high as 30 million. We will have to know a lot more about the
ten out to indicate the approximate kinds of species that actually exist before we can be comfortable with these sorts of
number of species. estimates. •
The Encyclopedia of Life

Much of the present uncertainty about Earth’s biodiversity is being addressed by a remark-
able new web-based resource, The Encyclopedia of Life, or EOL (see www.eol.org). The
goal of the EOL, which is supported by major grants from the MacArthur and Sloan
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Foundations, is to produce an open-access electronic page for every species on Earth. Each
page contains the organism’s Linnaean classification, high-quality photographs, informa-
tion on distribution, habitat, behavior, and ecological relationships, its importance for
human well-being, and other basic data. In addition, links are provided to relevant scientific
publications and to genomic data when available (see Chapter 23). With thousands of biol-
ogists contributing from around the world, the first projected milestone is to document one
million species by 2014.
Given its innovative format, global scope and free universal access, the EOL will
undoubtedly have a significant impact on research about Earth’s biodiversity, on efforts
to promote conservation, and on science education. Why not look up your favorite
species on EOL today! •
C LASSIFYING H UMAN B EINGS •

Human beings are one member of the kingdom of animals. With that decided, we
can go on to work out the rest of our address in the classification scheme. Among
animals, there is one phylum called chordates, whose members have a thickened set of
nerves down their back. Most chordates (and most of the organisms that come to
mind when we hear the word “animal”) have the nerve encased in bone. These ani-
mals form the subphylum vertebrates—animals with backbones. Because human
beings have backbones, we belong to this subphylum, as do amphibians, fish, reptiles,
and birds.
Among vertebrates, one class is made up of individuals that maintain the same body
temperature regardless of the temperature of the environment, that have hair, and whose
females nurse their young. Humans belong to this class, which is called mammals, as do
wolves, rabbits, whales, and antelopes.
Among mammals, we belong to the order primates, which have grasping fingers
and toes, eyes at the front of the head, a large brain, and fingernails instead of claws
(Figure 20-11). Monkeys and apes are also members of this order. Human beings are
members of the hominid family (primates who walk erect) and the genus Homo (hominids
who satisfy still more detailed anatomical criteria having to do with factors such as face
shape, tooth shape and size, and brain size).
At this point in the process of zeroing in on our own species we encounter an anomaly.
Most animals have several close cousins, which are members of the same genus but differ- • Figure 20-11 Primates, such as
ent species, but this situation is not true of humans. The grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis) and this bonnet macaque from India, are
characterized by grasping fingers
the polar bear (Ursus maritimus), for example, are two species within the genus Ursus
and toes, eyes at the front of the
(bear). In the genus Homo, though, there is only one living species: Homo sapiens (us). In head, a large brain, and fingernails
the past, there were other members of the family hominid and the genus Homo on Earth instead of claws.
(we discuss some of them in Chapter 25), but at present we have no near relatives. All of
B. G. Tomson/Photo Researchers
those who might have been our near relatives are now extinct, perhaps by our own doing.
In any case, all humans can interbreed, so we are all part of a single species, Homo
sapiens, and we all inhabit the same smallest circle in the classification scheme.
I MPLICATIONS OF LINNAEAN C LASSIFICATION •

As we have presented it here, and as Linnaeus originally conceived it in the eighteenth
century, biological classification concerns itself solely with segregating living things
according to their degree of physical similarity to each other. No attempt is made to
explain why living things can be grouped in this way.
Today, however, most scientists would argue that there are compelling reasons why
a classification scheme like the one we have outlined should exist. For one thing, scien-
tists no longer have to be content with describing organisms purely in terms of their
physical structure. In Chapter 23, for example, we will see that the information carried
in the DNA molecules found in all organisms provides an alternative way of describing
the organisms. One way of talking about how closely two organisms are related to each
other, therefore, is to discuss how closely their DNA molecules resemble each other. The
closeness of the relationship between two living things—the property that tells us where
c20.qxd 9/12/09 11:07 AM Page 434
to draw the circles in Figure 20-5—can thus be determined in a quantitative way by

comparing DNA and other specific molecules.
More important, the fact that living things can be grouped in successive layers
strongly suggests that Linnaeus and his followers had discovered a kind of family tree. If,
as we shall argue in Chapter 25, all living things descended from the same primordial
ancestor, then the Linnaean groupings follow naturally. The amount of similarity or dif-
ference between two organisms depends on the amount of time and rate of change
because the two shared a common ancestor. In addition, each classification group results
from real events in the past when species split off from each other.
Stop and Think! How does the classification of living things reflect the
scientific method?
Survival: A New Look at the Life Around You

A single-celled organism is one of the most remarkably complex structures known to sci-
ence. Even the smallest cell features hundreds of interacting chemical processes that must
be exquisitely balanced and regulated. Nevertheless, the survival strategies of single-celled
organisms are relatively simple.
The first order of business for a cell is to absorb all the material it needs to maintain
itself from its environment. In some simple cells, called heterotrophs, the cell must consume
a variety of biomolecules including amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates to survive (see
Chapter 22). Other more chemically complex cells, called autotrophs, are able to manufac-
ture these essential building blocks from simple molecules like H2O, CO2, and NH3. Inside
the cell, these materials are used in the chemical reactions needed to keep the cell alive and
for it to reproduce. Waste products generated by these reactions leave the cell the same way
that materials came in: they pass through the cell boundary and out into the surrounding
environment. For most of Earth’s history, all life consisted of such single cells.
With the advent of multicellular life, however, strategies became more complicated.
Molecules that provided the cell’s chemical energy could no longer simply move into
individual cells from the environment (most cells in a multicellular organism, after all,
are shielded from the environment by other cells). Instead, those molecules must be car-
ried from distant parts of the organism to the cells where they are to be used. Similarly,
waste products must be carried away from individual cells to the environment.
Some very primitive multicellular organisms (sponges, for example) are merely collec-
tions of cells that could just as well survive on their own. In higher organisms, however,
specialized cells group together into organs and organ systems to take care of jobs such as
moving energy-rich materials to cells and removing wastes. In humans, for example, the
organ we call the heart and those we call blood vessels form an organ system known as the
circulatory system, whose task it is to circulate the blood (see Appendix A).
One way to think about living things, then, is to identify tasks that all organisms
must perform and then ask what processes have evolved that allow a particular organism
to perform those tasks. Every multicellular organism, for example, must obtain and dis-
tribute molecules that supply energy and build the fabric of the organism, and every
organism must reproduce itself.
Let’s look at the marvelous diversity of living things with an eye toward seeing what
strategies they have evolved to deal with these two basic tasks of life.
STRATEGIES OF F UNGI •
Fungi, a group that includes such diverse organisms as molds, mushrooms, and yeast,
were once classified as plants, but they are so different from true plants that they are now
given their own kingdom (Figure 20-12). Some types of fungi (yeast, for example) are
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Survival: A New Look at the Life Around You | 435
Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited

Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited
(a) SM 762X (b) SM 1731X (c) SM 960X

• Figure 20-12 Fungi are a group of organisms that include (a) mold (here shown with a
spore cap, (b) mushrooms (here shown magnified with filaments), and (c) yeast (here shown
in a mass of single cells.
single-celled, but most of the ones with which we are familiar, such as mushrooms, are
multicellular. Fungi grow by sending out filaments, which are slender, thread-like stalks
sometimes no more than one or two cells across, and absorbing food directly through
these stalks. In this way, the fungi play an important role in nature by breaking down dead
organic material. For example, fungi often grow like shelves out of the sides of fallen trees
in a forest.
The structure of fungi is fairly simple, consisting of little more than a mass of fila-
ments. Because of this structure, complex systems to move materials around aren’t nec-
essary. No cell is far from the material on which the fungus lives; hence that material can
be absorbed directly.
Fungi have developed a variety of reproductive strategies. First, they can reproduce by
having their filaments break off and grow. More often, they produce spores, which are usu-
ally asexual reproductive organs through which a fungus can produce offspring without
interacting with any other fungus. Spores can travel long distances through air and water,
but once growth starts, fungi are as immobile as plants. Spores can also be produced by • Figure 20-13 Lichens, (a) which
“mating,” which is accomplished by the fusion of two cells in the filaments from different grow on solid rock, sustain life
plants. Spores are often held in small containers that grow on top of stalks; in effect, they get through (b) a complex cooperative
a “running start” by being above the Karen McGougan/Bruce Coleman, Inc. effort by fungi and algae.
ground when the container breaks.
The fuzzy appearance of mold on the
old food in your refrigerator often
comes from the spore containers on Fungi
top of the stalks.
One of the most remarkable life-
Algae
styles displayed by fungi is observed in
organisms called lichens, which are
often seen as crusty coatings on rocks, Fungi
and which play an important role in
the breakdown of rock into soil. Each
lichen is actually a combination of two
interdependent species, a fungus and
a single-celled organism that can use
the Sun’s energy in photosynthesis.
Lichens typically absorb most of the (a ( ) ( )
(b
minerals they need from the air and Rootlike
rainfall, and hence can grow in inhos- connection
to substrate
pitable places such as mountaintops
and deserts (Figure 20-13).
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St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School/Photo Researchers, Inc.
The Discovery of Penicillin

When you get an infection, or even just a bad cut, your doctor will very likely prescribe
an antibiotic, a medicine capable of destroying foreign bacteria that otherwise would
flourish in your body. It’s hard for us, living in an age where antibiotics are common, to
realize that a little more than half-century ago bacterial diseases such as pneumonia and
minor cuts that became infected were major killers.
The discovery in 1928 of penicillin, the best known of the modern antibiotics, was
the result of a botched experiment in the London laboratory of bacteriologist Alexander
Fleming (later Sir Alexander). He was growing cultures of Staphylococcus (a common
infectious bacterium) in dishes when he noticed that one of his experimental dishes had
been contaminated by a common mold called Penicillium, and that the bacteria didn’t
grow in that dish (Figure 20-14).
Other scientists had probably seen the same thing but had just thrown the contami-
nated plates away and continued with their experiments. Fleming, however, realized that
the mold must have been secreting a substance that killed bacteria. When he finally isolated
that substance, he named it penicillin, after the mold.
• Figure 20-14 Photograph of the For a period after Fleming’s discovery, penicillin could not be made in large quantities
original culture plate of the fungus or in pure enough form to have much medical effect. In 1938, however, Howard Florey
Penicillium notatum, which led Scot- and Ernst Chain at Oxford University succeeded in producing relatively pure forms of the
tish bacteriologist Sir Alexander substance. Under the pressure of World War II, a major development program had the
Fleming to the discovery of the drug in mass production by 1943. It saved countless lives on the battlefields of that war
antibiotic penicillin in 1928.
and is now one of an array of substances used to maintain human health around the world.
Fleming, Florey, and Chain shared the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1945.
The action of penicillin is a good illustration of how molecules function in living sys-
tems. The outside cell covering or cell membrane of the bacteria responsible for many infec-
tious diseases is built from molecules that have short tails. Each bacterium cell also contains
specialized molecules that link the tails together to create the cell membrane. Penicillin locks
onto these specialized molecules and prevents them from attaching to the tails of the cover-
ing molecules, thus preventing the cell membrane from growing. Human cells don’t use the
same specialized molecules to build cell membranes, so the drug doesn’t have this effect on
us (although it can trigger allergic reactions in some people). •
STRATEGIES OF P LANTS •
Plants and algae, through the process of photosynthesis (see Chapter 21), take energy
from the Sun and lock it up in the form of chemical energy in their tissues and cells. At
the same time, they remove carbon dioxide and water from the air and produce oxygen
as a waste product, including the oxygen you are breathing right now.
Biologists have not been able to agree about how to assign plants to various phyla,
classes, orders, and so forth, or even on how to draw the boundaries of the plant kingdom.
Algae, for example, are single-celled organisms (or simple multicellular ones) that carry out
50–90% of Earth’s photosynthesis. Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are single-celled
organisms and are normally classified as monera; but other kinds of algae, including primitive
multicellular organisms such as seaweeds and kelp (including green, red, and brown algae),
are called plants in some schemes and protista in others.
For our purposes, we will define plants to be multicellular organisms that perform
photosynthesis. Plants are found primarily on land, and the main divisions among them
have to do with the way they reproduce and how they acquire and circulate water.
The Simplest Plants
The most primitive terrestrial plants are in the phylum of bryophytes, whose most familiar
members are mosses and liverworts (Figure 20-15). These plants don’t have roots, as
more advanced plants do, but absorb water directly through their aboveground structures.
For this reason, mosses are found in moist environments. They are anchored to the
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Dennis Flaherty/Photo Researchers, Inc.
John Trager/Visuals Unlimited

(a) (b)
• Figure 20-15 The most primitive terrestrial plants are (a) mosses and (b) liverworts.
ground by filaments, as are fungi. Unlike fungi, however, bryophytes use the Sun’s energy
to produce their own food by photosynthesis.
Like all other plants, mosses and liverworts reproduce both sexually (involving sperm
and egg) and asexually (involving spores). A generation produced sexually from the
union of sperm and egg produces its offspring by means of spores. Then that asexually
produced generation reproduces sexually, the two pathways alternating down through
the generations.
As we shall see in Chapter 25, life on Earth began in the oceans and migrated to land
only about 400 million years ago. This history is evident in today’s bryophytes in that
they are not equipped to get moisture directly out of the soil and they cannot reproduce
in a dry environment.
Vascular Plants
By far the greatest number of plants that play a role in our everyday life are in the phylum of
vascular plants (Figure 20-16). These plants have an internal “plumbing” system consisting
• Figure 20-16 (a) The basic design of all vascular plants includes a root system below
ground and a system of stems and leaves above ground. (b) A fern displays small yellow
spore containers on the underside of the leaves. (c) Gymnosperms, including these conifers,
produce seeds without flowers.
Tip growth
Flower bud
Flower
Shoot system
Leaf
Michael P. Gadomski/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Gerald & Buff Corsi/Visuals Unlimited
Bud Fern Gymnosperm

Vascular
system Soil level
Root system
Root hairs
Old growth
Root tip
New growth
(a) (b) (c)

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of roots, stems, and leaves capable of carrying fluids from one part of the plant to another.
They also have ways of controlling water loss and protecting the sperm and egg so that they
can survive outside of water. The development of internal plumbing not only adapted plants
to life in the dry terrestrial environment, but it also began the process of providing internal
structures to overcome the downward pull of gravity—both abilities crucial for land plants.
The most primitive vascular plants, a group whose most familiar members are in the
class called ferns, still reproduce by producing sperm that must swim through water to
fertilize eggs and generate spores. You can see the small yellow spore containers on the
underside of the leaves of ferns. In this way they differ from the more advanced vascular
plants, which, as we shall see, reproduce by means of seeds.
Although seedless vascular plants such as ferns play a relatively minor role on Earth
today, they were the main form of plant life 300 million years ago. Huge forests of ferns
and related trees blanketed the land, where they used photosynthesis to store the Sun’s
energy in plant tissues. When these plants died, they were buried and, over millions of
years, turned into coal. Thus you could say that the Industrial Revolution, which dra-
matically altered the structure of Western society in the nineteenth century, depended
on seedless vascular plants, as does much of modern technological civilization.
The most common classes of vascular plants today are the gymnosperms (plants
that produce seeds without flowers; e.g., fir trees) and the angiosperms (plants that
produce seeds and flowers). The distinguishing feature of these plants, which have dom-
inated the plant kingdom for the last 250 million years, is that they reproduce by means
of seeds. All seeds contain a fertilized egg and some nutrient, both wrapped in a protec-
tive coating. Like spores, seeds are capable of lying dormant for long periods and
hence can wait through times of cold or drought before they sprout. One way that seed-
producing plants have become fully adapted to life on land is that the sperm part of
these plants, familiar to us as pollen grains, typically moves through the air or is carried
by insects. Thus, though seed plants may need water to grow, they do not need to be
near standing water in order to reproduce.
The name “gymnosperm” means “naked seed” and refers to the fact that the seeds
grow unprotected from the elements. The most familiar gymnosperms are evergreen trees,
or conifers, such as the pine. On these trees, some cones produce pollen, which is dis-
persed by the wind. When pollen grains land on cones that contain unfertilized eggs, fer-
tilization takes place. The seed, which as mentioned consists of a fertilized egg plus some
stored nutrients, develops on the cone that originally held the egg, and, when conditions
are right, is released and carried by the wind to a new location. Typically, hundreds or even
thousands of seeds have to be released to get one new seedling.
Angiosperms, which have been around for at least 100 million years and have dom-
inated Earth’s plant life for the last 65 million years, comprise the great bulk of known
species of modern plants. These plants reproduce through the complex structure of their
flowers. In a flower, the pollen grains containing the sperm grow on stalks known as sta-
mens (Figure 20-17). Wind or insects carry the grains either to another part of the same
flower or to other flowers. Once in its new location, each pollen grain grows a tube and
enters the ovary, where the eggs are found. After fertilization, a seed forms within the
ovary, and the ovary itself develops into fruit. When you cut into an apple or a peach,
you can see the seeds and ovary quite clearly. When the fruit is ripe, it detaches itself
from the plant. Many adaptations allow seeds to be carried long distances, from winged
seeds (like those of some trees) to small seeds on berries that are eaten and passed
through the digestive tracts of animals.
Although angiosperms can reproduce through fertilization, they also reproduce by
sending out runners or shoots. Grass on a lawn, for example, reproduces this way if it is
prevented from producing seeds by constant mowing. In the first case, reproduction is
sexual (because a sperm and an egg come together); in the second case, it is asexual.
STRATEGIES OF ANIMALS •
Animals are multicellular organisms that must get their nourishment by capturing and
consuming molecules produced by other life-forms. The variety of organisms in this
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Joanna McCarthy/Iconica/Getty Images
Ovary
Pollen sacs
Petals
Stamen
(a) (b)
• Figure 20-17 Flowers produce sperm and eggs for sexual reproduction. (a) Pollinators
such as bees and butterflies transport pollen from one flower to the next. (b) The structures
of a flower are represented schematically.
kingdom is truly staggering, ranging from sponges to tiny worms to eagles to students.
Although the mass of all the plants on Earth far exceeds that of all the animals, the ani-
mal kingdom, with over 1.3 million known species, takes the prize for diversity.
Depending on how lines are drawn, the kingdom can include more than 30 phyla. This
diversity is summarized in Figure 20-18.
It’s not easy to make generalizations about animals because of the great variety in this
kingdom. However, the essential tasks of reproducing and acquiring energy and nutrients
can help us get an overview. As you read the following, remember that respiration in ani-
mals is the reverse of photosynthesis in plants. In photosynthesis, a plant takes in carbon
dioxide and gives off oxygen as a waste product. Animals, on the other hand, use lungs or
gills to breathe in the oxygen that is used in the body’s chemical reactions, and then they
exhale carbon dioxide as a waste product.
Invertebrates
When we think about animals, we usually visualize large organisms that fall under the
subphylum of vertebrates, such as eagles, sharks, or elephants. Most animal species,
however, are invertebrates—organisms without backbones that make up the 30 or so
other animal phyla. The simplest invertebrates, such as sponges, exhibit characteristics
somewhere between those of an aggregate of individual cells and those of true multicel-
lular organisms. If a sponge is passed through a sieve, the individual cells not only sur-
vive, but also eventually reorganize themselves into a sponge. Corals, too, are colonies of
countless separate minute organisms; break up the collection and each individual can
function on its own.
Most of the phyla of the animal kingdom consist of worms, mollusks, and various
microscopic organisms. Some of these animals have become incredibly specialized; one
phylum of worms, for example, is represented by more than 70 species, each of which is
found as a parasite in the noses, sinuses, and lungs of vertebrates. Sea cucumbers, jellyfish,
earthworms, mollusks, snails, and tapeworms are all examples of the diverse invertebrate
forms to be found in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods are by far the most successful phylum in the animal kingdom, in terms
of both number of species and total mass. Arthropods include familiar forms such as spi-
ders, insects (including beetles, ants, butterflies, and many other kinds of “bugs”), and
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Insects Reptiles
Arachnids
Centipedes,
millipedes
Amphibians Mammals
ustaceans
Segmented worms
Arthropods
thropo Echinoderms
Chordates
rdates
Mollusks
Roundworms Flatworms
Cnidarians Sponges
Ancestral protozoa
• Figure 20-18 The family tree of animals, showing some of the major phyla.
crustacea (e.g., crabs, shrimp, and lobsters), all of which are animals with segmented
bodies and jointed limbs (Figure 20-19). The more than 900,000 recognized species of
insects account for at least 70% of all known animal species. There are more species of
beetles than of any other type of animal and more individual ants than individuals of any
other type. These facts prompted a famous comment by evolutionary theorist J. B. S.
Haldane (1892–1964) who, when asked what his studies of biology had taught him
• Figure 20-19 Most known animal about God, replied, “He has an inordinate fondness for beetles.”
species are arthropods, with seg- One of the problems that all land-dwelling organisms have to deal with is finding a
mented bodies and jointed limbs. way to support their structures against the pull of gravity. Arthropods solve this problem
They include (a) spiders, with eight
legs and often several pairs of eyes,
with a hard external covering known as an exoskeleton. This strategy is different from
(b) insects, with six legs and three that of the vertebrates, whose weight is supported by an internal skeleton and whose
segments, and (c) crabs and other
decapods with 10 legs.
Juan Carlos Muños/Age Fotostock America, Inc. Robert Lubeck/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes ©Michael S. Nolan/Age Fotostock America, Inc.
(a) (b) (c)
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outer coatings are usually soft. You can see this same difference in strategy illustrated
architecturally in the contrast between old buildings held up by massive stone walls, and
modern skyscrapers, whose weight is held up by a steel skeleton and whose outer skin
may be nothing more substantial than thin sheets of glass.
Stop and Think! Can you think of any other strategies that living things
could use to maintain their structures?
The hard exoskeleton provides an evolutionary advantage to
James H. Robinson/Photo Researchers, Inc.

arthropods: it is a “coat of armor” that protects the animal
from predators. Because the exoskeleton cannot grow,
arthropods usually shed their exoskeletons periodically, a
process known as molting. A typical insect has a body divided
into three segments. Three pairs of legs originate from the
central segment, or thorax, while a pair of antennae for sens-
ing the environment adorns the head (Figure 20-20). Many Head Thorax
insects also have one or two pairs of wings. Insects have a
heart but no lungs; they bring oxygen into their bodies
through a set of tubes.
Vertebrates
Familiar vertebrate animals such as rabbits, birds, frogs, or
fish have spinal cords encased in a backbone. The easiest
way to understand the connection between the several Abdomen
branches of the vertebrate family tree is to think of each
new branching up to reptiles as another step in the transi-
tion from water-dwelling animals to those fully adapted to
life on land. As we shall see in Chapter 25, this line of
thought follows the actual evolution of modern verte- • Figure 20-20 Insects have three
brates, whose ancestors developed in the ocean and later made the move to a terrestrial main body segments—the head, the
environment. thorax with three pairs of legs, and
The earliest fish, which became common about 400 million years ago, had no jaws; the abdomen. The body is shielded
they fed by moving water through their mouths and filtering materials out. Lampreys by a hard exoskeleton, which is shed
(which look like eels without jaws) are modern descendants of these primitive fish. periodically as the insect grows.
Over the following 100 million years, jaws evolved, and the advantage of speed over
heavy protection led to a loss of bone. Modern fish such as sharks and stingrays, for
example, have no bone at all, but skeletons made from cartilage, which is a structural
material less rigid than bone. Modern fish absorb oxygen from water that flows
through their gills.
Bony fish are a class of vertebrates that includes salmon, perch, trout, and most other
organisms we think of when we hear the word “fish.” Their skeletons are, as the name
implies, made from bone. Oddly enough, the ancestors of these fish developed in fresh
water and had both lungs and gills. In modern fish, these lungs have evolved into the swim • Figure 20-21 In modern fish what
bladder, an internal sac the fish can inflate to control its ability to float, while the gills func- used to be lungs have developed into
tion to supply oxygen (Figure 20-21). A few species of lungfish survive today. These fish swim bladders, which helps the fish
control its ability to float.
live in stagnant water and gulp air occasionally to supplement what
they can extract from the oxygen-poor water in which they live.
Lungfish can also live out of water for short periods, allowing them to Swim bladder
move from one pool to another during droughts.
The first vertebrates clearly adapted to live at least part of their
lives on land were the class amphibians, whose modern descendants
include frogs, toads, and salamanders. Most amphibians spend part of
their life cycle in water, part on land. Frogs hatch in water as tadpoles,
complete with gills and fins, and then develop into land-living adults Stomach
with lungs and legs. They have a three-chambered heart and a circula-
tory system in which blood is pumped to the lungs to obtain oxygen, Intestines
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then returned and sent out into the body. Frogs also can absorb oxygen directly through
their skin. Amphibians mark a halfway stage between water and land, in terms of both their
anatomy and their place in evolution.
The class reptiles, including lizards, turtles, and snakes, include the first animals fully
adapted to life on land. Reptiles are covered with hard scales, cutting down the loss of
water through the skin. Eggs are fertilized within the body of the female, instead of rely-
ing on chance unions of egg and sperm in water, as with fish and amphibians. The young
develop in eggs surrounded by a shell that can retain water and thus survive on land. Like
amphibians, reptiles have a three-chambered heart, but with divisions in the chambers
that allow oxygen to be used more efficiently. Amphibians and reptiles are so-called cold-
blooded animals—that is, they must absorb heat from their environment to maintain body
temperature. It should be noted, however, that a “cold-blooded” lizard lying in the sun
may achieve a body temperature much higher than typical “warm-blooded” animals.
Birds are now widely thought to be modern descendants of reptiles, probably direct
descendants of dinosaurs. Their anatomy differs from that of reptiles because of their
adaptation to flight. In birds, the scales of the reptiles have evolved into feathers. Birds
require high levels of energy to sustain flight, so their respiratory and circulatory systems
are more complex than those in reptiles and amphibians. They have a four-chambered
heart, as do humans. One side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs to take in oxygen,
and the other side pumps this oxygen-rich blood around the body. This feature allows
the bird to use the energy in its food with maximal efficiency, so that it is warm-blooded,
maintaining a relatively constant body temperature in any environment.
Taxonomists recognize 18 living orders of the class mammals in the world today
(Figure 20-22). Like birds, mammals maintain a constant body temperature by burning
Carnivores
Toothed whales
Mouse group Whalebone whales

Guinea pig
group Odd-toed ungulates
Squirrel (horses)
Herbivorous
group mammals
Even-toed
ungulates Elephants
(cattle)
Rabbit group
Subungulates Manatee
Primitive rodents
Primitive ungulates
Primates
Aardvark
Scaly anteaters
Bats
Primitive insectivore stock
(Placentals) Armadillo
Kangaroo
and other Opossum
herbaceous
marsupials Poorly known
mesozoic therian Duckbill
Tasmanian wolf mammals
and other Metatheria
carnivorous (marsupials) Spiny anteater
marsupials
Ancestral therapsids
• Figure 20-22 The mammalian family tree.
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Summary | 443
food. In almost all cases, the development of the fertilized egg takes place entirely
inside the body of the mother, so that the young are born live. Once born, the young
are nourished by milk from special glands in the female. Other adaptations to the ter-
restrial environment include hair to aid in temperature regulation, specialized teeth for
breaking up food, legs located under the body, and, perhaps most important, an
enlarged brain.
Thinking More About Life’s Strategies
E ATING THROUGH THE P HYLA variety of phyla. It has vascular plants (lettuce, tomato, and
olive oil), a phylum of monera (which ferments the vinegar),
Human beings consume an amazing variety of foods. One way clams and squid (phylum mollusca), and bony fish (verte-
to make the diversity of life more real to you is to think about the brates), not to mention flour (from angiosperms) and perhaps
variety of kingdoms and phyla your meals come from. Consider, eggs (from vertebrates) in the pasta.
for example, a slice of mushroom pizza (Figure 20-23). The How many phyla combine to make your favorite meal?
crust derives from wheat, a vascular plant. The mushrooms, of
course, are fungi. The cheese comes from milk produced by a
cow, a vertebrate animal, and the milk is converted into cheese
Joel Glenn/Cole Group/PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images

through the action of a single-celled member of the kingdom
monera. The remains of these organisms are still in the cheese
when you eat it, so with one bite of pizza you are consuming
representatives of four kingdoms. If you could imagine adding a
dash of seaweed or kelp, which are protista (at least in some clas-
sification schemes), you could get all five kingdoms in one bite.
Biologist Harold Morowitz, in his book Entropy and the
Magic Flute (Oxford University Press, 1993), points out that
traditional Japanese cuisine incorporates more phyla than any
other. It includes such delicacies as seaweeds (protista) and sea
cucumbers (animals in the same phylum as starfish), as well as
the usual crustaceans (arthropods), shellfish, and various bony
fish. But even a Western meal such as seafood pasta accompa- • Figure 20-23 A slice of mushroom pizza incorporates
nied by a salad with oil and vinegar dressing contains a wide foods from many phyla.
What is life? that serve to constrain the nearly innumerable varieties of matter
that exist in our universe:
• A universal scientific definition of life has yet to be developed.
The myriad and diverse life-forms on Earth defy scientists’ º Organization: To be considered “alive,” an entity must exhibit
a coherent structure and pattern.
attempts at defining life in unequivocal terms.
º Regulatory mechanisms: All organisms regulate their internal
º Any definition must possess a scope and breadth that encom- environment by responding to a variety of both internal and
passes all the organisms with which we are familiar, as well as
external stimuli, including temperature and chemical changes.
those that have yet to be discovered.
º Metabolism and growth: Life requires the consumption and
º Furthermore, any scientific definition must be subject to falsi- transformation of energy for synthesis of biomolecules,
fication. This would require that all facets of the definition of
growth, and reproduction.
life be defined in terms that are both observable and measur-
able (Chapter 1). º Self-replicators such as viruses and prions are not consid-
ered “alive” because they fail to meet a number of these
• Despite the difficulties associated with constructing a universally
requirements.
acceptable definition of life, scientists have a number of criteria
S UMMARY •
Biology, the study of living systems, began with efforts to describe to similarities in structure. Scientists now recognize five kingdoms,
the great variety of organisms on Earth. Taxonomy, the grouping of including fungi, which eat dead organic matter; plants, which make
living things by their distinctive characteristics, has been aided by the their own food by photosynthesis; and animals, which eat other
Linnaean classification scheme, which groups organisms according organisms. Alternatively, all living organisms have been divided into
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three domains based on their genetic characteristics. A given species is Every multicellular organism must develop ways to obtain and
placed in groups making up a series of increasingly specialized labels. distribute molecules for energy and structure, and to reproduce
The categories are, from most general to most specific, phylum, itself. Different life forms have evolved different ways to deal with
class, order, family, genus, and species. these problems. Fungi absorb materials through slender filaments
The species, defined to be an interbreeding population of indi- and reproduce through the production of spores. Vascular plants,
viduals that produces fertile offspring, is the basic unit of classifica- the most abundant plants, use thin tubes to distribute water to their
tion. Homo sapiens (the human species) is in the phylum chordata, leaves. The two largest groups of vascular plants are gymnosperms,
the subphylum vertebrates, the class mammals, the order primates, which have exposed seeds, and angiosperms, which have flowers. The
the family hominids, and genus and species Homo sapiens. The fact most abundant animals are invertebrates, which are dominated by
that living things can be grouped in this way provides evidence that arthropods such as insects and spiders.
they all descended from a common ancestor.
K EY TERMS •
biology fungi mammals angiosperms
taxonomy plants primates invertebrates
Linnaean classification animals Homo sapiens arthropods
species domains vascular plants
kingdom vertebrates gymnosperms
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Living things have quite a few characteristics that set them apart from of corn syrup. To the third bottle add two teaspoons of cornstarch,
nonliving things. One of the differences between living and nonliving and do not add anything to the fourth bottle. Place all four bottles in
things is that living things can metabolize sugar and produce carbon a large dish containing warm water. The water bath will keep the con-
dioxide as a waste product. You can do an experiment to determine if tents of the bottle warmer for a longer time. Place one balloon over
the substance is living or nonliving. For the experiment you will need the neck of each bottle and make your observations. What does the
yeast, sugar, water, a thermometer, corn syrup, cornstarch, four bottles, size of the balloon indicate? Which balloon expands first? Why? Which
and four 12-inch balloons. bottle is the slowest? Why? Did all the bottles show evidence of metab-
Label four bottles with a number 1 through 4. In bottle 1 add olism? Why or why not? What would happen if you double the
yeast and fill it half way with warm water. Mix it well and divide the amount of sugar? How does this experiment indicate that yeast is a liv-
mixture equally between all four bottles. In the first bottle add two ing thing? Would you have guessed the correct outcome without
heaping tablespoons of sugar. To the second bottle add two teaspoons doing the experiment?
Balloon
Bottle 1 Bottle 2 Bottle 3 Bottle 4
Warm water
p h bath
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1. What do biologists study? How can you tell if an object is alive? 12. What are bryophytes? Give some examples.
2. What is complexity? What is the most complex type of system 13. What characteristics distinguish vascular plants from others?
that scientists study? Give examples of different kinds of vascular plants.
3. Scientific study often begins with description. To what part of 14. What are the differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
the scientific method is taxonomy most important? 15. Why are angiosperms the most successful group of plants?
4. Identify eight characteristics of all living things. 16. What are the four main structures of flowering plants? What is
5. List the levels in the modern system of biological classification. the function of each structure?
At each level, identify the name of the group that includes humans. 17. What are arthropods? How do they support their weight?
6. What are some distinctive characteristics of the five kingdoms of 18. List the major groups of vertebrates and their distinguishing
living things? characteristics. Give an example of an animal from each group.
7. Why do some biologists think there are more than five kingdoms? 19. How are reptiles better adapted for life on land than amphibians?
8. Why do some biologists think there are fewer than five kingdoms? 20. What classes of animals are warm-blooded? What are the
9. Fungi were once classified as plants. How do fungi differ from advantages of being warm-blooded?
plants and animals? (Hint: Think about energy-gathering strategies.) 21. Which subphylum contains more species: Vertebrates or inver-
10. Name two tasks that all living things carry out. tebrates? Why?
11. How can fungi reproduce without interacting with other fungi? 22. What is the most successful phylum in the animal kingdom?
1. If you encountered a new species, what questions would you ask 10. Is your Christmas/holiday tree a gynosperm or an angiosperm?
as you attempted to classify it? What evolutionary advantages do gynosperms and angiosperms
2. If you were to devise a new classification system, what characteris- possess that seedless vascular plants (e.g., ferns) do not?
tics would you use to differentiate between the millions of organisms 11. Speculate on why vascular plants are more widely distributed
on Earth? than bryophytes.
3. With respect to survival and reproduction, what are the “problems” 12. Insects make up approximately 70% of all known species. Why
faced by all living organisms? How does evolution play a role in the are insects like cockroaches (e.g., Periplaneta americana) so suc-
success or failure to solve those problems over time? cessful at surviving and reproducing?
4. Name three technological advances that have facilitated the 13. If two different-looking animals breed and produce fertile
scientific study of living organisms. offspring, are they the same species? Why is appearance not a pro-
5. How does the fact that living things can be classified in ever ductive way to classify organisms? (Hint: Does a great dane look
more specialized groups support the idea that they all descended like a chihuahua?)
from a common ancestor? 14. What is a “liger”? What is a tigon? If a liger and a tigon mate,
6. What is the range of estimates of the number of species on will they produce offspring? Why or why not?
Earth? Why is the number so uncertain? 15. In what ways might changes in the nature of land plants have
7. Given the definition of a species, how many different species of affected the evolution of land animals?
dogs are in the United States? How many species of humans are in 16. Where are Earth’s main coal deposits? What does this tell you
the United States? about the location of forests hundreds of millions of years ago?
8. What are some of the reasons that two scientists might disagree on 17. What are the properties of water that make it necessary for life?
the Linnaean classification of a new kind of worm? Is the Linnaean 18. What is the binomial nomenclature for a human being?
system an “exact” science, with only one possible correct answer? 19. What structures have plants and animals developed in order
9. Why are biologists more confident of the total number of bird to support their weight? Is there a maximum size for a plant or
species than of insect species? Do you think we know a greater per- animal?
centage of butterfly species or of worm species? Why? 20. Are insects or worms animals? Why or why not?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Think about courses at your university other than those in biol- 3. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many well-educated
ogy. In what ways does classification play a role in chemistry? in psy- amateur naturalists made significant contributions to the study of
chology? in English? Is there any field of study that does not use plants, animals, and fossils. Statesman Thomas Jefferson, artist John
classification in one way or another? James Audubon, and explorers Lewis and Clark are among the
2. Examine recent issues of scientific journals and find an article famous Americans who described unusual plants and animals. Read
that describes a new species of animal or plant. How was this new a biography of an amateur naturalist and discuss how his or her
species classified? work contributed to the science of biology.
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4. Investigate the research of Carl Woese of the University of Illinois. 8. Many single-celled organisms appear as tiny round objects about
How did his discoveries alter thinking about the classification of liv- a millionth of a meter in diameter. Investigate the procedures a
ing things? biologist might use to classify such an organism.
5. Take a walk around your campus and see how many of the four 9. When an individual makes the statement that species loss (i.e.,
major plant groupings—bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gym- the loss of biodiversity) is greater now than at any time in the his-
nosperms, and flowering plants—you can identify. On most campuses tory of Earth, what assumptions are they making? What information
you should be able to find all four, and even in the middle of a city would we need to evaluate that comment? Are they violating the
you should be able to find two or three. rule of parsimony (i.e., Occam’s razor)?
6. Go to your favorite supermarket and try to count how many dif- 10. Why can some types of plants live without soil? Where do they
ferent phyla of plants and animals are for sale. What is the average get their nutrients? What are these plants called?
number of phyla per aisle? Does this number vary much from one 11. Investigate the role of cyanobacteria in the evolution and
store to another? development of plants. What structures in modern plants are
7. Many medicines were derived originally from plants. List some evolved forms of cyanobacteria?
of them. Are any of the plants that produced those medicines now
endangered?
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21
The Living Cell
What is the smallest living thing?
PHYSICS
Nerve cells
transmit electrical
BIOLOGY impulses over a CHEMISTRY
distance. (Ch. 5)
Cells, the basic

Molecules such as
building blocks of
ATP transfer energy
life, come in a variety
in cells to power the
of shapes and carry
chemical reactions
out many different
necessary for life.
functions.
ENVIRONMENT
The
amount of
carbon dioxide in
Electron and Life is based on the atmosphere rises
optical microscopes
play a critical role
chemistry, and and falls in an annual
chemistry takes place cycle, as plants take in
in the study
carbon dioxide in the
of cells. in cells. spring and release
it in the fall.
(Ch. 19)
TECHNOLOGY
When living
Plants convert things go through
radiant energy from the rock cycle, a
the Sun into fossil is created,
carbohydrates. providing a record of
life at a given point
in time. (Ch. 25)
Some viruses
mimic the shape
ASTRONOMY of food molecules to GEOLOGY
gain entrance
into cells.
(Ch. 23)
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Sunburn!
t’s late afternoon at the beach when

I you notice that the tops of your feet
are bright red. You’ve got sunburn.
Hours earlier you used sunblock but
you missed those areas. Now they
hurt!
Past experience tells you what
will happen. For the next couple of
days the tops of your feet will be ten-
der and painful, especially when you
get into a hot shower. Then the
outer layers of skin will peel off. But
within a week or so new skin will
grow and your feet will be back to
normal.
The human body is amazing.
When injured, parts of the body like
sunburned skin may die, but the skin
is quickly regenerated. How is that
possible? The answer lies in the Dustin Pumfrey/Getty Images, Inc.
behavior of cells—the fundamental

building blocks of life.
The Nature and Variety of Cells

For centuries, scientists have tried to answer questions about nature’s fundamental building
blocks. In this context, dealing with living things is particularly complex. Although all living
things are made out of atoms and molecules, as we saw in the previous chapter, living things
are more than just collections of atoms. An entity must do many things such as reproduce
and take in matter and energy for us to say that it is alive. These functions cannot be per-
formed by a random collection of atoms; rather, they result from the collective behavior of
large numbers of atoms organized into some kind of system. For our purposes, the cell can
be considered to be the smallest identifiable unit capable of carrying on the basic tasks that
we associate with living things.
An enormous number of different kinds of cells can be found in nature. Cells come
in a wide range of sizes and shapes, and perform all sorts of functions. While typical ani-
mal cells are about one-hundredth of a millimeter (a thousandth of an inch) in diameter,
they can range in size from bacteria only a few hundred-thousandths of a centimeter
across (much too small to see in most light microscopes and smaller than some large
molecules) to the yolk portion of an ostrich egg that is much larger than most species of
animals. Most cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye but are easily studied
with a microscope.
Cells also come in a wide variety of shapes. Plant cells are often rectangular or polyg-
onal, while egg cells are usually spherical. Bacteria may be rod-shaped or spiral in form,
muscle cells are extremely elongated, nerve cells sport a complex array of branching
fibers, and a sperm cell has a tail-like flagellum that helps it swim. The recognition of
common characteristics in this extraordinary collection represents one of the great
advances in biology.
448
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The Nature and Variety of Cells | 449
These differences in shape reflect the differences in the functions that the cells
perform. Elongated muscle cells exert forces when they contract. Branching nerve
cells (see Chapter 5) transmit impulses to many other cells. To fulfill their functions,
cells constantly require raw materials and energy to live and reproduce. Living things
use two very different strategies to satisfy these needs. Some cells (such as bacteria and
protista) operate as separate entities, ensuring their survival by reproducing in vast
numbers. Multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, on the other hand,
employ cells collectively. In these more complex life-forms, different groups of cells
serve very different functions, with each group depending on others in a complex web
of interdependence.
Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The Discovery of Cells

An essential and distinctive feature of all cells is a membrane that isolates and protects the
interior from the outer environment. In 1663, Robert Hooke (1635–1703), a brilliant and
contentious contemporary of Isaac Newton, used one of the first microscopes to observe
honeycomb structures in a thin slice of cork (Figure 21-1). It was Hooke who first called the
tiny, box-like units “cells.”
Within the next few years, Dutch merchant and self-taught scientist Anton van
Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) employed superb microscopes of his own design and
construction to discover a rich variety of cells, including those in blood, saliva,
semen, and the intestines. On October 9, 1676, van Leeuwenhoek sent a letter to
the president of the Royal Society in London. He wrote, “In the year 1675 I discov-
ered living creatures in Rain water, which had stood for a few days in a new earthen
pot p ,” and he went on to describe a series of “animacules” that were visible
through his microscope. •
THE C ELL THEORY • SEM 69X

In spite of van Leeuwenhoek’s colorful descriptions, it was not until the nineteenth cen- • Figure 21-1 The structure of
tury that scientists finally accepted the idea that animals and plants are essentially aggre- cells, the basic unit of all living
gates of cells. In 1838, the German botanist Matthais Schleiden proposed that all plants things, can be seen in this micro-
graph of cork, which is taken from
are made of cells. In the following year his countryman, zoologist Theodor Schwann,
the bark of the cork oak tree.
extended this idea to animals and proposed what is now known as the cell theory. Three
tenets of the Schwann’s cell theory are:
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
3. All cells arise from previous cells.
Thus, biologists recognized that only cells can produce other cells and that these tiny
objects represent the indivisible units of life—a discovery as fundamental as the discov-
ery of atoms in chemistry and quanta in physics. The cell theory initiated the field of cell
biology, which remains one of the central efforts in biology.
Stop and Think! The fact that cells require energy implies that they do
work. What kind of work do cells do?
O BSERVING C ELLS: THE M ICROSCOPE •

Advances in understanding how cells work have relied in large part on the development
of microscopes. Early microscopes were rather primitive affairs; consequently, scientists
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450 | C HAP TE R 21 | The Living Cell
were unable to see many details of cell structure. Indeed, until the middle part of the
twentieth century, science textbooks often spoke of something called “protoplasm.”
This substance was supposed to be a kind of uniform, molasses-like fluid that filled cells.
Today, with much better microscopes we know that cells are very complex indeed.
Advanced cells are full of specialized structures, as complicated in their own way as larger
life-forms such as human beings. In fact, in the next chapter we’ll see that the molecules
of life play a crucial role in the complex workings of the cell, with each performing a sep-
arate vital function. Today, we refer to the fluid that takes up the spaces between all this
complexity as cytoplasm.
Early microscopes and their modern high-tech descendants all operate on the same
basic principle shown in Figure 21-2a. Ordinary visible light passes through a specimen,
which is often placed between two transparent layers of glass or plastic. The light transmits
through a series of lenses so that a magnified image is presented in the eyepiece. This kind
of apparatus is called an optical microscope, and today these instruments can magnify more
than 1000 times and resolve details less than a ten-thousandth of a centimeter across—
enough to make an ordinary cell look as big as a quarter. In many modern optical micro-
scopes, a miniature video camera in the eyepiece allows the image to be displayed on a
television screen.
Special dyes that are taken up by only one part of a specimen are often used to increase
contrast in the image, and hence to make internal structures clearer. For example, we shall
see that parts of cells called chromosomes play an important role in reproduction. These fea-
tures were first seen as colored structures in cells that had been stained, a fact that is
reflected in their name.
The ability of a microscope to differentiate objects that are close to each other is
called its resolving power. The resolving power of all microscopes is limited by the wave-
length of the light used: objects about the size of one wavelength appear blurred. Light
microscopes, for example, typically employ light waves with wavelengths on the order of
Light microscope Electron microscope

Ocular lens Electron
gun
50–100 kV
Objective lens
Specimen
Condenser
Condenser lens lens
Specimen
Light source
Objective
lens
(a)
Projector
lens
• Figure 21-2 Light microscope

(a) and electron microscope (b). In the
light microscope, waves of ordinary
visible light travel through a series of
lenses to form an image. The elec-
tron microscope uses the wave-like
nature of electrons (see Chapter 8) to Screen
accomplish the same purpose. (b)
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How Does a Cell Work? | 451
David Scharf/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Will & Demi McIntyre/Photo Researchers

(a) EM 82X (b)
• Figure 21-3 (a) Electron microscope photograph of a fruit fly with a wing mutation.
(b) A scientist operates an electron microscope.
a ten-thousandth of a centimeter; thus objects about that size or smaller will appear as
undifferentiated blurs in even the most perfectly designed instrument. This limitation
means that many of the smaller structures in the cell cannot be seen with this sort of
microscope.
In the 1930s, German scientist Ernst Ruska, working at a university in Berlin,
introduced the electron microscope, a major new advance in microscopes that uses elec-
trons instead of light to illuminate objects. In Chapter 9, we discussed the notion that
quantum objects such as the electron can be thought of as tiny particles, but also as
energetic waves. The electron’s wavelength depends on its energy—the greater the
energy, the shorter the wavelength—and typical electron wavelengths in modern
instruments are comparable to the size of a single atom. In a situation such as that
shown in Figure 21-2b, where an electron beam is shot at a target, we are in effect
examining the target with very short wavelengths and thus achieving resolving powers
up to 100,000 times that of optical microscopes. Modern electron microscopes are
often used to resolve atomic-scale features.
The electron microscope works this way: An electrical current heats a tungsten fil-
ament in a strong electric field—typically about 100,000 volts—to produce an electron
beam. Electrons leave the negatively charged tungsten wire and accelerate toward the
positive end of a tube. This beam of electron “waves” is focused by specially designed
ring-shaped electromagnets, the analogs of glass lenses in a conventional microscope.
The focused beam strikes the sample, and the electrons then hit a detector that converts
the beam into an image, as shown in Figure 21-3. Modern electron microscopes are
very expensive; it’s not unusual for one to cost more than $500,000. Nevertheless,
electron microscopes are an invaluable tool in all areas of science and industry that
require examination of objects at extremely high magnification—particularly in the
study of cells.
How Does a Cell Work?

As the fundamental unit of life, the cell must perform all of the varied tasks that we asso-
ciate with living things (see Chapter 20). The cell must obtain atoms and energy from its
environment, grow, respond to changes in environmental conditions, and reproduce. As
we shall see, each of those tasks is accomplished by remarkable cellular mechanisms. But
before examining those complex processes, it’s useful to imagine the cell in a different
way—as a factory that produces and distributes chemicals.
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Corbis Digital Stock
Have you ever driven by an oil refinery or other kind of chem-
ical plant (Figure 21-4)? It’s a place of bewildering complexity,
laced with a maze of pipes and towers, bustling with diverse activ-
ity as energy and materials constantly flow in and out.
As complex and diverse as chemical plants might seem,
they all share a few basic features. Every chemical plant must
have walls, a control room, and facilities to provide and distrib-
ute energy. There must be loading docks to bring in supplies
and remove trash, conveyor belts or pipes to move materials
from one place to another, and storage rooms to keep a stock
of critical items at the ready. And at the heart of every plant
must be pieces of machinery that control chemical reactions
and manufacture the desired chemical products.
A chemical plant is, in fact, a lot like a living cell.
• Figure 21-4 The cell is like an oil
refinery. It takes in raw materials and
energy and manufactures chemical C ELL M EMBRANES •
products.
Every cell must be isolated from its environment—just like a chemical factory, there must
be an “inside” that is distinct from an “outside.” In addition, complex cells also require
different parts of the cell to be separated from each other by inner partitions. Both of these
requirements are satisfied by cell membranes. The simplest cells have only one external
membrane (Figure 21-5), whereas more complex cells have many internal membranes in
addition to the outer envelope. The basic molecular structure of cell membranes is a flexi-
ble double layer of elongated molecules called lipids (see Chapter 22).
If a cell membrane were totally impermeable, life would not be possible. In order to
be alive, a cell must take in raw materials from its surroundings and pass wastes and
other chemicals into the environment, just like the loading docks and pipelines that run
to and from a chemical plant. Materials are transported across cell membranes in many
ways. The simplest is the movement of small individual molecules across the cell mem-
brane. You may see this process at work in your local supermarket, where produce man-
agers often spray fresh vegetables with water. They don’t do this for decoration—they
put water on the carrots, lettuce, and other vegetables so that it will move through the
membranes into the cells, making up for water that has evaporated out. In this way, veg-
etables maintain a fresher appearance for longer periods of time.
Cell membranes also incorporate various kinds of channels and molecular-sized
• Figure 21-5 All cells possess a
openings, which allow specific materials to go back and forth. When nerve signals move
lipid bilayer membrane, which is
studded with protein receptors. The through the human body, as we saw in Chapter 5, sodium and potassium ions move
membrane separates the inside of back and forth across nerve cell membranes to create the signal. The various kinds of
the cell from the outside. channels that exist in different kinds of cells allow different kinds of atoms and molecules
to pass through.
Carbohydrate chains One important means of bringing material through a cell
membrane, however, depends on the notion that the chem-
istry of life is controlled by the size and shape of molecules
(see Chapter 22). Interspersed here and there in a cell mem-
brane are large molecular structures, called receptors. Recep-
tor molecules each have a specific geometrical shape, and each
receptor will bind to a specific type of molecule in the envi-
ronment. When that molecule is present, it is attracted to the
receptor’s binding site. Thus receptors can be thought of as
the cell’s “door guard” looking over prospective molecular
entrants and picking out only those nutrients whose shape is
exactly right.
When a receptor “recognizes” a particular molecule, the
molecule and receptor are attracted to each other, through
hydrogen bonds for example, and they fit together. A sequence
Receptor of events such as that sketched in Figure 21-6 thus takes place.
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Particle
Receptor
structure
Cell membrane
Vesicle
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 21-6 The action of receptors in a cell. (a) A food particle (in red) approaches a
receptor. (b) The receptor bonds to the particle and draws it close to the cell membrane.
(c) The particle is taken inside the cell and surrounded by lipids to form a vesicle.
The receptor binds to the particle in question and holds it while the cell membrane
deforms. Once the particle is inside, as shown, the membrane may nip off, enclosing
the particle in its own special wrapping, and the cell membrane reforms behind it. The
tiny container, called a vesicle, then becomes the vehicle by which the particle moves
around inside the cell. A similar process that works in reverse is used when molecules
from inside the cell are moved out. Once in a while a receptor can be fooled. As we’ll
see in Chapter 23, some tiny disease-causing objects called viruses gain entrance into
cells by mimicking the shape of particular molecules and thus triggering the receptor
mechanism.
The outer covering of plant cells contains an additional structure in addition to the
kind of flexible membranes we have described (Figure 21-7). Plant cells may also be con-
nected to each other by a cell wall, which is a solid framework made of strong polymers,
such as cellulose (see Chapter 22). Cell walls, which often account for about a third of a
living plant’s mass, give tree trunks and leaves the strength to grow upright against the
force of gravity. In fact, it was cell walls (as opposed to cells per se) that Robert Hooke
saw when he looked at his piece of cork in 1663 (see Figure 21-1).
Stop and Think! From a thermodynamic point of view, are cells open
or closed systems? Explain.
THE N UCLEUS •
In most cells, the most prominent and important interior structure is the nucleus. The
nucleus forms a relatively large enclosed structure that contains the cell’s genetic
material—its DNA (Figure 21-7b; see Chapter 23). This DNA contains the instruc-
tions for the day-to-day chemical operation of the cell, as well as the mechanism by
which the cell reproduces itself. If we think of the cell as being analogous to a large
chemical factory, then the nucleus can be thought of as the front office. There, the
blueprints are stored and instructions for the operation of the entire system go out.
Not all cells have nuclei. In some cells, the DNA is present in a tight coil but is not
separated from the rest of the material in the interior. Presumably, these sorts of primitive
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:32 AM Page 454
Courtesy USDA
Plasmodesma
Courtesy University of Texas
Golgi apparatus
Courtesy Brookhaven
National Laboratory
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Photo Researchers
Biophoto Associates/
Endoplasmic
reticulum Plasma membrane Chloroplast
Courtesy Dr. Eliot Weir

Amyloplast
EM 9167X
Cell wall
Photo Researchers
Biophoto Associates/
(a) EM 5688X
Courtesy Cell Research Institute, university of Texas, Austin
(b)
• Figure 21-7 A typical plant cell. (a) A generalized drawing with electron micrographs of
some key organelles (see Table 21-2). (b) Micrograph of a cell of maize rust. The dark boundary
is the cell wall, made from cellulose. The nucleus takes up almost half the area of the central
part of the cell.
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Table 21-1 Some Terms Related to Different Kinds of Cells and Single-Celled Organisms
Archaea One of Carl Woese’s three domains of life; all Archaea are prokaryotes, and all are
also members of the kingdom monera.
Bacteria One of Carl Woese’s three domains of life; all Bacteria are prokaryotes, and all are
also members of the kingdom monera. Note that “bacteria” (not capitalized) is
also sometimes used as a general term for microbes.
Eucarya One of Carl Woese’s three domains of life; Eucarya include all of the single-celled
kingdom of protista. as well as the three multicelled kingdoms: fungi, plants, and
animals.
Eukaryote A cell with a nucleus; all organisms in Woese’s domain Eucarya are made of one
or more eukaryotic cells.
Microbes A general name for all microscopic single-celled organisms. Microbiology is the
field of science devoted to the study of microbes.
Monera The kingdom containing all cells without nuclei; monera is synonymous with
prokaryotes, and it includes all single-celled organisms in the domains Bacteria
and Archaea.
Protista The kingdom containing single-celled organisms with nuclei; all protista are
eukaryotes.
Prokaryote A cell without a nucleus; all organisms in the kingdom monera, and in the
domains Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotic cells.
cells, called prokaryotes (“before the nucleus”), evolved first. The kingdom monera (see
Chapter 20), including bacteria and their relatives, includes all cells that do not have a
nucleus. The more advanced single-celled organisms, the eukaryotes (“true nucleus”),
as well as all multicellular organisms (including human beings), are made from cells that
do contain nuclei. The kingdom protista includes single-celled eukaryotic organisms.
Virtually all of the organisms with which we are familiar are made up of eukaryotic cells.
By now, you’ve probably noticed that there are quite a few words that relate to differ-
ent kinds of cells and single-celled organisms. Table 21-1 summarizes this sometimes
confusing vocabulary.
One interesting feature of the nucleus—a feature that may contain a good deal of
information about the evolution of higher life-forms—can be found in its confining
membranes. The nucleus has not one, but two membranes, as shown in Figure 21-8.
The standard explanation of the double membrane in the nucleus is that it is a vestige
of an earlier stage of development. The idea is that at some point in the past, a large
cell engulfed a small one, much as mod-
Double
ern cell membranes use receptors to membrane
engulf molecules. Over time, a symbiotic
relationship developed between those
first two cells. Each cell was able to do Independent
free-living
better in a partnership than it could do prokaryotic
alone. The double-membrane nucleus is cells
interpreted as having an inner mem-
brane, descended from the original Eukaryotic
membrane of the swallowed cell, and an cell
outer membrane, descended from the
• Figure 21-8 The nucleus has a
vesicle that formed when the first cell was enveloped. double membrane, perhaps because
Other structures in the cell also have a double membrane (see the following section), it evolved from an earlier stage in
suggesting that, while cells are indeed the basic unit of life, individual cells in complex which a large cell engulfed a small
organisms may be more like colonies of smaller cells than a single cell. one, as shown.
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Table 21-2 Some Organelles and Their Functions (See Figures 21-7 and 21-9)
Nucleus Stores DNA and controls the cell’s chemistry
Endoplasmic reticulum Contributes to protein and lipid synthesis
Mitochondria Release energy from food by metabolism
Chloroplasts Site of photosynthesis (in plants only)
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis
Nucleoli Manufacture the subunits of ribosomes
Golgi apparatus Processes proteins previously synthesized at the ribosomes
Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes for breakdown of wastes
Vesicles Small containers for chemical raw materials
Cytoskeleton Provides cell structure and internal transport of vesicles
Vacuoles Waste and water storage
Amyloplasts Storage of starch (in plants only)
Plasmodesmata Water conduits between plant cells
THE E NERGY O RGANELLES: C HLOROPLASTS

AND M ITOCHONDRIA •
Eukaryotic cells have many inner structures similar to the nucleus. Each of these structures
carries out a special chemical function in the cell. Any specialized structure in the cell, includ-
ing the nucleus, is called an organelle. Important organelles are shown in Figures 21-7 and
21-9, and a listing of some of their primary functions is given in Table 21-2.
• Figure 21-9 A typical animal cell showing the nucleus, mitochondria, and various other
organelles (see Table 21-1).
Courtesy Tektoff-Rhone-Merieux,
CNR/Photo Researchers
Nuclear membrane
Golgi apparatus
Secchi-Lecaque/Roussel-UCLA
CNRI/Photo Researchers
Nucleus
EM 14515X Free
ribosomes
Secchi-Lecaque/Roussel-UCLA
CNRI/Photo Researchers
Vacuole EM 3125X
Endoplasmic
reticulum Mitochondrion
Photo Researchers
Cell membrane Courtesy CNRI/
David M. Phillips/
Visuals Unlimited
Lysosomes
EM 9438X
Rough endoplasmic
Gopal Muri/Phototake
reticulum
EM 14082X
EM 12800X
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
EM 14167X
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:32 AM Page 457
Metabolism: Energy and Life | 457
Dr. Torsten Wittman/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Every chemical factory requires energy, and living cells gather
energy in two very different ways. Plants rely on the Sun for their
energy, while animals ultimately depend on the chemical energy
stored in plants.
Chloroplasts are the main energy transformation
organelles in plant cells. As the name suggests, they are the
places where molecules of chlorophyll are found. Chlorophyll
absorbs the energy from sunlight and uses that energy to
transform atmospheric carbon dioxide and water into energy-
rich sugar molecules such as glucose. Chloroplasts have a dou-
ble cell membrane, which suggests that they once may have
been independent cells.
Mitochondria, sausage-shaped organelles, are places
where molecules derived from the sugar glucose react with
oxygen to produce the cell’s energy. Mitochondria are, in
effect, the furnaces where fuels are oxidized. A typical eukary-
otic cell will have anywhere from a few hundred to a few
thousand mitochondria.
Like the nucleus, chloroplasts and mitochondria have dou- EM 5385X
ble cell membranes and even their own complement of DNA. Most scientists have con- • Figure 21-10 In this fluorescent
cluded, therefore, that chloroplasts and mitochondria were originally independent cells light micrograph of two cells the cell
in the early history of life on Earth. nuclei appear purple while the
cytoskeleton appears yellow. The
cytoskeleton supports the cells’
CYTOSKELETON • structures, allows the cells to move,
and provides pathways for the
The cytoskeleton gives the cell its shape, keeps things anchored in place, and, in some movement of nutrients and waste.
cases, allows the cell to move. The cytoskeleton is a series of strong filaments that extend
throughout the cell, more or less like a complex of spider webs (Figure 21-10). Inside
the cell, the cytoskeleton serves as the transport system along which the vesicles that
carry material from one place to another move. In some cases, cells can move by short-
ening and lengthening filaments inside the cell, or by causing structures related to the
cytoskeleton that extend outside the cell to move like little oars.
Metabolism: Energy and Life

The cell’s process of deriving energy from its surroundings is called metabolism. Cells
need a means to transfer that energy from one place to another, to power the varied
pieces of chemical machinery necessary for life.
THE C ELL’S E NERGY C URRENCY •

Several molecules are used to store and distribute energy in all living cells. One way to
think about this suite of molecules is to think about the money in your wallet. You may
have some cash, but you also probably have credit cards, and perhaps even a check or two.
Each of these items provides a way of moving money around, and each is appropriate for
different situations. You pay cash for small purchases, make larger purchases with a credit
card, and pay some of your bills by check. In the same way, a cell has different molecules
that store different amounts of energy, each of which is appropriate to a particular use.
The most common of these energy carriers is adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—a molecule
that provides energy for countless chemical processes in all living cells. A sketch of this
molecule is given in Figure 21-11. The structure of ATP illustrates an important charac-
teristic of life’s molecular building blocks: they tend to be built from a few simple building
blocks. ATP contains three phosphate groups (collections of phosphorus and oxygen
atoms) at the end of the molecule (these three phosphates are what give ATP the “tri” part
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:32 AM Page 458
Base of its name). The other parts of the molecule consist of a sugar mol-
NH2 ecule called ribose, which is also a building block of the RNA struc-
N ture (see Chapter 23), and the base adenine, which is part of both
N C DNA and RNA.
CH Phosphate groups
HC C A considerable amount of energy is required to put phosphate
O O O
N N groups onto the ends of the tail of an ATP molecule. In the language
O H2C O P O P O P O– of Chapter 10, putting the last phosphate group on the ATP tail is
an endothermic process. If the phosphate group is subsequently
H H O– O– O– removed in another chemical reaction, that energy is available to
drive other chemical reactions. Thus the ATP molecule can carry
H H
OH OH energy in the form of phosphorus-oxygen bonds from one part of
Sugar the cell to another.
• Figure 21-11 Sketch of ATP, the In one place in a cell—in the mitochondria, for example—
energy “money” of cells. Note that it chemical reactions produce energy. This energy is used to produce molecules of ATP.
is built from a sugar (ribose), a base These molecules then move out of the place where they are made to a place where
(adenine), and three phosphate energy is needed. At this point, ATP acts something like a tiny battery: an ATP mole-
groups. cule attaches to part of the cell’s chemical machinery, a phosphate group is removed,
and the stored chemical potential energy becomes available to drive the desired chemi-
cal reactions. The triphosphate (three phosphates) then becomes a diphosphate (two
phosphates) ADP:
ATP S ADP ⫹ PO4 ⫹ energy
ATP is the molecule that serves as the cell’s “cash” in the cell’s energy system. A typ-
ical cell will have several million ATP molecules doing their job at any given time. Other,
more complex molecules (represented by the letters FADH and NADH) correspond to
the “credit cards” in the cell’s energy system. They store up energy and can be cashed in
on short notice when extra energy is required. One way of thinking about the role of
ATP is to say that when a chemical reaction adds the last phosphate group to ATP, the
molecule picks up the equivalent of a pocketful of money. That money can be spent later
• Figure 21-12 The process of
photosynthesis. (a) Chloroplasts for almost any purpose.
(shown here in a photomicrograph of
a Canadian pondweed leaf) absorb P HOTOSYNTHESIS •
energy from the Sun. (b) That energy
is then used to convert carbon Photosynthesis, the mechanism by which plants convert the energy of sunlight into
dioxide from the atmosphere and energy stored in carbohydrates, provides the chemical energy for almost all species
water into carbohydrates, such as (Figure 21-12). In plants, this complex process operates as follows: A large molecule,
glucose. Plants are green because usually chlorophyll, absorbs sunlight. After a series of chemical reactions, this energy is
of the presence of chlorophyll.
ultimately stored in a set of molecules that includes ATP. Once the energy has
been captured in this way, it is used in another complex series of reactions to
Perennou Nuridsany/Photo Researchers, Inc.
produce essential molecules called carbohydrates. The most important carbo-

hydrate molecule is glucose, an energy-rich sugar that also provides the
module from which all of a plant’s cellulose and starch polymers are made
CO2
(see Chapter 22). The end result is the conversion of the energy in the elec-
tromagnetic radiation from the Sun into chemical energy stored in the bonds
holding the carbohydrate molecules together.
The shorthand way of thinking about photosynthesis is to say:
In words: Energy in the form of sunlight plus carbon dioxide plus water
LM 181X CH2OH react to produce carbohydrate (such as glucose) plus oxygen.
Glucose
(a) H O H In equation form:
H
OH H energy ⫹ CO2 ⫹ H 2O S carbohydrate ⫹ O2
HO OH
The rate at which plants produce oxygen and carbohydrates is usually limited
H OH
by the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.
The most familiar molecule involved in photosynthesis, chlorophyll,
occurs in various forms that can absorb red and blue light. The energy that
(b) falls as sunlight on a leaf is white light, roughly equal mixtures of all colors of
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Metabolism: Energy and Life | 459
the visible spectrum (see Chapter 6). The leaf CH2OH

absorbs red and blue components of light from C O
the Sun, while green light is reflected—a situation One molecule
of glucose
that explains why leaves appear green. In addition C C
OH
to chlorophyll, a number of secondary molecules HO OH
C C
are involved in photosynthesis. These molecules
tend to absorb blue light, so they appear to be red OH
and orange. A normal leaf contains much more ATP Step 1
chlorophyll than secondary molecules, so the 2ATP
(energy added)
color of the secondary molecules is masked. In the Step 2
fall, however, when the leaf dies and chlorophyll is
ATP
no longer produced, its underlying color can be Step 3
seen. We say that the leaves “change color”
although, in fact, the brilliant fall colors were P OH2C O CH2O P
there all the time. C HO C
C C OH
GLYCOLYSIS: THE FIRST STEP IN ENERGY OH
GENERATION IN THE CELL • Step 4
The primary source of energy for living things
comes from the oxidation of carbohydrates such
as glucose. These sorts of reactions, called respir- Step 5
ation, are taking place in all of your cells at this
very moment. Your lungs breathe in oxygen pro- CHO CHO
duced by plants, while blood in your circulatory
system transports that oxygen to every cell in your CHOH CHOH
body. At the same time carbon dioxide, which is 2 NADH
CH2O P CH2O P (energy released)
the end product of the breakdown of carbohy-
drates that you ingest in your food, is removed by NADH Step 6 NADH
the circulatory system to the lungs and breathed
out as waste. Step 7 ATP
ATP 2 ATP
Respiration retrieves the energy stored in glu- (energy released)
Step 8
cose in a complex series of cellular chemical reac-
tions. Chemical bonds of the glucose molecule
Step 9
store chemical potential energy. The more glu-
cose bonds that are broken—that is, the smaller 2 ATP
ATP Step 10 ATP (energy released)
the pieces of the final molecules—the more
energy the cell will have transferred. The first step COO- COO-
in the extraction of energy from glucose is called
C=O C=O
glycolysis (the “lysis,” or splitting, of glucose). Two molecules
This rather complex process takes place in ten CH3 CH3
of pyruvic acid
separate steps (Figure 21-13), each of which is
governed by a specific molecule called an enzyme • Figure 21-13 In the process of
(see Chapter 22). glycolysis a single molecule of
glucose, which contains six linked
In words: Glucose splits to form two molecules of pyruvic acid plus smaller energy-rich carbon atoms, is split into two
molecules. smaller molecules called pyruvic
acids, each of which contains three
In equation form: carbon atoms. In addition, the reac-
glucose S 2 pyruvic acid ⫹ energy tion produces two molecules of ATP
and two molecules of another energy
Thus, at the end of the process, a single molecule of glucose, which contains six carrier called NADH. In most cells,
linked carbon atoms, is split into two smaller molecules called pyruvic acids, each con- the energy stored in NADH is
taining three carbon atoms. In addition, the reaction makes two molecules of ATP and converted into two or three more
molecules of ATP before they leave
two molecules of another energy carrier called NADH. In most cells, the energy stored the mitochondria. Thus each glucose
in NADH is converted into two or three more molecules of ATP before they leave the molecule can ultimately yield six to
mitochondria. Thus each glucose molecule can ultimately yield six to eight molecules of eight molecules of ATP through the
ATP through the process of glycolysis. process of glycolysis.
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After glucose has been split by glycolysis, energy can be generated in two separate
Charles Schiller/FoodPix/Jupiter Images Corp
and distinct ways: respiration and fermentation. Respiration requires the presence of
oxygen and is therefore said to be aerobic. The primary function of your lungs and cir-
culatory system is to maintain this aerobic respiration. Fermentation, on the other hand,
can occur in the absence of oxygen and is said to be anaerobic.
F ERMENTATION: A WAY TO K EEP G LYCOLYSIS G OING •

Pyruvic acid molecules still hold a great deal of chemical potential energy. In the
absence of oxygen, however, that energy cannot be liberated to run cellular metabo-
lism. In this situation, a process called fermentation can be used to provide energy to
keep glycolysis going. As long as there is a supply of glucose, the cell can go on gen-
erating energy, albeit somewhat inefficiently. In some cases, as in single-celled yeast,
the end product of fermentation is ethanol—ordinary beverage alcohol. This sort of
fermentation provides the basis for the production of wine and other alcoholic drinks
(Figure 21-14).
When cells have to use glucose in the absence of oxygen, only a fraction of the avail-
able energy is used, and a great deal of energy is left stored in other molecules. Yeast is a
good example. You know that alcohol, which is produced by yeast during the process of
• Figure 21-14 Microscopic fermentation, contains a great deal of energy—it can, after all, be burned as a fuel. The
organisms undergo fermentation—a chemical energy in alcohol is left behind by the yeast cells that made it—energy that the
process that is critical to the produc-
cells could not use because they were not able to metabolize it.
tion of cheese, bread, and wine.
A somewhat different kind of fermentation takes place in cells of animals. The
energy in pyruvic acid is normally tapped by the process of respiration (see the following
section). In the absence of oxygen, however, our muscles can use fermentation to keep
glycolysis going (often taking glucose from materials stored in the muscles themselves).
The end product of this sort of fermentation is lactic acid, a three-carbon molecule that
then accumulates in the muscle. When we undergo strenuous exercise, if our bodies are
• Figure 21-15 The process of
respiration expels water vapor,
not prepared to deliver all the oxygen that is needed, the cells will eventually fall back on
which appears as condensation on a this simpler process.
cold day. The fact that some of our cells can operate both with and without oxygen—the fact
that they have this reserve process to fall back on—is taken by some sci-
Tim Davis/Photo Researchers
entists to indicate that cells evolved fermentation reactions first and only
later developed the ability to burn oxygen. You can think of the body’s
use of fermentation as analogous to writing a term paper with a pencil
when a power outage makes a computer unavailable. It’s not the most
efficient way to work, but it gets the job done.
THE F INAL STAGES OF R ESPIRATION •

In human cells, the energy-rich products of glycolysis react in the mito-
chondria, and all the available energy that was stored in the glucose is
retrieved. The end effect of these chemical reactions is that oxygen and
the pyruvic acid molecules take part in a complex series of reactions to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and a large amount of energy stored in
ATP molecules.
In cells where oxygen is available, molecules of pyruvic acid (with
three carbon atoms) are first broken down into two-carbon groups and
then enter a complex series of chemical reactions called the Krebs cycle. In
the course of this cycle, the original glucose is broken down and con-
verted into carbon dioxide and water (Figure 21-15), some energy is
released to ATP molecules, and the rest of the energy is stored in some of
the other energy-carrying molecules. This process, then, is essentially the
reverse of photosynthesis discussed above.
In words: Carbohydrate plus oxygen react to produce energy plus
carbon dioxide plus water.
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Cell Division | 461
In equation form:
carbohydrate ⫹ O2 S energy 1in the form of ATP
and other small molecules 2 ⫹ CO2 ⫹ H 2O
The exact number of ATP molecules produced from a single glucose molecule
depends on details of the structure of the mitochondrial membranes and varies slightly
from one cell to another. As a general rule, however, the metabolism of a single glucose
molecule ultimately produces 36 to 38 molecules of ATP, which can then be used by the
cell to run all the rest of its chemical machinery. Compare this production to the six to
eight ATP molecules produced by glycolysis alone.
Thus aerobic reactions yield significantly more energy per molecule of glucose than
anaerobic processes. It can be argued that the large amounts of energy needed to main-
tain a multicellular organism would not have been available to organisms that had not
developed respiration. The outcome of this line of thought is that before a significant
amount of oxygen became available in the atmosphere, complex life-forms could not
have evolved. We will discuss the development of complex organisms in Chapter 25.
Stop and Think! Where did you get the energy that keeps you alive
today?
Cell Division
A key principle of the cell theory is that all cells arise from previous cells, but how does this
process occur? Individual cells do not last forever. As you read this text, cells are dying and
being replaced throughout your body. In order for this sort of replacement to occur, cells
must be able to reproduce. Microscopic observations of living cells have revealed that cells
divide and reproduce by two separate processes, called mitosis and meiosis.
M ITOSIS •
In the great majority of cell divisions in living organisms, a single cell splits, so that two
cells appear where once there was only one. It is by means of this process of cell division,
called mitosis, that organisms grow and maintain themselves. When you get a cut or sun-
burn, this process quickly replaces damaged cells. Mitosis involves the reproduction of
individual cells but is not involved in sexual reproduction in higher plants and animals.
In Chapter 23, we will discover that DNA governs the chemical workings of any
cell. DNA in eukaryotes is contained within the cell nucleus in structures called chromo-
somes. When chromosomes were first discovered in the nineteenth century, there was an
intense debate about their function. Today, we understand that each chromosome is a
long strand of the DNA double helix, with the strand wrapped around a series of protein
cores like tape around a spool.
Chromosomes come in pairs, but there is no connection between the number of chro-
mosomes and the complexity of an organism. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs),
but the number of pairs varies from one species to another. Mosquitoes, for example, have
6 while dogs have 78.
The process of mitosis is shown schematically in Figure 21-16. Assume for simplic-
ity that we begin with a cell that has just two pairs of chromosomes, one shown larger
than the other in Figure 21-16a. Each individual chromosome of the pair, furthermore,
differs slightly from the other because (as we shall see in the discussion of meiosis,
below) one comes from the male parent and the other from the female parent. Individ-
ual chromosomes in a pair are thus illustrated in purple and green. These differences in
size and color will help you follow the path of each chromosome through cell division.
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Mitosis The first step in mitosis is the copying of the chromosomes (a

process we will describe in more detail in the next chapter). As shown in
Dr. Andrew Bajer

Figure 21-16b, a cell that is about to divide has twice the normal number
of chromosomes, neatly paired off like socks that have been sorted after
going through the laundry.
(a) After duplication of the chromosomes, the nuclear membrane dissolves
and a series of fibers called spindle fibers develop (Figure 21-16c). The
matched chromosome pairs are pulled apart and migrate to opposite ends
of the cell. After this separation, the nuclear membranes reform and the cell
splits down the middle (Figure 21-16d). The result is two cells, each of
which carries a set of chromosomes that are identical to the original. Pow-
erful microscopes can capture photographs of these stages of mitosis in
progress (Figure 21-16e).
Some cells in your body divide often; the cells in the lining of the
(b)
small intestine, for example, are replaced every few days (Figure 21-17).
Other cells, such as those of the nervous system, don’t divide at all after
maturity.
M EIOSIS •
A remarkable, specialized kind of cell division called meiosis takes place
(c) in a few cells in organisms that reproduce sexually. In this process a sin-
gle cell with a full complement of chromosomes splits to form four
daughter cells, or gametes, each of which has half the number of chro-
mosomes found in most normal cells. The central function of meiosis is
to generate the sperm and eggs (or ova) that will later combine in sexual
reproduction to produce a new member of the species. Recall that in
mitosis, two daughter cells are genetically identical to the original cell,
(d) (e)
but in meiosis each gamete has its own unique new combination of
genetic material.
• Figure 21-16 Mitosis, shown
schematically for a cell with two pairs Key steps of meiosis are illustrated in Figure 21-18. As in Figure 21-16, we begin with a
of chromosomes, one larger and one cell that has two pairs of chromosomes, one shown larger than the other and with distinc-
smaller. (a) In each pair, purple and tively colored individual chromosomes (Figure 21-18a). The first step of meiosis is the same
green individual chromosomes are as for mitosis—the chromosomes are copied so that the cell has twice the usual amount of
from different parents. (b) Chromo- DNA—two larger identical green chromosomes, two smaller identical purple chromosomes,
somes duplicate, resulting in two and so on—in “X”-shaped pairs (compare 21-16b. and 21-18b). But from this point, meio-
identical sets of two pairs. (c) Matched
sis differs from mitosis in several important and striking ways.
pairs of chromosomes are pulled along
spindles to opposite ends of the cell. By an extraordinary mechanism, two X-shaped pairs of chromosomes (one all-
(d) A new membrane forms and sepa- purple and one all-green) cross over each other and can exchange short lengths of
rates the parent cell into two identical genetic material, thus generating chromosomes with a new mix of genetic material
daughter cells. (e) Micrographs show from both parents (this effect is illustrated as mixed purple and green in Figure 21-18c
a typical dividing cell. and one pair of chromosomes enlarged to show detail in 21-18k). Note that at this
point the cell has eight chromosomes, some of which differ from any of the four orig-
inal purple or green chromosomes.
The remaining steps of meiosis consist of a sequence of changes that sort out
these eight chromosomes into smaller groups. First, the four X-shaped pairs of
chromosomes segregate along spindle fibers so that each of two daughter cells has
two X-shaped pairs of chromosomes—one longer and one shorter (Figure 21-18d–f ).
Then the X-shaped pairs of chromosomes in each daughter cell are pulled apart along
more spindle fibers and these cells split again, producing a total of four gametes
(Figure 21-18g–j). Each of these four sex cells has two individual chromosomes, or
half the normal complement. These chromosomes eventually are incorporated into
sperm or egg.
At first glance this elaborate process of meiosis may seem to be an extravagant and
unnecessary way to divide cells. However, as we shall see in Chapter 25, the ability of
sexually reproducing organisms constantly to vary their genetic makeup can provide a
tremendous advantage in the struggle to survive.
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Cell Division | 463
• Figure 21-17 A human cell divid-
David Becker/Stone/Getty Images

ing. Genetic material shows as yellow,
while the spindles appear dark pink in
this false-color photomicrograph.
Meiosis
(a)
(b)
(c)
Homologous chromosome
pair in tetrad formation
(k)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
• Figure 21-18 Meiosis, shown
schematically (see text). As in mitosis,
the chromosomes are duplicated and
(h) paired. The pairs separate and the
cell divides for the first time. The
chromosome pairs then separate and
each daughter divides again, pro-
(i) ducing a total of four cells, each with
half the normal complement of DNA.
Crossing over between pairs of chro-
mosomes results in the shuffling of
(j)
genetic material to yield chromo-
Four gametes somes with a new genetic makeup.
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:33 AM Page 464
Thinking More About Cells
B IOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION You can think of the situation in cells as something like the
way a complex chemical factory might develop. Long ago the
The most striking thing about the energy metabolism of factory may have made just one kind of chemical, perhaps
cells is that every single living thing on Earth, from the low- white powdered lime for your lawn. As the factory grew and
est bit of pond scum to the cells in our own bodies, uses expanded, many new chemicals were produced—fertilizers and
part or all of the same chemical reaction cycles to obtain insecticides, for example. But the lime-making operation was
energy. In other words, they share a common biochemical still intact, ready to be used any time. We could, in fact, deduce
background. the history of the factory by taking it apart and seeing how var-
Most cells get energy from glucose by the process of gly- ious chemical operations have been added on.
colysis. Cells in advanced organisms—those in your own Scientists suspect that cells, the chemical factories of life,
body, for example—can get more energy by adding more behave the same way. Biochemical evidence demonstrates that
oxidation steps to the process of glycolysis. Some cells can- older, simpler chemical reactions lie at the heart of the more
not do this, and therefore obtain less energy from each glu- complex operations of today’s cells. Some biologists argue that
cose molecule. This difference turns out to be a universal this fact implies that all life descended from a common ances-
feature of living things; that is, when you examine life’s tor. How could you make such an argument based on what you
chemical reactions, you find that more specialized cells tend know of respiration and fermentation? What do you think the
to use more chemical processes, but those specialized reac- more primitive ancestors must have been like? Do you think
tions are built up from chemical reactions present in more the ancestors must have been in an environment that was rich
primitive cells. in oxygen? Why or why not?

What is the smallest living thing? º In fact, There are many times more bacteria in your body than
there are human cells. Most of these bacteria are in your diges-
• Living things are more than just an assortment of atoms and
tive tract and on your skin.
subatomic particles. As we saw in Chapter 20, an entity must • Most bacteria are harmless and some are actually benefi-
exhibit a number of characteristics for us to say that it is “alive.” cial. For example, intestinal microbiota produce essential
º One basic attribute of life is the organization of matter into a sys- nutrients such as biotin and vitamin K.
tem that is capable of using matter and energy. • Nevertheless, some bacteria are pathogenic and cause infec-
º Reproduction is another essential feature of living systems. tious diseases including bubonic plague and tuberculosis.
• From this perspective, the smallest identifiable unit capable of • Other forms of matter such as self-replicating prions and viruses
these processes is the cell. are considerably smaller than the smallest bacterium.
º A vast number of different kinds of cells can be found in nature. º Viruses (from the Latin word for poison) are sub-microscopic
º Cells come in a wide range of sizes and shapes, and perform infectious agents that can be hundreds of times smaller than
many varied functions. most bacteria. However, they are unable to grow and reproduce
• As a group, bacteria may be the smallest living things of which without a host cell. Therefore, they are usually not considered
we know. to be “alive.”
º Bacteria are a group of single-cell microorganisms that are typi- º Prions are infectious agents that consist of abnormally folded
cally only a few dozen micrometers in length (a micrometer is proteins that propagate themselves by inducing nearby proteins
equal to one millionth of a meter). Nonetheless, like all cells, to undergo a conformational change to resemble the abnormal
bacteria come in many different shapes and sizes. form. Prions are responsible for diseases such as “mad cow”
º Bacteria are ubiquitous, existing in nearly every ecological disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy; BSE) and
niche, from swamps to radioactive waste to the human body. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.
S UMMARY •
Cells, complex chemical systems with the ability to duplicate them- Cells possess a complex internal structure with many different
selves, are the fundamental units of life. All cells are bounded by a kinds of chemical machinery. All but the most primitive cells have a
cell membrane consisting of a double layer of elongated molecules. nucleus, a structure surrounded by a double cell membrane that con-
Most plants also have a cell wall made of cellulose and other strong tains DNA. Other discrete structures, or organelles, in the cell perform
polymers. Nutrients move into and wastes pass out of the cell various specialized functions.
through the cell membrane at receptors, which bind to specific mole- Every cell must have a chemical mechanism for obtaining and
cules because of their distinctive shapes. distributing energy—the process of metabolism. Plants absorb light
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:33 AM Page 465
from the Sun and convert this radiant energy into chemical energy in molecules are broken down to carbon dioxide and water, liberating
chloroplasts by the process of photosynthesis. Animals must eat food much more energy in the process.
with chemical potential energy, primarily carbohydrates such as glu- Most cells divide by the process of mitosis, in which chromosomes
cose originally derived from plants. The first step in getting energy are first duplicated, then separated. The cell then divides, producing
from glucose is glycolysis, a series of chemical reactions that take place two daughters, each of which has the same complement of DNA as
in mitochondria, by which the glucose molecule is split into pyruvic the original cell. In meiosis, which produces sperm and eggs for sexual
acids. In the process of fermentation, pyruvic acids are broken down reproduction, chromosome duplication is followed by two divisions
into molecules such as ethanol and lactic acid and the energy is used that result in a set of four cells, each of which has half the normal com-
to keep fermentation going. In the process of respiration, pyruvic acid plement of DNA.
K EY TERMS •
cell nucleus metabolism fermentation
cell membrane organelle photosynthesis mitosis
receptor chloroplasts respiration meiosis
cell wall mitochondria glycolysis
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Fermentation is a method of changing sugars into alcohol in the Small sealed
absence of oxygen. Thus, energy and carbon dioxide are produced in Ziploc bag
the process. In fruits the sugar gets converted to alcohol. Over time
alcohol destroys the yeast cells and ultimately alcohol changes to Large sealed
vinegar by the action of microorganisms. To observe fermentation Ziploc bag
you will need baker’s yeast, fruit, Ziploc bags of different sizes, pH
paper (optional) and matches.
Place one heaping teaspoon of yeast in a large Ziploc bag. Cut up
Fruit
about 5 ounces of fruit and place it in a smaller Ziploc bag. Make
numerous holes in the small bag. Squeeze the bag a little and put a few
drops of fruit juice on the pH paper to determine the pH of fruit. Place
the small bag inside the large bag. Close both bags and squeeze the 1 Teaspoon
small bag more tightly so that the fruit juice mixes with the yeast in the of yeast
Fruit juice Hole
large bag. Set aside the bags for over an hour and observe. Light a
match and carefully lower it inside the large bag. The gas inside the bag
will extinguish the match. This indicates the presence of carbon dioxide. questions. What are some of the products of fermentation? What hap-
Test the pH of the products by using pH paper. Repeat the experiment pened to the pH before, during, and after the experiment? Why do you
at different temperatures. You can also test different fruits using the think pH changed? What happens to the sugar over time? Does temper-
same procedure. Compare your results and try to answer the following ature make a difference? Does the type of fruit make a difference?
1. What is the fundamental unit of life? 13. What is metabolism?
2. How big are the largest and smallest cells? 14. What is ATP? What role does it play in the energy balance of
3. Describe the relationship between form (i.e., shape) and func- a cell?
tion with respect to cells. 15. In what ways are chloroplasts and mitochondria similar? How
4. What is cell theory? State three tenets of the cell theory. How do do they differ?
they relate to plants and animals? 16. Why do leaves appear green? What happens when they change
5. What is the difference between a light microscope and an electron color?
microscope? What are the smallest things that can be seen with each? 17. What are the products of photosynthesis? What molecules are
6. How do materials move across cell membranes? involved in making photosynthesis happen in plants?
7. How is the cell membrane analogous to the walls of a factory? 18. What is fermentation? Why is fermentation considered a way to
8. What is the function of receptors in the cell membrane? “keep glycolysis going”? What are its end products?
9. How do cell walls differ from cell membranes? 19. What is respiration? How does it provide energy for living cells?
10. What is the difference between a prokaryote and a eukaryote? 20. Compare the energy released by the conversion of glucose in
Give examples of each. respiration versus fermentation.
11. What does the nucleus of the cell contain? What role does it 21. In what ways are mitosis and meiosis similar? How do they differ?
play in the regulation of the cell?
12. What does the double membrane of the nucleus tell us about
the evolution of eukaryotes?
c21.qxd 8/21/09 9:33 AM Page 466
1. How do organelles relate to cells? What organelles have a double 8. Does a larger organism need more chromosomes? Why or
cellular membrane? why not?
2. What does it mean to say that almost all life on Earth depends 9. How does meiosis alter the genetic makeup of the offspring of
on photosynthesis? sexually reproducing organisms?
3. What sources of energy other than the Sun might some 10. Do all cells have a nucleus? How can a cell reproduce without a
organisms use? nucleus?
4. What process produces alcohol? Can humans use alcohol as a 11. Are there multinucleated cells? If so, what would be some of
source of energy? the advantages to having more than one nucleus?
5. In what ways do the cells of plants and animals differ? In what 12. Explain how the development of the electron microscope
ways are they the same? improved our knowledge of cell structure and function. What other
6. List all the ways you can think of in which cells are analogous to technological advances have furthered our understanding of biolog-
chemical factories. ical processes?
7. Why is it necessary for a cell’s membrane to be semipermeable?
How do receptors improve the transport of substances across the
cell’s membrane?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Examine a drop of your own blood in a light microscope. What 6. Investigate the relative division rates of the body’s different
kinds of cells do you see? kinds of cells. Which cell types divide most rapidly? Which divide
2. Locate an electron microscope on your campus or at a nearby most slowly? Why are there such different rates?
laboratory. Arrange a visit to watch the microscope in action. All 7. Investigate what diseases are associated with cells that divide too
analytical equipment has three major components: hardware to pro- rapidly or too slowly.
duce and control a source of energy (in this case the electron beam), 8. Visit a local vineyard and learn about the various forms of yeast
hardware to mount and manipulate the specimen, and hardware to and fermentation that are used to make wine. Why does sparkling
detect the interaction of the sample with the energy. Sketch the wine and Champagne have carbonation? Where does the carbonation
microscope and control panels and indicate which parts are associ- come from?
ated with which of these three components. 9. What forms of energy are used when someone lifts a barbell to
3. Many everyday products, including vinegar, Swiss cheese, and momentary muscular failure? What are the byproducts of this activity?
bread dough, rely on the process of fermentation. Investigate some Are they different from the byproducts produced by a marathoner’s
of these varied products and the microorganisms that enable their muscles as the marathoner’s race is completed?
manufacture. 10. Organelles perform various functions within each cell. Investi-
4. We often hear of “aerobic” exercises. Is there any connection gate the various functions that different types of cells perform
between these exercises and aerobic processes in cells? within the human body.
5. Look at water from a local pond or lake under a microscope. If 11. Investigate how many different types of muscle cells are
you were van Leeuwenhoek, seeing this for the first time, how found within the human body. How are muscle cells different
would you describe it? from neurons?
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:29 PM Page 467
22
Molecules of Life
What constitutes a healthy diet?
PHYSICS
Sugar molecules
transfer energy in the
cells of living things.
BIOLOGY CHEMISTRY
Most of the
The shape of
structures of living
organic molecules
things are made of
determines their
proteins,
chemical function in
carbohydrates, and
the cell.
lipids.
A cell’s major parts are

constructed from a few GEOLOGY
simple molecular
Synthetic building blocks.
molecules like Rocks, like cells,
Olestra are used as are modular; they are
additives in food formed from many
without affecting the mineral grains.
body’s digestive (Ch. 18)
system.
TECHNOLOGY
Your body needs

The action of the
a constant supply of
Sun’s ultraviolet
minerals and organic
radiation on the skin
molecules such as
can produce minute
proteins to sustain
quantities of vitamin
itself and continue
D in the body. = other applications,
growing.
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:29 PM Page 468
Science Through the Day An Afternoon Snack
Jonathan A. Meyers/Photo Researchers

granola bar makes a tasty, energy-rich, mid-afternoon snack.
A You lie back on your beach towel, take a bite and start to think
about food. Why do we get hungry? What chemicals make up food?
Why do some foods taste better than others?
Take a close look at the colorful granola bar wrapper and find
the “Nutrition Facts” printed on the back. At the top of the list is
“Calories”—a measure of food energy. Our bodies require energy to
do work, just like every other physical system. That’s why we get
hungry.
The nutrition facts also include information on specific kinds of
molecules, notably fat, carbohydrates, and protein. These molecules
are fundamental building blocks of every living thing and so are an
essential part of our diets. We need a steady supply of these molecules
because we are, quite literally, what we eat. Food tastes good because
our tastebuds are fine-tuned to these critical molecules.
Organic Molecules
Next time you’re outside, look closely at a tree. The trunk and limbs divide over and over
again, a branching that is mirrored by the hidden root system. The tree has countless
almost identical leaves on every limb, as well as myriad seeds in their season. Repeating the
same basic patterns over and over again results in the complex structure of the tree.
Structures in your city or town reveal the same kind of patterns. Buildings feature
stacks of identical bricks, row after row of identical windows, and numerous identical shin-
gles, slates, or other roofing materials. The sidewalk is made of slab after slab of concrete,
while street lamps, signs, fence posts, and telephone poles also repeat over and over again.
Indeed, almost any complex structure found in nature or designed by humans is
modular, composed of a few simple pieces that combine to form larger objects. Mole-
cules of water form the ocean, mineral grains form rocks, and vast numbers of identical
hydrogen atoms form stars. The chemicals of life are no different. A few basic molecules
combine to create the wonderful complexity of life around us.
F OUR BASIC C HARACTERISTICS •

Wood. Leather. Hair. Cotton. Skin. All of these materials originated in living systems on
our planet. And, like all other materials found in living things, they share some basic
chemical characteristics.
1. Most Molecules in Living Systems Are Based on the Chemistry of Carbon
In Chapter 10, we saw that carbon atoms possess the unique ability to form molecules of
almost any size and shape—long chains, branches, and rings. In fact, chemists usually
refer to molecules containing carbon as organic molecules, whether or not they are part
468
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Organic Molecules | 469
of a living system. The branch of science devoted to the study of such carbon-based mol- Table 22-1 Atoms in the Human Body
ecules and their reactions is called organic chemistry. Element Percent
2. Life’s Molecules Form from Very Few Different Elements Hydrogen 61.2
In terms of the percentages of atoms, just four elements—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, Oxygen 23.5
and nitrogen—comprise 97.5% of our bodies’ weight. Calcium in bones accounts for
Carbon 11.7
2%, while phosphorus, sulfur, and all the other elements make up the remaining 0.5%
(see Table 22-1). These elements combine to form the molecules that control chemical Nitrogen 1.1
reactions in all living things. Calcium (mostly in bones) 2.0
3. The Molecules of Life Are Modular, Composed of Simple Building Blocks Phosphorus 0.2
Large and complicated molecules could be put together in two contrasting ways. Sulfur 0.1
One way would be to build each one from scratch, so that no piece of one molecule All others 0.2
would be part of another. Another very different way would be to make the mole-
cules modular, that is, to build them from a succession of simpler, widely available
parts so that each large molecule differs from another only in the arrangement of
those parts. Nature, for the most part, displays modularity in the molecules of living
systems.
Modern buildings illustrate the versatility of modular construction. All kinds of
buildings, from a humble cottage to a soaring skyscraper, can be built from a few basic
parts—bricks, beams, windows, doors, stairs, and so on. The skyscraper and the cot-
tage differ from each other both in the amount of material in them and in the arrange-
ment of those materials, but they contain many of the same basic modules. This kind
of modular construction is extremely efficient. It takes a great deal of work, time, and
money to custom-design every door, window, and other component of your home.
You might end up with a better-designed structure but at a very high price. By build-
ing your home with widely available parts, you save money and still end up with a very
satisfactory dwelling.
Similarly, though life’s molecules come in an extraordinary variety of shapes and
functions, they are made from collections of just a few smaller molecules. This mod-
ularity does not mean that the final products are simple, just as there’s nothing par-
ticularly simple about a skyscraper. It merely means that if we wish to understand
how large molecules behave, we first have to talk about the simple pieces from which
they are built.
4. Shape Helps to Determine the Behavior of Organic Molecules—In Other
Words, Molecular Geometry Controls the Chemistry of Life
The connection between geometry and the behavior of organic molecules can be under-
stood if you remember one important thing about chemical bonds. All chemical bonds
result from the shifting of electrons among specific pairs or groups of atoms. This bond-
ing property is particularly true of atoms that tend to form ionic, covalent, and hydro-
gen bonds (see Chapter 10).
A very large and complex molecule may have millions of atoms arranged in a com-
plicated shape. If this large molecule is to take part in chemical reactions—if it is to bind
to another molecule, for example—then that binding must take place through the
actions of the valence electrons of atoms near the outsides of the two molecules. Specific
atoms in each molecule must be able to get near enough to each other so that their elec-
trons can form the bond. Consequently, the geometrical shape of a molecule plays a cru-
cial role, because it determines whether atoms that can form bonds in each molecule will
be able to get close enough together for the bonds actually to form.
In principle, an infinite number of molecules could be constructed according to
these four rules. In fact, when we examine natural systems, we find that only four
general classes of molecules govern most of life’s main chemical functions. We’ll dis-
cuss three of these classes—proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids—in this chapter (the
fourth important group of molecules, nucleic acids, are introduced in Chapter 23 on
the genetic code). Throughout this discussion, you should keep in mind that all of
these molecules conform to the four rules: they are carbon-based, they form from
just a few elements, they are modular in structure, and their behavior depends on
shape.
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470 | C HAP TE R 22 | Molecules of Life
Side Group C HEMICAL S HORTHAND •

H If we kept showing all of the atoms and bonds, as we do for an amino acid in Figure 22-1,
N C C O diagrams of molecules would get very cluttered as the molecules become more complex.
H Consequently, chemists have adopted several standard shorthand ways of representing
H O
organic molecules. Many molecules can be represented by the following rules:
Amino group Carboxyl group 1. No hydrogen atoms or bonds to hydrogen atoms are shown in the diagram.
• Figure 22-1 An amino acid, 2. Carbon atoms are not shown explicitly.
showing the amino (NH2) and car-
boxylic acid (COOH) groups and the As an example of how this notation works, look at the following diagram. Both of these
side group. The side group varies drawings show molecules of benzene, which has the chemical formula C6H6 (a volatile
from one type of amino acid to liquid sometimes used as a motor fuel). On the left, all the atoms are shown, and you
another and gives that particular
amino acid the chemical properties
can see that each carbon atom forms four bonds to its neighboring atoms. On the right,
that distinguish it from any other. the carbon atoms are not shown, but we know they are located at the points where the
bonds come together. Similarly, the hydrogen atoms are not shown, but we see that each
carbon atom has only three bonds shown. We infer the existence of the hydrogen atom
by the “missing” bond.
H C H
C C
C C
H C H
H
All atoms and bonds are shown. Only carbon–carbon bonds
are shown. Carbon atoms,
hydrogen atoms, and
carbon–hydrogen bonds
are implied.
The Synthesis of Urea

In the early 1800s, scientists were not convinced that molecules in living systems are
formed according to the same chemical rules that govern those in nonliving systems.
Such molecules, after all, had not been produced in the laboratory. In 1828, a German
chemist by the name of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882) performed a series of experiments
that were crucial in establishing the ordinariness of organic molecules.
Like many scientists at that time, Wöhler had a breadth of experience that is unusual
today. Before he began his career as a chemistry teacher, for example, he became a med-
ical doctor and qualified in the specialty of gynecology. He was also interested in the
practical aspects of chemistry, and he collected minerals from the time he was a child. He
described his crucial experiments this way: “I found that whenever one tried to combine
cyanic acid (a common laboratory chemical) and ammonia, a white crystalline solid
appeared that behaved like neither cyanic acid nor ammonia.”
After extensive testing, Wöhler found that the white crystals were identical to urea,
a substance routinely found in the kidneys and (as the name suggests) urine. In other
words, the appearance of that “white crystalline solid” showed that it is possible to take
ordinary chemicals off the shelf and produce a substance found in living systems. He had
demonstrated that the same chemical processes typical of abiotic materials might form
organic molecules.
With humor uncharacteristic of most academicians, Wöhler announced his findings in
a letter as follows: “I can no longer, as it were, hold back my chemical urine: and I have to
let out that I can make urea without needing a kidney, whether of man or dog.” •
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Proteins: The Workhorses of Life | 471
Proteins: The Workhorses of Life

The molecules we call proteins play many key roles in living systems. Some proteins
Nuridsany et Perennou/Photo Researchers

form building materials from which large structures are formed. Your hair, your finger-
nails, the tendons that hold your muscles in place, and much of the connective tissue
that holds your body together, for example, are made primarily of protein molecules
(Figure 22-2). Proteins also serve as the receptors that regulate the movement of materi-
als across cell walls, and thus control what goes into and out of each cell in your body
(see Chapter 21). Proteins play many specialized roles in our bodies—for example, as
hormones that regulate bodily functions and as antibodies that protect against infection
and disease. In addition, proteins serve as enzymes, molecules that control the rate of
complex chemical reactions in living things (see the following section).
Because of these and many other functions, proteins are vital components of your
diet, as you have probably heard. You must regularly take in proteins to supply your (a)
body with building materials to effect repairs and growth.
Laurent/Lamy/Photo Researchers
AMINO ACIDS: THE B UILDING B LOCKS OF P ROTEINS •
Proteins are modular just like all complex biological molecules. They are made up of
strings of basic building blocks called amino acids. A typical amino acid molecule is
sketched in Figure 22-1. All biological amino acids incorporate a characteristic backbone
of atoms. One end terminates in a carboxylic acid group (COOH), a combination of car-
bon, oxygen, and hydrogen. On the other end is an amino group (NH2), a nitrogen
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. (These two groups give this category of molecules their
name.) Between these two ends a carbon atom completes the backbone.
Branching off the central carbon atom is another atom or cluster of atoms, the “side
(b)
group” that makes each kind of amino acids unique and interesting. Hundreds of differ-
ent amino acids can be made in the laboratory, each with its different characteristic side
Donna Day/Stone/Getty Images, Inc.

group. A few common amino acids are sketched in Figure 22-3 to give you a sense of
the kind of diversity that is possible within this basic structure.
Two amino acids can bond together in a very simple way. A hydrogen atom (H) from
the amino end will connect to the hydroxyl (OH) group of the carboxylic acid end of
another amino acid to form a molecule of water (H2O). This water molecule moves off
(you can think of this process as “squeezing out” the water), leaving the two amino acids
bonded together in what is called a peptide bond. This process is identical to the condensation
polymerization reaction that is often used to manufacture plastics and other polymers (see
Chapter 10). Indeed, chemists often refer to a bonded chain of amino acids as a polypeptide.
Once two amino acids have joined together with a peptide bond, more amino acids
can be hooked onto either end by the same process to form a long string of amino acids.
A protein is a large molecule formed by linking amino acids together in this way. There
are many different amino acids to choose from, and different proteins correspond to a
different ordering (as well as a different total number) of the amino acids in the string.
One of the great surprises that came out of the study of biochemistry in the early (c)
part of the twentieth century was that although chemists can synthesize hundreds of • Figure 22-2 (a) A spider’s silk,
(b) fingernails, and (c) hair are every-
• Figure 22-3 Several amino acids. Each has a distinctive side group (green box) that day examples of structural proteins.
branches off the central carbon atom.
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 S

NH
CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH2 C CH
CH3 CH CH2 H C CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2
H 2N C C OH H 2N C C OH H2N C C OH H2N C C OH H2N C C OH H2N C C OH H 2N C C OH
H O H O H O H O H O H O H O
Alanine Valine Leucine Isoleucine Methionine Phenylalanine Tryptophan
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:29 PM Page 472
different amino acids, only a small number of amino acids actually appear in the pro-
teins of living systems on Earth. Only 20 different amino acids are produced in cells,
although some of these are modified once the amino acid string is put together. The
mystery of why only 20 amino acids are found in living things has a possible explana-
tion in terms of the theory of evolution, which we explore in Chapter 25. Note, how-
ever, that even with only 20 basic building blocks, an almost infinite variety of different
strings or proteins can be formed (see the following “Science by the Numbers” section).
THE STRUCTURE OF P ROTEINS •

Proteins are extremely complex molecules, sometimes consisting of many thousands of
amino acids and millions of atoms. One of the great triumphs of modern science has
been to determine the exact atomic structures of many of these large molecules. To
accomplish this feat, biochemists first have to isolate quantities of pure protein, form
delicate single crystals in which the large molecules line up in a regular array, and exam-
ine the crystals by X-ray techniques that reveal the distribution of atoms in space.
A protein’s structure is usually described in four stages, each representing an
increasing order of complexity (Figure 22-4).
1. Primary Structure
The exact sequence of amino acids that go into a given protein is called its primary
structure. Every distinct protein has a different primary structure—that is, it has a differ-
ent sequence of amino acids along its string.
2. Secondary Structure
Amino acid sequence
Depending on the arrangements of amino acids in the primary
structure, hydrogen bonds can form that give the final protein a
specific shape. Some proteins, for example, take the form of a long
helix or long spring. Others fold back on themselves repeatedly to
form rough spheres. Shapes taken by the string of amino acids that
(a) Primary structure
makes up the primary structure of a protein are called its secondary
structure.
When you cook an egg, you can see the effect of secondary struc-
ture. The proteins in egg white are wrapped up into tiny spheres scat-
(or) tered throughout the fluid. This is why normal egg white is transparent.
When you cook the egg white, you break the hydrogen bonds that
keep the protein wrapped up and allow the molecules to unfold. The
tough mat they form when they interlock gives the cooked egg white its
Random coil characteristic texture and appearance.
α-Helix
(or) 3. Tertiary Structure
As parts of the amino acid chain fold back on itself, atoms in the side
groups can come into contact with each other. As a result, additional
β-Pleated sheet cross-linking chemical bonds form between side groups in amino acids
(b) Secondary structure (3 configurations) in different parts of the chain. One common link occurs between sulfur
atoms in different side groups. The distinctive shape of human insulin,
for example, arises because of bonds that form between sulfur atoms in
the amino acid cystine.
As a result of these links, a protein will twist around, kink up, and
fold itself into a complex shape, much as a string will fold itself into a
complex shape if it’s dropped on a table. This complex folding is the
tertiary structure of the protein.
• Figure 22-4 The structure of a protein can be described in four

steps. (a) Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids. (b) Secondary
structure is the way the sequence kinks or bends. (c) Tertiary structure is
the shape of the completely folded protein. (d) Quaternary structure is
Myoglobin Hemoglobin
the clustering of several proteins to form the active structure, in this
(c) Tertiary structure (d) Quaternary structure case, hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in your bloodstream.
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:29 PM Page 473
4. Quaternary Structure
Finally, two or more long chains, each with its own secondary and tertiary structure,
may come together to form a single larger unit. This joining of separate protein chains
determines the quaternary structure of the protein.
Predicting the exact shape that will be assumed by a given sequence of amino acids
remains one of the great goals of modern biochemistry, a goal that we are still far from
reaching. But whether or not we can predict the ultimate shape of a protein, the fact
remains that each different sequence of amino acids will produce a large molecule with a
different three-dimensional shape. This fact will become important when we consider
the role of proteins in the cell’s chemistry.
How Many Proteins Can You Make?

At first, it may seem that with only 20 different amino acids available to build proteins in
living systems, the number of different kinds of proteins you could make would be
rather limited. Let’s do some calculations to see why this isn’t the case.
Suppose we start by asking a simple question: How many different proteins, each 10
amino acids long, can we make from amino acids found in living systems? (Once you’ve
seen the answer to this question, you’ll be able to figure out for yourself how to calcu-
late the answer for a protein with any number of amino acids.)
One way of thinking about this question is to imagine that each protein consists of
10 amino acids on a string and each amino acid can be selected from one of 20 different
boxes. We could choose the first amino acid of the string from any one of 20 boxes. For
each of these 20 choices for the amino acid in the first position, there are 20 choices we
could make for the amino acid in the second position. Thus we could choose amino
acids to fill the first two vacancies on the string in 2020400 different ways.
Following this logic, the number of ways to arrange 10 amino acids in a string is
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 1.028 1013
Thus we could make about 10 trillion different proteins that contain 10 amino acids.
This number is huge—100 million times larger than the number of proteins used in the
human body. And, of course, this is just the number of different proteins you could
make containing exactly 10 amino acids. Typical proteins in living systems contain many
more amino acids, usually hundreds to thousands of them. The bottom line of this cal-
culation is that, although only 20 different amino acids appear in living systems, this
number still allows for a tremendous diversity of proteins. •
P ROTEINS AS E NZYMES •
One of the key roles that proteins play in living systems is to act as enzymes in chemical
reactions in cells. An enzyme is a molecule with a specific shape and structure that facil-
itates chemical reactions between other molecules, but that is not permanently altered or
used up in that overall reaction. Because of the presence of the enzyme, the chemical
reaction takes place at a much faster rate than it otherwise would.
Enzymes play a role in every cell’s chemical reactions similar to a broker or an agent
in a business deal. The broker brings together a buyer and seller, but does no buying or
selling. The buyer and seller eventually might find each other without the help of the
broker, but the deal goes through much quicker if the broker is there. In the same way,
a molecule that plays the role of an enzyme possesses a shape and structure that may
bring together two other molecules in a cell and facilitate their forming a bond, or it
may tear a molecule apart without itself being included in the chemical reaction. Because
of the enzyme, the reaction takes place relatively quickly.
Enzymes illustrate the primary importance of geometrical shape in determining
how chemical reactions take place among large molecules. You can easily visualize the
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:29 PM Page 474

Molecules workings of an enzyme (see Figure 22-5). Each large molecule has
Enzyme
Enzyme-molecule
complex places on it, atoms or small groups of atoms, where chemical bonding
A
can take place. Think of these locations as sticky spots somewhere on a
B
large, convoluted molecular shape. In order for two or more molecules
to interact, their respective sticky spots have to come into contact. More
Active site precisely, the atoms whose electrons will eventually form the bonds must
Enzyme is recycled
be brought close enough together for the electrons to interact. This
proximity is unlikely to happen at random.
Imagine each molecule as a large pile of string that is dumped in the
corner of a room, and think of the spots that could form chemical bonds
as patches of glue located at random places along the string. If you took
Molecule two such pieces of string and tossed them together in the corner, the
modification chances are very slight that any of the sticky spots would come near each
Product C other. If, on the other hand, you picked up the strings and arranged
• Figure 22-5 An enzyme in action them so that the sticky spots were next to each other, you could make
joins two molecules (designated A sure that they formed a bond. In this “chemical reaction,” you are playing the role of the
and B) and produces a product (C). enzyme. You cause bonds to form that probably wouldn’t form without you, but you do
The product is released, and the
not become a part of the bond.
enzyme is free to repeat the process.
Enzymes perform an analogous function in organic reactions. Typically, an enzyme
is a large molecule that has particular spots on its surface into which reacting molecules
will just fit (Figure 22-6). The enzyme attracts first one of the molecules and then the
other. In some enzymes, two specific molecules attach themselves in only one way, so it
is guaranteed that their “sticky spots” will be near each other. The chemical bonds that
hold them together will form. Once the bonds have formed, the overall shape of the
resulting composite molecule suddenly becomes different from that of either of the two
molecules that went into it. Consequently, the new large molecule no longer fits into the
appropriate grooves and alleys of the enzyme, and it spontaneously breaks free and wan-
ders off by itself. This separation leaves the enzyme free to mediate the same reaction
again, each time with two new pieces. Another kind of enzyme, like those in your stom-
ach, performs the opposite function, breaking apart large molecules into smaller units
over and over again.
If you think about the way an enzyme works, you’ll realize why molecular shape is
so important. The ridges and grooves on the surface of an enzyme serve as resting places
for the molecules that interact on the enzyme’s surface. Tens of thousands of different
protein molecules, each of which adopts a different shape and therefore provides a rest-
ing place for different interacting molecules, are ideally suited to function in this way.
For precisely this reason, proteins participate in most of the chemical reactions in living
organisms.
Courtesy T.A. Steitz, Department of Molecular Biophysics

and Biochemistry, Yale University
• Figure 22-6 A computer-

generated image of an enzyme in
action. (a) A glucose molecule
approaches the enzyme hexokinase.
(b) When the two molecules com-
bine, the shape and function of
the enzyme change. (a) (b)
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 475
Enzymes mediate the reactions of complex molecules in living systems. Thus the
molecules that act as enzymes in living systems play a crucial role in determining the
properties of those systems.
Stop and Think! The relationship between an enzyme and the molecules
that it reacts with is sometimes compared to a “lock and key” mechanism.
What do you think is meant by this statement, and in what ways does it
apply to enzymes?
Proteins and Diet

1.2
Because proteins play such an impor-
tant role in living systems, the cells in Hen’s eggs Cornmeal
your body need a constant supply of all 1.0
20 amino acids. In adults, 12 of the 20
Grams per 100 grams
amino acids are synthesized in the body. 0.8

The other eight, the so-called essential
amino acids, have to be taken into the 0.6
body in the proteins and other foods
that we eat. Because amino acids, unlike
0.4
fat, cannot be stored for long periods by
the body, the essential amino acids have
to be present in every meal in roughly 0.2
the proportion in which they occur in
the body’s own proteins. 0
e e ine ne e e n ine
Foods vary widely in their total pro- cin cin Lys oni nin nin pha Val
leu Leu thi lala reo pto
Iso M e e n y T h T r y
tein content, from about 1% in bananas Ph
and carrots to almost 30% in peanuts Amino acids
and some cheese. Foods that supply • Figure 22-7 Proportions of essen-
amino acids in roughly the same proportion as those in human proteins are called high- tial amino acids in egg and cornmeal.
quality proteins, while those that supply too little of one or more amino acid are called The amino acid proportions for egg
low-quality proteins. In general, meat and dairy products supply high-quality proteins, are close to those in the human body,
whereas the cornmeal contains too
while plant products supply low-quality proteins.
little of the amino acids lysine,
In Figure 22-7, we make this point by comparing the amount of each of the eight methionine, and tryptophan.
essential amino acids found in eggs (the food whose amino acids most closely match
human protein proportions) and cornmeal. You should note, however, that it is not nec-
essary for each food we eat, in and of itself, to supply all essential amino acids. It’s possible
to plan meals so that amino acids from one food make up for deficiencies of that amino
acid in the other. Many traditional meals have this property. Milk, for example, provides • Figure 22-8 A mixture of tofu,
the lysine that breakfast cereal lacks. The American staple, the peanut butter and jelly sand- spinach, and rice provides a balanced
wich, provides the same kind of matching proteins. In fact, many traditional foods from vegetarian diet with all eight of the
around the world do pretty well in supplying complementary sources of amino essential amino acids.
Jupiterimages/Getty Images, Inc.

acids (Figure 22-8). Some examples: corn tortillas and beans (Mexico), rice and
tofu (Japan), and rice and groundnuts (West Africa). Because of the fact that
plants provide low-quality protein, however, individuals on vegetarian diets must
plan their food intake carefully to compensate for possible protein deficiencies.
By the way, have you ever wondered why we cook meats and other foods?
High temperatures quickly depolymerize proteins (see Chapter 10), thus
transforming long polymer chains into individual amino acid molecules. This
chemical reaction breaks down tough protein fibers so foods are more tender
and easily digested. At the same time, any potentially harmful bacteria are
killed when their proteins are destroyed. •
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 476
H OW D RUGS WORK •
Many of the drugs we take produce their effect because of the shape of their molecules.
Some drugs, for example, alter our body chemistry by blocking the action of enzymes.
You can understand how such a drug might work by looking at Figure 22-5. The effi-
ciency of the enzyme depends on the fact that the shape of its surface matches the shape
of the molecules involved in the reaction. A drug molecule that attached itself to one of
those crucial sites on the enzyme would block that site, preventing one of the molecules
involved in the original reaction from occupying it. As a result, the enzyme would not be
able to facilitate the reaction as it normally does, and the chemical balance of the cell
would be changed. When you take an aspirin, for example, you are blocking the action
of an enzyme that facilitates the production of molecules called prostaglandins. These
molecules, among other things, affect the transmission of nerve signals.
Other drugs work in similar ways on other cellular processes. We saw in Chapter 21,
for example, that part of the process of moving materials in and out of a cell across the
cell membrane involves the fit between the molecules being moved and the specialized
proteins, called receptors, in the membrane. A drug that attaches to the receptor or to
the material that is being brought in or out of the cell will block this match and alter the
traffic in and out of the cell. Similarly, in Chapter 5, we noted that nerve impulses are
transmitted from one nerve cell to the next by special molecules called neurotransmit-
ters. These molecules are shaped so that they fit into specific sites on the “downstream”
nerve cell. Many drugs, including alcohol and Valium, gain their effect because they
have the right shape to bind to the synapses and alter their operation.
As our understanding of the geometry of organic molecules has increased, scientists
are increasingly able to produce molecules with the right shape from scratch. Products
made in this way have been nicknamed “designer drugs” (you’ll learn more about them
in Chapter 24). One such drug, called captopril, has been in use since 1975. This drug
blocks the action of an enzyme that produces molecules that contribute to hypertension,
and so is used to control that condition. Designer drugs for treating psoriasis, glaucoma,
AIDS, and some forms of cancer and arthritis are in advanced stages of testing and may
be on the market soon.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, the second important class of modular molecules found in all living
things, are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They play a central role in the
way that living things acquire and use energy, and they form many of the solid structures
of living things. You use carbohydrates every day in many of the foods you eat, the fuels
you burn, the clothes you wear, and even the paper of this book.
The simplest carbohydrates are sugars, molecules that usually contain five, six, or seven
carbon atoms arranged in a ring-like structure. Glucose, an important sugar in the energy
cycle of living things, is sketched in Figure 22-9. Glucose figures prominently in the
energy metabolism of every living cell; it supplies the energy that we use to move and grow.
The general chemical formula for sugar is CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n. Glucose, for
Glucose
example, has the formula C6H12O6. As often happens with organic molecules, other
CH2OH
forms of the molecule have the same chemical composition but have the component
H C O H arranged differently. In Figure 22-10, for example, we show the sugar fructose. As the
H name implies, this sugar is commonly found in fruit. It has the same number of carbon,
C C
OH H hydrogen, and oxygen atoms as glucose, but the atoms are arranged slightly differently,
HO C C OH and this different arrangement gives fructose a different chemical behavior.
H OH Chemists call individual sugar molecules monosaccharides, meaning “one sugar.”
• Figure 22-9 The structure of (The same root word is used when an overly sentimental story is described as “saccha-
glucose has six carbon atoms, six rine.”) The carbohydrates that we eat, however, are usually formed from two or more
oxygen atoms and twelve sugar molecules. Ordinary table sugar, for example, is made from two sugars, glucose
hydrogen atoms. and fructose, linked together by covalent bonds.
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 477
Carbohydrates | 477
When many sugars are strung together in a chain, the resulting molecule is called a Fructose
polysaccharide (“many sugars”). The two most familiar polysaccharides are cellulose and HOH2C
O
CH2OH
starch. Both of these kinds of molecules are made from long chains of glucose mole-
C H HO C
cules. They differ from each other only in the details of the way the glucose molecules OH
bind to each other (Figure 22-11). H C C
Starches, a common component of the human diet, are a large family of molecules in OH H
which the glucose constituents link together at certain points along the ring. Starches • Figure 22-10 The structure of
are found in many plants, such as potatoes and corn (Figure 22-11d). Animals also form fructose. It has the same number and
a glucose polymer, called glycogen or animal starch, which is stored in the liver and in kinds of atoms as glucose but in a
muscle tissues. Humans break down starch molecules with an enzyme in the digestive different arrangement.
system, thus releasing individual glucose molecules, which provide the fundamental
energy fuel used by cells.
Cellulose, a long, stringy polymer that provides the main structural element in
plants (Figure 22-11e), from stems and leaves to the trunks of trees, also forms from
glucose molecules. Because the glucose molecules are linked in a different way, how-
ever, human beings cannot digest cellulose. We do not manufacture an enzyme that can
• Figure 22-11 (a) An individual glucose molecule has six carbon atoms as numbered.
These molecules can be linked into polymers such as (b) starch and (c) cellulose, which dif-
fer in the way that glucose molecules are linked together. (d) Potatoes, shown here with the
potato plant roots, are formed from starch. (e) The cellulose fibers that hold these plants up
are made from glucose.
Dream Stock/Masterfile
Glucose
HO
4 6
O
HO 5
HO 2
3 1
OH
OH
(a)
HO
O
O
HO HO
OH O
O
HO HO
OH (d)
O
O Walter Bibikow/Getty Images
HO
OH
O
(b) Starch
HO
O HO
O
O HO
HO O
OH O
HO O
OH
HO O
OH
(c) Cellulose (e)

c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 478
separate individual glucose molecules from the cellulose polymer. Consequently,

humans don’t go out and graze on the lawn at lunchtime, though people on diets often
eat celery and other “roughage” or “fiber.” On the other hand, cellulose can be
digested and broken down by many bacteria. Cows, for example, have bacteria in their
stomachs that perform this function for them, as do wood-eating termites.
Stop and Think! Why do long-distance runners often load up on

carbohydrates before a race?
The wood fibers in the paper on this page are made from glucose molecules bonded into
cellulose, basically the same chemical as in the stalk of a celery stick. The same glucose
molecules, bonded in a different way, form the flour in the spaghetti you ate the last
time you had a pasta dinner. An amazing diversity can be built into organic molecules
through modular construction.
Lipids
Lipids encompass a grab bag of vital organic molecules that go into making up every
living thing. Lipids include a variety of molecules that will not dissolve in water,
including fats in food, waxes in candles, greases for lubrication, and a wide variety of
oils (Figure 22-12). If you think of drops of oil or bits of fat floating around on top
Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, Inc.
of a pot of soup, you have a pretty good picture of what large clumps of lipid molecules
are like.
At the molecular level, lipids play two important roles in living things. First, they
form cell membranes that separate living material from its environment, as well as sepa-
rate one part of a cell from other parts. They are also used to store energy. In fact, in the
human body excess weight is usually carried in the form of fat, which is a different kind
of lipid from those in cell membranes. Lipids are extremely efficient storehouses for
energy. A typical gram of fat, for example, contains twice as many calories as a gram of
either protein or carbohydrate.
Like proteins and carbohydrates, numerous lipid molecules can come together to
form large modular structures in every cell. An important class of these molecules,
called phospholipids, are long and thin with a carbon backbone, as shown in Figure 22-13.
In phospholipids, a phosphate group (one phosphorus and four oxygen atoms) is incor-
porated into one end of the molecule. The oxygen atoms in this group tend to be nega-
tively charged, so that this end of the molecule is attracted to water (we say it is
hydrophilic). The other end of the molecule, however, is repelled by water (we say it is
hydrophobic). These particular types of lipids play an extremely important role in liv-
ing systems because, as we shall see, they are the materials from which cell membranes
are made.
• Figure 22-12 Lipids and water
do not easily mix. Here a test tube
contains paraffin, which floats on top SATURATED AND U NSATURATED FATS •
of the denser layer of cooking oil,
which floats on top of the even Every carbon atom in a lipid chain forms exactly four bonds to neighboring atoms
denser layer of water. (see Chapter 10) as illustrated in Figure 22-14a. In a straight chain, each carbon
atom bonds to two adjacent carbon atoms along the chain and two hydrogen atoms
on the sides. Carbon atoms of this type are saturated—fully bonded to four other
atoms.
In some lipids, adjacent carbon atoms will have only three neighbors, including
two carbon and one hydrogen atoms. An angled “double bond” will thus form
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 479
Lipids | 479
Phosphate group
(hydrophilic end) Hydrophobic end
O–
R O P O CH2 CH 3
CH 2
H 2
CH 2
H2 C
O H 2C
O C H 2C
H2
CHC
H C O C CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
H C O C CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
H
• Figure 22-13 A phospholipid molecule, showing the negatively charged phosphate group
at one end, and ordinary hydrocarbon chains at the other. The end with the phosphate group
is attracted to water, and the hydrocarbon end is repelled by it. Different collections of molecules
in the group labeled “R” correspond to different kinds of phospholipids. • Figure 22-14 (a) Lipid molecules
with saturated, monounsaturated
(with just one carbon-carbon double
between the two carbon atoms. A chain with one double bond is monounsaturated, bond), and polyunsaturated forms,
while two or more double bonds yield a polyunsaturated lipid. showing the resulting kinks. (b) Lard,
Saturated fats in the diet provide the raw materials from which the body can synthe- which is derived from hogs and other
animals, is primarily saturated fat. (c)
size cholesterol, an essential component of all cell membranes. Unfortunately, high levels
Vegetable oils contain a high per-
centage of unsaturated fats.
Saturated
Stearic acid O
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 C
OH
CH CH
CH2 CH2
Helen Rogers/Alamy
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 Monosaturated CH2
Oleic acid
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 (b)
CH2 CH2 O
CH3
C
OH
Mediablitzimages (uk) Limited/Alamy

CH3
CH2 Polyunsaturated
Linoleic acid
CH2
CH2 CH CH
CH2 CH2 CH2
CH CH CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 O
OH
(a) (c)
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 480

John Barr/Getty Images News and Sport Services
of cholesterol in the blood can also lead to fatty deposits that
clog arteries. For these reasons, many food producers
emphasize their use of cholesterol-free foods, rich in polyun-
saturated fats. Advertising often suggests that unsaturated
foods are “good for you.”
Be warned, however. Many of these polyunsaturated
products require a further processing step, called hydrogenation,
to give them a pleasing texture and consistency. Popular
chocolate candies, for example, must be made from fats and
oils that soften near body temperature. Hydrogenation—the
addition of hydrogen atoms back into the carbon chains—
eliminates carbon–carbon double bonds. Each added hydrogen
atom pulls one of the carbon bonds apart and thus partially
saturates the lipid chains. Many popular cooking oils that begin
with highly unsaturated lipids are “partially hydrogenated
for freshness and consistency” at the manufacturing plant, a
• Figure 22-15 Potato chips process that undoes the good of the unsaturated bonds.
made with ”no-fat fat.”
TECHNOLOGY •
Nonfattening Fats
For most of human history, energy-rich fat was a rare delicacy, something enjoyed only
occasionally by most people. Consequently, we acquired a taste for fat that remains with
us today in our more affluent situation. A taste for fat combined with widespread avail-
ability has led to a serious problem with excess weight in the United States.
Until recently, there was little that people could do to keep their weight down
except to reduce their food intake and exercise regularly. Now, however, new abilities in
molecular technology have added a third option—we can eat foods that taste like fat,
but that cannot be digested, and hence supply the body with no energy.
• Figure 22-16 The structure of a The first “no-fat fat” was approved for use in 1995 under the trade name Olestra
lipid bilayer. The hydrophobic ends
of the molecules face each other,
(Figure 22-15). One ordinary fat found in foods consists of three long-chain molecules
while the hydrophilic ends are in the connected to a small alcohol molecule. The whole thing looks something like a capital Y,
surrounding water. with the alcohol molecule at the center. In the intestines, specialized
molecules from the digestive system attach to the alcohol and break off
R
– the “legs,” which are then broken down further by other molecules.
O P O
O
Olestra is shaped very similarly, except that it has eight chains attached
HCH H to the alcohol instead of three. Because of the extra chains, enzymes in
HC CH your digestive system can’t get at the alcohol and the Olestra passes
O O undigested through the human body. It tastes like fat but adds no
C O C O
calories. Manufacturing specialized molecules like this to use in the
HCH HCH
human diet will be a growth industry in the future. •
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
C ELL M EMBRANES •
HCH HCH The most important single function of lipids in our bodies is the for-
HCH HCH mation of cell membranes, the structure that separates the inside of
HCH HCH
CH
every cell from its environment. Phospholipids, with their hydropho-
HCH
CH bic and hydrophilic ends, perform this function because, when placed
HCH
HCH
HCH
in water, these molecules typically adopt a double-layered structure
HCH
HCH like the one shown in Figure 22-16. The hydrophobic ends of the
HCH
HCH HCH molecule line up facing each other, while the hydrophilic ends face to
HCH HCH the outside. In this way, water is kept away from the hydrophobic
HCH HCH ends and nearer the hydrophilic ends. A double-layered structure of
HCH HCH
molecules like this functions very well as a membrane of a cell. It is
H H
flexible and can change its shape, but it also provides a tough barrier.
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 481
Minerals and Vitamins | 481
Special protein receptors are required in order for anything to elbow its way through
the bimolecular layer.
The structure of the lipid bilayers that make cell membranes is remarkably similar to
liquid crystals (see Chapter 10). Like molecules in a liquid crystal, the lipid molecules
are ordered in their orientation and spacing, but they are somewhat disordered in their
exact positions side-to-side. This loose structure provides an important measure of flex-
ibility to cell membranes.
One way to visualize the cell membrane is to think of a technique that’s often used
in moderate climates to protect swimming pools from freezing in the winter. Instead of
draining water from the pool, an expensive and time-consuming operation, owners sim-
ply throw a large number of Styrofoam balls into the pool. These balls float next to each
other. They cover the water, constantly touching, but also constantly jostling and mov-
ing around. They lift up and down when waves move across the water, but the covering
retains its integrity. In the same way, cell membranes are made up of molecules stacked
or arranged next to each other. These molecules can change shape and move around
according to the dictates of their environment, but they retain their integrity and do not
rupture. Thus they perform the function of separating a cell from its environment.
Minerals and Vitamins

Though most of our body is made and operates with proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
and nucleic acids (see Chapter 23), other chemicals are also vital to life. These essential
chemicals include the familiar minerals and vitamins that must form part of our diet
(Figure 22-17).
M INERALS •
Minerals, in a nutritional context, include all chemical elements in our food other than
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The most abundant mineral in our bodies is
calcium, which is concentrated in bones and teeth and comprises almost 2% of our total
weight. Even though bones appear to be solid, permanent structures, your calcium is
constantly being replenished. In many women over 30 the rate of calcium uptake may
lag behind calcium loss, which is a major cause of bone disease and injury.
Cellular fluids require small amounts of the elements potassium, chlorine, sodium, • Figure 22-17 A multitude of
and magnesium to maintain proper body acidity and control electrical charges in nerve different vitamin and mineral
processes. A grab bag of minor or trace elements, from supplements are now available.
Masterfile
iodine in the thyroid gland to iron in the blood, are also
involved in the body’s chemistry.
Every few years the National Research Council pub-
lishes a list of Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA,
sometimes referred to as Recommended Daily Allowances)
for minerals (see Table 22-2). These values are gradually
being replaced by new Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI),
which differ from earlier values. Calcium DRIs, for exam-
ple, are significantly greater for most men and women than
the earlier recommendations, while phosphorus DRIs are
significantly less.
VITAMINS •
Biologists have discovered a host of complex organic mole-
cules that, in small quantities, play an essential role in good
health. These chemicals, though unrelated to each other in
any chemical or physiological sense, are known collectively
as vitamins. They are generally designated by a letter, such
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 482
Table 22-2 Selected Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs and DRIs) for Mineralsa
Weight Height Ca P Fe Mg Zn I Se
b
Gender Age kg lb cm ft′in′′ (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg ) (mgb )
Both 0–0.5 6 13 60 2′ 210 100 6 30 5 40 10
0.5–1 9 20 71 2′4′′ 270 275 10 75 5 50 15
1–3 13 29 90 2′11′′ 500 460 10 80 10 70 20
Men 15–18 66 145 176 5′9′′ 1300 1250 12 410 15 150 50
19–24 72 160 177 5′10′′ 1000 700 10 420 15 150 70
25–50 79 174 176 5′10′′ 1000 700 10 420 15 150 70
51 77 170 173 5′8′′ 1200 700 10 420 15 150 70
Women 15–18 55 120 163 5′4′′ 1300 1250 15 360 12 150 50
19–24 58 128 164 5′5′′ 1000 700 15 310 12 150 55
25–50 63 138 163 5′4′′ 1000 700 15 320 12 150 55
51 65 143 160 5′3′′ 1200 700 10 320 12 150 55
– Pregnant 1000 700 30 320 15 175 65
– Lactating (First 6 months) 1000 700 15 320 19 200 75
– Lactating (Second 6 months) 1000 700 15 320 16 200 75
a
Condensed version of Recommendations by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council. For up-to-date information
visit their website: http://www4.nationalacademies.org/IOM/IOMHome.nsf/Pages/FoodandNutritionBoard.
b
1mg (one microgram) 10–6 g 103 mg.
as vitamin A. For historical reasons, a number of different vitamins were grouped

together under vitamin B and have been given a series of numbers such as B1 (thiamine)
and B2 (riboflavin).
With one exception, vitamins are not made in the body and must be taken in with
our food. The exception, vitamin D, can be produced in the body through the action of
ultraviolet radiation on the skin. However, in most parts of the world exposure to sun-
light is normally too low to produce enough vitamin D. Thus, as a practical matter, all
vitamins must be taken in as part of the diet.
The vitamins in the B category, along with vitamin C, are water-soluble vitamins. As
the name implies, these vitamins dissolve in water and hence are not retained by the
body. The supply of water-soluble vitamins must be renewed daily. Vitamins A, D, E,
and K, however, are fat-soluble vitamins. They can be stored in the body (in the liver, for
example). In some cases, taking in too much of a fat-soluble vitamin can have unwanted
or even harmful consequences. Too much vitamin D, for example, can lead to calcium
deposits forming in the heart and kidneys, and too much vitamin A can be seriously
• Figure 22-18 Citrus fruits are toxic. (Too much beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, can even turn your skin
an important source of vitamin C in orange, but only temporarily.)
our diets. Vitamins serve a wide variety of functions in the body. Many of
them assist enzymes in mediating the body’s chemical reactions. In
fact, most vitamins were discovered through the study of diseases
that are caused by a chemical deficiency. The disease scurvy, for exam-
ple, causes degeneration of tissues when the body fails to obtain
enough vitamin C, a chemical abundant in citrus fruits (Figure 22-18).
Scurvy was particularly common among sailors on long ocean voy-
ages until the connection between diet and disease was made. Subse-
quently, sailors on British naval vessels were fed a regular diet of
limes (hence the nickname “limeys”). Similarly, the bone disease
rickets results from a deficiency of vitamin D. The modern diet with
vitamin-enriched foods and vitamin supplements can virtually elimi-
nate these deficiency diseases. As with minerals, the National
Research Council publishes DRIs for vitamins. The DRIs for some
PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images vitamins are shown in Table 22-3.
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 483
Minerals and Vitamins | 483
Table 22-3 Selected Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs and DRIs) for Vitaminsa
Fat-Soluble Vitamins Water-Soluble Vitamins
Fola- Niacin Ribo- Thia-
Weight Height
A D E (mg) cin (mg) flavin mine B6 B12 C
Gender Age kg lb cm ft′ in′′ (REb) (mgc) (a-TEd) (mgc) NEe (mg) (mg) (mg) (mgc) (mg)
Both 0–0.5 6 13 60 2′ 375 5 3 25 5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 30
0.5–1 9 20 71 2′4′′ 375 5 4 35 6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 35
1–3 13 29 90 2′11′′ 400 5 6 50 9 0.8 0.7 1.0 0.7 40
Men 15–18 66 145 176 5′9′′ 1000 5 10 200 20 1.8 1.5 2.0 2.0 60 f
19–24 72 160 177 5′10′′ 1000 5 10 200 19 1.7 1.5 2.0 2.0 60
25–50 79 174 176 5′10′′ 1000 5 10 200 19 1.7 1.5 2.0 2.0 60
51 77 170 173 5′8′′ 1000 10 10 200 15 1.4 1.2 2.0 2.0 60
Women 15–18 55 120 163 5′4′′ 800 5 8 180 15 1.3 1.1 1.5 2.0 60
19–24 58 128 164 5′5′′ 800 5 8 180 15 1.3 1.1 1.6 2.0 60
25–50 63 138 163 5′4′′ 800 5 8 180 15 1.3 1.1 1.6 2.0 60
51 65 143 160 5′3′′ 800 10 8 80 13 1.2 1.0 1.6 2.0 60
– Pregnant 800 5 10 400 17 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.2 70
– Lactating (First 6 months) 1300 5 12 280 20 1.8 1.6 2.1 2.6 95
– Lactating (Second 6 months) 1300 5 11 260 20 1.7 1.6 2.1 2.6 90
a
Published in 1989; vitamin D values revised in 1997. For up-to-date information visit their website:
http://www4.nationalacademies.org/IOM/IOMHome.nsf/Pages/FoodandNutritionBoard.
b
RE represents the number of retinol equivalents.
c
m (one microgram) 10–6 g 10–3 mg.
d
a-TE represents the number of a-tocopherol equivalents.
e
NE represents the number of niacin equivalents.
f
These represent recommended RDAs for nonsmokers. The RDAs of vitamin C for smokers are 67% greater than those for nonsmokers.
Thinking More About The Molecules of Life
D IETARY FADS [1990]) showed that oat bran did not, in fact, lower cholesterol
levels. The oat bran industry, running at $54 million a year, col-
The realization that the functioning of the body depends on lapsed. Processing plants closed and people lost their jobs.
the foods we eat is an old one, and is bolstered by the under- Was this a reasonable response to the New England
standing that the cell’s basic structures are built from molecules Journal paper? Let’s look at the study that was reported and
brought in through the digestive system (see Appendix A). try to find out. The study took 20 people, all healthy hospi-
This understanding, coupled with the current preoccupation tal employees of ages 23 to 49 with low cholesterol levels,
with health and fitness in the United States, leads occasionally and tested them on diets with high-fiber oat bran and low-
to fads in which one food or another is touted as a new cure-all. fiber foods for six-week periods. The result? The mean cho-
It’s hard to get enough information to analyze a fad while it’s lesterol levels of the subjects was 172 28 milligrams per
in full swing, but studies of fads after the fact can teach us a lot deciliter on the low-fiber diet, and 172 25 on oat bran.
about them. The rise and fall of oat bran is a particularly (Physicians usually start to worry when your cholesterol
enlightening case. level gets to the neighborhood of 220.) This inconclusive
In the mid-1980s, people began to understand that high result, based on 20 healthy people, provided the basis for
levels of cholesterol in the blood were correlated to the inci- the headlines.
dence of heart disease. Studies available at the time indicated Does this study tell you anything about what would
that the inclusion of fiber in the diet, particularly oat bran, happen if someone with high cholesterol went on an oat
helped lower blood cholesterol levels. Oat bran became a fad bran diet? How representative of the entire population are
food, and for a time it was virtually impossible for stores to 20 healthy hospital employees in Boston? Given the spread
keep it in stock. of cholesterol levels in the group, could the actual levels
Then, in 1990, newspaper headlines blared that a study in have gone down (or up) without the researchers being able
the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine (vol. 322: 147 to detect it?
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 484
What constitutes a healthy diet? • Essential nutrients are those compounds that the body cannot
synthesize and therefore must be obtained through the diet.
• A sound nutritional plan is one that provides all known essential
Essential nutrients can be divided into two main categories:
nutrients, dietary fiber, water, and the appropriate amount of
macronutrients and micronutrients.
energy (i.e., calories) for the individual’s needs.
• The Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) determines an º Macronutrients, including amino acids, lipids, and carbohy-
drates, are needed in relatively large quantities in order to sup-
individual’s caloric/energy needs. The TDEE is equal to the
port metabolism. For humans, the essential macronutrients are
sum of the person’s resting metabolic rate (RMR), the thermic
proteins, lipids (i.e., fats), and carbohydrates.
effect of food (TEF), and the thermic effect of activity (TEA).
º Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts, and consist of
º RMR is the energy that your body burns at rest. It accounts trace elements (also known as minerals), and vitamins.
for 60–75% of the TDEE. RMR is correlated with lean body
• The consumption of a healthy diet is a challenge in both devel-
mass (e.g., muscle and bone). One of the reasons that men
oping and developed countries.
are able to lose weight more quickly than females is their
higher muscle mass and correspondingly higher RMR. º In developing countries, access to potable water and adequate
caloric intake is often an issue.
º TEF is energy required to digest, absorb, transport, metabo-
lize, and store food. TEF accounts for 10% of the TDEE. º In developed countries such as the United States, the com-
bination of sedentary lifestyles and the overconsumption of
º TEA is the energy that you “burn” via physical activity. In calorie-dense foods have led to the current obesity
sedentary individuals (i.e., people who accumulate less than
epidemic.
90 minutes of moderate exercise per week), TEA accounts for
15% of the TDEE. In active individuals, it may account for as
much as 25% of TDEE.
S UMMARY •
Organic molecules share the following characteristics: (1) they are based Carbohydrates provide an essential source of energy for all animals,
on carbon, (2) they usually form from only a few elements, (3) they and they provide much of the solid structure in the cellulose of
are generally modular structures (that is, no matter how large or com- plants.
plex they are, they are formed from a few simple building blocks), and Lipids, including fats and oils, are molecules that will not dis-
(4) their chemical function is largely determined by their geometrical solve in water. If the carbon atoms form single bonds, the lipid is said
shape. Three important types of biological molecules are proteins, to be saturated, whereas molecules on which adjacent carbon atoms
carbohydrates, and lipids. form double bonds are said to be unsaturated. All cell membranes
Proteins form from chains of amino acids to make many of the are constructed from bilayers of lipids, which are terminated by one
body’s physical structures, such as hair and muscle. Proteins in cells end that attracts water and the other end that repels water.
also function as enzymes, which are molecules that increase reaction In addition to the major nutrients proteins, carbohydrates, and
rates between other molecules but are, themselves, unaffected by the lipids, humans also require small amounts of other chemicals—
reaction. Proteins thus mediate many of life’s chemical reactions. minerals and vitamins—that perform specialized chemical functions
Carbohydrates are modular molecules built from sugars, which are in the body. The National Research Council publishes Dietary Refer-
relatively simple molecules built from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. ence Intakes for both minerals and vitamins.
K EY TERMS •
organic molecules enzymes sugars minerals
amino acids carbohydrates lipids vitamins
protein
D ISCOVERY L AB •
We know from our chapter that lipids are found in many of our foods many of the following items as you can, or similar food items: oil-
we eat. Fats, cholesterol, oils, and waxes are all lipids. Lipids contain based salad dressing, butter, cheddar cheese, cooked pork sausage,
about twice as many calories as carbohydrates and proteins in a gram- cooked chicken, corn chips, blueberry muffin, whole-grain bread,
for-gram comparison. They help comprise cell membranes and are raisins, banana, apple, red pepper, and peanut butter. In addition,
sometimes stored as fat for the body’s potential energy use. obtain a paper grocery bag, scissors and a ballpoint pen.
This experiment allows you to observe the greasy, oily effect of Open the grocery bag, trim a huge rectangular shape, and lay it
some lipids in everyday food items you may be consuming. Gather as down flat on a table. Next, take about a tablespoon of each food
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 485
item you gathered and smash it down into a spoon-sized area of the traveled from the original marking. Which foods demonstrated hav-
grocery bag, leaving about two inches between each sample. Iden- ing more fat or lipid content? What effect can too many lipids have
tify the sample below each one. Mark the perimeter around each on your circulatory system? What are LDLs and HDLs and which
food sample with the ballpoint pen and wait four hours. Notice any can be dangerous? Investigate what these abbreviations mean to
greasy permeation around the food items and remark the distance your health.
Mark distance
grease traveled
Grocery
bag
Label each
sample
Potato chip
2 inches
2 inches
Distance between
samples
1. What is organic chemistry? What type of molecules do organic 12. What is the difference between cellulose and starch at the
chemists study? molecular level? Give examples of each substance.
2. What is the difference between an organic and inorganic molecule? 13. What is the relationship between cellulose and fiber?
Give an example of each. 14. What roles do lipids play in the human body?
3. What five elements comprise 99.5% of the human body? 15. How does the structure of cell membranes enable them to
4. What is meant by the term modularity? Why is modularity an carry out their functions?
integral feature of organic chemistry? 16. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
5. What is an enzyme? How does it work? Are enzymes destroyed Give examples of each.
in the chemical reactions in which they participate? 17. Why are minerals an important part of a balanced diet? Give
6. What is a protein? Why are proteins sometimes referred to as some examples of minerals and describe their functions.
polypeptides? 18. What are vitamins? Which are water soluble? Which are fat
7. What are some of the biological functions of proteins? soluble?
8. What is an amino acid? What groups of atoms are common to all 19. Which vitamin can be synthesized by the body via exposure to
amino acids? ultraviolet radiation? Does the application of sunblock affect this
9. How is a protein constructed from amino acids? process?
10. How are drugs able to affect chemical reactions in living things? 20. What is a DRI? How does it differ from an RDA?
11. What are the basic building blocks of carbohydrates?
c22.QXD 9/7/09 3:30 PM Page 486
1. There are several different forms of vegetarianism. Some people 6. What does it mean to say that the chemistry of life is based on
simply avoid red meat, but will eat fish and chicken. Others avoid all geometry?
meat, but will consume milk and eggs. Still others avoid all animal 7. Enzymes are sometimes unaffected by the reactions that they
products. What precautions would people in each group have to facilitate. How might this benefit living organisms?
take to assure that they had the proper supply of amino acids? 8. Should people be cautious before eating manufactured foods like
2. How is the modularity of organic molecules related to the com- Olestra? Why or why not?
plexity of life? 9. What is a trans fat? Are there health risks associated with trans
3. Look at a typical menu at your campus food service. Does it fatty acids? Give examples of foods that contain trans fats.
provide a balanced source of nutrition? If not, how would you 10. With respect to storage and bioavailability, what are the bene-
change it to do so? fits and dangers of lipid-soluble vitamins?
4. Regulations require that drugs meet certain advertising stan- 11. Why is the shape of an enzyme important?
dards. If a drug is claimed to stop hair loss or promote weight gain,
12. Why can horses and cattle survive by eating grass or hay, and
for example, there has to be evidence that the drug actually works.
humans cannot?
Should vitamin and mineral supplements have to meet the same
standard? Why or why not? 13. What category of organic molecules is wood made from? How
do termites digest wood?
5. Almost any table salt you buy in a store has iodine added to it.
Why do you suppose this is done?
P ROBLEMS •
1. How many different proteins can be formed from exactly 15 amino 2. Plot the values in Problem 1 on a graph of number of amino
acids? from 20 amino acids? acids versus the number of different proteins. Is the plot a straight
line? Why or why not?
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Read the nutritional information on a box of standard cereal and 6. How would you design an experiment to study the effectiveness
on one that claims to be “natural.” Which actually supplies more of of oat bran in reducing cholesterol?
the RDA of minerals and vitamins? 7. Investigate the relationship between health and cholesterol lev-
2. Make a detailed record of one week’s intake of food, vitamins, and els. Is it possible for your cholesterol level to be too low?
other supplements. Consult nutrition charts and determine the per- 8. Investigate how many amino acids must be supplied by the diet
centage by weight of protein, carbohydrate, fats, and other substances of various organisms for them to survive. How many amino acids do
that you consumed. What percentage of the fat you consumed was sat- humans need to consume? How many are manufactured in our body?
urated? What changes in your diet could reduce the total percentage of 9. Many animals manufacture vitamin C in their bodies. Which
fat consumed and lower the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat? common animals do not?
3. Read about a vitamin-deficiency disease. How was it discovered 10. Some athletes consume massive amounts of protein. Investi-
and how was it cured? gate exercise science journals and find the optimum amount of
4. Investigate dietary sources of vitamin C, and review how the complete protein that a 150-pound endurance athlete should con-
body uses this vitamin. Is there a difference between the vitamin C sume. Now compare that to how many grams per day a 200-pound
in freshly squeezed orange juice and in a vitamin C tablet? Some strength athlete should consume.
years ago the Nobel Prize–winning chemist Linus Pauling advo- 11. Investigate why many endurance athletes “carb load” before a
cated vitamin C as a defense against cancer. How did he justify race. How does the term hitting the wall relate to stored energy?
these claims? What was the response of the medical community? How long can an elite endurance athlete run before he or she runs
5. Visit a health food store in your community. Read the percent- out of stored energy?
ages of the RDA of various vitamin/mineral supplements. Given
what you know about the storage of vitamins and minerals, are
these pills safe?
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:34 PM Page 487
23
Classical and Modern Genetics
Why do offspring resemble their parents?
PHYSICS
Nuclear radiation
can damage DNA,
BIOLOGY causing mutations. CHEMISTRY
Genetic
Molecules of DNA
information is
and RNA carry the
passed from parents
genetic code and
to offspring when
produce proteins in
reproductive cells
the cell.
divide.
ENVIRONMENT
New methods of All living things use the Oxidizing

altering the genetic same genetic code to chemicals in the
code are used to environment may
develop new varieties guide the chemical cause an increase in
of plants and reactions in every the rate of genetic
animals. (Ch. 24) mutations.
cell.
TECHNOLOGY
The basic
materials from
Mineral-like
which genetic
combinations of iron
molecules are made
and sulfur atoms play
may have fallen to Earth
a role in the transfer
in meteorites soon
of energy to cells.
after the planet
formed. (Ch. 25)
The principles of
genetics have been
ASTRONOMY used to trace cases of
GEOLOGY
hereditary or genetic
diseases. (Ch. 24)

HEALTH & SAFETY
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:34 PM Page 488
Science Through the Day A Family Resemblance
t’s just about time to head back

I home after a great day in the sun.
You’ll have company during the drive,
because a friend has asked you to give
her brother a ride back to campus.
You’ve never met him before, but
there’s no mistaking the family rela-
tionship: the same wavy brown hair,
the same wide-set eyes, the same dis-
tinctive shape to the nose.
One of life’s most familiar charac-
teristics is the similarity of offspring to
their parents. Countless generations of
animal breeders have relied on this
fact, as have farmers who developed
more productive strains of crops. And
we see the same hereditary links in the
faces of our families and friends.
From penguins to potatoes to Peter Griffith/Masterfile
people, like begets like.
Classical Genetics
Genetics, the study of ways in which biological information is passed from one generation
to the next, was pioneered by an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel (1822–1884).
Perhaps more than any other prominent scientist, Mendel closely matches the popular
image of the lonely genius conducting exacting research in isolation. Working at the
monastery in Brno, in what is now the Czech Republic, Mendel began to ask the kinds of
questions we have been posing: Why do offspring resemble parents? And why do offspring
differ from parents?
Mendel attempted to answer these questions, as any good scientist should—that is,
by observing nature, doing experiments, and seeing what there was to see. In a series of
studies with pea plants in his monastery garden, he delineated the basic laws that govern
the inheritance of physical characteristics.
The technique that Mendel used is simple to describe, although it was difficult and
tedious to carry out. He cross-pollinated different varieties of peas. For example, he
would fertilize the flowers of purebred tall pea plants—plants that always produced tall
offspring—with the pollen from short ones, and then observe the characteristics of the
“children” and “grandchildren,” as shown in Figure 23-1. The offspring of two differ-
ent strains, such as tall and short pea plants, are called hybrids.
When Mendel made these observations, he found that there were remarkable regulari-
ties in the characteristics of the offspring. All offspring from the first generation of a
tall–short cross were tall. If these offspring were bred with each other, however, the results
were quite different. On average, three-fourths of second-generation offspring were tall,
while one-fourth reverted to being short. Thus, in hybridization, shortness disappears for
one generation, only to reappear in the next. Mendel observed the same kind of behavior in
half-a-dozen other pea plant traits: seed pod shape, flower color, and so on (Figure 23-2).
Mendel invented the “unit of inheritance,” what we now call the gene, to explain his
findings. He had no idea what a gene might be, or even whether it had a real physical exis-
tence. Today, as we shall see shortly, the gene can be identified as part of a long molecule of
DNA. For Mendel, however, the existence of DNA was unknown, and he deduced the pres-
ence of genes purely from mathematical analysis of how traits of his plants were inherited.
488
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Classical Genetics | 489
Stop and Think! In what ways were Mendel’s experiments with peas
similar to Galileo’s experiments with falling bodies?
In the simplest version of Mendelian or classical genetics, we assume

that every offspring receives two genes for every characteristic—one from the
father and one from the mother. In the experiment with pea plants, for
example, every offspring in every generation received a gene for height
(either tall or short) from its mother (the plant that provided an egg) and 1 Parent
Tall and dwarf
another gene for height from its father (the plant that provided the pollen). varieties are
Mendel concluded that pairs of genes determined every characteristic he cross-fertilized.
observed, and that the offspring may receive a different gene from the father
than from the mother. So, if two genes are present, which characteristic is Tall x Dwarf
actually seen in the offspring? In the language of modern geneticists, we
phrase the question by asking: Which gene is “expressed”?
Returning to our example of the pea plants, we recall that Mendel pro-
duced plants with both a gene for tallness and a gene for shortness in the first
generation. The fact that all of these first-generation plants were tall means
that, in all cases, the gene for tallness was expressed. Mendel stated this fact by 2 All the hybrid
progeny are tall.
saying that the gene for tallness is dominant. By this he meant that if an off-
spring receives a “tall gene” from one parent and a “short gene” from the
other, that offspring will be tall. In this situation, the short gene is said to be
recessive. The gene is present in the offspring, but it does not determine the
offspring’s physical characteristics; it is not expressed. That gene, however, can Tall
be passed along to subsequent generations. You should note that, in spite of
the name, “dominant” is not the same as “good” or “strong” in the world of
genes. Many fatal genetic diseases are passed from generation to generation by
dominant genes.
Mendel’s experiment can be understood in very simple terms. In the 3 First Generation
first generation, every hybrid receives a tall gene and a short gene. Because The hybrid
the tall gene is dominant, all of the first generation of hybrid plants will be progeny are
self-fertilized.
tall. In the next generation, there are four possible gene combinations, as
shown in Table 23-1. Each plant in the second generation can receive either
a tall or a short gene from each of its parents. On average, the distribution Tall x Tall
of genes will be random so that we can argue as follows: In roughly one-
fourth of the cases, the offspring will receive a tall gene from its mother and
a tall gene from its father. In another
Erik Rank/Getty Images, Inc.
one-fourth of the cases, the offspring 4 Second Generation

will receive a short gene from its Tall and dwarf
plants appear
mother and a short gene from its among the
father. In the remaining half of these offspring of
the hybrids
cases, the offspring will receive a tall approximately
gene from its father and a short gene in a ratio of
3 tall : 1 dwarf.
from its mother, or vice versa.
Consequently, in the second gen-
787 Tall 277 Dwarf
eration approximately three out of
every four offspring will have at least • Figure 23-1 The parents, first,
and second generations of tall versus
one gene for tallness, and only one in
short pea plants. On average, the
four will have two genes for short- second generation shows a 3:1 ratio
ness. Given the fact that tallness is a of dominant traits. Three-fourths of
the plants, for example, will be tall
• Figure 23-2 Pea plants, which and one-fourth short.
possess varied traits such as height,
flower color, and seed pod texture,
were employed by Gregor Mendel in
studies of genetic inheritance.
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490 | C HAP TE R 23 | Classical and Modern Genetics
Table 23-1 Tall (T) versus Short (t) Hybrids

Father’s Genes
Tall Short
Mother’s genes: Tall TT Tt
Short tT tt
dominant characteristic, this distribution means that three of four offspring in the
second generation will be tall, while only one will be short. This situation is precisely
what Mendel observed.
Table 23-2 SsPp Matrix with

Resulting 9:3:3:1 Distribution
EXAMPLE 23-1
SP Sp sP sp B REEDI NG P EAS
SP SSPP SSPp SsPP SsPp You are given two purebred pea plants. One plant has smooth pea pods and purple flow-
Sp SSpP SSpp SspP Sspp ers (dominant traits). The other plant has wrinkled pea pods and white flowers (recessive
traits). These characteristics are expressed independently of each other. What distribution
sP sSPP sSPp ssPP ssPp
of characteristics would you expect in the first generation of plants bred from these two
sp sSpP sSpp sspP sspp parent plants? What distribution of traits would you see in the second generation?
1 SSPP 2 SSPp 2 SsPP
Reasoning: Every plant in the first generation of offspring receives dominant genes for a
4 SsPp 1 SSpp 2 Sspp smooth pea pod (S) and purple flower (P) from one parent, and recessive genes for a
1 ssPP 2 ssPp 1 sspp wrinkled pod (s) and white flower (p) from the other. Every plant in the first generation,
Smooth⫹Purple ⫽ 9 therefore, has exactly the same gene combination, abbreviated SsPp. All of these plants
will appear with smooth pods and purple flowers because S and P are dominant.
Smooth⫹white ⫽ 3
The second generation, however, will display a mixture of traits. The easiest way to
wrinkled⫹Purple ⫽ 3 predict the distribution of these traits is to set up a matrix, similar to the one shown in
wrinkled⫹white ⫽ 1 Table 23-1. In this case, however, we must deal with four different genes in each parent
(SsPp), so the matrix must be 4⫻4, as shown in Table 23-2.
This table shows that there are 16 different possible combinations of the four genes.
On average, 9 out of every 16 plants will appear with smooth pods and purple flowers—
both dominant genes will be expressed. In addition, 3 of 16 on average will display wrin-
kled pods but purple flowers, and 3 of 16 will have white flowers but smooth pods.
Finally, only 1 in 16 of the second generation will display both recessive traits: white
flowers and wrinkled pea pods.
Mendel’s observation of this characteristic 9:3:3:1 distribution of second-generation
traits for two different genes was instrumental in his development of the genetic theory.
THE R ULES OF C LASSICAL G ENETICS •

Mendel’s research can be summarized by three rules that frame classical genetics.
• Rule 1. Physical characteristics or traits are passed from parents to offspring by some
unknown mechanism (we call it a gene).
• Rule 2. Each offspring has two genes for each trait, one gene from each parent.
• Rule 3. Some genes are dominant and some are recessive. When present together, the
trait of a dominant gene will be expressed in preference to the trait of a recessive gene.
The rules of classical genetics were deduced during the early twentieth century. Care-
ful records were kept on many kinds of organisms, from humans to cattle to agricultural
plants, and large lists of dominant and recessive genes were compiled. In human beings,
for example, dark hair and eye color are dominant over light, the ability to roll your
tongue is dominant over inability, and hairy toe knuckles are dominant over hairless.
Q UALITATIVE VERSUS Q UANTITATIVE G ENETICS •

In one sense, the qualitative aspects of Mendelian genetics have been understood for
many centuries. Early human societies knew, for example, that if you saved the largest
potatoes and planted them in the spring, the resulting crop would be better than if
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Ian Wood/Alamy
Alamy
(a) (b)
• Figure 23-3 Farmers have long used selective breeding to improve characteristics of
their crops, such as potatoes (a), and livestock, such as cattle (b).
you just planted potatoes at random (Figure 23-3). They also knew that if you had a
bull that gained weight rapidly and produced lots of meat, you should breed that bull
to as many cows as possible so some of the offspring would share the characteristics
of the father.
But Mendel’s careful statistical analysis of pea plant traits carried genetics beyond
the qualitative level. By discovering the distinctive 3:1 and 9:3:3:1 ratios of traits in
second-generation plants, Mendel was able to propose a predictive model of genetics—
a model that recognized the equal importance of both parents, and the distinction
between dominant and recessive traits. When Mendel’s rather obscure publications were
“discovered” at about the turn of the century, they provided a model that allowed
breeders to approach their work in a far more controlled and directed manner.
The traits of prize bulls and racehorses, for example, are carefully documented, as are
the pedigrees of their offspring. The success of plant and animal breeders in controlling the
flow of genes from one generation to the next is attested to by the appearance of cattle such
as Black Angus (which are little more than a rectangular block of beef on very short legs)
and the many varieties of vegetables and fruits that stock supermarket shelves.
Of equal importance, the laws of Mendelian genetics can now be used to trace cases of
hereditary or genetic disease, such as the many cases of families with cystic fibrosis, a disease
that affects approximately one in every 2000 Caucasian children in North America. Indi-
viduals with cystic fibrosis suffer from thick mucus deposits that obstruct the lungs, as well
as other abnormalities of the body’s chemistry. When both parents carry the recessive gene
for cystic fibrosis, their children have about a one-in-four chance of acquiring the disease.
Although we have chosen examples in which one physical characteristic is correlated
to one gene, most cases of inheritance are not this simple. Human height and skin color,
for example, are affected by the action of several genes, and nutrition as well as genetics
can influence height. Thus, while the principles of classical genetics have widespread
validity, the way that they work out in practice may be quite complex.
Mendel Lost and Found

Gregor Mendel conducted his famous research over an intense eight-year span, during
which he performed some 28,000 individual experiments. He published his results in 1866
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in the proceedings of the local natural history society, and he sent copies of his paper to
133 other scientific societies and dozens of other scientists. He also planned to continue
this line of research using other organisms, but his appointment as abbot of the
monastery led to many new responsibilities and eventual abandonment of his scientific
efforts. As so often happens in science, without Mendel’s own follow-up experiments
and active participation in the scientific community, his ideas were quickly forgotten.
A generation later, in the spring of 1900, Mendel’s work was finally rediscovered
when three European botanists, Karl Correns of Germany, Erich von Tschermak of
Austria, and Hugo de Vries of Holland, independently deduced Mendel’s laws and
subsequently found his earlier publication. Only then, a dozen years after his death, was
Mendel recognized as a scientific pioneer. •
Stop and Think! If Mendel’s work was forgotten and his findings had
to be rediscovered by other scientists a generation later, why do you
think he is revered as the founder of genetics? Were the independent
discoveries of Correns, von Tschermak, and de Vries of equal importance?
Why or why not?
DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics

The key to understanding Mendel’s genetic principles is molecular genetics, which is
the study of the mechanism that passes genetic information from parents to offspring
at the molecular level. In Chapter 22 we saw that cellular functions, the basic mechanisms
of all life, depend on chemical interactions between molecules. Chromosomes, the dis-
tinctive elongated structures that appear to divide just prior to cell division, became an
obvious focus for genetic study. Could these structures carry information and pass it
from one generation to the next? Studies of cell division by meiosis pointed strongly in
that direction. Recall that meiosis produces gametes—sex cells with half the usual num-
ber of chromosomes. Gametes from two parents are subsequently joined during sexual
reproduction to yield a full complement of chromosomes.
By the mid-twentieth century, biochemists analyzed chromosomes and showed that
they are made primarily of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid. The discovery of the nature and
function of nucleic acids has fundamentally transformed the study of biological systems
in the past three decades. Nucleic acids, so called because they were originally found in
the nucleus of cells, include DNA and RNA, the molecules that carry and interpret the
genetic code. These chemicals govern both the inheritance of physical traits by offspring
and the basic chemical operation of the cell. These extraordinary molecules conform to
the twin principles of modularity and geometry that are followed by all other organic
materials (see Chapter 22).
N UCLEOTIDES: THE B UILDING B LOCKS OF N UCLEIC ACIDS •

• Figure 23-4 Ribose and deoxyri- Proteins (chains of amino acids) and carbohydrates (clusters of sugar molecules) can
bose are 5-carbon sugars that differ form large structures from a single kind of building block. Nucleic acids, on the other
in the number of oxygen atoms. hand, are assembled from subunits that are themselves made from three dif-
ferent kinds of smaller molecules. The assemblage of three molecules is
H H
called a nucleotide, and nucleic acids are made by putting nucleotides
OH C H OH C H together in a long chain.
O OH O OH The first of the smaller molecules that go into an individual nucleotide
C H H C C H H C is a sugar. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose (thus giving DNA its complicated
H H H H
name, deoxyribonucleic acid), while in RNA (ribonucleic acid) the sugar is
C C C C ribose. Ribose is a common sugar containing five carbon atoms. Deoxyri-
OH OH OH H bose, as the name implies, is like ribose but is missing one oxygen atom
Ribose Deoxyribose (Figure 23-4).
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DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics | 493
The second small molecule of the nucleotide is the phosphate ion, which Phosphate
includes one phosphorus atom surrounded by four atoms of oxygen (we met the
O O–
phosphate group as a key component of ATP in Chapter 22).
P
Finally, each nucleotide incorporates one of four different kinds of molecules in H H
O– O N N H
DNA that are called bases. The four different base molecules are often abbreviated by a
CH2 O
single letter—A for adenine, G for guanine, C for cytosine, and T for thymine. N
A N
Each nucleotide combines the three basic building blocks: a sugar, a phosphate, and H H
N
a base (Figure 23-5). These three molecules bond together, with the sugar molecule in H H
H
the middle. Think of a nucleotide as something like a prefabricated wall in a house. Both
OH OH Base
DNA and RNA are made by linking nucleotides together in a specific way.
Sugar
• Figure 23-5 A nucleotide,
DNA STRUCTURE • formed by a sugar, base, and
phosphate group.
We can start putting DNA together by assembling a long strand of nucleotides. In this
strand, the alternating phosphate and sugar molecules form a long chain, and the base
molecules hang off the side. The whole thing looks like a half-ladder that has been sawn
vertically through the rungs.
DNA consists of two such strands of nucleotides joined Adenine pairs with thymine Guanine pairs with cytosine
together to form a complete “ladder.” The bases sticking out to H H
the side provide the natural points for joining the two single CH3 O H N N H O
N N
strands. As you can see from Figure 23-6, however, the distinc-
tive shapes of the four bases ensure that only certain pairs of N H N N N
N H N
bases can form hydrogen bonds. Adenine, for example, can N N N
form bonds with thymine but not with any of the other bases or O O H N
with itself. Similarly, cytosine can form a bond with guanine but H
not with itself, thymine, or adenine. Thymine Adenine Cytosine Guanine
As a consequence, there are only four possible rungs that can
exist in a DNA ladder. They are:
AT Hydrogen bonding
TA
P
CG S
The double helix of DNA
P T A S A = adenine
GC P
S C = cytosine
C G G = guanine
With the bonding of these base pairs, the complete DNA mole- S S T = thymine
G C P
cule is formed into a ladder-like double strand. Because of the S
S
details of the shape of the bases, each rung is twisted slightly with C G
S
P
P P and S represent the
respect to the one before it. The net result is that this ladder S
P
phosphate and sugar
comes to resemble a spiral staircase—a helical shape that gives P (deoxyribose) units of
S T A S the chain
DNA its common nickname, the double helix. P
G C S P
S
P S
RNA STRUCTURE • S
P
C G
S A S
T
P
RNA is built in a manner similar to DNA with three important dif- P
S
ferences. First, RNA is only half the ladder; that is, it consists of P
P
only one string of nucleotides put together. Second, the sugar in P S G C S
the RNA nucleotide is ribose instead of deoxyribose. And third, P S
C G
the base thymine is replaced by a different base, uracil, abbreviated S S
T A
U. The shape of uracil is such that, like thymine, it will bond to the S P
base adenine. As we shall see, the ability of uracil to bond to ade- S G C

S P
nine plays an important role in regulating chemical reactions in the P
S P
cell. Several different kinds of RNA operate in the cell at any given P P
time. All of them, however, have the same basic structure. S
C G S
P
S G C S
• Figure 23-6 The structure of DNA. AT and CG base-pair linkages
P
are shown above the DNA strand. The dotted lines are hydrogen
bonds (see Chapter 10).
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THE R EPLICATION OF DNA •

In Chapter 21, we described the processes by which cells divide. Prior to both mitosis
• Figure 23-7 DNA replication. A
DNA double helix may be split, thus
and meiosis, DNA in the chromosomes is copied. Thus DNA replication is one of the
exposing bases on both strands. Two first steps in passing genetic information from one generation to the next.
new identical double helices may DNA replication is possible because the geometry of the base pairs allows only cer-
then be formed from the original. tain kinds of bindings; that is, adenine (A) binds only to thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
P
binds only to guanine (G). No other pairings are allowed. When a cell is
S G C S about to divide, special enzymes move along the DNA double helix,
P
P
S
breaking the hydrogen bonds that link the bases—in effect, breaking the
S C G
P
“rungs of the ladder,” as shown in Figure 23-7. As a result, the two split
S T A S arms of the DNA ladder have exposed bases.
P P
S G Consider, just for the sake of argument, an adenine (A) base that
P P is no longer locked into its partner on the other side of the double
S C G S
P
helix. In the fluid around the DNA are many nucleotides, some of
S T A S which contain an unattached thymine (T). With the aid of another
P
S
P enzyme, this thymine will bind to the exposed adenine in the original
S G C
P DNA strand.
S T A S In the same way, an exposed cytosine (C) will bind to a nucleotide
P
S
P containing guanine (G) from the fluid in the nucleus. No other type of
P P nucleotide can bind to that particular site.
S T A S The net result of these preferential bindings along a single strand of
P
S G C S exposed DNA is that the missing strand is reconstructed, base by base.
P
P The same thing happens in mirror image to the other half of the
C G S
S exposed DNA strand. Thus, once the DNA is unraveled, each strand
P T A
S
P
S replicates its missing partner. The end product is two double-stranded
P DNA molecules, each of which is identical to the original molecule
S T
P = phosphate
S = sugar P P (Figure 23-8).
S
P
S C G
P
As we saw in Chapter 21, when a cell divides by means of mitosis
S
S A
P P P S A T the genetic information contained in the DNA of one cell is passed on
P T S P P P P
P P P S T S to its daughters. Thus each daughter cell will have chromosomes
S S P P P A
P
T A identical to those of the parent. In meiosis, on the other hand, each
S
S C G S P P P
G daughter cell has only one chromosome, which differs from either of
P P
P P C S the pair of chromosomes in the original cell through shuffling of
S G C S P
P genetic material. When a sperm and an egg come together during fer-
P G S
S C GS
P
tilization, the resulting cell once again has a full set of chromosomes,
P
S
P S but now one chromosome in each pair comes from the father, the
P P
P
P other from the mother.
S T A S P
S T A S P The simple chemistry of the base pairs provides a mechanism for
S
G C
S
P S G C P reproducing DNA. This feature of DNA molecular structure accounts
S
P S P
C G
S for one of the striking facts about life—offspring do share many traits of
S C G S
P P
their parents. Ultimately, chemical binding of base pairs results in the
S S T A S
T A S inheritance of parental traits.
P P P P
S S
P P
P P
C G S S C G S
S P
P
T A S S T A S
S
Dr. Gopal Murti/Photo Researchers
P
P P P
S G C S S G C S
Key:
The double helix of DNA
A = adenine
C = cytosine
• Figure 23-8 Electron
G = guanine microscope image of the
DNA in a dividing human
T = thymine
cancer cell.
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The Genetic Code | 495
The Genetic Code
DNA carries all our genetic information; this molecule is, in effect, the book of life. But
how is the book read? How are the almost endless strings of DNA nucleotides translated
into flesh and blood? That is the role of RNA.
TRANSCRIPTION OF DNA •
In addition to replicating itself so that cell division can take place, DNA also supplies the
information that runs the chemistry within each individual cell. This process depends on
the fact that all cells are governed by protein enzymes that run chemical reactions (see
Chapter 22). Thus the question of how cell chemistry is regulated boils down to how the
information in DNA can be used to produce proteins. If we understand this step, then we
will understand how DNA governs the chemical functioning of every cell in our body.
DNA is a very large molecule. In eukaryotic cells it is found outside the nucleus only
in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Thus the first question we have to ask is how infor-
mation in the DNA gets out into the cell at large. The answer to this question involves a
process called transcription, which uses the other nucleic acid, RNA.
When it is time to fabricate a new protein to act as an enzyme in a cell, other
enzymes “unzip” a section of DNA as shown in Figure 23-9. Nucleotides of RNA that
are always floating in the nuclear material are then hooked, with the aid of enzymes,
onto the appropriate bases by a process exactly analogous to that which occurs in the
replication of DNA. Each of the exposed bases on the “unzipped” strand of DNA binds
to its appropriate nucleotide—A to U, C to G, and so forth. (Remember that in RNA,
the base uracil, U, substitutes for the thymine in DNA.) In this way, a short strand of
RNA is created that carries information from the original exposed strand of DNA. Think
of the RNA as being the “negative” of the true picture, which is the DNA.
Because it is relatively short and not connected to anything else, the RNA strand can
move out through tiny pores in the wall of the nucleus and into the cell at large. Thus
the function of this kind of RNA is to carry the information that was contained in the
central DNA molecule out into the region of the cell where chemical reactions are going
on. Because it carries a message, this kind of RNA (one of three important types in every
cell) is called messenger RNA, or mRNA for short.
THE SYNTHESIS OF P ROTEINS •

The exact sequence of base pairs on messenger RNA carries a coded message that con-
tains chemical instructions. Once the mRNA arrives at the place in the cell where pro-
teins are to be synthesized, it encounters a second type of RNA—a molecule called
transfer RNA, or tRNA for short. The job of tRNA is to read that coded message.
• Figure 23-10 Computer-generated
Transfer RNA, whose shape is shown in Figures 23-10 and 23-11, has a shape at one
model of tRNA. The triplet of bases is
shown in red, the spot that binds to
the amino acid (in this case, serine) is
• Figure 23-9 Transcription of DNA occurs when a segment of DNA is split and a single- shown in yellow.
stranded messenger RNA segment forms. The mRNA carries the same information that was
Ken Eward/Photo Researchers
on the original DNA segment.
5' Enzyme One strand
mRNA of DNA
U A G U A A U C G U U U C G A UUC G GA
being
U
3'
transcribed
U TC
G
A
A
U TC
U GC
C
G GT
T AT
G G
T AT T
T AT A
U C
G CG C
A
A
C
TA
AG
AA
G GC
C
A
C
A
C CA
TA
C
U TC
U AT
C
G G
A A
T AT
A A
C C
C
T AT C
G
CA
G
A
G
C
T
A
T
G
T
A
C
G
A
G
5'
T
T
T
CGATTCGGATTAGCGCTAGCTTAGCTTAGATCGA
Locally unwound segment of double helix

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mRNA end that attracts 1 of the 20 amino acids found in living things (see Chapter 22). At the
GCC other end is a small loop of molecules with three exposed bases on it. One of four dif-
CGG ferent bases can be found in each of the places on the top loop, so there are 64
tRNA (4 ⫻ 4⫻4) different kinds of tRNA molecules. Of these, 61 tRNA molecules attach to a
specific amino acid at its other end, while the remaining 3 act as “stop” signs, which end
Amino acids the construction of a protein.
Ala The sequence of bases along the mRNA is, as we have seen, a transcription of the
information contained in the sequence of bases along the original DNA. Messenger
• Figure 23-11 The interaction of
mRNA and tRNA. One end of a tRNA RNA in effect carries a coded message, spelled out in four letters: A, U, C, and G. Each
molecule is attached to bases in group of three exposed bases on the mRNA chain is like a word—a sequence of three
the mRNA, and the other end to a letters that will bind to one, and only one, of the sets of bases on 1 of the 64 tRNA mol-
specific amino acid. Enzymes hook ecules. If a segment along the mRNA reads G-C-C, for example, then the tRNA mole-
the amino acids together to form a cule that has C-G-G as its unpaired bases will bond to that particular spot as shown in
protein molecule. Figure 23-11.
The set of three bases on the mRNA, called a codon, determines which of the possi-
ble tRNA molecules will attach at that point. Each codon on the mRNA determines a
single amino acid, and the string of codons determines the sequence of amino acids—
what we have called the primary structure of the protein that is being assembled. This
connection between the codons and the amino acid they select is called the genetic
code, as detailed in Figure 23-12. All living things share this code.
• Figure 23-12 The genetic code matches every possible codon—every combination of
three RNA letters (A, C, G or U)—to one of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins, or to
a “stop” command. The first letter of the codon appears in the left-hand column, the second
letter along the top, and third letter in the right-hand column.
1st letter THE GENETIC CODE
2nd Examples of tRNAs
U C A G letter
Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine U

cys
Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine C
U
Leucine Serine stop stop A Cod
o
UGC n:
Leucine Serine stop Tryptophan G AC G
Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine U
Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine C

C
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine A
his
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine G
Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine U Cod

on
CAC :
Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine C
GU G
A
Isoleucine Threonine Lysine Arginine A
(start) Methionine Threonine Lysine Arginine G
Valine Alanine Aspartic acid Glycine U

gly
Valine Alanine Aspartic acid Glycine C
G
Valine Alanine Glutamic acid Glycine A
Codon
:
Valine Alanine Glutamic acid Glycine G GGA CCU
3rd letter
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:34 PM Page 497
As the tRNA molecules attach themselves along the mRNA, a string of amino acids
in a specific order—a protein—is assembled as shown in Figure 23-13. Once its amino
acid has been incorporated into the protein, a tRNA molecule moves away to be replen-
ished with another amino acid and used again.
The protein synthesis actually takes place on ribosomes, which are large, irregularly
shaped organelles made of proteins and yet another kind of RNA, called ribosomal
RNA, or rRNA. As shown in Figure 23-13, the process of synthesis is somewhat more
complex than the simple discussion we have given here. Ribosomes align the messenger
RNA and transfer RNA during protein assembly. Thus three different kinds of RNA—
transfer, messenger, and ribosomal—are involved in the synthesis of a single protein.
As a net effect of this rather complex molecular manufacturing process, the infor-
mation encoded in the DNA molecule has been expressed as a particular sequence of
amino acids that determines the identity of the appropriate protein enzyme. Thus a
specific stretch of DNA located on one chromosome produces the enzyme that runs
a particular chemical reaction in the cell. This stretch of DNA is what we have called
• Figure 23-13 The formation of a protein requires three kinds of RNA. (a) A strand of
messenger RNA fits into a groove in a ribosome (an organelle formed from proteins and
ribosomal RNA). (b) The ribosome attracts the appropriate transfer RNA, which carries with
it an amino acid (shown in blue). (c) A second tRNA attaches to the ribosome, and the two
adjacent amino acids are linked (d–f). The ribosome begins to shift along the mRNA, attract-
ing new tRNA molecules and adding amino acids to the chain. Once the amino acids and
tRNA are disconnected, the tRNA floats off to find another amino acid (g–h). The completed
protein is assembled and released by the ribosome, and all the components are available to
start the process over again.
tRNA
r
u
Th
Le
alignment
sites Bond between
Ribosome amino acids
G
A
Met
A
G
U
G
Met Met Leu Leu
C
UA
UAC UA C GAG GAG
AUGCUCACUCA AUGCUCACUCA AUG CUCACUCA AUGCUCACUCAUCA
mRNA
Shift of
ribosome position
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Completed
protein
AA
A
GUG AAA AAA

CUCAUCAC UUUUAG UCACUUUUAG ACUUUUAG AG
Stop
Many shifts of Shift of codon
ribosome position ribosome position
(e) (f) (g) (h)

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a gene. That chemical might control skin color, hair texture, or any of the other traits
that we recognize.
One of the central rules of modern biology, often referred to as the “central dogma
of molecular biology,” is:
One gene codes for one protein.
That is, one stretch of DNA will code for one mRNA molecule, which will code for the
sequence of amino acids in one protein, which will drive one chemical reaction in the
cell (Figure 23-14).
It was once believed that all genetic processes follow this rule. Today we understand
that, while genes in prokaryotes are usually found on one continuous stretch of DNA, in
eukaryotes like human beings the geometry of genes is often more complicated. A gene
on human DNA does not always consist of a single continuous stretch of DNA; rather
the coding sections of the DNA of a single gene are often separated from each other by
stretches of noncoding DNA. The parts of the DNA that code for the protein are called
exons, while the noncoding sections that are interspersed between them are called
introns. The cellular machinery that transcribes the gene is able to cut out the introns
and assemble the protein only from exons. In the assembly process, however, the exons
can be put together in different ways, so that a single gene can code for more than one
protein. In humans, for example, a single stretch of DNA may contribute to three or
more different proteins.
But the great truth of modern biology is this: more than a century ago, Mendel pos-
tulated the existence of a gene without knowing what it was. Today molecular biologists
can tell you exactly where many specific genes lie along a stretch of DNA, as well as the
sequence of base pairs along them.
All living systems employ the genetic mechanism we have just described. The trans-
fer of genetic information by DNA and the production of proteins by RNA is a process
shared by every cell on Earth. Each species, and each individual within a species, has a
slightly different message written on its DNA. The identity of every cell, as well as the
organism of which the cell is a part, is determined by the chemical reactions that take
place there. The enzymes determine the chemical reactions, and the enzymes are coded
for in the DNA. Thus DNA is truly the molecule that contains the code of life.
What is perhaps most remarkable about this process is that all living things use
essentially the same code to translate between the messages carried in the genes of
DNA, the messages carried in RNA, and the string of amino acids in proteins. This rela-
tionship explains why biologists speak of “the genetic code” when they refer specifically
• Figure 23-14 A schematic diagram of protein production from DNA. (a) One stretch of
DNA codes for one mRNA molecule. (b) One messenger RNA molecule attaches to a ribo-
some. (c) Transfer RNA molecules match an amino acid to each codon on the messenger
RNA. (d) Amino acids link together to make one protein, which will drive one chemical
reaction in the cell.
tRNA
alignment
sites
AAA
UCACUUUUAG
AUGCUCACUCA Stop
Shift of
mRNA ribosome position codon
(a) (b) (c) (d)

c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 499
to the relationship between a triplet of base pairs on the mRNA and the corresponding
amino acid in the protein. The basic “word” of the molecular world, then, is the triplet
of bases along DNA—the codon. Each codon eventually codes to one amino acid in a
string of proteins.
The fact that all living organisms, from single-celled yeast to human beings, use pre-
cisely the same biochemical apparatus and precisely the same technique for making pro-
teins and running their chemistry is one of the great unifying ideas in the science of
biology. Indeed, one of the great principles of science is:
All living things on Earth use the same genetic code.
This finding in no way limits the tremendous variety and diversity one can find in living
things. Just as many different books can be written using the 26 letters of the English
alphabet, so too can many different life-forms be constructed using the four “letters” in
the genetic code.
M UTATIONS AND DNA R EPAIR •

If DNA were copied faithfully from one generation to the next, no living thing could be
much different from its ancestors. But mistakes do happen, and many agents in nature
can alter and even damage the DNA molecule. Numerous chemicals (particularly those
that cause oxidation reactions in cells), nuclear radiation, X-rays, and ultraviolet light
(which also produces oxidizing chemicals) are all examples of such agents. If the DNA of
a parent’s egg or sperm is altered, then the alteration will be faithfully copied by the
process we have just described. The offspring will inherit the change, just as they inherit
all other genetic information from the parents. Such a change in the DNA of the parent
is called a mutation. As we shall see in Chapter 25, mutations have played a very impor-
tant role in the development of life on Earth.
Recently, scientists have begun to realize that DNA is damaged at a far higher rate
than had previously been thought. Careful chemical analyses indicate that damage to
DNA in humans goes on at the rate of about 10,000 “hits” per cell per day. Fortunately,
the body has developed repair mechanisms that take care of almost all of this damage as
soon as it happens. The study of DNA repair, and the hope that it may help us deal with
diseases such as cancer, represents a major frontier in science today and will be discussed
more fully in Chapter 24.
WHY ARE G ENES E XPRESSED? •

Every cell in your body except the reproductive cells contains an identical set of
chromosomes—the exact same set of DNA molecules—yet your cells are not all alike. In
fact, chemical reactions that are critical to one set of cells—those that produce insulin in
your pancreas, for example—play no role whatsoever elsewhere. The genetic coding for
making insulin is contained in every cell in your body but turned on only in a few. How
do the cells in the pancreas “know” that they are supposed to activate the particular gene
for insulin, while the cells in the brain know they are not supposed to?
The mystery of DNA’s operation runs even deeper than this. It now appears that
only about 5% of all DNA in human beings is actually taken up by the genes. The
other 95% used to be called “junk DNA” because nobody understood why it was
there. Scientists are increasingly coming to believe, however, that at least some of the
rest of the DNA contains instructions for turning genes on and off. The study of gene
control is a frontier field, and we understand very little about how it works. We do
know, however, that genes are activated at certain times in the growth of plants or ani-
mals, and the triggers for this activation appear to be enzymes or other chemical
agents.
Many scientists also believe that the failure of these instructions leads to diseases
such as cancer. If a cell is dividing and the mechanism that tells it when it’s time to
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 500
stop is faulty, the cell may continue to multiply and produce a tumor. Damage to the
control mechanisms in a cell thus may be much more serious than damage to the
genes themselves.
VIRUSES •
If you have ever had influenza (“the flu”) or a common cold, you’ve experienced the
consequences of viruses. Viruses aren’t alive in the sense that bacteria and other single-
celled organisms are. Unlike the life-forms we discussed in Chapter 20, viruses do not
metabolize and are not capable of reproduction on their own. Rather, they rely on the
genetic mechanisms of cells to reproduce.
A virus consists of nothing more than a short length of RNA or DNA wrapped in a
protein coating (Figure 23-15). The protein is shaped so that it fits cell receptors and is
taken into a cell. Once inside the cell, a variety of events may occur, depending on the
exact nature of the virus. The viral DNA may replicate itself, producing its own mRNA,
or viral RNA may serve directly as messenger RNA. Thus the virus takes over the cell’s
machinery, using the cell’s enzymes and tRNA to produce more viruses like itself, even-
tually killing the cell.
Note that a “computer virus” operates in the same way. This kind of virus is a set
of instructions taken into a computer that highjacks the computer’s machinery to its
own ends.
Alternatively, as in the HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) that causes AIDS,
the virus contains an RNA sequence that can be transcribed back into DNA, along
with some enzymes that insert the DNA into the cell’s own DNA. Once that stretch of
DNA is inserted, it acts just like any other gene and co-opts the cell into making more
viruses. No matter what the mechanisms, however, the result is the same: the cell
eventually dies.
HIV turns out to be an unusually complex virus (Figure 23-16). It has two coats of
proteins: the outer coat contains molecules that fit receptors in cells in the human
immune systems known as T cells, while the inner coat encloses the RNA that will be
translated into DNA by attached enzymes. The net effect of the virus’s action is to
destroy cells that are essential to the operation of the immune system, making the
infected person vulnerable to many deadly diseases. We will discuss methods that have
been developed for managing AIDS in the next chapter.
• Figure 23-15 (a) Viruses can have a wide variety of shapes and sizes. This diagram of a
bacterial virus shows the protein coat containing DNA at the head. The tail fibers at the bot-
tom attach the virus to the cell wall. DNA is then injected into the cell through the cylindrical
core. (b) An electron microscope photograph of herpes viruses reveals the regular protein
coating that surrounds a strand of DNA.
CDC/Photo Researchers
Protein coat Nucleic acid
EM 116667X
(a) (b)
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 501
• Figure 23-16 A diagram of the

HIV virus. The reverse transcriptase is
the enzyme in the virus that trans-
Outer lates a strand of RNA into DNA.
protein coat
RNA
Reverse
transcriptase
Lipid bilayer
VIRAL E PIDEMICS •
There is an old joke about someone who goes to a doctor with a cold and is told to take
a shower and stay outside in the cold with wet hair and without a coat.
“But if I do that, I’ll get pneumonia,” the patient protests.
“Of course,” says the doctor, “but I can cure pneumonia.”
The medical profession has enjoyed a great deal of success in dealing with diseases
such as pneumonia that are caused by invading bacteria. Antibiotics often work by
blocking particular enzymes in the bacteria. Because these enzymes don’t operate in
human cells, antibiotics can destroy the bacteria without harming the human whose
body they are invading.
On the other hand, viruses with their simple structure of a protein coat surrounding
a piece of genetic material, are able to co-opt most of the host cell’s machinery while
antibiotics do not affect them. This difference is why viral diseases such as the common • Figure 23-17 The human body
cold cannot be treated as effectively with commonly available drugs as bacterial infec- produces immune system cells,
tions. The most effective countermeasure for viral diseases has been vaccination, which called phagocytes, that destroy
viruses, bacteria, and other foreign
stimulates the human immune system to produce antibodies that neutralize the virus
substances. This photo shows a
(Figure 23-17). These antibodies are molecules that have a precise shape that binds to phagocyte stalking a small bacterium.
the virus and prevents them from attaching to cells. Poliomyelitis, smallpox, and yellow
Photo by Lennart Nilsson. Reproduced with permission,

courtesy of Albert Bonniers Forlag AB.
fever have all been dealt with in this way.
Viruses not only hide inside cells; many of them also have the ability to change very
rapidly, producing new forms as quickly as we find vaccines against them. The copying
of DNA in cell division is subject to the cell’s “proofreading” mechanisms so that
daughter cells are the same as the parents. However, some viruses like HIV have no such
proofreading, and consequently they mutate at a rate up to a million times faster than
normal eukaryotic cells. The influenza virus adopts a different strategy. If two influenza
viruses invade the same host, they have the ability to swap sections of their nucleic acids,
producing a new strain in the process. This rapid rate of mutation in influenza viruses is
the main reason that Americans are urged to get new flu shots each year. The new vac-
cine attempts to counteract whatever virus has developed since last year’s shot.
As news about AIDS and possible epidemics of SARS, swine flu, and other diseases
should remind us, viral diseases remain a very real threat to the human race. Several fea-
tures of modern life make human beings particularly susceptible to viral attack. For one
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 502
thing, we now tend to live together in cities, providing a large host population for new
viruses. We also travel a great deal so that a virus that develops in one part of the world
will quickly spread. Finally, humans are coming into more contact with isolated wilder-
ness areas and therefore into contact with whatever viruses are already living on hosts in
those areas. One example is the virus responsible for AIDS, which is believed to have
arisen from a virus affecting monkeys in remote African forests. A hunter cutting his fin-
ger while skinning an infected monkey, for instance, could have introduced the virus to
the human population.
Stop and Think! How much attention do you think governments and
scientists should pay to the dangers of new viral diseases? Do you think
an international medical center should be established to monitor the
appearance of new diseases? What good would such an early warning
system do?
The Human Genome

In the summer of 2000, the first phase of one of the most ambitious scientific projects in
history was completed. Called the Human Genome Project, its goal was nothing less
than a complete description of all the base pairs in human DNA—all three billion pairs
on all 23 chromosomes.
In human beings, as in other eukaryotes, the DNA does not occur as one long, con-
tinuous molecule but is cut up into bundles called chromosomes. In a chromosome, a
stretch of DNA is wrapped around a core of protein molecules. A human being receives
23 different chromosomes from each parent, and each gene has a specific location on a
specific chromosome.
Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have a total
of 23 pairs, for example, while goldfish have 47 pairs and cabbages have 9. There is no
connection between the number of chromosomes and the complexity of the organism.
It is best to think of chromosomes as the “packaging” into which the DNA is put.
The first job in analyzing human DNA is a process called mapping (Figure 23-18).
In this process, the locations of genes on specific chromosomes are determined. This is
particularly important in medicine, since many diseases arise from mutations on specific
genes. As we shall see in the next chapter, for example, a common form of cystic fibrosis
results from a mutation on a specific gene on chromosome 7. In
Genetic map Gene identification
recent years, scientists have been able to pinpoint the causes of dis-
eases like sickle-cell anemia, some forms of arthritis, and familial
– Enzyme A tendencies to develop cancer on specific chomosomes.
– Gene regulatory
protein B The genetic map, like a good road atlas, tells us the general
2–5 cM location of the most interesting places in our tour of the human
genome. Genes are like villages and towns in our atlas, but these
– Structural maps alone tell us little about the details of those places. We also
protein C need directories to each village and town if we are to really under-
– Membrane transport
protein D stand how the genome works. DNA sequencing is the process of
determining, base pair by base pair, the exact order of bases along a
Physical map DNA sequencing DNA molecule. The net result of a sequencing operation is a string
• Figure 23-18 Two important goals of the Human Genome Project

CG are DNA mapping and DNA sequencing. A genetic map shows the
GC location and sequence of genes along a chromosome. It can be used
TA
TA to identify the genes for a specific trait. Scientists working on the
CG Human Genome Project created physical maps that describe the
AT chemical characteristics of the DNA molecule at any given point.
The physical maps were used for DNA sequencing, which deter-
mined the exact sequence of base pairs along a DNA molecule.
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The Human Genome | 503
Table 23-3 Relationships Among DNA, Genes, Chromosomes, and Genomes

Unit What it is
DNA The molecule that caries genetic information; it is in the shape of a double helix
Gene A stretch of DNA that carries the code for making one or more proteins
Chromosome A specific length of an organism’s DNA wrapped around a protein core
Genome The sum total of all the base pairs in an organism’s DNA
of letters (ATTGCGCATTp , and so on), a sequence that tells us how the DNA is put
together in that particular stretch (Figure 23-18). The entire sequence of base pairs in an
organism’s DNA is called the genome of that organism. For reference, the relationships
among DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genomes are summarized in Table 23-3.
Many people are surprised to learn that a key ongoing goal of the Human
Genome Project is to determine the complete genomes of hundreds of other species,
including the mouse, the fruit fly, yeast, and numerous microbes. There’s even an
effort to determine the genome of the extinct wooly mammoth from animals that
were frozen in ice thousands of years ago (Figure 23-19)! These life-forms, so crucial
to ongoing genetic research, have many of the same genes and thus reveal many of the
same genetic mechanisms that occur in humans. One result of this sort of knowledge
is that a gene sequence can be used to deduce the sequence of amino acids in a pro-
tein; this information, in turn, may give some insight into the function of that protein
in the organism.
Keep watching the news for announcements of the latest progress in this mammoth
undertaking.
Connecting Genes and DNA

In 1911, an undergraduate student and a professor were talking at Columbia University.
The professor was Thomas Hunt Morgan, who was studying the genetics of fruit flies in
his laboratory. Like Mendel’s pea plants, fruit flies are ideal organisms for this sort of
work, since they produce new generations in a matter of weeks. (Morgan, incidentally,
was the great-grandson of Francis Scott Key, the man who wrote “The Star Spangled
Banner”). The student was Alfred Sturtevant, a young man who went on to have a dis- • Figure 23-19 The genome of the
tinguished scientific career. extinct wooly mammoth (shown here
The two were discussing the fact that in their experiments, certain characteristics in an artist’s conception) is being
of the flies seemed to be inherited in groups—if one appeared in an offspring, the conducted on DNA extracted from
others were likely to appear as well. They were also finding, 10,000-year-old animals frozen in ice.
Andrew Melmerm/Getty Images, Inc.

however, that occasionally this linkage was broken and that the
frequency of the breaking of the link varied from one pair of
genes to the next.
During the conversation, Sturtevant realized that if the genes
were laid out in a linear array on the chromosomes, then the process
of gene exchange that occurs during meiosis would be more likely to
separate genes that lay far apart from each other than genes that are
close together. In fact, the process of gene exchange would be like
cutting up a highway map. Nearby towns would tend to be on the
same piece of paper when the cutting was finished, while distant
towns would be separated more often. Using this insight and the
data on how often linkages were broken, Sturtevant came into the
lab the next day with the first genetic map of a chromosome.
Work in the Columbia “fly room” thus led to one of the most
important basic tenets of modern genetics—that genes are laid out
in a linear sequence on chromosomes. During the coming decades,
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 504
with support from the Carnegie Institution, this lab remained at the center of genetic
research. Morgan received the Nobel Prize in 1933 and, in a telling gesture, shared the
prize money with Sturtevant and another former student in order to help the two men
pay their childrens’ college tuition bills. •
The Human Book of Life

In Chapter 10 we saw that information can be quantified in units of the “bit”—a simple
statement about “yes or no” or “on or off.” We can use this notion to calculate the
amount of information in the human genome.
Each site along the DNA molecule can be occupied by one of four bases. This infor-
mation can be represented by two bits. We could, for example, set up a code as follows:
A: on on
T: on off
C: off on
G: off off
Using this code, we could go down the molecule specifying two bits of information
at each nucleotide, and this would tell us the sequence. For example, the sequence
AGT would be rendered:
on on; off off; on off
The human genome contains about 3 billion bases, so the total information content is:
3,000,000,000 bases ⫻ 2 bits>base ⫽ 6,000,000,000 bits
Let’s compare this information content to that of a familiar object—this textbook. A

textbook transmits information by letters, numbers, and other symbols, each of which
can be represented by eight bits (see Chapter 10). An average page of this book contains
about 3000 characters, for an information content of
3000 characters>page ⫻ 8 bits>character ⫽ 24,000 bits>page
The number of pages required to carry the entire human genome equals the number of
bits per genome, divided by the number of bits per page:
• Figure 23-20 J. Craig Venter of 16,000,000,000 bits>genome2
⫽ 250,000 pages
124,000 bits>page 2
the Venter Institute developed faster
and cheaper methods to sequence
DNA.
It would take almost 400 volumes the size of this book to record the entire blueprint for
Marty Katz
a human being. It’s amazing to think that all of that information is contained in every
one of your cells. •
TECHNOLOGY •
New Ways to Sequence

When the Human Genome Project was starting, scientists estimated that it would take
decades and cost billions of dollars. Even well into the project, the official estimate was that
it wouldn’t be completed until 2005 and would cost $3 billion (about $1 per base pair).
This situation was changed drastically when molecular biologist J. Craig Venter, who is
now head of the Venter Institute, developed a new way of combining computers with auto-
matic DNA sequencing machines (Figure 23-20). As a result of his work, the Genome Pro-
ject finished in 2000, five years ahead of schedule, with the cost of sequencing being only
about 10 cents per base pair (and the price has now dropped to a few cents per base pair).
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Summary | 505
Venter’s novel technique is called shotgun, and here’s how it works: Long
stretches of DNA are broken up into many small pieces. These pieces are fed into an
army of sequencing machines, each of which “reads” only a short segment—a few
hundred base pairs of the original. By identifying overlapping segments from among
the thousands of short DNA strands, powerful computers are able to reconstruct the
entire DNA sequence.
It is important to realize that in this technique, the contributions of computers are
just as important as those of the sequencers. This is why scientists often speak of the
Genome Project as an example of the bioinformatics revolution.
Today, Celera’s sequencing system continues to operate 24 hours a day, and each
day they sequence a million base pairs and use $4000 to $5000 worth of electricity in
the process. •
Thinking More About Genetics
THE ETHICS OF G ENES factors. Suppose a person was found to carry a particular gene or
combination of genes that were thought to predispose individuals
Advances in genetic research are dramatically altering our under- toward alcoholism? To whom should that information be con-
standing of human health and behavior. Scientists now can detect veyed? To the individual? To his or her doctor? His or her
many characteristics of an individual, including the presence of employer? His or her insurance company?
life-threatening diseases, before birth. Every year we learn more Taking these issues a step further, it may soon be possible to
about genetic characteristics, and thus are better able to foresee alter an individual’s DNA in utero, perhaps even in the first weeks
aspects of a child’s future. But with this knowledge comes an ethi- of pregnancy. Many people would probably agree to genetic
cal challenge that will face every American in the coming decades. manipulation if it could cure their child of a fatal disease, but
What should we do with genetic information? where does society draw the line? Would you allow such a proce-
Eventually we may be able to test every fetus for a variety of dure to improve genetically defective eyesight, or perhaps prevent
incurable genetic diseases. Should those tests be mandated? Should crippling arthritis in later years? Would you be willing to enhance
parents be informed of their future child’s fate? Should the prospect your child’s IQ, or make her more athletic? What about changing
of an incurable disease provide grounds for abortion? It has also his height or hair color? As with many other aspects of science and
been suggested (though not proven in detail) that alcoholism and technology, we must come to grips with the question of whether it
other behavioral disorders may be related, at least in part, to genetic is ethical to do something simply because we are able to do it.
Why do offspring resemble their parents? º Each offspring has two genes for each trait, one gene from
each parent.
• In the science of biology, the term “offspring” refers to new
º Some genes are dominant and some are recessive. When pre-
organisms that are produced by the process of reproduction. sent together, the trait of a dominant gene will be expressed in
º Offspring inherit traits from their parents. This fact is the basis preference to the trait of a recessive gene.
of selective breeding, which has been used by humans for • Genes play a large role in the appearance and behavior of all
millennia to improve crops and domestic animal stocks. organisms.
º The modern science of genetics studies the phenomena of inher-
º Nevertheless, the environment in which an organism lives has
itance, and began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865. a large influence on its ultimate development.
• Genetics and the laws of inheritance for sexual reproduction
º This idea is the basis of the “nature versus nurture” debate.
follow a few simple rules: In reality, both nature (i.e., genetic inheritance) and nurture
º Physical characteristics or traits are passed from parents to (i.e., the totality of the environment of an organism) play
offspring by some unknown mechanism (we call it a gene). complementary roles in the development of all characteristics.
S UMMARY •
Genetics, the study of the way in which biological information is the traits of just one parent plant, but the second generation dis-
carried from one generation to the next, is a field as old as the selec- played characteristics of both parents. Typically, three-fourths of the
tive breeding of animals and the selection of seeds for crops. Gregor members of the second generation display one trait, one-fourth the
Mendel attempted to quantify aspects of this process by cross- other. Mendel explained his observations by developing laws of class-
pollinating purebred varieties of pea plants to produce hybrids. He ical genetics: (1) traits are passed from parent to offspring by “units
discovered that all first-generation hybrids appeared the same, with of inheritance” (we call them genes); (2) each parent contributes one
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 506
gene for each trait; and (3) some genes are dominant and will be the sequence for one gene and carries it out of the nucleus to the
expressed, while others are recessive and will appear only if no domi- part of the cell where proteins are made. Transfer RNA matches
nant gene is present. sequences of three base pairs to corresponding amino acids; thus
Modern molecular genetics seeks to understand the molecular an RNA sequence translates into a string of amino acids—a pro-
basis for Mendel’s observations. The key to understanding genetics tein. The correspondence between base-pair sequences and amino
lies in the unique structure of the nucleic acids, including DNA, with acids is called the genetic code, which is shared by every living
its double helix, ladder-like sequence of base pairs, and the closely organism.
related single-stranded RNA. The four different DNA bases, A, T, C, While the DNA message is resilient to most damage, errors in
and G, which always come in the pairs AT or CG, act like letters of a the coded sequence can occur and cause mutations. Viruses, on the
coded message—the message of life. Because of its structure, DNA other hand, cause sickness by usurping a cell’s chemical factories with
can replicate itself and store the information needed to make proteins. foreign genetic instructions.
Every cell has a set of chromosomes with the complete DNA Segments of DNA are wrapped around a protein core to form
blueprint in its nucleus. The process of copying DNA before cell chromosomes. The complete description of an organism’s genetic
division is called replication, and involves the splitting apart the two code is called its genome. Scientists determine a genome by first
sides of the DNA double helix, thus exposing the complementary mapping the positions of every gene on every chromosome and
base pairs. Each exposed base binds to its complement, and so two then sequencing the exact order of base pairs on every gene. The
complete DNA strands form where before there was only one. Human Genome Project has produced the 3-billion-base-pair
The coded DNA message is read by RNA, a process called sequence of the human genome, as well as genomes for many other
transcription. Messenger RNA, a single-stranded molecule, copies organisms.
K EY TERMS •
genetics recessive double helix virus
purebred molecular genetics messenger RNA (mRNA) Human Genome Project
hybrid nucleic acids transfer RNA (tRNA) mapping
gene DNA genetic code DNA sequencing
classical genetics RNA mutation genome
dominant
D ISCOVERY L AB •
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the heredity material that contains solution in it. Shake the jar gently from side to side for a few min-
vital information about your genetic traits and is found in every cell utes. Pour ethanol in the bottle by gliding it gently down the sides of
of your body. If you are curious to know what DNA looks like then the bottle. Let the solution stand for few minutes. The alcohol will
gather the following materials: 1/2 teaspoon of salt, 200 milliliters float on the top. Take the glass rod and gently try to incorporate
of water (mix the two to form a solution), dishwashing soap or a alcohol into the soap solution. At the boundary of soap solution and
mild detergent (prepare a solution of 5 milliliters of the detergent ethanol twist the glass rod and collect as much of the DNA as possi-
mixed with 15 milliliters of water), 5 milliliters of ethanol (should be ble. Remove it from the bottle and put it in a container and seal it.
ice cold; rubbing alcohol can be substituted for ethanol), a glass rod, Be gentle with the entire process from shaking of the jar to removing
and a small jar with a lid. the DNA; if you are not careful the DNA strands may break and
Take the salt water solution and rinse your mouth with it. Make clump up. If the DNA is microscopic then why do you see it? What
sure you swish the solution in your mouth for at least 30 seconds. would you do with your DNA? Allow it to be seen and used by any-
Spit out the solution in the jar and pour 5 milliliters of the soap one? Or keep it away from falling into the hands of others?
5 ml.
ethanol
5 ml. soap
solution
Swish in
mouth for Glass
30 seconds rod
Shake Add Gently

ethanol stir Ethanol
DNA
Salt water Salt water Salt water, soap,

solution and soap and ethanol
solution solution
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 507
1. How is biological information passed from one generation to 9. Describe the construction of the double-helix structure of DNA.
another? 10. How does RNA differ from DNA?
2. How did Mendel define the gene? How do we define it today? 11. What are the main steps in the process of DNA replication?
3. What is the difference between a purebred and a hybrid? 12. How is the information of DNA copied onto mRNA?
4. Why was it important for Mendel to begin with purebred plants 13. What is the function of mRNA?
for each trait he was studying? 14. How does tRNA determine the primary structure of proteins?
5. What is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene? 15. What is a codon? What is the genetic code?
6. What is molecular genetics? How does this differ from 16. Why is DNA repair necessary? How are alterations in DNA
Mendelian or classical genetics? related to mutations? What agents cause mutations?
7. What is a nucleotide? 17. What are chromosomes? What role do they play in cell replication?
8. Name the four bases that occur in DNA. What pairs can they form? 18. What is a virus? Why are they so difficult to control?
1. The selective breeding of animals has been practiced for millen- 10. Why do most biologists say that viruses are not alive? (Hint:
nia. Describe the elements of the scientific method inherent in this Think about respiration and metabolism.)
ancient practice. 11. What are prions? What diseases are caused by prions? How do
2. Could a recessive trait skip more than one generation? How prions differ from viruses?
could this happen? 12. Exposure to environmental chemicals or radiation may cause
3. What is a genome? What is the significance of the Human damage to children, even though those children have not even been
Genome Project? conceived at the time of the exposure. Give a molecular explanation
4. How did advances in technology aid the Human Genome Project? of how such harm could occur. What role should information on
5. What is the difference between mapping and sequencing DNA? DNA repair play in such discussions?
Is DNA sequencing more time-consuming than DNA mapping? 13. How many types of RNA are there in a cell? Why is more than
6. How does cell chemistry, and therefore all life, depend on the one type necessary in the production of a DNA sequence?
production of proteins? What role do genes, RNA, and DNA play 14. Why do many cultures have a taboo and/or laws against mar-
in the production of proteins? rying your close relatives? Why is incest a genetically unproductive
7. State some of the arguments for and against the use of genetic practice?
engineering. 15. Why do offspring resemble their parents? Attempt to include
8. Inbreeding, or the mating of closely related individuals, tends to nucleotides, genes, chromosomes, RNA, DNA, mitosis, and meiosis
perpetuate both good and harmful traits. Why should this be so? in your answer.
9. If every cell in your body has exactly the same DNA, how can 16. What is bioinformatics? How might this new field improve bio-
the cells perform such different functions? logical research?
P ROBLEMS •
1. The Encyclopedia Britannica has about 1500 words per page, pink-eyed rats are crossed, all the offspring have pink eyes. What will
1000 pages per volume, and 30 volumes. How many sets of the be the distribution of hair and eye color in the second generation if
Encyclopedia Britannica would it take to transmit the same amount we start by crossing true-breeding brown pink-eyed rats with true-
of information as is contained in human DNA? (Hint: Remember, breeding white clear-eyed rats?
the average word has five characters and a single character has eight 3. Scientists frequently use fruit flies, which breed every 10 days, to
bits of information.) do genetics experiments. How long would it take to repeat one of
2. Suppose a particular breed of rat can be either white or brown Mendel’s experiments on peas using fruit flies? What if we used ele-
and have either clear or pink eyes. Suppose further that if purebred phants? (Hint: Elephants have roughly one offspring every two
white rats are crossed with purebred brown rats, all the offspring are years and take 13 to 20 years to reach maturity.)
brown; and that if true-breeding clear-eyed rats and true-breeding
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Prepare a report on a genetic disease. What progress has been properly recognized for her efforts? Why didn’t she win the Nobel
made in mapping the defective gene? sequencing the gene? What Prize for her discoveries?
kinds of medical treatments are now available? 4. Some psychological disorders are now believed to be caused
2. Read The Double Helix by James Watson, codiscoverer with by defects in the body’s chemistry. Read about one such disease,
Francis Crick of the DNA structure. What data did they use to and summarize the argument between those who believe that
unravel the structure? What were the key steps in solving the psychological problems all have a molecular basis and those who
double-helix structure? believe that they are all due to the environment in which the indi-
3. Investigate the role that Rosalind Franklin played in the history vidual has lived.
of DNA and the discovery of the double-helix structure. Was she
c23.qxd 9/11/09 3:35 PM Page 508
5. Make a family tree for your own family, recording characteristics 8. Investigate the “nature versus nurture” debate. Why do most
such as eye and hair color, height, causes of death, and so on. Can scientists now state that it is usually nature and nurture, and not
you apply Mendel’s rules to this tree? one or the other?
6. A number of obscure viral diseases have arisen over the past few 9. What is bioinformatics? Does your college or university have a
decades. Look up Korean hemorrhagic fever, dengue fever, Lassa bioinformatics department? What are you studying if you pursue a
fever, or the Ebola and Marburg viruses. What symptoms do these degree in bioinformatics or biotechnology?
diseases or viruses produce? What danger do they pose to the larger 10. Investigate the history of thoroughbred (i.e., racehorse) or
human population? canine (i.e., dog) pedigrees. Why are these valuable resources? What
7. Mendel used mathematical analyses to deduce the presence of does it mean to own a “purebreed” dog? What does it mean to own
genes despite that fact that he couldn’t see them directly. What a thoroughbred horse?
other great discoveries relied on the use of mathematics to prove
the existence of something that was impossible to directly observe?
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24
The New Science of Life
Can we cure cancer?
PHYSICS
DNA
fingerprinting
relies on the fact
that short segments
of DNA move faster
than long segments
BIOLOGY in an electric field. CHEMISTRY
Genetic
engineering is Chemical reactions
based on the fact in the cell are used to
that all life uses the repair damaged DNA.
same genetic code.
Our new understanding

of genetic mechanisms is
leading to enormous ENVIRONMENT
technological advances Both natural
Computers
are being used to in medicine and other and commercially
design drugs with a aspects of our lives. produced pesticides
specific shape that can cause damage to
will accomplish a DNA; it makes no
particular function in difference where the
the body. pesticide molecules
came from.
TECHNOLOGY
Regenerative
medicine, based on
Ultraviolet light the use of cloning
from the Sun may and stem cell
damage DNA. techniques, may soon
be used to cure
many diseases. = other applications,
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 510
Science Through the Day A Break in the Case
ou head down the highway, lis-

Y tening to your favorite music
station, when the program is inter-
rupted for a news flash. New DNA
evidence has led police to the arrest
of a suspect in a highly publicized
murder. A few skin cells under the
victim’s fingernails, analyzed at an
FBI crime lab, cracked the case. It
seems as if DNA and genetic tech-
nologies are in the news every day.
Paternity testing, cloning, tests for
genetic diseases, DNA fingerprinting,
stem cells, gene therapy, genetically
modified foods—our world has been
transformed by our understanding of
the genetic code. What are these
remarkable new technologies? How
will they affect our lives and the lives
of our children?
Greg Pease/Taxi/Getty Images
The Technology of Genes

Fundamental new insights into the workings of nature often trigger dramatic changes in
the human condition. The discovery of the nature of electricity and magnetism, for
example, led to the electrification of entire continents. The discovery of the basic laws of
quantum mechanics eventually led to the modern information revolution. Now, our
new understanding of the genetic mechanisms of all living things is leading to changes
every bit as profound and pervasive. In fact, this revolution has already begun, although
its consequences are not always immediately visible to the general public. At research
centers and hospitals around the world the new molecular understanding of life is being
put to work to cure disease and to better the human condition. In this chapter we pre-
• Figure 24-1 Restriction enzymes
act something like a pair of scissors
sent a few areas of current effort to give you a sense of what will soon become possible.
that break a DNA chain at specific Remember, though, that these advances are just the tip of the iceberg with respect to
sequences. Biologists can use this technologies of the new science of life.
procedure to insert or remove
segments of DNA.
T T
G ENETIC E NGINEERING •
A A
A
T
A
T Genetic engineering is a procedure by which foreign genes are inserted
Eco R1 Each
T
A
T
A
piece has
into an organism, or existing genes are altered, to modify the function of
cuts here
living things. The basic technique of genetic engineering is very simple.
C C
G (after G a "sticky
end" Certain proteins called restriction enzymes have the ability to cut a DNA
T T
A TTAA)
T
molecule (as shown in Figure 24-1) so that the DNA has several unat-
T
A A
A Pieces
A
A
A
T
separate tached bases at the cut end. Think of these exposed bases as something like
T
A T
Restriction pieces of Velcro at the ends of the DNA strands.
C G T
enzyme If another strand of DNA is cut in the same way, and if the exposed
Eco R1 C G
cuts here A
C G base pairs on that second strand are complementary to the base pairs on the
T C G
(after A original strand, then when the two strands are put together the bases will
T A
T
TTAA) T bind and the strands will stick together. This procedure allows researchers
A A
T
to take a stretch of DNA, cut it, and splice in another stretch of DNA that
510
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The Technology of Genes | 511
5' 3' 5' 3' • Figure 24-2 The process of

DNA from G ..
... A .. T ...
T ..
A .. C G ..
... A ..
A .. C
T ...
T .. DNA from genetic engineering. Two strands of
Species 1 CT TAAG CT TAAG Species 2 DNA are cut by restriction enzymes.
3' 5' 3' 5' Each cut is carefully made so that the
exposed bases of each strand are
complementary. The two strands are
joined together to form one DNA
5' 3' 5' 3' molecule.
G A A T T ...
C G A A T T ...
C
Eco RI fragments
... ...
CTTAA G CTTAA G with complementary
single-stranded ends
3' 5' 3' 5'
5' 3'
G ..
... A ..
A .. C
T ...
T ..
CT TAAG
3' 5'
Base-pairing between the complementary

single-stranded ends of cleaved DNA molecules
5' 3'
DNA from G .. T ..
A ..
A .. C
T ... DNA from
...
Species 1 CT TAAG Species 2
3' 5'
Recombinant DNA molecules
• Figure 24-3 Genetic engineering

has the appropriate base pairs on its ends (Figure 24-2). The new DNA will contain an has produced a variety of modified
extra stretch of genetic information in it. organisms, including (a) pest-resistant
If the new stretch of DNA is a gene, then the same mechanism that drives the chem- crops and (b) genetically identical
mice for medical research.
istry in every cell on Earth can start expressing that gene in its new environment. For
Chris Knapton/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers

example, more than 100 copies of the gene that makes human insulin have been spliced
together into a loop of DNA called a plasmid. Biologists introduced that plasmid into
the single-celled bacterium, E. coli (so called because it is common in the human colon),
and the genetically modified E. coli copies the plasmid along with its own DNA when it
divides. A vat full of genetically engineered E. coli thus produces large quantities of
human insulin that is almost indistinguishable from insulin produced in your own pan-
creas. In fact, most of the insulin used to treat diabetes is now made this way. This genet-
ically based process is a great improvement over the old method, which involved tedious
extraction of pig insulin from the pancreases of slaughtered animals—insulin that pre-
cipitated an adverse immune response in some patients.
The story of genetically engineered insulin is only a small part of the growing list of
changes that are possible with genetic engineering. In the United States, the biggest use
of this technology is not in medicine but in agriculture. Today, over 80% of the corn, (a)
92% of the soybeans, and 86% of the cotton grown on American farms are genetically
Courtesy R.L. Brinster
engineered (Figure 24-3a). One important use of the technology is in pest control.
Genes that contain the natural insecticide Bt, derived from a common bacterium, are
inserted into the DNA of crop plants. Because of the presence of this gene, when insects
such as the European corn borer start to feed, they are quickly killed. Beside the obvious
advantage of allowing the plant to remain healthy, this process may also benefit the envi-
ronment, because genetically engineered plants require much less in the way of pesticide
application.
Another use of genetic engineering involves dealing with the other great enemy of
agriculture—weeds. In conventional agriculture, weeds are controlled by cultivation
(turning soil over between rows of crop plants) and the spraying of herbicides. Both of
these practices have the potential of damaging the environment, either through erosion
or runoff. It is possible to engineer crop plants to be resistant to specific kinds of
herbicides—a common technique involves so-called Roundup Ready plants (Roundup is a (b)
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512 | C HAP TE R 24 | The New Science of Life
popular commercial herbicide). These crops can be planted in unplowed fields, which
can then be sprayed to eliminate weeds. This so-called no-plow agriculture is gaining
wide acceptance as a way of preventing soil erosion.
Other applications of genetic engineering in agriculture include strawberries that are
highly resistant to frost, plants that are unaffected by specific diseases, colored varieties
of cotton, and crops that manufacture natural insect repellents. Genetic engineering of
animals has led to varieties that grow faster or have other agricultural advantages, and
researchers have recently patented varieties of mice especially “designed” for medical
research (Figure 24-3b). There’s even a patent for genetically engineered petroleum-
eating bacteria to clean up oil slicks from tanker accidents.
Underlying all of this technology is the central fact that all life is based on the
same genetic code—the translation of DNA sequences in a gene to amino acid
sequences in a protein. The exact same geometrical shapes and chemical properties of
the four base molecules occur in every living thing. That scientists can routinely switch
genes from plants to animals and back again is simply another demonstration of the
chemical unity of all life.
In the end, what’s new about genetic engineering is that, unlike the selective breed-
ers of the past, modern biologists can usually control exactly what gene is being added
to or deleted from the organism being developed.
Stop and Think! What harmful effects might result if a gene to

prevent frost damage in strawberries were to get into other plants?
A number of groups around the world are attempting to ban or restrict the intro-
duction of genetically modified foods. This opposition is largely motivated by the fear
that there may be unknown environmental and health consequences to the introduction
of these kinds of foods. In the United States, genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
are controlled by three agencies. The Department of Agriculture is concerned with
whether the crop is safe to grow, the Food and Drug Administration with whether it is
safe to eat, and the Environmental Protection Agency with whether it is safe for the
environment. The criterion used by the FDA is “reasonable expectation of no harm,”
with the primary test being whether the GMO is as safe as things that have been in the
food supply for generations.
Historically, the concern has been that GMOs might contain unexpected allergens—
that someone allergic to shellfish, for example, might encounter the protein responsible
for that seafood allergy in an apple. The screening of GMOs, then, begins with excluding
products that contain any one of a long list of allergens, as well as molecules that might
have properties of known allergens. As more experience with GMOs accumulates, fears
about unexpected health effects seem to be subsiding.
Today, different countries around the world have adopted different policies toward
GMOs. In general, they are either banned or rigidly controlled in Europe, allowed in
North America, and eagerly embraced in many Third World countries. Despite any mis-
givings, the use of genetically engineered crops has grown by double digits since they
were first introduced in the 1990s. In 2008, for example, almost 45,000 square miles of
genetically engineered crops were planted around the world. The reason for this growth
is simple: genetically engineered crops typically increase yields by 5–25%, while at the
same time cutting farmers’ costs by as much as 50%.
We have not even begun to imagine the changes that can take place through the
use of this technology. The social issues involved in genetic engineering are pro-
found. In 1974, scientists working in the field of genetic engineering voluntarily
undertook a moratorium on further research until thought could be given to the
question of how to keep potentially dangerous organisms from escaping into the
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 513
environment. In most cases, such as the E. coli used in insulin production, the host
bacteria are so specialized and so dependent on their laboratory culture that they
could not survive in the wild. In this age of terrorism, however, there is another
threat—the deliberate release of genetically engineered pathogens into the environ-
ment, an activity known as bioterrorism.
TECHNOLOGY •
Bioterrorism
In 2001, the United States got a dramatic introduction to a new kind of terrorism,
one that uses biological agents to spread disease in a population. The term bioterrorism
quickly became part of our vocabulary. In the 2001 attack, envelopes containing
anthrax spores were mailed to several news outlets and government officials. As a
result of this exposure, 5 people contracted anthrax and died, while 17 more became
infected with the disease. The perpetrator of this attack was never brought to trial,
but the events opened the eyes of officials to the possibility of bioterrorism in our
country.
Anthrax is a common disease of livestock, and spores are commonly found in agri-
cultural areas. Normally, however, spores clump together and do not float in the air,
where they can be inhaled by humans. In a process known as “weaponization,” however,
spores can be coated with various substances so that they become aerosol particles that
can be inhaled. In this form, the spores can cause a fatal disease.
The anthrax attacks represent a rather low-tech form of bioterrorism. It has been esti-
mated that someone with the proper scientific background could produce weaponized
anthrax in a makeshift laboratory using a few thousand dollars worth of equipment. More
high-tech types of bioterrorism might involve the spread of diseases like smallpox (now
eradicated in nature) or even the reengineering of the deadly virus that caused the great
Spanish influenza epidemic in 1918—a virus that killed tens of millions of people world-
wide. The Department of Homeland Security has, over the past years, established many
research programs to find ways to deal with bioterrorism. For obvious reasons, much of
this research is done in secret. •
TECHNOLOGY •
The PCR Process

Development of a simple technique sometimes opens the door for all sorts of new appli-
cations. In biotechnology, the process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has played
this role. In essence, PCR is a way of making copies of select strands of DNA so that,
starting with a very small sample (a few cells, for example), investigators can produce as
much of the desired DNA as they need. As we shall see below, the PCR technique is
often used to amplify DNA prior to DNA fingerprinting.
The process is illustrated in Figure 24-4. A sample that contains the DNA to be
copied is mixed in solution with three ingredients: DNA nucleotides (the building
blocks or precursors of DNA), a short stretch of DNA known as the “primer” (which
is designed to identify the desired section of DNA to be copied), and an enzyme called
DNA polymerase that helps to assemble DNA strands. First, the mixture is heated to
about 90ºC to separate the DNA into two strands (Figure 24-4a). Once the strands
are separated, the solution is cooled to 60ºC, at which temperature primers attach to
the desired portion of the DNA (Figure 24-4b). In the third step the solution is
heated to 70ºC, which enables polymerase to attach nucleotides onto the DNA
strands (Figure 24-4c). Eventually, we have two identical DNA strands in place of the
original (Figure 24-4d). This process, repeated many times, can create as many copies
of the original DNA strand as needed. •
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 514
• Figure 24-4 The polymerase Cooled to 60⬚

chain reaction (PCR) copies a
sequence of DNA. (a) A strand of
DNA is mixed in solution with DNA
nucleotides (precursors), a primer Heated to 90⬚
that targets a specific piece of DNA,
and an enzyme (polymerase) that Double
helps to assemble DNA. The mix is strand of DNA
A
heated to about 90ºC to separate (b)
DNA strands. (b) When cooled to
Heated to 70⬚
about 60ºC, primers attach to the
DNA strands. (c) At 70ºC,
nucleotides begin to attach to the
DNA strands. (d) At the end you
have two copies of the desired DNA. Nucleotides
Polymerase
Primer (c)
Indentical strands
HEAT
(a) (d)
PCR Multiplication
How many times would you have to go through the heating and cooling cycle in the
PCR process to multiply the original supply of DNA by a billion?
Each time you go through the cycle, you double the number of DNA molecules.
This means that the number of molecules will grow as indicated in the following table.
Number of Repeats Number of Molecules
1 2
2 4
3 8
. .
. .
10 1028
Roughly speaking, then, when you go through the cycle 10 times, you multiply
the number of DNA molecules by 1000. This means that if you go through the cycle
20 times, you will multiply the number of molecules by approximately:
1000 ⫻ 1000 ⫽ 1,000,000 ⫽ 1 million
and if you do the cycle 30 times you will have:
1000 ⫻ 1000 ⫻ 1000 ⫽ 1,000,000,000 ⫽ 1 billion
It is this property of the PCR process that allows technicians to have enough DNA to
identify individuals from a tiny drop of blood or tissue. •
DNA F INGERPRINTING •
The analysis of DNA in human tissue, a technique called DNA fingerprinting, is
becoming increasingly important in the judicial system in the United States. Except for
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 515
identical twins, no two human beings in the world have the same
Photofest
DNA. Thus analysis of blood, skin, or semen samples from the scene
of a crime can be used to identify criminals in much the same way
that fingerprints do (Figure 24-5), and this process can also help to
identify victims of airplane crashes and natural disasters.
In principle, one could sequence an individual’s entire genome in
order to make an unambiguous identification. In practice, this is both
expensive and not necessary. Instead, scientists pick specific segments
of DNA that can be used to characterize a specific genome without
knowing its entire sequence. Think of this process as being analogous
to identifying a city by looking for familiar landmarks. If you saw the
Eiffel Tower, for example, you would know that you were in Paris,
and you wouldn’t need a detailed street map.
The DNA fingerprinting techniques in common use depend • Figure 24-5 Evidence from mod-
on the fact that there are stretches of DNA where a certain sequence of nonsense ern biotechnology plays an impor-
bases repeats itself over and over. The number of repeats in these sections is essen- tant role in the television series CSI.
tially random, so by comparing the number of repeats in two samples of DNA at sev-
eral different locations, it is possible to tell whether they come from the same
individual.
The original DNA fingerprinting technique, accepted by U.S. courts in the 1990s,
was accurate but cumbersome. It used relatively long repeating sections, known as vari-
able number tandem repeat (VNTR) sequences, in which up to 80 nonsense phrases
would appear in a row. Enzymes cut the DNA at places where there is a specific
sequence of bases, so segments containing different VNTRs will be of different lengths.
These DNA segments are placed in a gelatin-like material, then subjected to an electri-
cal field. The smaller segments move through the gel faster, so that after a certain time,
the different strands of DNA will have moved different distances. The DNA is then
tagged with a radioactive tracer. The end result of this process is that the information in
each person’s DNA is reduced to something like a bar code. It has been found that five
segments of DNA containing VNTR are enough to establish identification.
In the early years of the twenty-first century, DNA fingerprinting technology
underwent a significant change. Instead of using the VNTR technique, which is accu-
rate but slow, scientists found that they could use other segments of DNA to establish
identification more easily and quickly. The new technique is based on stretches of
DNA known as short tandem repeats, or STR, which are stretches of DNA where a
nonsense phrase is repeated a small number of times—typically from 2 to 25. The PCR
technique is used to copy a given sample many times, and the primer molecules (see
the “Technology” section above) are built to fluoresce (give off light) when a laser
beam shines on them. • Figure 24-6 DNA fingerprinting
The products of the PCR process are then fed through a small, liquid-filled using the STRS method. Each spike
tube. An electric field causes segments of different lengths to separate from each in the curve corresponds to different
other, a laser is shone on the molecules, and the light they lengths of DNA.
give off is measured. The result is a curve like the one
5 9.3
shown in Figure 24-6, in which each peak corresponds to a 6 7
certain number of repeats of a specific type. These curves 9 10
8
are then compared to standard curves obtained from known
DNA sequences.
Signal
The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) databases

have established the standard for STR analysis in America.
While there are hundreds of STR systems known in the
human genome, it has been found that 13 different STR
sites, spread across many chromosomes, are sufficient to pro-
duce an identification. The probability of two people having
the same DNA sequence in all 13 sites is so low that it is
unlikely that any two people in the United States would have 14000 16000 18000 20000
identical STR profiles. m/z
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Stem Cells, Cloning, and Regenerative Medicine

As we saw in Chapter 23, every cell in the human body (except for sperm and ova) con-
tains exactly the same DNA. The DNA, which first comes together in the fertilized egg,
is copied trillions of times during the period in which the human grows from an embryo
to an adult, and every daughter cell receives a copy of that original genetic material.
Yet even though all cells have the same DNA, all cells do not carry out the same
Science News functions in the body. In an adult, blood cells cannot produce skin, nor can skin cells
produce muscle tissue. This is because early on in the development process, cells start to
become specialized through a process by which genes in DNA are “switched off.” Thus,
Stem Cell Research
although every cell contains the same 30,000 genes, in adult cells different combina-
Go to your WileyPLUS course tions of those genes are turned off, so that in each adult cell only a small fraction of the
to view video on this topic genes actually produce protein enzymes to use in chemical reactions. Once a cell has
become specialized in this way, the DNA copying process can only produce more cells
of the same type. Yet early in the process of development there must be cells in which all
of the genes are still capable of functioning. Such cells are said to be pluripotent, because
they have the potential of developing into any kind of cell in the body. Cells that have
this potential are called stem cells.
When a single fertilized egg begins to divide, all of the genes in the resulting cells
remain potentially active. A few days after fertilization, as shown in Figure 24-7, the
embryo (at this point called a blastocyst) is a simple structure, consisting of a spherical
outer cell wall and an inner cell mass. The outer cells will develop into the placenta when
the embryo implants itself in the walls of the uterus during pregnancy, while the cells in
the inner cell mass will develop into the fetus and, eventually, into an adult human
being. The cells in this inner cell mass, then, will produce all of the cells in the human
body and therefore qualify as stem cells. Because they are found in the embryo, they are
called embryonic stem cells.
Two weeks later, the embryo has reached a stage (known as a gastrula) in which the
cells are no longer pluripotent. By this time the inner cell mass has evolved into three
distinctive layers, as shown in the figure. Each of these layers will eventually produce dif-
ferent types of tissues in the adult. For example, cells from one layer will form organs
such as the liver and lungs, those from another layer bone and blood vessels, and those
from the third layer skin and neurons. This division of cells into specialized types is
called differentiation.
The pattern of differentiation continues throughout the growth process. Even in
adulthood, however, many cells in the body can produce a limited number of different
kinds of tissue. Many different kinds of skin cells, for example, are derived from a single
progenitor. Cells that have this limited ability are called somatic stem cells, or sometimes,
adult stem cells. They form a kind of biological resupply system for the body, supplying
new cells as old ones wear out.
• Figure 24-7 Early stages of
embryonic development. Scientists have known about stem cells for a long time, but it wasn’t
until 1998 that a group under the direction of James Thomson at the
Zygote University of Wisconsin managed to produce a line of cells that, while
reproducing, never differentiated. Up to this time, when scientists tried to
Embryonic get stem cells to reproduce in the laboratory, some process (which we do
Blastocyst
stem cells not yet understand and is still under intense study) would cause them to
turn into specialized tissue such as muscle. By finding just the right chem-
ical environment for his stem cells, Thomson was able to keep the genes in
his cells from being switched off. As the stem cells divided, they retained
their pluripoitency from one generation to the next. A collection of cells
like this is called a stem cell line.
Gastrula The medical potential of stem cells is enormous. Scientists immediately
realized that if they could learn to coax stem cells into turning into differ-
ent kinds of tissue, they could deal with diseases that are now untreatable.
You could imagine, for example, generating new muscle to repair damaged
hearts, new neurons to relieve the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, and
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Stem Cells, Cloning, and Regenerative Medicine | 517
new pancreatic cells to treat diabetes. Thus, worldwide attention was paid to this new
development.
But the new development also raised serious moral and ethical issues in the minds of
many. These issues center around two points. First, in order to obtain embryonic stem cells
(the ones that seem to hold the greatest promise), it is necessary to destroy a blastocyst. In
the United States, this means that the discussion of stem cells immediately became entangled
in the abortion debate, one of the most difficult and insoluble public issues. A second con-
cern has to do with the fear of many people that by manipulating stem cells we are, in essence,
“playing God”—something that many people argue we ought to avoid. We will return to • Figure 24-8 Dolly, the first
this difficult debate in the “Thinking More About” section at the end of this chapter. cloned mammal, was the subject
of great media attention.
Time Life Pictures/Getty Images News and Sport Services

Cloning Dolly the Sheep

In 1997, headlines around the world announced the birth of Dolly
the sheep (Figure 24-8). She was the first cloned mammal in history
and was treated accordingly in the popular media. The birth of Dolly
was the product of research by Ian Wilmut at the Roslyn Institute in
Scotland (Figure 24-9). The end result was a sheep whose DNA was
identical to that of another adult sheep—in effect, Dolly was a one of
a pair of “twins” whose “sibling” had not been born from the same
mother.
Here is how cloning is done: the nucleus, with its cargo of DNA,
is removed from the egg of an adult female. This procedure can be car-
ried out with a microscopic pipette (Figure 24-10). In Wilmut’s work,
the egg came from a Scottish Blackface ewe. A cell from another adult
sheep (a Finn Dorest ewe in this case) was then fused with this egg by
applying a small electrical shock. The egg, which now had a full com-
plement of DNA, began to divide, and each daughter cell had a full
complement of Finn Dorset DNA, as it would have in a normal devel-
opment process. At the appropriate time, the developing embryo was
implanted into the uterus of yet another adult sheep and allowed to
come to maturity.
The key point in this process is that, although we do not know
how to “turn on” the genes that were “switched off” in the develop-
ment process that led to the adult Finn Dorset DNA, the egg seems to be able to do
it. The DNA in the daughter cells of that first processed egg is exactly the same as the • Figure 24-9 Dr. Ian Wilmut, the
DNA that would have resulted from a normal fertilization, which means that all the scientist who carried out the first
genes are “switched on.” How this process is done remains a subject of intense successful cloning of a mammal
and whose work led to Dolly.
research.
Roslin Institute/Phototake
Dolly lived in a media spotlight until her death in 2002. She gave birth to a lamb in
1998 (through the normal procedure). Since her birth, many other mammals have been
cloned—mice, rats, pigs, cows, horses, and even monkeys. In 2004 a strange sect called
the Raelians claimed that they had cloned a human being, but no evidence for this claim
has been brought forth.
The birth of Dolly conjured up visions of armies of identical cloned human beings
being produced. People imagined clones of Michael Jordan making up a “dream team”
in basketball, or, on the darker side, clones being raised to produce organs for transplant.
A moment’s thought should convince you that neither of these nightmare scenarios
is likely to happen. It may be that Michael’s Jordan’s physical attributes contributed to
his skills, but it took years of dedicated work to mold those skills into a champion ath-
lete. As one commentator put it, a Michael Jordan clone would be as likely to be a tall
violinist as a basketball player.
As for the use of clones as sacrificial organ donors, it is necessary to remember that
a cloned human, should one ever exist, would just be an adult whose DNA is identical to
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James King-Holmes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
that of another adult. We have millennia of experience
with people like that—we call them twins. And just as
no one would imagine forcing one twin to donate an
organ to another, we wouldn’t allow that to happen
to clones either. •
Dolly is a result of what is called reproductive
cloning—that is, the act of cloning was carried out
with the intention of producing another adult. As we
shall see in a moment, there is another way in which
cloning can be used. Called therapeutic cloning, this
process stops short of implanting an embryo and is
carried out for medical purposes and to improve
human health and well-being.
The real issues arise, however, when the ability to
produce stem cell lines is combined with the process of
cloning discussed here. If the DNA inserted into an
egg is that of a given individual, then all of the cells in
the blastocyst will have that individual’s DNA, and any
stem cell lines that are derived from that blastocyst will
• Figure 24-10 A photograph have that DNA as well. This means that any tissue
showing foreign genetic material
being introduced into an animal cell.
derived from those stem cells and implanted in the donor will be genetically identical to
that donor’s cells, and will not be rejected by his or her immune system. This is an impor-
tant consideration, because one of the great medical hurdles in transplant operations is
that when a new organ such as a kidney or heart is implanted into a patient, that patient’s
immune system sees it as a foreign object and tries to destroy it. This rejection means that
transplant patients must be given drugs that suppress their immune systems, a process
that has to continue for the rest of the patient’s life.
The expectation is that tissues grown from stem cells derived from that patient’s
DNA will not be rejected by his or her immune system. This possibility means that
sometime in the future it might be possible to grow tissues, and perhaps even entire
organs, that can be transplanted surgically to replace parts that have become diseased or
just worn out. The new field of research has been given the name regenerative medicine.
Many researchers are now trying to use cloning techniques to create human
embryos that survive long enough in the laboratory to produce stem cell lines. Devel-
opment of stem cell lines from embryonic stem cells in this way is called therapeutic
cloning, since the goal of the work is not to produce a new human being but to use the
cells to treat humans that are already alive. Obviously, the same moral and ethical objec-
tions raised against stem cell research apply to this new technique.
Different countries have responded in different ways to this challenge, so that at pres-
ent the world is a kind of patchwork of different regulations. In the United States, for
example, former president George W. Bush ordered that research on stem cells lines devel-
oped before 2002 could be supported by the federal government, but not research on cell
lines developed after that (there is at present no restriction on private funding for research
on other lines). In 2004, the voters in the state of California passed a three billion dollar
referendum that established an Institute for Regenerative Medicine to carry out this kind
of research, while in 2006 the legislature of the state of Maryland passed a proposal to do
the same in that state. In 2009, President Obama lifted the deferral restrictions on fund-
ing stem cell research, an act which is expected to greatly increase funding for the field.
On the international scene, the response has been just as varied. Some countries, such
as Ireland, Norway, and Denmark, ban both reproductive and therapeutic cloning as well as
research on human embryonic stem cells. Others, such as Germany, Austria, France, and
the Netherlands, ban both reproductive and therapeutic cloning but not stem cell
research. Still others, such as Great Britain, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, South Korea, Japan, and
Singapore, allow and even encourage work on therapeutic (but not reproductive) cloning.
Although there is no relation in principle between cloning and stem cells, the fact
remains that the only proven way to obtain stem cells with a single individual’s DNA is
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The New Face of Medicine | 519
through the cloning process. Buoyed by the possibility that we soon may be able to get
around this difficulty by reprogramming adult cells, some scientists argue that this
process, called dedifferentiation, may someday replace cloning as the source of stem cells.
For these scientists, the results of work on human skin cells discussed above point the way
to the future. This argument is bolstered by the fact that many animals (the newt, for
example) can grow new limbs by reprogramming normal cells.
We know that some animals have cells that are able to dedifferentiate. An amphibian
like the newt, for example, can regrow lost limbs by reprogramming its normal cells into
stem cells at the site of the injury. Mammalian cells are not normally able to do this, but
there is some indication that they might be manipulated into doing so. In experiments
with mice in 2004, for example, a group at Scripps Research Institute was able to turn
mouse muscle cells into bone and fat cells by producing a partial dedifferentiation and in
2007 scientists in Japan and at the University of Wisconsin showed that it might be pos-
sible to turn skin cells into the equivalent of embryonic stem cells. How far this process
can be pushed in the future is not clear at this time.
Stop and Think! If scientists are successful in using therapeutic cloning

techniques to grow new organs for implanting, how will people in the future
have to answer the question “How old are you?”
The New Face of Medicine
C OMPUTER-ASSISTED D RUG D ESIGN •

Every medicine is made of one or more molecules. When you take an aspirin or Tylenol,
you are ingesting molecules that play a particular role in your body. Some headache reme-
dies, for example, alter your brain’s chemistry by changing the molecules that go back and
forth between neurons. Medicines work like any other molecules in living systems.
Because of their shape and chemical characteristics, they are able to lock onto other specific
molecules, thus altering your cellular chemistry.
Until very recently, the search for new medicines followed a standard course. Sci-
entists in research laboratories (most commonly in pharmaceutical companies) would
search in nature to find molecules that were useful against a specific condition. The
search was hit or miss, and often scientists would develop drugs that they knew
worked, even if they had no idea why they worked.
The new molecular understanding of living systems is changing all that. If we know
the chemistry behind a certain condition, then we know the molecules that are involved • Figure 24-11 A scientist examines
and their shapes. It becomes possible to use that knowledge to design drugs “from a computer image of a molecule to
scratch,” rather than searching for them at random. evaluate its usefulness as a medicine.
Quick procedures are common in
A simple analogy can be used to understand this new approach to pharmaceuticals.
computer-aided drug design.
Think about a bottle. A bottle is designed to hold fluids, and it does so by having a small
Louise Lockley/Photo Researchers

open neck and a large holding area. You can stop the bottle from taking in fluids by plac-
ing a cork in the narrow opening. In this analogy, the cork plays the role of the medicine
or drug, and the bottle the role of a molecule operating inside your cell. By finding a
cork that fits a particular bottle, you can alter the functioning of that bottle. In the same
way, by finding a “molecular cork” that fits a particular “molecular bottle” in the human
body, you can alter the body’s chemistry.
In terms of this analogy, the traditional search for drugs can be thought of as rum-
maging through a large pile of corks in hope of finding one that will fit a particular bot-
tle. The rain forest, for example, with its enormous biological diversity, can be thought
of as a very large pile of corks through which one can rummage to find the one cork that
fits a particular bottle.
There is, however, another way of achieving the same objective. You can look at the
bottle and measure its neck, then manufacture a cork that will fit it exactly. This new
approach, which must rely heavily on the use of computers, as shown in Figure 24-11, is
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 520
called computer-assisted drug design (CADD). The idea of designing drugs to order is a
fairly old one. In fact, the first such drug was put on the market in 1973. However, with
the flood of new molecular knowledge, this field of technology is expanding rapidly.
The basic design strategy is very simple and can be illustrated by talking about a
molecule called a protease inhibitor, which was designed by several pharmaceutical com-
panies to combat the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, which is the cause of AIDS.
AIDS was the first major disease to come on the scene after scientists learned how to
understand the basic molecular processes of life. Protease inhibitors are the result of the
long scientific study of the HIV virus.
At one stage in the life cycle of HIV, the virus inserts DNA produced from the its
RNA into the DNA of the cell, at which point the cell starts manufacturing material for
new viruses. Several proteins serve as enzymes for this insertion process, and some of these
proteins have to be cut into pieces before they can play their role in making more viruses.
A molecule known as a protease does this cutting. It is shaped something like a large con-
voluted doughnut. The proteins to be cut are pulled into the “hole” of the doughnut,
where the actual cutting takes place when the “doughnut” constricts. If the proteins
cannot be pulled into the doughnut they cannot be cut, and if they cannot be cut, the
virus cannot reproduce.
Starting with this understanding, scientists designed a molecule that would plug the
hole, blocking access for the viral proteins. Protease inhibitors were one of the first sets
of drugs designed with new computer visualization techniques. In 1996, these drugs got
their first clinical trials, and today they have turned AIDS from a disease that inevitably
led to death to one that can be managed, if not cured.
Protease inhibitors represent a technological milestone. More drugs like them will
be designed in the future. In fact, it is not too much to expect that someday the main
business of pharmaceutical companies will not be modifying molecules found in nature,
but designing molecules to do specific jobs in the body, based on the knowledge of how
those molecules work in the body.
Stop and Think! Do you think computer-assisted drug design, when it

becomes commonplace, will weaken arguments for preserving the rain
forest based on potential new supplies of medicines?
CANCER—A D IFFERENT K IND OF G ENETIC D ISEASE •

• Figure 24-12 Scanning electron Cancer, a disease that strikes more than a million Americans every year, occurs when a
micrographs showing the features of group of cells in the body reproduce without restraint. It is not a single disease, but
(a) normal and (b) cancerous rat kidney rather a large collection of diseases that affect different organs in the human body in
cells growing in culture. The normal different ways.
cells adhere to the surface of the
culture dish, forming monolayers of
The human body’s trillions of cells have to maintain an exquisite balance. Complex
flat cells. The cancerous cells over- chemical communication between cells ensures that the mechanism of cell division
grow each other, forming clumps. (see Chapter 21) operates only when new cells are needed and
is turned off when that is not the case. Cancer occurs when
Michael Atkinson
these regulatory processes fail—when genetic defects cause a

cell to divide again and again in a runaway fashion to form a
tumor (Figure 24-12).
Normal cells recognize several different kinds of damage.
Have there been mistakes in DNA duplication during cell divi-
sion? If so, then fix the mistake or kill the cell. Has the DNA
been duplicated fully and only once? If not, fix the mistake or
kill the cell. Are the chromosomes correctly segregated? Is the
cell correctly oriented to partition the chromosomes? At each
transition the cell stops to check whether everything is okay.
Every step of mitosis—the cycle of DNA duplication and
partitioning—has to be accomplished with the extraordinary
(a) (b) fidelity that life demands. If not, kill the cell.
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Cancer occurs when this fundamental guardianship fails. In cancer, the cell cycle
continues unchecked, often despite profound damage to the DNA and to the chromo-
somes. And by ignoring chromosomal damage, additional harmful changes accumulate
in the cell. The result is a terribly damaged cell that just keeps duplicating itself over and
over again, making more copies of the defective cell.
Normally, no single DNA mutation is sufficient to turn a normal cell into a cancer
cell. Rather, a handful of genetic abnormalities—perhaps five or six separate damaged
genes in one single cell—are required. Many of these DNA changes are acquired or at
least accelerated by exposure to mutagenic chemicals or radiation that damage DNA. In
other cases, if some condition exists that causes cells to multiply more often than normal—
a condition produced in the lungs by constant exposure to the chemicals in cigarette
smoke, for example—the chances of a copying accident evading the cell’s protection
mechanisms increases. In these cases, it is usually possible to identify the cause of the
cancer, as smoking has been identified as the major cause of lung cancer.
The situation is considerably worse for some individuals who are born with
genetic defects. In the United States, about a tenth of cancer patients diagnosed each
year have inherited an abnormality in one of their genes. Because these individuals
already carry what is called the “first genetic hit” on the road to cancer in all of their
cells, the probability that any single cell will accumulate the additional hits needed to
make a tumor is much higher than normal. In fact, people with an inherited cancer
gene can carry lifetime risks of developing cancer that may be greater than 80%. The
search for these cancer-related genes is one of the hottest areas of cancer research.
The growing recognition of a genetic basis for many cancers points to new
approaches for its cure. Today the treatment of cancer, while often successful, usually
involves heroic measures such as surgery, radiation therapy, and the use of deadly chem-
icals to remove or kill these rogue cells. But some day that therapy will be tailored to the
specific genetic fingerprint of each person’s cancer. Missing proteins will be synthesized
and supplied; damaged genes will be repaired or bypassed. As we discover and identify a
growing list of inherited and acquired cancer susceptibility genes, we’ll be able to deter-
mine the best preventative treatments for individuals at risk.
One hope for the future involves a technique known as gene therapy, discussed later
in this chapter. Try to imagine what it would be like to walk into a doctor’s office, be
diagnosed with cancer, and be given a virus-laden injection or a nose spray as your only
treatment. Today this seems like a fairy tale, but if the work of molecular biologists in
developing gene therapy is successful, having cancer in the future may be no worse than
having an ear infection at the end of the twentieth century.
Double-Blind Clinical Trials

One of the great problems medical researchers face in testing new medical procedures
such as gene therapy is proving that the therapies actually work. It’s often difficult for
scientists to be certain that the treatment they prescribe is the cause of any improvement
seen in the patient. To see why, imagine that you had a new medicine that you claimed
cured the common cold. Suppose that you tried the medicine on some people with colds
and found that after a few days, all the people who tried the medicine got rid of their
colds. Would this prove that your medicine was effective? Of course not. We know that
the human immune system also battles the common cold, so if you had just left those
people alone and gave them no treatment at all, they’d get better in a few days on their
own. The medicine, as likely as not, was irrelevant.
To deal with these kinds of situations, researchers commonly use what is called the
double-blind clinical trial. It works like this: A group of patients suffering from a partic-
ular disease is separated into two sections. Efforts are made to match the two sections in
terms of age, gender, previous health history, and so on. One group is given the new
treatment while the other group is given a placebo (that is, a sugar pill). For example, if
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the treatment being tested is a new drug, half the people will be given the new drug
while the other half will be given either a placebo or the best conventional treatment.
The patients are not told which treatment they are getting, nor do the physicians treat-
ing the patients know if a particular patient is getting the new drug. Thus neither the
patients themselves nor the physicians who will be judging the efficacy of the treatment
know which patients are receiving the drug and which are not. This is why it is called a
double-blind trial.
In order for a drug to be judged effective, it has to pass a clinical trial of this type.
Unfortunately, new “wonder cures” are often tested without such experimental rigor. For
example, a man recently stood up in a conference and claimed that he had found a cure
for a particular kind of cancer based on a new-age therapy involving meditation and nat-
ural foods. He was asked what evidence he had; his reply was that he had a patient who
had a tumor, and when he started the patient on this treatment, the tumor began to
shrink in size. He was asked, “How do you know that it was your treatment that caused
the tumor to shrink?” His reply: “What else could it have been?”
In fact, tumors left to themselves often grow and shrink in irregular and unpre-
dictable ways. There is no way of knowing, based on this one example, whether the
patient’s tumor would have regressed on its own, as tumors often do. This particular
treatment, like any other, can be validated only by a double-blind trial, with two
groups of people in the same medical condition, some of whom are not receiving the
treatment. Such rigor is rarely found in the sorts of activities that go by the name of
alternative medicine. •
G ENE THERAPY •
Until quite recently, the only thing that physicians could do when faced with a genetic
disease was to treat the symptoms. For example, in a disease such as diabetes, which is
brought about by a failure of the body to produce the protein called insulin, treatment
can run from modifying a patient’s diet to injecting genetically engineered insulin on a
daily basis. More recently, however, scientists have been exploring the possibility of
using gene therapy, a new and potentially revolutionary kind of treatment.
Gene therapy is defined as a procedure for replacing a defective gene with a healthy
one. Although still very much in the experimental stages, it holds enormous promise.
Gene therapy can be done in vitro (that is, the gene can be injected into cells outside of
the body, and the cells can then be introduced into the body) or in vivo (that is, the genes
can be injected into cells in the body). As of this writing, only in vitro therapy has been
accomplished in clinics, but many groups around the world are trying to develop in vivo
techniques.
The first successful gene therapy took place in the early 1990s at the National
Institutes of Health (Figure 24-13). Ashanti de Silva was born with a disease known
as severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Because of faulty coding in one gene
in her DNA, she was unable to produce a protein called adenosine deaminase that
is vital for the functioning of the immune system. Because her immune system did not
work, she had to be quarantined and was able to leave home only to visit her doctor.
She was always sick and had a life that bore almost no resemblance to that of a
normal child.
Children who are born with this defect are extraordinarily sensitive to any kind of
contact with disease. Before the late twentieth century, most SCID babies died within
their first year. In the late twentieth century, a few of these children lived into their teens
by being kept in complete isolation from the external environment—they were called
“bubble babies.”
In September 1990, Ashanti de Silva became the first person to undergo a new kind
of medical treatment. Doctors removed white blood cells from her veins and, using the
new technology of genetic engineering, inserted normal copies of the defective gene.
Over a period of months, the corrected cells were returned to her bloodstream, where
they could produce the missing protein. The results seemed miraculous. From a sick,
reclusive child, she was transformed into a normal, active preteen.
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Courtesy National Institute of Health

White blood cells
1 2
ADA
gene
4 3
(a) (b)
• Figure 24-13 (a) Gene therapy was first used successfully in the treatment of SCID.
(1) White blood cells were removed from the patient. (2) Normal copies of the defective
gene were inserted into the blood cells. (3) The cells were placed in a culture (a medium
of nutrients) to verify that the DNA would replicate and proteins would form in the cell.
(4) The genetically modified cells were returned to the patient’s bloodstream. Because
white blood cells have a relatively short life span, patients must undergo treatment
regularly to maintain a constant supply of normal genes. (b) Ashanti de Silva was the
first patient to be treated with gene therapy.
Unfortunately, despite this promising beginning, gene therapy has not advanced
rapidly in recent years. Many problems have been encountered, all traceable to our lack of
knowledge of the detailed functioning of life at the molecular level. The in vitro technique
that has the greatest promise is the use of a so-called therapeutic virus—a virus carrying
copies of the healthy gene and engineered to match receptors in specific cells in the
human body. The problem is that once the new DNA is inserted into a cell, there is no
guarantee that it will wind up in the proper place in the cell’s DNA. In fact, in some cases
genes have been found to insert themselves into the DNA sequence that governs tumor
suppression, leading to the growth of tumors. In addition, many common diseases (dia-
betes, for example) involve multiple genes, and treating such diseases is currently beyond
the scope of gene therapy techniques. Finally, the field suffered a serious setback in 2001,
when a young man enrolled in a gene therapy clinical trial died. Subsequent investigations
established the fact that he had been improperly enrolled in the trial, so that his death
could not be attributed to gene therapy itself. Nevertheless, the event cast a pall over the
field for many years, a pall from which it is only now recovering.
DNA R EPAIR IN THE C ELL •

The transcription process we described in Chapter 23 shows how a specific sequence of
bases along a DNA molecule is translated into the production of a specific protein in the
cell. We also pointed out that if for some reason the DNA is damaged so that there is
something wrong with the sequence of bases, the protein for which that gene codes will
not be produced.
A common misconception about cellular DNA, one that is often encountered in
popular writings on environmental problems, holds that the DNA in human cells is
extremely fragile and is at the mercy of any kind of influence emanating from the envi-
ronment. In fact, research that has been going on since the 1980s gives us a very differ-
ent picture of DNA. It turns out that not all damage to DNA comes from outside the
cell. In fact, most “hits” come from inside the cell itself. Cellular metabolism, for exam-
ple, depends on respiration—a process with byproducts, some of which may be quite
harmful. The best-known harmful byproducts of cellular respiration are a class of mole-
cules called oxidants, such as the superoxide ion (O–2). These ions are created copiously
inside the cell and, if they make their way to the cell’s nucleus, can cause damage to DNA.
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DNA defect In addition, we ingest many kinds of molecules in our food, some processed,
1 some natural, and these, too, can cause damage to the cells if they find their way
to the cell’s nucleus.
But the story doesn’t end with the damage. Cells possess two different
types of mechanisms for dealing with mistakes in DNA. Both of these mecha-
Enzyme cut Enzyme cut nisms depend on sets of enzymes that wrap themselves around the DNA mol-
2 ecules and move up and down the spiral, looking for abnormalities. When
abnormalities are found, these molecules call up one of two different kinds of
repair mechanisms, depending on the kind of mistake that is found. Thus our
picture of DNA in the cell’s nucleus has to be a dynamic one, involving con-
stant damage followed by constant repair.
Damaged One common kind of mistake in DNA, called a point defect, involves
section removed something like a simple misprint—the substitution of one base for another in
the double helix. For example, the normal code for a particular spot on the
3
DNA might require the base A, but for some reason we find the base T in that
spot. In this case, the double helix will bulge slightly and the patrolling
enzymes will detect the bulge. Other enzymes will come to that spot and snip
out the offending bit of DNA, allowing the normal replication process to
Nucleotides replace the blank spot with the correct base (Figure 24-14).
4
added Other kinds of mistakes also occur. For example, two bases forming one
side of the DNA double helix occasionally stick to one base on the other side.
(This error may result when ultraviolet sunlight damages cells in the skin.)
Alternatively, during the copying process, one strand of DNA can slide down,
leaving a loop sticking out to the side. This kind of error is called a “mismatch.”
When these sorts of mistakes are encountered, a second kind of repair mecha-
5 DNA repaired nism, called mismatch repair, is initiated, and the entire side of the DNA mole-
cule that contains the offending section is removed. As before, the normal
processes of DNA replication then reconstruct the missing stretch of DNA.
• Figure 24-14 DNA repair in the
cell. Patrolling enzymes will identify
defects in the DNA molecule, as indi- Stop and Think! Given what you know about the effect of ultravio-
cated by a bulge in the double helix. let light on DNA, why should you wear sunscreen when you are
Other enzymes will then remove the
outdoors?
damaged section of DNA and allow
the normal replication process to
reconstruct the missing stretch.
What is perhaps most amazing about the way DNA operates in our cells is the sheer
amount of damage that the molecules receive. As we said in the previous chapter, scien-
tists measuring the chemical debris of the repair process estimate that every cell in your
body sustains some 10,000 “hits” per day to its DNA and succeeds in repairing almost
all of them.
In fact, the process of DNA repair seems to be very similar to the process of repair-
ing a house that has been damaged by a hurricane. In the case of the house, you would
be sure that the roof and walls were repaired and the electricity restored before you
started worrying about replacing the carpets. In the same way, in the DNA there seems
to be a hierarchy in the repair mechanisms. Highest in the hierarchy is the repair of
those genes that are actually expressed in the cell in which damage has occurred. The
point is that this repair has to be finished before the cell divides. If it is not, then the
process of replication discussed in Chapter 23 will ensure that every descendant of
the particular cell will contain the defect. Thus, the life of every cell can be thought of
as a race between the repair mechanisms that we just described and the normal process
of mitosis.
One important message to learn from the DNA repair story is that molecules cause
damage to DNA. If the shape of the molecule is right, it will produce a defect, regard-
less of where that molecule came from. It makes no difference whether the molecule is a
product of our society or of nature.
To underscore this point think about pesticides, which are among the most com-
monly cited causes of DNA damage. Some pesticides are produced commercially, of
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Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA | 525
• Figure 24-15 (a) Pesticides are
Richard R. Hansen/Photo Researchers
Michael P. Gadmonski/Photo Researchers

routinely sprayed on crops to cut
down on insect pests, as in this field
of snow peas in California. (b) Plants,
like this common milkweed, have
developed their own pesticides
over the millennia.
(a) (b)
course, but many occur naturally in plants as a defense mechanism (Figure 24-15). In
fact, it is estimated that only about one-tenth of 1 percent of the pesticides that human
beings take in each day are commercially produced, with the rest being a normal part of
the plants we eat. Once inside the body, however, it makes no difference where the pes-
ticide molecule came from. About half of both the synthetic and natural pesticides are
capable of causing cancer in laboratory animals.
Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA

One of the most engaging characteristics of science is that advances in one field often
have profound and completely unpredictable effects in areas that seem, at first glance, to
have no connection with the advance. The new genetic technologies provide a good
example of this process, because it turns out that they can shed light on the complex
issues of human evolution that we will discuss in the next chapter.
In Chapter 21 we saw that there are many organelles inside the cells of eukaryotes
like human beings. One of these, the mitochondria, is believed to represent the result of
a symbiotic event in the distant past. These organelles, where carbohydrates are
“burned” to provide the cell’s energy, retain many characteristics as reminders of their
independent past. One of these characteristics is the fact that mitochondria have their
own small complement of DNA, completely independent of the DNA found in the • Figure 24-16 The DNA in mito-
nuclei of the cell. chondria is in the form of a loop. A
The DNA of mitochondria, usually called mtDNA, consists of about 16,500 base noncoding section of about 1000
pairs, a relatively small amount. As in bacteria, this DNA is arranged in a single loop base pairs is used in the studies
(Figure 24-16). It contains 37 genes and has a small noncoding section at described in the text.
one point in the loop. This section, about 1000 base pairs long, is not used Non-coding
section
to generate proteins, but acts as a kind of marker to tell you when you have
gone all the way around the loop. Think of it as being analogous to the
“12” at the top of a clock face. It is the sequence of bases on this stretch of
DNA that scientists use to uncover the ancestry of modern humans.
The process of fertilization involves the sperm, which contain only
enough mitochondria to allow movement, and the egg, which contains a
full complement of the organelles. The sperm’s mitochondria are destroyed
soon after it enters the egg, so all of the mitochondria in the zygote come
from the egg. This means that mtDNA is transmitted from mother to child.
Whether you are male or female, in other words, you got all of the mito-
chondria in your cells from your mother.
In the language of genealogists, mtDNA descends in the maternal
Genes
line. (As such, it is the mirror image of family names in European cul-
tures, which descend in the male line, since the father’s family name has
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traditionally been taken by all of his children.) You can get an estimate of how long
it has been since two individuals shared a common female ancestor by comparing the
sequence of their mtDNA—the more differences, the farther back in time that
ancestor lived.
Stop and Think! How many differences in mtDNA would you expect
to find between two brothers? between a brother and his sister? between
two half brothers who had the same mother? the same father?
It is important to realize that, like family names, mtDNA lines can disappear. In the
language of genealogists, a family can “daughter out”—have only daughters in one gen-
eration so that the family name doesn’t get passed down. In the same way, women can
“son out”—have only sons, so that their mtDNA does not get passed on. It is important
to realize that in both of these cases, the main DNA in the nucleus descends in an
unbroken line.
Daughtering Out
Suppose you had a village with eight people in it—four men and four women, and that
there were four family names. Assuming that each couple has two children and the birth
of boys and girls is random, what is the shortest amount of time that would have to pass
before everyone in the village had the same last name? In the first generation, you would
expect one couple (call it couple A) to have two boys, one couple to have two girls (call
it couple D), and the other two couples to have one each (call them couple B and C).
After one generation, there would be only three family names—A (with two couples), B,
and C (with one each). Couple D will have daughtered out.
If couple C daughters out in the next generation and one of the couples A has two
sons, then by the third generation there will be only two names—A (three couples) and B.
Thus, after three generations we could easily have a village with only one family name.
In fact, more complex statistical arguments suggest that this is a likely outcome—
that after several generations only one family name will survive. In the same way, lines of
mtDNA will die out over time.
Using the technique of mtDNA analysis, scientists have argued that all living Euro-
peans are descended from a set of seven women who lived from 40,000 to 10,000 years
ago. Some have even claimed to have traced all living humans to a single woman who
lived in Africa 200,000 years ago, although there is a good deal of controversy about this
claim. The woman, should she exist, has been given the name “Mitochondrial Eve.”
More recently, similar analysis of the Y chromosome (the chromosome that is carried by
males) has been undertaken to trace the descent of males.
One point to ponder: if there actually was a “Chromosomal Adam,” he probably
didn’t live at the same time as “Mitochondrial Eve,” and therefore couldn’t have known
her, much less fathered her children. •
Thinking More About Embr yonic Stem Cells
A worldwide debate rages on the ethical implications of The answer to this question depends on what you think
embryonic stem cell research. In the United States, this the blastocyst is. If, as many people do, you believe that
debate is intimately related to the debate over the ethics of human life begins at conception and that even a single-celled
abortion. In essence, the question comes down to this: is the zygote is a human being entitled to the full protection of the
creation of a blastocyst for the purpose of producing stem law, then the destruction of the blastocyst and the harvesting
cells morally allowable? of stem cells is equivalent to murder. If, on the other hand,
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Summary | 527
you believe that an organism consisting of a few hundred specifically for that purpose, where do you draw the line?
cells is no more equivalent to a human being than a blueprint When is the destruction of the embryo not permissible?
is equivalent to a building, then there is a powerful moral After it implants in the uterus? After the second trimester
compulsion to harvest the stem cells in order to relieve the of pregnancy? One second before birth? How do you
real suffering of real people (Figure 24-17). avoid the “slippery slope” and the ultimate devaluing of
This is an example of a conflict that arises from advances in human life?
science but that cannot be answered by the scientific method. A
These are not simple questions, and, unless scientists find
biologist can tell you in great detail what the cellular structure
ways to reprogram somatic stem cells, they will remain with us
and function of the blastocyst is, but she cannot tell you
for a long time.
whether the blastocyst should have legal protection. In the end,
that is a question that is decided on moral, religious, ethical,
and legal grounds. It is the question of when the embryo

becomes a “person” in the legal sense, entitled to full protection
of the law. The answer to this question varies from one society
to the next and has little to do with science. Many people have
wrestled with this question without producing a consensus.
Here are some questions that might help you think about
this difficult issue:
• If you believe that life begins at conception and that the
blastocyst is a potential human life, how do you justify
allowing real human beings to suffer to protect human
beings that are only “potential”? If a treatment for Parkin-
son’s disease based on stem cells were developed in a place
like South Korea, would you ban Americans from seeking • Figure 24-17 Actor Christopher Reeve was
that treatment on moral grounds? Would you put them in paralyzed after a riding accident. Stem cell
jail if they did? research holds the promise of regenerating
• If you believe that it is morally justifiable or even morally damaged tissues, including severed nerve cells
compulsory to harvest stem cells from blastocysts created in people with spinal cord injuries.

Can we cure cancer? • Over the past few decades, the scientific community has begun
to recognize the genetic basis of some cancers. While many
• Cancer strikes more than a million Americans every year. The
current forms of cancer treatment are successful, they usually
National Institutes of Health estimate that the total cost of cancer
involve heroic and dangerous measures such as surgery, radiation
care in the United States was nearly 210 billion dollars in 2005.
therapy, and the use of deadly chemicals to remove or kill these
• Cancer is not a single disease, but rather a collection of diseases
rogue cells.
that affect the various systems and organs of the human body in
different ways. Its genesis lies in the mutation of DNA, and occurs º The hope is that in the near future, cancer therapy will be
tailored to the specific genetic fingerprint of the individual.
when groups of cells in the body reproduce without restraint.
• In most cases, a number of genetic abnormalities are necessary to º Perhaps at some point in the near future, molecular biologists
may develop therapeutic viruses that will render cancer as
cause a cell to become cancerous. Many of these unproductive
innocuous as the common cold.
alterations in DNA are acquired and/or accelerated by exposure
to mutagenic chemicals (e.g., cigarette smoke) or radiation.
S UMMARY •
Our enhanced understanding of genetic mechanisms has led to Stem cells are cells that can grow into any tissue in an adult
new advances in genetic engineering, which involves the insertion organism. Embryonic stem cells can be harvested from the blasto-
of foreign genes into an organism, or the alteration of existing cyst, while somatic stem cells, though less versatile, can be obtained
genes, to create modified life-forms. A variety of genetically engi- from adult tissue. Cloning is a procedure for producing a fertilized
neered plants for improved crops, animals for medical research, egg with the DNA of another adult. Therapeutic cloning is the use
and single-celled organisms for drug production are now avail- of this technology for medical purposes, whereas reproductive
able. Our ability to manipulate genetic material has also been cloning has as its aim the production of a new organism.
applied in DNA fingerprinting, which is used in many legal cases One outcome of modern technology is computer-assisted drug
to establish the identity of individuals from their unique genetic design, in which medicines are designed according to their function
makeup. at the molecular level. Cancer, a suite of diseases that afflict millions
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 528
of Americans, has its basis in the mutation of DNA. DNA repair An unexpected result of modern technology is the ability to
mechanisms are known to operate inside the cell. A promising future trace ancestral lineages through the sequence of mitochondrial
technology is gene therapy, which involves replacing a defective gene DNA.
with a healthy one.
K EY TERMS •
genetic engineering stem cells cancer
DNA fingerprinting cloning gene therapy
D ISCOVERY L AB •
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that helps to compare the DNA identical double strands. Use one of the two double strands that you
of different individuals. A DNA sample is cut into fragments using an made. Cut the strand between G and T bases. The scissors are simi-
enzyme. These segments are sorted according to their size by a lar to a restriction enzyme that cuts the DNA into fragments. Count
process called gel electrophoresis. You can simulate the process of the number of base pairs on each fragment and write them on the
DNA fingerprinting and all you need is a meter stick (or ruler), scis- back of the strand. For example, if you made a total of 100 base
sors, pencil, and a long strip of paper about a meter long. pairs and one of the strands that you cut has 5 base pairs, then if you
Place the meter stick on the paper and write down the DNA subtract 5 from 100 that is how far your strand will travel—that is,
sequence using nitrogen bases ATCG. Use the letters in ATCG in 95 base pairs. The shorter the strand, the farther it can travel on the
any combination to make the DNA sequence. Write the complemen- gel. Arrange all the base pairs according to their size.
tary base on the other side. Space the letters 1 centimeter apart. You Try the same experiment by using different patterns of DNA
will have 100 letters on each side of the double strand. Unzip the sequence. Did you get the same number of bands each time you cut
DNA using scissors to cut between the strands, similar to the enzyme the strand? Can two people have the same DNA sequence? Can this
helicase that splits the DNA. Make a new strand for each by writing method be used to match the DNA of the suspect with the DNA
the matching base pairs on the opposite side. You will now have two from the crime scene? Is this process accurate and reliable?
Complementary
bases
C G A C G G A T T C C A T A ...etc. 100 nitrogen

bases long
G C T G C C T A A G G T A T ...etc.
Write any
sequence
cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cut between
strands
Scissors C G A C G G A T T C C A T A ...etc.
Make
duplicate
strand
C G A C G G A T T C C A T A ...etc.
Two
+ identical
double
Cut C G A C G G A T T C C A T A ...etc. strands
between
G and T G C T G C C T A A G G T A T ...etc.
bases
Count... # of bases # of bases

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1. What is genetic engineering? 10. What cell function appears to go awry in the case of cancer
2. What do restriction enzymes do? How are they used in genetic cells? How can this damage an individual?
engineering? 11. What is a double-blind clinical trial? Why are such trials impor-
3. Describe how the single-celled bacterium E. coli is used to pro- tant in medical research?
duce the insulin to treat diabetes. 12. How can computers be used to design drugs? What advantages
4. Why is it appropriate to use the term engineered to describe would computer-designed drugs have over other drugs?
products such as Roundup Ready crops? 13. What is DNA repair, and where does it take place?
5. What is PCR? What is its role in DNA fingerprinting? 14. Describe the process of cloning. How does therapeutic cloning
6. What is a genetic disease? Give an example. differ from reproductive cloning? Which type produced the sheep
7. What is gene therapy? Is it always successful? named “Dolly”?
8. What is unique about stem cells? Describe the differences 15. Why do antibiotics, which kill bacteria, gradually lose their
between adult and embryonic stem cells. effectiveness? Why do we need new antibiotics?
9. How are viruses used in gene therapy?
1. What genetically engineered products do you currently use or 8. What role does protease play in the reproduction of HIV?
consume? Are they safe? Why or why not? What does a protease inhibitor do? Do these new drugs cure
2. How has genetic engineering improved medical research? (Hint: AIDS?
Think mice.) 9. What is a therapeutic virus? What are some of the problems
3. In what ways is DNA fingerprinting like traditional fingerprint- associated with the use of therapeutic viruses? Has a therapeutic
ing? In what ways do the two differ? virus ever been used successful?
4. What is a stem cell? Why is stem cell research a potentially 10. Why is AIDS so difficult to cure? How does the AIDS virus
valuable area for study? What are the ethical and moral issues attack the body?
that have been raised in response to research utilizing embryonic 11. Some people claim that crystals, prayer, or vitamin supplements
stem cells? can cure cancer. How would you test their claims? If you tested a
5. In what ways does ultraviolet radiation affect a living cell? How method on one person and that person recovered, could you be
is this damage repaired? sure that your “treatment” was a success?
6. Why aren’t stories of miracle cures by new drugs sufficient to 12. How does cellular respiration affect a cell’s DNA? How do
bring these drugs quickly to market? antioxidants protect our cells?
7. What difference would it make if the physicians knew which 13. How might mtDNA play a role in the research of human
group in a clinical trial had treatment? What difference would it evolution?
make if the patients knew?
P ROBLEMS •
1. A pharmaceutical company claims that a new drug cuts in half to in Problem 1. Given a pool of 200 cold sufferers, how would
the time an average patient suffers from a cold. Given a pool of 100 you test this claim in a double-blind clinical trial?
cold sufferers, describe a double-blind experiment that would test 3. Scientists argue that all living Europeans are descended from
this claim. seven women who lived over 10,000 years ago. Estimate how many
2. A second company claims that two different drugs, working in generations of human beings are possible in 10,000 years’ time.
combination, are even more effective than the single drug referred
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Is DNA fingerprinting evidence used in your state or local particular disease or condition. How does that discovery fit in with
courts? If so, investigate how such evidence has been used. the material in this chapter?
2. Find out if one of the more than 200 gene therapy trials is tak- 5. From time to time a new AIDS drug will receive publicity
ing place near you (the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, because of reportedly miraculous results. Should such a drug be
Maryland, maintains a list of such research projects). What disease is made available immediately to AIDS sufferers? Why or why not?
being treated, and what are the results so far? 6. Read the prize-winning novel Arrowsmith by Sinclair Lewis.
3. Read Michael Crichton’s novel Jurassic Park, which describes How does the novel’s hero, Martin Arrowsmith, test his new plague
genetic engineering experiments. Is the scenario realistic? What pre- vaccine? Was this a double-blind procedure? What goes wrong with
cautions might the fictional scientists in the novel have taken? the experiment?
4. Look over the newspapers for the last few months and find an 7. Identify a pharmaceutical company that uses computers to design
announcement that scientists have discovered the gene behind a drugs. Investigate one of their recent projects. Obtain promotional
C24.qxd 9/11/09 5:27 PM Page 530
literature and clinical trial reports to learn how the drug is used and 11. There are many countries that ban or regulate genetically mod-
how it was designed. ified organisms. What is the policy in the United States? Are our
8. How long have genetically engineered foods been consumed? policies based on science? How would you test a genetically modi-
What problems have been encountered? fied organism to ensure its safety?
9. What does the acronym GMO stand for? What percentage of 12. What government organizations oversee the use of genetically
common vegetables are currently genetically modified? engineered organisms?
10. Investigate the history of insulin production. Has genetic 13. Investigate Mitochondrial Eve or Chromosomal Adam. Are we
engineering decreased the suffering of animals and humans? all related?
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25
Evolution
How did life emerge on the ancient Earth?
PHYSICS
Energy for
synthesizing early
life may have come
BIOLOGY from the Sun’s CHEMISTRY
radiation or Earth’s
internal heat.
Miller and Urey
synthesized amino
Life evolves by the
acids by subjecting a
competitive process
mixture of water and
of natural selection.
simple gases to
electric sparks.
ENVIRONMENT
All life on Earth evolved Asteroid

impacts with Earth
The first humans to from single-celled may cause drastic
use stone tools lived
more than two million organisms by the changes in the global
environment and
years ago. process of natural trigger mass
selection. extinctions.
TECHNOLOGY
Recent
exploration of
Mars reveals Fossils chronicle
compelling evidence the history of life
for the existence of on Earth.
abundant water early
in its history.
The appendix
is a vestigial
ASTRONOMY organ in humans; it GEOLOGY
can be removed
without adverse
effects.
HEALTH & SAFETY
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Science Through the Day Day’s End
wonderful day is almost over.

A You close your eyes and relive
some of the sensations; the sights, the
sounds, the smells. But one aspect of
the day stands out—how amazingly
rich with life our planet is. The green
fields and forests that lined the road,
the birds and insects (and people)
along the shore, the tidal pools
crowded with strange, colorful crea-
tures; everywhere you look life
abounds. How could such an incredi-
ble array of living things have devel-
oped on a once-lifeless planet? How
could living things on our planet
include such extraordinary variety,
from seaweed to a whale? The answer
to these questions requires us to think
not only about what life is, but also Bavaria/Taxi/Getty Images
how it got to be the way it is.
The Fact of Evolution

Earth started out as a hot, lifeless ball of molten rock (see Chapter 16). The first rocks
were formed when the planet cooled, but even then Earth looked nothing like it does
today. Water filled the ocean basins, but no fish swam in it and no algae floated on it. All
of the countless millions of different life-forms that would someday develop were absent
in this early stage.
The transition from a lifeless planet to the modern living world came in two stages.
The first stage involved the appearance of the first living cell from lifeless chemical com-
pounds—rock, water, and gases. The laws of chemistry and physics that we have studied
governed that process. The second stage was the multiplication, diversification, and
transformation of that first living cell into the astonishing variety of life that we observe
on Earth now. This ongoing process of change and diversification is called evolution.
Today, virtually all scientists accept evolution as a historical fact. Evolution—the
concept that life has changed over vast spans of geological time—is an observational
phenomenon that is as well established as the fact that Earth goes around the Sun or that
a ball falls when you drop it.
As we shall see later in this chapter, this acceptance of evolution as a fact does not
mean that there aren’t debates about different theories of evolution. For example, scien-
tists debate how fast evolution proceeds and by what mechanisms. But differences in
opinion about these details should not be confused with the unambiguous observational
fact that life has evolved on Earth for billions of years. A tremendous body of scientific
literature is devoted to this subject, and we will discuss here only three of the most
important pieces of evidence for the process of evolution: the fossil record, the evidence
of biochemical similarity, and the occurrence of vestigial organs.
THE F OSSIL R ECORD •

The most dramatic and compelling evidence for life’s changes over geological time
comes from fossils, the tangible evidence of past life. When a plant or animal dies, the
remains are usually lost. A tree will rot, the carcass of an animal will be torn apart by
532
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The Fact of Evolution | 533
scavengers and dispersed, a crab shell will be broken up by the action of the surf. Occa-
sionally, however, an organism is removed quickly from the environment, typically by
being buried in sediments and sealed off from the surface. The hard parts of such an
organism may remain underground for a long period of time.
As time goes by, two things may happen. First of all, the material around the organ-
ism may go through the rock cycle, as described in Chapter 17, and be turned into rock.
Second, minerals in the water flowing through the surrounding area may gradually
replace the calcium and other atoms in the buried hard parts, thus creating a fossil. The
word “fossil” typically brings to mind a large dinosaur skeleton in a museum, but the
term also refers to other records of past life, such as a leaf imprint on mud that changes
into rock, or an insect preserved in amber (Figure 25-1).
The term fossil record refers to all of the fossils that have been found, catalogued, and
analyzed since human beings first began to study them in a systematic way in the early part
of the nineteenth century. The fossil record reveals how different organisms came to be
what they are. The fossil record of horses, for example, includes a series of precursor animals
beginning with one about the size of a cat some 50 million years ago and changing through
many intermediate forms up to modern times (Figure 25-1a). Throughout this sequence of
fossil mammals is a gradual transition from a small, quick animal to a large, grazing one.
The fossil record also contains some sequences of gradual changes in species. In
order to do this, the fossil record has to be very complete, with many thousands of years
of continuous sediments. Such continuity is rare, but in some instances the transitions
from one species to another can be documented (Figure 25-2).
Even so, the major problem with the fossil record is that it is very incomplete. It is
estimated that perhaps only one species (not one individual) out of every 10,000 early life-
forms is represented in the fossil record. Thus, in interpreting the past, we must always be
aware that we are dealing with a very small and select sample of what was actually there.
This sample is strongly biased toward organisms that were more likely to have been buried
soon after death. Thus, we have a much better record of mollusks and clams, which had
hard shells and lived in sediments on the continental shelf, than we do of insects that flew
around primeval forests. Nevertheless, the fossil record provided the first substantial body
of evidence that backed up the notion that life is constantly changing and evolving.
Stop and Think! From the preceding discussion, it is clear that animals
with skeletons and shells will be fossilized more easily than those with soft
bodies. What animals alive today are likely to be found as fossils a million years
from now? Would future paleontologists get an accurate view of present-day
life by examining those fossils?
Three key ideas quickly emerged from studies of fossils. First, the older the rocks,
the more their animal and plant fossils differ from modern forms. Mammals in 5-million-
year-old rocks are not terribly different from today’s fauna, but few species that existed
• Figure 25-1 A wide variety of

Alfred Pasieka/SPL/Photo Researchers
Jonathan Blair/©CORBIS
James L. Amos/CORBIS
fossils is found in rocks from every

continent. (a) Fossil bones reveal that
the ancestors of modern horses were
small and agile. (b) A leaf fossil was
preserved in the fine sediments of
what was once a shallow lake. (c) A
fossil insect was trapped in tree sap
and thus preserved in the hardened
residue, amber.
(a) (b) (c)

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534 | C HAP TE R 25 | Evolution
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History
• Figure 25-2 Fossil trilobites collected from a continuous sequence of 450-million-year

old rocks near St. Petersburg, Russia, reveal a gradual increase in the length of eye stalks
over a 3-million-year span. The longer eye stalks allowed these arthropods to bury them-
selves deeper in soft mud, and thus escape primitive predatory fish.
50 million years ago would be recognizable today, and dinosaurs rather than mammals
were dominant 150 million years ago. Similar patterns occur in shells, plants, fish, and all
other forms. Often the earlier forms appear to combine characteristics of later organisms.
Ancient insects preserved in amber, for example, show some forms that may be interme-
diate between ants and wasps. Similarly, early mammals have general mammalian charac-
teristics, but not the specialized structures that evolved more recently in flying bats,
swimming whales, or hopping rabbits.
Fossils also display general trends in overall complexity of form. All known fossils
from before about 570 million years ago are either single-celled organisms or simple
invertebrates such as jellyfish. Marine invertebrates with hard parts—mollusks, coral,
and crustacea, for example—dominate the record for the next 200 million years or so.
Simple land animals and plants appear next, followed by flowering plants and a much
greater variety of large land animals. This long-term trend toward increasing complexity
of organization is consistent with all theories of evolution.
Finally, the fossil record proves beyond a doubt that most species that have lived on
Earth have died out and are now extinct. Scientists estimate that for every species on the
planet today, perhaps a thousand species have become extinct at some time in the past. In
fact, the average lifetime of a species in the fossil record seems to be a few million years.
Species, like individuals, are born, live out their life, and die. This fact alone is ample evi-
dence that some natural mechanism must exist to produce new species as the old disappear.
THE B IOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE •

We all carry within us evidence for the fact of evolution—a molecular record of our
descent from the first primeval cell. The DNA of each living organism represents the
sum of all the changes in the DNA that connect that organism back to the DNA in the
first forms of life. If we can learn how to “read” the DNA in living organisms, then we
should be able to deduce some things about the way those organisms developed.
According to the standard picture of evolution, for example, human beings and the
great apes had a common ancestor about 7 or 8 million years ago. Much farther back in
time, about 250 million years ago, human beings and reptiles shared a common ancestor.
DNA changes slowly under the influence of mutation and natural selection. The fact that
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Chemical Evolution | 535
we’ve had less than 10 million years for human DNA and ape DNA to differentiate, com-
pared to 250 million years during which human DNA differentiated from the reptiles,
suggests that there ought to be more similarities between human and primate DNA than
there are between DNA of humans and reptiles.
DNA strands from two different organisms cannot always be compared directly, but
from Chapter 23 we know that the proteins in cells are related to DNA in much the same
way as a negative is to a photograph. You can get the same kind of information by compar-
ing sequences of amino acids along proteins as you can by comparing base pairs along the
DNA molecule. In a protein called cytochrome C that every living cell uses in its energy
metabolism, for example, the difference between humans and chimpanzees (our closest rel-
ative) is nonexistent. The cytochrome C molecules from the chimpanzee and human are
exactly the same. As you move farther and farther away from human beings in the main
classification scheme (see Chapter 20), the differences become greater. In a rattlesnake, for
example, there is an 86% overlap in the molecules, whereas in common brewer’s yeast only
58% of the molecules are the same. The fact that our DNA is very similar to those organ-
isms with which we shared the most recent ancestors is one of the most important pieces of
evidence for evolution. If, for example, each plant and animal was created separately and
specially, there would be no reason at all to see this kind of progression.
EVIDENCE FROM ANATOMY: VESTIGIAL O RGANS •

Physical structures within our own bodies provide more compelling evidence for the
fact of evolution. We have a number of internal features that serve no useful function
whatsoever—vestigial organs that are reminders of our mammalian ancestors. Organs
that are well-adapted to their environment, surprisingly, do not provide unambiguous
evidence for evolution. The perfection of the human eye, for example, was often claimed
in the nineteenth century as proof of God’s special creation of human beings. The evi-
dence for evolution comes instead from considering organs that have no use or are even
Tom Brakefield/The Image Works

harmful to the organism in which they are found.
Consider the human appendix, a thin, closed tube connected to the upper part of the
large intestine. This three-inch-long organ has no proven function in modern humans,
and it actually poses a threat to every one of us. Before the development of surgery, inflam-
mations of the appendix were often fatal. The pressures of natural selection would never
lead to the development of a harmful organ in a human being, yet the appendix sits there
at the end of everyone’s intestines. Unless the appendix has some as-yet-undiscovered
function, it is hard to understand how this organ could come to be.
Vestigial organs such as the appendix can be explained by recognizing that they once
had a function that they no longer have, and are in the process of disappearing. In a sense,
modern human beings are a snapshot in a continuous process in which the appendix per-
haps once served as an important part of the digestive system but is no longer needed.
Numerous examples of vestigial characteristics have been identified, and they provide • Figure 25-3 The wings of a
important evidence against the argument that every organ in every creature is part of a penguin are vestigial characteristics,
grand design. Penguins have vestigial wings now used to swim (Figure 25-3), some whales because they can no longer be
have tiny internal vestigial hind legs, and humans have vestigial tailbones and vestigial used to fly.
muscles to wag them. Another striking example of vestigial organs is found in species of
cave-dwelling worms that evidently evolved from surface-dwelling worms with eyes. They
now have no need of eyes, but they still have vestigial eye sockets under their skin.
Chemical Evolution
Chemical evolution, the first step in life’s long history, is the process by which rocks,
water, and gases chemically combined to become the first living cell. The central question
of chemical evolution is how one can start with the simple chemical compounds that were
present in the early Earth and wind up with an organized, reproducing cell. This area of
research is relatively new and immensely challenging; few clear answers have yet emerged.
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Tungsten electrodes The first important experiment relating to chemical evolution was
performed in 1953 by Stanley Miller (b. 1930) and Harold Urey
(1893–1981) at the University of Chicago. The novel apparatus of
the Miller-Urey experiment is sketched in Figure 25-4.
Miller and Urey argued that Earth’s early atmosphere contained
Electric
sparks simple compounds composed principally of hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, and nitrogen—compounds including water vapor (H2O),
methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), and ammonia (NH3). Miller and
Gas Urey mixed these materials together in a large flask that was half-
mixture 5-Liter filled with water. Then, realizing that powerful lightning would
Flask have laced the turbulent atmosphere of the early Earth, they caused
electrical sparks to jump between electrodes in the flask. After just a
few days, they noticed that the liquid in the flask became cloudy and
Condenser started to turn a dark-brown color. Analysis revealed that this
brownish liquid contained a large number of amino acids, carbohy-
Stopcocks for
withdrawing drates, and other basic building blocks of life (see Chapter 22).
samples during run Thus, as early as the 1950s, experiments had shown scientists
that natural processes in the oceans of the early Earth might generate
the modules of life’s important molecules. Since that time, it has been
found that energy sources such as ultraviolet radiation (from the Sun)
and heat (for example, from volcanoes) will also produce key biomol-
500-CC
Flask Boiling ecules. In subsequent experiments at the University of Chicago and
10 cm
water dozens of other laboratories, scientists have used modified Miller-
• Figure 25-4 The Miller-Urey Urey experiments to more closely match what scientists now think
experiment. Several of the chemical were primitive Earth conditions, for example, by using nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide
compounds thought to have been (CO2) instead of ammonia and methane, and adding common minerals to the mix. These
present on the early Earth were experiments reveal how easy it is to make all sorts of organic molecules, including lipids
mixed and subjected to electrical
discharges. Within a few weeks,
and bases, as well as complex substances such as long protein chains and nucleic acids.
amino acids had formed. Origin-of-life researchers conclude that this scenario has important implications for
the early Earth. For perhaps several hundred million years, the hypothesis goes, the
amino acids and other molecules created by the Miller-Urey process were concentrated
in the ocean, producing a rich broth, sometimes called the primordial soup. Additional
organic molecules were undoubtedly added to this chemical mixture in the early oceans
by other sources, such as meteorites and comets, which are known to carry carbon-based
molecules, and through reactions with hot, mineral-rich waters near volcanoes on the
ocean floor. These enrichments of organic chemicals in Earth’s early oceans required
nothing beyond normal chemistry. By the 1990s, this small piece of the chemical evolu-
tion puzzle was well understood.
Our greatest gap in the evolutionary story comes next. Could the countless molecules
floating in random patterns in the ocean have organized themselves into a functioning,
reproducing cell? While mechanisms such as condensation polymerization (see Chapter 10)
can join simple organic molecules together, sunlight tends to break these bonds apart.
We do not know how the first cell formed, but a number of creative ideas are help-
ing to close this significant gap in our knowledge. We know, for example, that lipid mol-
ecules (see Chapter 22) can form an oil slick on the ocean’s surface that might have
shielded life from the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation, just like sunblock. In this environment
polymers and other complex molecules might have grown and diversified. If the con-
centration of organic molecules was high enough, then the sunlight breaking up these
molecules would not have been able to overcome their formation rate, and the concen-
trations might have increased even more.
Mineral surfaces, which can adsorb and concentrate organic molecules, may have
also played a key role in selecting the molecules of life. For example, some scientists have
proposed that the first cell may have evolved in a tidal pool lined with adsorbent clay
minerals. If it turns out that something like a protected tidal pool is necessary for the
development of life, then life may be relatively rare in the universe. Our present under-
standing is that the formation of a terrestrial planet together with a large moon (and,
thus, the generation of significant tides) is an unlikely event.
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Stop and Think! Many science fiction stories, from Frankenstein to

Jurassic Park, revolve around the ability of humans to synthesize life.
How close did Miller and Urey come to synthesizing life? Do you think
scientists will ever be able to synthesize living cells beginning with
organic molecules?
B LACK S MOKERS •
In 1979, biologists diving to the deep-ocean floor in the submersible Alvin discovered
an unexpected diverse ecosystem surrounding vents of mineral-rich hot water, called
black smokers, near mid-ocean volcanoes (Figure 25-5; see Chapter 17). The remarkable
bacteria that thrive in these extreme environments obtain their energy from Earth’s
internal heat, rather than the Sun. These bacteria, among the most primitive life-forms
known, may be closer on the evolutionary tree to the first living cell than any organisms
living at Earth’s surface.
This discovery has led many scientists to wonder if deep, dark, hydrothermal zones
on the ocean floor might have been the site of life’s origin. These extreme environments
are not only rich in the chemical energy needed to drive chemical evolution, but they
also abound in mineral surfaces that are known to select, concentrate, and organize
organic molecules into polymers and other large structures. Some researchers now spec-
ulate that warm, gas-rich water circulating through cracks and fissures near mid-ocean
volcanic ridges provided an ideal protected environment for the origin of life. The sur-
face of the early Earth was repeatedly bombarded by large meteorites, was constantly
bathed in harmful ultraviolet radiation, and was continuously blasted by intense light-
ning. Deep-ocean environments were protected from these environmental insults.
Black smokers also provide an ideal chemical environment for organic synthesis,
because water at high temperature and pressure has physical properties very different
from those that are familiar to us. For one thing, water at these extreme conditions is
much less polar (see Chapter 10) and thus may facilitate the synthesis of amino acids,
lipids, and other key biological molecules, while promoting their assembly into larger
structures by polymerization reactions. One of the authors (RMH) is now engaged in
experiments to understand how organic chemical reactions proceed—and how life may • Figure 25-5 Diverse colonies of
have originated—in hot, pressurized water. living things thrive three miles under-
water at a mid-ocean volcanic vent
near the mid-Atlantic Ridge. Some
RNA E NZYMES • researchers think these energy-rich
environments might have supported
Today’s cells run most of their chemistry by using protein enzymes, the first steps in life’s origins.
which, in turn, are coded for in DNA. On the other hand, in order to
B. Murton/Southampton Oceanography Centre/Photo Researchers, Inc.
turn the DNA into a “working” protein, other enzymes are necessary.
This cycle gets us into a kind of chicken-and-egg controversy. You need
DNA to make the proteins, but you need the proteins to make the
DNA. How could the first living cell have solved this dilemma?
Scientists have attempted to resolve this problem with a number of
intriguing solutions, all of which share one assumption: that the very ear-
liest life-forms had a rather different (and much simpler) chemistry than
the ones we see around us today. The problem facing scientists is some-
thing like trying to reconstruct the Wright Brothers’ first airplane by
examining a modern jetliner. Many of the original design features have
been replaced by more efficient components. Similarly, the first cell’s
chemical mechanisms, being rather inefficient, may have been largely
replaced when the DNA-RNA-protein system evolved later. Thus we do
not see these chemical mechanisms in living systems today, but perhaps
we can deduce their properties from studies of biochemistry.
One particularly interesting observation is that some kinds of
RNA molecules have been found to act as enzymes for chemical
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:39 PM Page 538
reactions, in addition to their usual role as nucleic acids. This behavior suggests one way
that the present system of cell chemistry could have evolved. RNA molecules catalyzed
reactions that created proteins, and, over time, the proteins necessary for the develop-
ment of the more complex (and presumably more efficient) DNA coding system were
developed. Alternatively, other scientists have suggested that some kind of clay or other
inorganic mineral may have provided sites for chemical reactions, as well as catalytic
properties to help those reactions along.
Speculative ideas about black smokers and RNA enzymes are not necessarily exclu-
sive. It may well be that the best place for chemistry involving RNA as an enzyme to
occur is a deep-ocean fissure. What is certain is that life’s chemical evolution will remain
an exciting challenge for scientists.
THE WINDOW OF O PPORTUNITY •

Whatever the chemical processes were that led to the first organism capable of repro-
ducing itself, we know that those processes had to take place rapidly. We know that
Earth, like all the other planets, went through the period of the great bombardment (see
Chapter 16). During this period, large chunks of debris fell onto the planets from space,
bringing enormous amounts of energy with them. An impact involving an asteroid sev-
eral hundred miles across would heat Earth enough to boil off most of the oceans—
most of the planet would literally be sterilized by such an impact, and the chances are
that any life that might have developed would be wiped out. Therefore, the process that
led to the ancestors of all present life on Earth probably could not have begun until after
the last big impact. The best estimate for this date is about 4 billion years ago.
On the other hand, recent discoveries have convinced some paleontologists that as
early as 3.85 billion years, life was not only present on Earth but flourishing. In western
Greenland ancient rocks have been found to contain trace amounts of carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus—a suite of the essential elements of life. No process other than
life is known to concentrate those distinctive elements, so if these data hold up to
scrutiny by other scientists it means that the first cell must have appeared soon after the
last big impact during the great bombardment.
THE F IRST C ELL •

Think about the unique status of the very first cell on Earth. It need not have been par-
ticularly efficient in using the chemicals found in its environment—after all, it had no
competition. There were no predators and no other life-forms to compete for the abun-
dant stock of organic molecules that enriched the early ocean. Once the first cell formed,
it may have multiplied rapidly.
Biologists have suggested that the special characteristics of the first cell may explain
one of the great mysteries of modern biochemistry, the fact that living things today con-
tain only 20 different kinds of amino acids (see Chapter 22). The notion is that, perhaps
by chance or perhaps because this particular combination gave them a competitive edge,
some early cells contained only these amino acids and it was the descendants of these
cells that managed to dominate Earth. In this way of thinking, the combination of these
20 amino acids is something of a “frozen accident,” one of perhaps many chance events in
the formation of life on Earth. Like so many other questions about the origin of life, this
one will remain unanswered until we know more about the subject than we do now.
Cell Division
The first cell was a microscopic organism, but it may not have taken long for that
first bit of life to spread great distances around the globe. To get a feel for this
process, imagine how long it would take to fill up the Mediterranean Sea starting
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with a single microscopic cell that divides once a day, assuming all cells survive and
continue to divide.
To get an answer, we must estimate the volume of an ordinary bacterium and com-
pare it with the volume of the Mediterranean Sea. In Chapter 21 we learned that a typical
bacterium is about a thousandth of a centimeter across, so its volume is approximately
11>1000 cm 2 3 ⫽ 10⫺9 cubic cm

A recent world atlas gives the surface area of the Mediterranean Sea as about 2.5 million
square kilometers, with an average depth of 1.4 kilometers, for a total volume of
2,500,000 km2 ⫻ 1.4 km ⫽ 3,500,000 km3 ⫽ 3.5 ⫻ 106 km3

The question thus boils down to how many times you would have to double a 10–9 cm3
bacterium to fill 3.5⫻106 km3. To make things easier, we convert cubic kilometers to
cubic centimeters:
1 km ⫽ 105 cm 1030
so
1024
1 km3 ⫽ 1015 cm3
Number of bacteria
The total volume of the Mediterranean in cubic centimeters is 1018
3.5 ⫻ 106 km3 ⫻ 1015 cm3>km3 ⫽ 3.5 ⫻ 1021 cm3

1012
How many bacteria would it take to fill this volume? We divide the
immense volume of the Mediterranean Sea by the tiny volume of a
single bacterium: 106
3.5 ⫻ 1021 cm3>10⫺9 cm3 ⫽ 3.5 ⫻ 1030 bacteria
Starting with a single bacterium on the first day, there would be two 20 40 60 80 100
on the second day, four on the third, eight on the fourth, and so on. Time (days)
After about three weeks there would be more than a million bacteria, taking up only about • Figure 25-6 The number of bac-
a thousandth of a cubic centimeter. teria grows rapidly, in what scientists
call an exponential curve. In a matter
Day by day, however, the number would increase geometrically. After two months there
of months, a single cell whose
would be more than 1018 bacteria; after three months 1027 individuals, occupying more than descendants divide once a day
10,000 cubic kilometers. And in just 10 days more—only 100 days after the first cell began could easily populate a large ocean.
to divide—the Mediterranean Sea would be completely filled with bacteria (Figure 25-6). (Note that the vertical scale is in
Naturally, no body of water could be “completely filled” with bacteria. In addition, factors of 10, or a logarithmic scale).
early life probably did not spread quite this fast, nor was the process so regular and pre-
dictable. But the implication is clear. While it may have taken hundreds of millions of
years for the first cell to evolve, a large number of descendants of that first cell could
have spread throughout the world’s oceans relatively quickly. •
Did Life Also Originate on Mars?

The development of life on Earth would not have been possible without the presence of liq-
uid water on the planet’s surface. As we saw in Chapter 16, there was probably liquid water
on the surface of Mars during its early history. In fact, some astronomers argue that the
entire northern hemisphere of the planet was covered by an ocean and that the wet period of
Martian history may have lasted as much as a billion years. After this period, the planet lost
most of its atmosphere and hydrosphere to space and became the barren world it is today.
This scenario raises an interesting possibility. Since life on Earth seems to have
developed rapidly once the great bombardment came to a halt, could the same thing have
happened on Mars? Could life have evolved in those Martian oceans, only to perish when
the oceans disappeared? If so, there should be fossil evidence to mark its existence.
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Courtesy NASA
Time Life Pictures/NASA/Getty Images News and Sport Services

(a) (b)
• Figure 25-7 (a) This 4.5-billion-year-old rock, labeled meteorite ALH84001, is believed to
have once been a part of Mars and has been claimed to contain fossil evidence that primitive life
may have existed on Mars more than 3.6 billion years ago. The rock is a portion of a meteorite
that was dislodged from Mars by a huge impact about 16 million years ago and that fell to Earth
in Antarctica 13,000 years ago. (b) Micrographs of the Mars meteorite revealed tiny structures
reminiscent of bacteria. Subsequent analyses showed that these objects are layered minerals
viewed end on.
In 1996 a team of scientists suggested that they had found such evidence in a
meteorite that was blasted off the surface of Mars millions of years ago. The meteorite,
labeled ALH84001 (because it was the first meteorite collected in 1984 from Allan
Hills region of Antarctica), contains tiny gas bubbles whose chemical composition
matches that of the Martian atmosphere (Figure 25-7a). The idea is that millions of
years ago a large meteorite on our sister planet blew this rock fragment into space from
which, after millions of years of wandering in the void, it fell to Earth. It is one of sev-
eral dozen known meteorites thought to come from Mars.
In a lively press conference and subsequent Science article in August 1996, scien-
tists from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and other lab-
oratories presented several lines of evidence that might point to past life. They
observed complex organic molecules laced through the meteorite, magnetic mineral
grains typical of those deposited by Earth bacteria, isotopic compositions characteris-
tic of living things, and tiny structures reminiscent of bacteria (Figure 25-7b). They
noted that any one of these features, by itself, would be little cause for excitement.
Carbon-rich molecules, for example, are well known in meteorites and comets, as are
magnetic grains of iron minerals. But some NASA scientists argue that these observa-
tions, taken together, “are evidence for primitive life on early Mars.”
Over time, other scientists made additional observations that called these initial
claims into question, and few scientists now accept the original interpretation. The “fos-
sils,” for example, turned out to be layered mineral deposits viewed end on. Neverthe-
less, the excitement generated by the possibility that Martian life had already been
discovered led NASA to initiate a program in astrobiology —the search for the origin and
distribution of life in the universe. Thanks to the support of NASA’s new Astrobiology
Institute, hundreds of scientists are studying processes that may have led to life on
Earth, Mars, and other worlds. •
Stop and Think! Think about the possibility that life exists on planets
orbiting the billions of stars in each of the billions of galaxies. Would such
an abundance of life affect your view of life on Earth? Should we spend
more tax dollars to search for extraterrestrial life?
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Natural Selection and the Development of Complex Life | 541
Natural Selection and the Development of Complex Life

Once we get beyond the time when the first cell formed, our understanding of how life
developed becomes much more detailed and precise. This understanding is due in large
measure to the work of one man, Charles Darwin (1809–1882). His On the Origin of
Species, published in 1859, is arguably one of the most influential books ever written. In
it he sets forward a view of the development of living things that, since his time, has
been expanded and developed to the point where it is fair to say that it is the single
theory that unifies all of biology. A biochemist working on the transport of particular
molecules across the cell membrane and a zoologist working on the ecology of a tropi-
cal lake will both share the central ideas of Darwin’s theory, and hence will have a common
vocabulary and a common way of attacking problems. Darwin’s theory was influential
and controversial because it identified a simple mechanism for evolving complex multi-
cellular life-forms from single-celled life. His entire theory is built around one central
concept—natural selection.
NATURAL S ELECTION •
The easiest way to understand what Darwin meant by natural selection is to think first
about the process that he called artificial selection. Farmers have known for millennia that
the way to get bigger fruit, healthier plants, or animals with more meat on them is to carry
out a conscious process of breeding. (Think back to Mendel’s experiments discussed in
Chapter 23.) If you want large potatoes, you should plant the eyes from only the largest
potatoes in any given crop. Over long periods of time, this practice will give you a new
variety of potato that is significantly different from the one you started with. Because
human choice, not nature, drives this process, it is given the name of artificial selection. It
explains how you can get animals as different from each other as longhorn and Angus cat-
tle, or Chihuahuas and Great Danes, from the same ancestral stock (Figure 25-8).
If human beings can introduce such wide-ranging changes in living things, Darwin
reasoned, then nature should be able to do the same. The mechanism he proposed,
which he called natural selection, depends on two basic facts for its operation:
1. Every population contains genetic diversity. The individual members of any population
possess a range of characteristics. Some are able to run a little faster than others, some
have quicker reactions than others, some are more resistant to new diseases, some
have a slightly different color and so are better able to hide from predators than oth-
ers, and so forth.
CMCD/PhotoDisc, Inc.
Jeanne White/Photo Researchers
Jeanne White/Photo Researchers
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure 25-8 Contrasting breeds of dogs, including (a) Collie, (b) Bulldog, and (c) Chihuahua,
illustrate the changes possible with artificial selection.
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:39 PM Page 542
Art Wolfe/Photo Researchers, Inc.

2. Many more individuals are born than can possibly sur-
vive. In nature, most individuals die in infancy,
before they have a chance to reproduce. Therefore,
those characteristics that make it more probable that
a given member of the population will live long
enough to reproduce will tend to be passed on to a
greater percentage of the population’s subsequent
generations.
Think about a hypothetical example to see how nat-
ural selection works. Suppose an island supports a certain
number of birds, and suppose that the environment of
this island is such that having a color that blends in with the
local green vegetation makes it easier for those birds to avoid
their predators. Just by chance, some members of the bird
population will have colors that match the colors of local
leaves and trees better than others (Figure 25-9). As we saw
in Chapter 23, the birds’ DNA would determine this prop-
erty in those particular birds.
Better-camouflaged green birds will be less likely to be
• Figure 25-9 Cobalt-winged eaten by predators, and, therefore, will be more likely to survive to adulthood and mate.
parakeets are found in the Amazon You would expect, then, that the particular genes that give this advantage will be more
Basin in the northern part of South likely to be passed to the next generation. In effect, natural forces influence the genes
America. Their green coloration pro- that are propagated in the next generation. In this case, the selection is based on the
vides excellent camouflage in the
rain forest.
color of the feathers.
If this process goes on for a long period of time, most of the bird population would
eventually begin to share those advantageous genes for green feather color, though genes
for other colors could also persist. Natural selection works this way gradually to modify a
gene pool, just as populations of farm animals now share genes for rapid growth and meat
production. Nature “selects” those characteristics that will be propagated in any given
species. A structure, process, or behavior that helps an organism survive and pass on its
genes is called an adaptation.
Natural selection also provides a mechanism for a species to change its traits in
response to changes in the environment. If prolonged drought causes the local leaf color
to change from primarily green to brown, for example, then darker-colored birds in the
population may have more success in breeding, and the average color may change
accordingly, in response to natural selection.
Natural selection, it should be remembered, is neither as controlled nor as rapid as
artificial selection. It’s always possible that birds that do not carry the selected gene will,
in some generations, be more successful at mating than those who do. Over the long
haul, however, the selective advantage granted by color will win. Thus Darwin envi-
sioned natural selection as a process that operates over long time periods to produce
gradual changes in populations, not a process that can explain short-term variations in a
few individual traits. It’s important to understand that natural selection relates to
changes in populations over time. Each individual in that population retains the DNA it
was born with and does not change in response to environmental stresses.
The Reception of Darwin’s Theory

Charles Darwin formulated the basic outline of his theory of natural selection in 1838, but
he waited more than 20 years to publish his findings. This delay was not simple procrasti-
nation. He realized that the central precepts of his theory would cause a furor. Eventually,
learning that another British naturalist, Alfred Russell Wallace, had developed similar ideas,
Darwin hastened to get his On the Origin of Species into print (Figure 25-10).
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Gustoimages/Photo Researchers, Inc.

(a) (b)
• Figure 25-10 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (a) first appeared
in 1859 and quickly sold out. Charles Darwin (b) prepared several revised versions of the
book over the next two decades.
Written in accessible prose and published in a widely available edition, his theory
evoked intense reactions. Some theologians denounced the book for its denial of a
miraculous creation and relatively short Earth history, which they claimed were
demanded by a literal reading of the Bible.
Equally disturbing to Darwin was the reaction of many readers who embraced the
“theory of evolution” as scientific evidence for God’s hand in the progress of nature
and thus proof of the human being’s moral and spiritual superiority. They seized Darwin’s
discovery as an example of God’s wisdom and beneficence. Some intellectuals of the
late nineteenth century even went so far as to cite Darwin in their defense of an eco-
nomically and socially stratified society—the most “fit” individuals rose to the top of
society, they claimed.
Ironically, Darwin never intended his theory to suggest the idea of inevitable
“progress” in nature—only inevitable change. Indeed, Darwin didn’t use the word “evo-
lution”—a word that connotes improvement—in the first edition of his book, nor did he
address the question of human origins in On the Origin of Species. Far from being guided
by a divine hand, he saw natural processes as violent and amoral—a constant struggle for
survival in which the ability to reproduce fertile offspring was the only measure of success.
He observed successful natural strategies that his contemporaries would have viewed as
repulsive in any moral sense—species whose females devour their mates, species whose off-
spring eat each other until just a few survive, and parasites and predators that kill without
thought in the frantic quest for energy to survive. To Darwin, human ascendancy seemed
an evolutionary accident rather than a divine plan, and he saw no sign of God in the bru-
tal process of natural selection. Nevertheless, in his own concluding words:
There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally
breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has
gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless
forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. •
THE STORY OF LIFE •

As soon as the first cell split into two competing individuals, natural selection began to
operate. In that early environment, where the first cells were surrounded by energy-rich
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molecules and very few neighbors, competition would not have been very intense.
Before long, however, genetic mutations would have started to occur and some cells
would have been different from others. Some of those differences involved the effi-
ciency with which cells were able to utilize the molecules that they found in their envi-
ronment. Certain cells, for example, might have been able to get energy more quickly
from those molecules (and therefore reproduce faster) than others. Over time, the ben-
eficial mutations would come to be shared throughout the entire population by the
process of natural selection.
At this early stage, just as in today’s life-forms, the vast majority of mutations and
the resultant differences were not beneficial. Random changes in DNA, after all, are not
likely to produce organisms that can interact with their environment more efficiently
than their fellows. Nonbeneficial mutations died out quickly, and only beneficial muta-
tions remained. This process is a little like our view of movies from the 1930s and 1940s.
A great many poor films were made in those days, but we don’t watch them anymore.
What we remember and preserve are the most successful films, such as Citizen Kane and
Casablanca. In the same way, only the “greatest hits” of all the mutations survived into
the future.
Over time, you would expect the descendants of that first cell to spread around
Earth’s surface and to occupy most of the oceans. Some scholars have suggested that
this spread may have taken as little as a few years, given the lack of competition for the
environmental resources. (The results we calculated in the “Science by the Numbers”
section of this chapter suggest that such a scenario might be reasonable.) In this process
of spreading, some cells would wind up in different environments than others. Some, for
example, would be in warm tropical waters, while others would be in the chilling Arctic.
Some would be in deep oceans, while others would be in shallow water next to the
shore. Each of these environments would exert slightly different pressures on the cells.
An adaptation that might be very advantageous in the tropics, for example, might not be
advantageous near the poles, and vice versa. The driving force of natural selection, cou-
pled with the fact that many different environments existed on our planet, would quickly
have produced a number of very different living things. Thus we would expect the
appearance of diversity—the process of speciation—to have begun quite early in the his-
tory of life.
Our knowledge of this early period of life is limited by the fact that we have very lit-
tle in the way of hard physical evidence that pertains to it. As you might guess, it is diffi-
cult to find fossils of single-celled or microscopic organisms, though scientists have
found them, and they have even unearthed a few cases of fossil bacteria caught in the act
of dividing (Figure 25-11).
The best guess as to what went on until about a billion years ago is that the new
• Figure 25-11 Typical fossils of varieties of single cells spread around the world and differentiated, driven all the while
early hard shelled animals that lived by natural selection and changes in Earth’s climate. At some point in this evolutionary
on the ocean floor. process, perhaps about 2.5 billion years ago, the oceans became dominated by cyanobac-
teria, which are single-celled life-forms that produce oxygen as a byproduct of
photosynthesis. To an outside observer, Earth would have looked remarkably
sterile. There was no life at all on land, but the margins of the oceans were cov-
ered with collections of green scum that were going about the business of tak-
ing in carbon dioxide and returning oxygen to the atmosphere.
About a billion years ago, symbiotic relationships were set up between cells
that eventually led to the development of eukaryotes. At some point, smaller
cells found that they did better living inside their larger neighbors than they
could do on their own, and cells whose genetic materials were carried inside a
nucleus were born. These cells, like their neighbors and ancestors the prokary-
otes, remained as single-celled organisms.
Another important development that occurred early in the history of life
was that cells began to clump together into mats or chains to form large
colonies. At first, these objects were probably nothing more than clumps of single-
Albert Copley/Visuals Unlimited celled organisms living next to each other. Later, however, they developed into
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:40 PM Page 545
larger bodies. Indeed, by about 600 million years ago the seas were probably full of large
DK Limited/©Corbis
multicellular animals and plants. You can think of some of them as resembling modern
jellyfish (Figure 25-12). The stage was set for one of the most important developments
in the history of life, the hard shell.
About 545 million years ago a crucial development took place in living systems. By a
process that we don’t fully understand, but that may have involved a new enzyme that
converted calcium in the ocean water into shell material, some animals began to grow hard
shells (Figure 25-13). This new chemical trick was so advantageous that the seafloor was
soon teeming with many different kinds of hard-shelled animals. As always happens when
a new evolutionary path develops, there was a great deal of competition and experimenta-
tion among living things as they evolved outer shells, body designs, and metabolisms
suited for each environment.
From the scientist’s point of view, one of the most important aspects of this
development was that, for the first time, living things left large numbers of fossils.
In fact, for most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, before discovery of the
fossils that indicated the presence of primitive forms of life, it looked to scientists • Figure 25-12 This Australian fos-
as if life suddenly exploded at the beginning of this period. This sudden change in sil was once thought to be an elabo-
rate clamshell, but is now interpreted
life on Earth, therefore, is often referred to as the Cambrian explosion. (Geologists as burrows created by worm-like crea-
refer to the time during which skeletons developed as the Cambrian period, after tures searching for food in ocean silt.
Cambria, the old Roman name for Wales, where rocks from this period
were first studied.)
Tom Uhlman/Alamy
Following the momentous development of shells, the last half-billion years
or so have seen enormous growth in both the complexity and diversity of life. A
summary of major developments is given in Table 25-1 (see Appendix B for
more details).
G EOLOGICAL TIME •
Before the development of radiometric dating in this century (see Chapter 12),
scientists knew about the existence of fossils and could see that some fossils
were older than others by the sequence of rock layers. Younger layers of fossil-
bearing rocks are always deposited on top of older layers of rock. However,
they had no way of attaching numbers to any of the changes they observed in
the fossil record. Several landmarks that stand out in the process of evolution
were used as boundaries in the delineation of past times.
In the nineteenth century, scientists were not aware of bacterial • Figure 25-13 Fossils of snails that
fossils, or even fossils of soft-bodied organisms. To them, fossils lived about 450 million years ago.
seemed to indicate that life suddenly appeared at the beginning of
Table 25-1 Major Steps in the Evolution of Life
the Cambrian (when fossils of hard-bodied organisms first
appeared). The era from the beginning of Earth’s existence to 545 Time (millions of years) Event
million years ago was therefore called the Proterozoic (“before life”). ˜3500 First cell
Next was the Paleozoic (“old life”) era from about 545 to 250 mil- ˜ 2500 Photosynthetic cells
lion years ago. This era saw a marvelous diversification of life, 1000 Eukaryotes
including the development of many kinds of invertebrates, such as 700 Multicellularity
trilobites and mollusks, as well as fish, amphibians, land plants and 545 Animals with shells
animals, and rudimentary forms of reptiles. The third great era (250 450 Vertebrates and land plants
to 65 million years ago) was the Mesozoic (“middle life”), also 400 Amphibians
known as the age of dinosaurs, when the major vertebrate life-forms
350 Reptiles
on Earth were large reptiles. Finally, the Cenozoic (“new life”) era
250 Largest known mass extinction
began with the extinction of the dinosaurs some 65 million years
140 Appearance of flowering plants
ago and continues to the present day. This is the time when mam-
mals proliferated and began to dominate Earth. The human species 100 Placental mammals
arose at the very end of the Cenozoic. 65 Primates; extinction of dinosaurs
Throughout this long and intricate process of change, the 7 Hominids
principle of natural selection was always at work, shaping and 2.5 The genus Homo
molding life-forms (Figure 25-14). 0.2 Homo sapiens
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• Figure 25-14 The geological Era Period Epoch
(million years)
timescale with representative living Pleistocene
1.8 The human family appears
things illustrated. Pliocene 5
Age
Miocene First
24 monkeys
Oligocene
37 First bats First whales
Neogene Eocene
Cenozoic
24
Paleocene 58
2 65
Naked- Adaptive radiation
Cretaceous seed Adaptive
of mammals
Mesozoic
plants radiation First birds
144 of flowering Pterosaurus
dominate
Jurassic plant Mammals Turtles
the land
213 Marine
Triassic reptile
248
1 Permian
280 First
Dinosaurs
reptiles
Carboniferous 320
360 Widespread coal swamp
Paleozoic Devonian
408
Silurian First true fishes First insect Vertebrates reach the land
438
Ordovician
505
Cambrian
Adaptive radiation of marine invertebrates with exoskeletons
600
Precambrian
Adaptive radiation of marine

invertebrate animals
Proterozoic
2.5
Archean billion yrs.
Prokaryotic life only
4.6 (bacteria)
billion yrs.
The Evolution of Whales

The power of Darwin’s theory of evolution lies in its predictive power. For example,
20 years ago, critics of evolution pointed to the modern whale as an example of a form
so specialized that it could not possibly have been produced by Darwinian evolution. An
outspoken creationist, Alan Haywood, put it this way: “Darwinists rarely mention the
whale because it presents them with one of their most insoluble problems. They believe
that somehow a whale must have evolved from an ordinary land-dwelling animal, which
took to the sea and lost its legs. p A land mammal that was in the process of becoming
a whale would fall between two stools—it would not be fitted for life on land or sea, and
would have no hope of survival.”
Faced with such a challenge, one can test the theory. The theory of evolution pre-
dicts that a logical 50-million-year sequence of whales, the oldest with fully formed hind
legs, then gradually shorter hind limbs through time, and ultimately recent whales with
tiny vestigial hind leg bones, must have once swum in the seas. If Darwin is correct, then
somewhere their fossils must lie buried. Furthermore, those strange creatures must have
arisen during a relatively narrow interval of geological time, bounded by the era before
the earliest known marine mammals (about 55 million years ago) and the appearance of
streamlined whales of the present era (which appear in the fossil record during the past
30 million years). Armed with these predictions, several paleontologists have plotted
expeditions into the field and targeted their search on shallow marine formations from
the crucial gap between 35 and 55 million years ago for new evidence in the fossil record
(Figure 25-15).
Sure enough, in the past two decades paleontologists have excavated more than
one hundred different species of these “missing links” in the development of the
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:40 PM Page 547
whale—curious creatures that sport combina-

tions of anatomical features characteristic to both
land and sea mammals. Moving back in time, one
such intermediate form is the 35 million year
old Basilosaurus—a sleek, powerful, toothed
whale. This majestic extinct whale has been
known from fossils for more than a century, but a
recent discovery of an unusually complete speci-
men in Egypt for the first time included tiny
hind leg bones. That’s a feature without obvious
function in the whale, but such atrophied legs
provide a direct link to four-limbed ancestral land
mammals.
And then a more primitive whale, Rodhocetus,
discovered in 1994 in Pakistani sediments about 46
million years old, has more exaggerated hind legs,
not unlike those of a seal. And in that same year
paleontologists reported the new genus Ambuloce-
tus, the “walking whale.” This awkwardly beautiful
52-million-year-old creature represents a true inter- • Figure 25-15 Dozens of different
mediate between land and sea mammals. These and other recent discoveries underscore species of primitive fossil whales dis-
the predictive power of Darwin’s theory. • covered in the past three decades
reveal hind limbs and other features
intermediate between land animals
MASS E XTINCTIONS AND THE R ATE and whales.
OF EVOLUTION •
Under normal circumstances, the rate of extinction seems to be such that roughly 10 to
20% of the species represented in the fossil record at any given time will be extinct in a
matter of 5 or 6 million years. The fossil record shows, however, that not all extinctions
are “normal.” Mass extinctions, rare catastrophic events in the past, have caused large
numbers of species to become extinct suddenly (Figure 25-16).
By “large numbers of species,” we mean anywhere from 30 to 90% of the species
alive at the time. By “suddenly,” we mean a time too short to be resolved by standard
geological techniques. The extinction may have taken place over a period of a few tens of
thousands of years, or over a couple of days.
900 • Figure 25-16 The diversity of life

on Earth has not increased steadily
1 Late Ordovician (–12%) but has gone through a series of
2 Late Devonian (–14%) sharp changes. This graph of marine
3 Late Permian (–52%)
animals in the fossil record is indica-
4 Late Triassic (–12%)
5 Late Cretaceous (–11%) tive of the overall growth in families
and of extinctions. The extinction of
600
Number of families
the dinosaurs is indicated by the

event labeled 5.
5
2
300 1
4
3
0
600 400 200 0
Geologic time (millions of years ago)
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The best known of these mass extinctions is the one in which the dinosaurs per-
ished some 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, which was also at
the end of the Mesozoic era. In that extinction, about two-thirds of all living species
disappeared. In some cases, as with ocean plankton, this number may have climbed as
high as 98%. But the extinction at the end of the Mesozoic was neither the largest
nor the most recent mass extinction. About 250 million years ago near the end of the
Paleozoic era, about 80% of existing species disappeared in a single extinction event. A
somewhat milder extinction, which wiped out 30% of existing species, appears to have
taken place about 11 million years ago. In fact, geologists who study the past history of
life in detail recognize five major mass extinction events and perhaps another half-
dozen smaller ones.
One of the most interesting explanations for how these mass extinctions could occur
was put forward in 1980 by the father-and-son team of Luis Alvarez (a Nobel laureate in
physics) and Walter Alvarez (a geologist). Based on evidence they accumulated, they
suggested that the impact of a large asteroid killed off the dinosaurs and other life-forms.
Such an impact would have raised a dust cloud that blocked out sunlight for several
years. This catastrophe would have been such a shock to the world ecosystem that it is a
wonder anything survived at all.
Stop and Think! What would happen if an asteroid like the one
hypothesized by Luis and Walter Alvarez hit Earth today?
Most scientists today accept that an asteroid hit Earth at the end of the Cretaceous, and
they agree that it was responsible for the mass extinction. This conclusion was bolstered
in 1992, when a giant crater over 100 miles across dating from that time was discovered
buried under the seafloor near the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico (Figure 25-17). Less
certain is the role that other factors played in these events. The world ecosystem was
under a great deal of stress at that time because of rapid changes in climate and the
recent creation of mountain chains, both of which were altering habitats.
• Figure 25-17 (a) The location of the giant crater near the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico.
The effects of the asteroid’s impact were recorded in rocks as far away as the red dashed
circle. (b) A drill rig exploring another impact site in the Chesapeake Bay.
USGS
ATLANTIC OCEAN
NORTH AMERICA
Gulf of Mexico
Chicxulub
Crater
Yucatan
Peninsula
PACIFIC OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA
1000 km
(a) (b)
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The Evolution of Human Beings | 549
Mass extinctions illustrate an important point about the history of life on our
planet. Evolution is not a smooth, gradual progress through time. There are times
when sudden changes (such as those in the mass extinctions) are followed by rapid evo-
lution, as new species develop to take the place of those that disappeared. After the
extinction of the dinosaurs, for example, the number of species of mammals increased
dramatically. Scientists continue to debate about the rate of evolution. The two
extremes in the debate have been the gradualism hypothesis, which holds that most
change occurs as a result of the accumulation of small adaptations; and punctuated
equilibrium, which holds that changes usually occur in short bursts, separated by long
periods of stability. It now appears that both of these extremes, and probably any rate of
evolution in between, occurred at some time in Earth’s past.
The Evolution of Human Beings

The evolution of our own species, Homo sapiens, provides a good illustration of the kind
of process that must have occurred for every other species. The most widely accepted
hypothesis of human evolution is that our branch of the family tree broke off from the
branch that includes orangutans and other primates about 7 to 8 million years ago. A
possible human family tree is shown in Figure 25-18.
Finding fossils of the oldest hominid has always been something of an obsession
with paleontologists, but the problem is exceptionally difficult for three principal rea-
sons. First, before modern times hominid populations were concentrated in Africa and
were never very large, so fossils would be rare even if a significant fraction of individuals
had been fossilized. Second, fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks from the period from 4 to
8 million years ago are rare in Africa, so relatively few individuals could have been
fossilized. And third, many of the sedimentary formations that might contain hominid
fossils are located in politically unstable regions where collecting is not possible. Never-
theless, slow progress is being made in this area.
Scientists have found fragments of a few fossils from the period of transition
between our last common ancestor of humans and apes, but the actual picture of the line
of evolution remains cloudy. For example, a few teeth that seem to be intermediate
between apes and humans were found in 10-million-year-old sediments in Ethiopia, and
in 2002 a single 6- to 7-million-year-old skull was found in Chad.
• Figure 25-18 A progression of skulls, showing (left to right) a lemur-like animal that lived
around 50 million years ago; a primate called Proconsul (about 20 mya); Australopithecus
africanus (about 3 mya); Homo habilis (about 2 mya); Homo erectus (about 1.8 mya); and
the skulls of two anatomically modern humans from different locations.
Pascal Goetgheluck/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Another ancient hominid, Australopithecus ramidus (“southern ape, root of

Courtesy Institute of Human Origins
humans”), is known from several partial skeletons about 4.5 million years old, as well
as additional fossil fragments that date back as far as 5.8 million years. This 4-foot-tall
ancestor appears to be midway in form between later hominids and modern great
apes. The best-known early human fossils are bones of Australopithecus afarensis
(“southern ape from the Afar triangle region of Ethiopia”), better known as Lucy
after the name given by paleontologists to a nearly complete skeleton of the species
(Figure 25-19). The name of this fossil, which was discovered in 1974, arose because
the paleontologists celebrated their discovery around a campfire while playing tapes
of the Beatles’ song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” Radiometric dating reveals
that this species lived between about 3 and 4 million years ago. A. afarensis is a dif-
ferent species and different genus from our own Homo sapiens, but it is closer to us
than to any other primate.
Lucy and her family walked erect but had brains about the size of a modern chim-
panzee’s. They were also rather small (the adults probably weighed no more than 60 to
80 pounds and were typically less than 5 feet tall) and may have been covered with hair.
Scientists used to think that the development of large brains made human beings special
and that the brain’s development led to upright walking. In fact, the evolutionary story
seems to be the other way around. We walked upright first, which freed the hands for
use, and then the large brain developed. Some scientists have suggested that the evolu-
tionary advantage bestowed by hand-eye coordination provided the competitive edge
for Australopithecus, and that led to the large brain.
Following Lucy, the line of Australopithecines developed larger and larger brains,
and at various times there were several different species within the genus. From our
point of view, however, the most important event happened about 2.5 million years ago,
when the first known member of the genus Homo appeared. Fossils of Homo habilus
(“man the toolmaker”) were discovered in East Africa in the mid-twentieth century.
Homo habilus was larger than Lucy and had a larger brain. More importantly, H. habilus
fossils are found with crude stone tools, so the association of human beings with tool-
making starts with this species. Shortly thereafter, another member of our genus, Homo
• Figure 25-19 “Lucy,” a
40%-complete skeleton of Aus-
erectus (“man the erect”) appeared. Homo erectus fossils are found not only in East Africa
tralopithecus afarensis, lived 3.5 mil- but in Asia and the Middle East as well. Many of the famous fossil humans you may have
lion years ago in what is now northern heard of—Java Man and Peking Man, for example—were members of this species.
Africa. This skeleton proved that Homo erectus lived at the same time as some of the later Australopithecines and survived
hominids of that period walked erect. until about 500,000 years ago. Homo erectus was the first in the line of human ancestors
known to use fire.
• Figure 25-20 An artist’s recon-
struction of what a typical Neanderthal Fossils that we recognize as anatomically modern humans begin to appear in
might have looked like. rocks about 200,000 years old. About the same time yet another type of human
being appeared on the scene—the so-called Neanderthal man (Figure 25-20). We
Chris Howes/Wild Places Photography/Alamy
sometimes use “Neanderthal” to denote something stupid. This use of the word
comes from the fact that early studies of Neanderthal fossils concluded that this
species walked stooped over, knuckles swinging, and had the thick brow ridge we
associate with gorillas. These early suggestions were based on the study of a single
skeleton of an old man who had a severe case of arthritis. Modern studies on other
fossils reveal that Neanderthals, although far from being identical to modern human
beings, were not all that different. They tended to be short, with thick, powerful
arms and legs, and a skull that is much more elongated and pulled forward than that
of modern Homo sapiens. On the other hand, Neanderthals had large brains, on the
average 10% larger than those of modern humans. They had a complex social struc-
ture, cared for elderly and infirm members of their tribe, and performed burials
with ritual—facts that suggest the presence of both a religion and a language. Thus
Neanderthal was not too different from its contemporaries among the anatomically
modern humans.
Several mysteries and controversies surround Neanderthal. The first puzzle is how
closely Neanderthals were related to modern human beings. Were they, as some scien-
tists claim, merely a subspecies of Homo sapiens? Scientists who adopt this view classify
Neanderthal as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. On the other hand, the traditional view
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The Evolution of Human Beings | 551
(and the view of many modern scientists) is that Neanderthal, though our nearest rela-
tive, was a separate species. People who hold this view classify Neanderthal as Homo
neanderthalensis, to indicate that it is the same genus but a different species than mod-
ern humans. In 2009, scientists in Germany succeeded in constructing a rough sequence
of Neanderthal DNA from material in fossil bone marrow. The DNA sequences were
markedly different from those in modern humans. The results of this work provide the
best evidence to date that Homo sapiens and the Neanderthal were separate species.
The second great mystery about the Neanderthals, some would say the mystery about
Neanderthals, is the question of what happened to them. In Europe, where the fossil
record is most complete, it appears that Neanderthals flourished until 35,000 years ago
and then disappeared rather suddenly. Their disappearance coincided with the entry into
Europe of modern Homo sapiens. Several theories have been put forward to explain Nean-
derthal’s disappearance. Some suggest Neanderthals were wiped out by the invading
members of our own species in what might be described as a prehistoric instance of geno-
cide. Other scientists have proposed that Neanderthals intermarried with the invaders so
that a certain percentage of the genes of modern human beings are Neanderthal in origin.
In order for this to be true, Neanderthal, by definition, would have been a subspecies of
(as opposed to a separate species from) Homo sapiens. Finally, some have suggested that
Neanderthal couldn’t compete with the more technologically advanced newcomers and
simply died out. In this case, Neanderthal was not wiped out by acts of war, but was sim-
ply moved away from the desirable settlement locations and eventually disappeared. Such
a situation would be an example of the displacement of one species by another, a common
phenomenon in the history of life.
The descent of modern human beings raises an important point. In the past, many
different beings could be classed as “human”—many members of the hominid family
have walked Earth’s surface. For whatever reason, none of them survived to this day
except ourselves. The processes of natural selection and extinction, in other words, have
extensively pruned the branch of the family tree leading to human beings. This fact made
it easy for people in the nineteenth century to discount or misinterpret Darwin and to Science News
believe that the human race was special and not related to the rest of the web of life that
exists on our planet. Evolution and Intelligent Design
䉯
Thinking More About Evolution
YOUNG-E ARTH C REATIONISM chemical origin and evolution of life (this chapter) are all at
AND I NTELLIGENT D ESIGN
odds with these religious beliefs. It’s not surprising, therefore,
that science and creationism have come into conflict. In partic-
Opposition to Darwin did not end in the nineteenth century. In ular, evidence in favor of evolution requires a very old Earth
the United States today, many vocal opponents to Darwin’s the- and a means for transforming one species into another. Darwin’s
ory believe in young-Earth creationism, which is based on a literal idea of natural selection, particularly as applied to the origin
interpretation of the Bible. Three central tenets of young-Earth of human beings, is uncomfortable to many people because
creationism are: Homo sapiens cannot lay claim to a history that is intrinsically
different from other species.
1. Earth and the universe were created relatively recently, no
more than about 10,000 years in the past. In the early 1980s, the Arkansas State Legislature passed
a law requiring that the biblical story of creation be taught
2. All life-forms were created by God in a miraculous act, in
alongside the theory of evolution in public schools. Federal
essentially their modern forms.
courts eventually ruled that this law was an attempt to
3. The present disrupted Earth’s surface and the distribution impose religious beliefs in the public schools, something
of fossils are primarily the consequence of a great cata- expressly forbidden by the U.S. Constitution. It is now
strophic flood. against the law to teach creationism as part of any public
These beliefs differ dramatically from many of the scientific school science curriculum.
ideas presented in this book. The big bang origin of the uni- Young-Earth creationists then adopted a different strategy
verse (Chapter 15), the origin of the solar system (Chapter 16), by trying to eliminate evolution from public school curricula.
the span of geological history (Chapters 17 and 18), and the In 1999, for example, the Kansas State Board of Education had
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:41 PM Page 552
a majority of elected members sympathetic to the creationist posi- evolution of life in classes on the history of ideas, or compar-
tion. They voted to eliminate any references to the big bang, ative religions, or even current events. However, we view
Earth’s origin, historical geology, and biological evolution from efforts to eliminate the teaching of evolution or to promote
statewide standardized science tests. That decision was overturned the creationist agenda in a science classroom as misguided
in 2001, when a new board was elected, but similar challenges and a significant threat to the integrity of public science edu-
continue to arise in many states and have reemerged in Kansas. cation. We argue that evolution is an essential unifying con-
The latest opposition to teaching evolution is in the guise cept in biology and thus is a critical aspect of any scientific
of the “doctrine of intelligent design,” or ID. Proponents of education. All students should be expected to understand
ID argue that life on Earth is so extraordinarily complex that it the principle of evolution and to be familiar with the exten-
could not possibly have emerged through any natural process. sive observational evidence that scientists have discovered to
An intelligent engineer must have done the job (though ID support it, even if they don’t believe that evolution actually
advocates avoid talking about who designed the designers). In happened.
2005 U.S. District Judge John E. Jones heard a case centering To what extent do you think that parents or local school
on the science curriculum in the town of Dover, Pennsylvania, boards should have the right to decide what scientific theories
and ruled that ID is simply another form of creationism. Con- and ideas are presented in schools? To what extent do you think
sequently, intelligent design cannot be taught as a scientific parents ought to have the right to demand that opposing reli-
alternative to evolution in the public schools (Figure 25-21). gious views be taught as well? Should the views of creationism,
We maintain that it is reasonable, perhaps even desirable, which are primarily based on one particular type of Christianity,
to discuss different ways of knowing about the origin and be given special consideration?
AP/Wide World Photos
• Figure 25-21 In December, 2005, in a case in the U.S. District Court involving the Dover Area High
School, Judge John E. Jones ruled that intelligent design is based on a religious belief, and therefore
should not be introduced into public school science classrooms.

How did life emerge on the ancient Earth? environments that would have been prevalent on Earth a
• The origin of life on Earth is a hotly debated topic. Some facts few billion years ago.
are well documented while others are open to speculation. º Ancient microbes appear in the fossil record dating back to
roughly 3.5 billion years ago.
º The first life on Earth was probably a simple, single-celled
prokaryote, which are able to thrive in the inhospitable • Early life developed in two stages.
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Discovery Lab | 553
º The first period was characterized by chemical evolution, • Through a sequence of events not yet well understood, a
during which there was a gradual buildup of the building primitive but complex self-replicating chemical system
blocks of life—amino acids, lipids, and other molecules. developed.
• Researchers have demonstrated that energy sources such as º The second period was the evolution of the first cell, which
lightning, solar radiation, and heat from volcanoes can pro- appeared after the end of the great bombardment (Chapter 16).
duce organic molecules. • Once the first microscopic cell developed, it may have multiplied
• During this period, extraterrestrial debris crashed into Earth rapidly.
with enough energy to boil off most of the oceans. Therefore, º That first cell, free from competitors, could have quickly mul-
processes that led to life on Earth probably could not have tiplied in the nutrient-filled oceans.
begun until after the last big impact, about 4 billion years ago. º Over time, the oceans became filled with microscopic organ-
• Biomolecules produced in the primordial oceans may have isms, and a new phase of evolution began: Natural selection.
become concentrated on mineral surfaces, perhaps in deep
volcanic zones.
S UMMARY •
Many types of evidence support the fact of evolution. A rich record of resources increased, a new phase of evolution, natural selection, began.
fossils demonstrates that life began simply and increased in complexity The theory of natural selection, introduced by Charles Darwin in his
over time. The older a rock, the more its fossils are likely to differ from 1859 monograph Origin of Species, is based on two facts: every species
modern forms, because the vast majority of life-forms have become exhibits variations in traits, and some traits enhance an individual’s
extinct. Biochemical evidence also supports the fact of evolution. Not ability to survive and produce offspring. Just as breeders develop new
only do all life-forms employ the same biochemical mechanism for varieties of animals by selecting desirable traits artificially, nature
translating DNA into proteins, but also many of those proteins are selects traits through the struggle for survival. These new traits are
similar in very different species. Comparison of structural details called adaptations. In this way, over immense spans of time, new
reveals that closely related species, like humans and chimpanzees, have species arise. Geological time is divided into Precambrian, Paleozoic,
nearly identical proteins, while those of more distantly related animals Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras, depending on the kinds of fossils found
show more protein differences. Vestigial organs, such as the human from the period when the rocks formed. While extinction is a continu-
appendix, provide yet another piece of evidence in the evolution story. ous process, there have been a number of catastrophic episodes of
Life on Earth evolved in two stages. The first period of chemical mass extinction, when many species disappeared in a brief time inter-
evolution was characterized by the gradual buildup of organic chem- val. Asteroid impacts may account for some of these events.
icals in the primitive oceans. The Miller-Urey experiment and subse- Human evolution can be traced back approximately 6 million
quent research showed that simple compounds, including water, years to Australopithecus, a hominid that walked erect but had a brain
methane, ammonia, and hydrogen, subjected to electrical sparks or about the size of a chimpanzee’s. Homo habilis, the first member of
some other energy source, combine to make the building blocks of our genus that appeared about 2 million years ago, was distinguished
life—amino acids, lipids, and other molecules. These chemicals may by a larger brain and the first appearance of stone tools. Homo erectus,
have become concentrated on mineral surfaces, perhaps in deep vol- who learned to use fire, evolved at about the same time but disap-
canic zones. Through a sequence of events not yet well understood, peared about half a million years ago. Modern humans of the species
a primitive but complex self-replicating chemical system developed. Homo sapiens are recognized in fossils as old as 200,000 years. The
All subsequent life evolved from that first cell. status of the so-called Neanderthal man is still under debate: some
The first cell, free from competitors, quickly multiplied in the say Neanderthal is a separate species, now extinct, while others argue
nutrient-filled oceans. As oceans became crowded and competition for that it is merely a subspecies of Homo sapiens.
K EY TERMS •
evolution vestigial organ natural selection Australopithecus ramidus
fossil chemical evolution adaptation Homo sapiens
extinct Miller-Urey experiment mass extinction Neanderthal man
D ISCOVERY L AB •
Natural selection is a process in which organisms with favorable traits Put 50 red candies with 50 pink candies in a brown paper bag
survive and pass on their traits to the next generation. Darwin pre- and mix them well. Draw two candies at a time from the bag. If you
sented the evidence of natural selection by his survival of the fittest pull two red candies record it as FF (bear with homozygous dominant
theory. You can explore Darwin’s theory of natural selection by col- gene and fur present). If you pull out two pink candies record this as
lecting 50 red licorice candies, 50 pink licorice candies, and a brown ff (bear with homozygous recessive gene with no fur) and if you pull
paper bag. Let the red candy represent bears with fur with FF or Ff as out one pink and one red candy, record this as Ff (heterozygous, fur
their genotype, and the pink candy represent bears without fur with present). Set aside all the ff (pink candy) since bears without fur can-
ff as their genotype. not survive harsh conditions. Write down the total of F and f candies
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:41 PM Page 554
that are left over. This time, restart the process representing the sec- total number of candies. Similarly, find the gene frequency of f (pink
ond generation. Mix all the remaining candies and start pulling two at candies) by dividing f by the total number of candies. Repeat the
a time and record the results as above. Discard all the ff candy pairs above procedure a number of times. Compare the frequency for the
and count all the F and f candies that are left over. Calculate the gene dominant allele with that of the recessive allele. How are the results of
frequency of F (red candies) by dividing the total number of F by the your experiment similar to evolution?
1. What is evolution? Why do virtually all scientists accept evolution 15. What recent evidence is consistent with the idea that life
as a fact? originated in a deep-ocean environment?
2. What are fossils? What is the fossil record? What conditions are 16. What are the two roles that RNA can play in living organisms?
necessary for the formation of fossils? Why might this be significant?
3. How does the fossil record support the theory of evolution? 17. Which came first, DNA or protein? How do scientists answer
4. What are vestigial organs? How does their existence lend this question at this time?
support to the fact of evolution? 18. What is natural selection? Give examples of natural selection at
5. What is the biochemical evidence that supports evolution? work.
6. What types of observational evidence point to the common 19. How does natural selection differ from artificial selection?
ancestry of all living organisms? 20. State the two basic facts that govern the operation of natural
7. Describe the major landmarks in the evolution of life on Earth. selection.
How many years passed between each of these milestones? 21. What was the Cambrian explosion?
8. What is chemical evolution? When did it occur on Earth? 22. What is a mass extinction? What are some possible reasons for
9. How does chemical evolution differ from natural selection? mass extinctions?
10. Describe the Miller-Urey experiment. Why are its results 23. How does the overlap of human DNA with that of other living
important? things support the theory of evolution?
11. Why do some scientists argue that the surface of the early Earth 24. When did the first members of the hominid family appear on
was inhospitable to life? What was an alternate site for life’s origin? Earth?
12. What are “black smokers”? What is unique about deep-ocean 25. Which came first in human evolution, large brains or upright
environments? posture? How do scientists know this?
13. When was the “window of opportunity” for life to appear on 26. Give an example of a theory used to explain the disappearance
Earth? Why did life not exist before this period? of Neanderthal.
14. Where is the greatest gap in our knowledge of the evolution 27. What are the basic tenets of young-Earth creationism? In what
of life? ways do these tenets counter scientific principles described in this book?
1. When was On the Origin of Species first published? Why was it 11. Fossils are usually found in sedimentary rocks. Why aren’t they
considered controversial? likely to be found in igneous rocks? What biases might this fact
2. Discuss the possible connection between the constant processes introduce into the fossil record?
of plate tectonics and natural selection. How might a study of fossils 12. What is evolutionary fitness? What does it mean to be well adapted
and plate motions be used to test Darwin’s theory? to one’s environment in terms of evolutionary fitness? What advantages
3. All scientific theories must be able to make testable predictions. does better adaptation give you in terms of passing along your genes?
What are some predictions that follow from Darwin’s theory of 13. How fast are species disappearing from Earth right now? What
evolution by natural selection? is the main reason for these extinctions? What kinds of species
4. Describe the ongoing debate about the mechanisms of evolu- appear to be most vulnerable?
tion? How does the Darwinian theory of evolution differ from 14. What is intelligent design? What are the testable predictions of
other theories (e.g., Lamarkian)? intelligent design? Is it a scientific theory? Should it be taught in
5. At what point in Earth’s history did natural selection begin to science classrooms?
shape the evolution of organisms? 15. What scientific discoveries would be necessary to validate
6. Why do most scientists think all life evolved from a single intelligent design as a scientific theory?
cell? What evidence do we have to support this hypothesis? What 16. Some people have argued that the progress of modern medicine
alternative hypotheses can you propose? Are your hypotheses has stopped the workings of natural selection for human beings. What
testable? basis might there be for such an argument? Should this argument be
7. What were the possible sources of energy for synthesizing the taken into account in formulating public policy? Why or why not?
first forms of life on Earth? 17. Some religious leaders have made the statement that the Devil
8. What role may ultraviolet light have played in the early develop- put fossils on Earth to test our faith in the teachings of the bible. Is
ment of complex molecules? What ecosystems are protected from this a statement that is subject to falsification? Is it a statement that
the effects of ultraviolet light? can be understood using the scientific method?
9. Is the development of intelligent life an inevitable consequence 18. What are the environmental antecedents of life? Why are the
of natural selection? Why or why not? Moon and Mars devoid of life?
10. Is the fossil record complete? Why are certain types of organ- 19. What are the most dramatic examples of artificial selection that
isms “overrepresented”? you can think of?
c25.qxd 9/10/09 3:41 PM Page 555
I NVESTIGATIONS •
1. Read the National Academy of Science’s pamphlet Science and the element iridium play in this hypothesis? Does the history of this
Creationism. Who wrote this pamphlet and why? Does it make a idea support our argument in Chapter 1 that scientists must believe
convincing case? the data that result from their observations?
2. Consult your geology department and find out locations of the 7. Read an account of the Scopes “Monkey Trial,” or see a movie
nearest fossil-bearing rocks. Visit a fossil location and collect a variety based on it—for example, Inherit the Wind. How was the conflict
of specimens. What kinds of life-forms did you find, and what kind of between science and religion portrayed in these writings and movies?
environment did they live in? How old are these fossils? What living What was the final verdict in the trial and what was the penalty, if
organisms most resemble these fossils? What kinds of rocks were they any? Is such a conflict between science and religion inevitable when
found in? Where else in the world are fossils of a similar age found? it comes to the subject of life’s origin and evolution?
3. Read accounts of any of the many recent debates to alter public 8. Investigate mass extinctions. How many mass extinctions have
school science curricula by eleminating evolution or by introducing there been? What evidence supports previous extinctions?
intelligent design. How did members of the school board rational- 9. Is intelligent design just another name for creationism? Investi-
ize their votes? Have there been legal challenges to the ruling? gate the debate. Are there creation myths from other religions that
4. Investigate the concept of social Darwinism. What was this doc- should be taught in school?
trine? When was it in fashion? What policies did it encourage? 10. Before the nineteenth century, most people believed that life
5. Read an account of Charles Darwin’s visit to the Galapagos was created through spontaneous generation. Investigate the vari-
Islands while he was on the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle. What did ous theories that have been proposed over the course of time to
he see there that led him to his ideas about natural selection and explain the creation of life.
evolution? Why did it take Darwin so long to publish his theory? 11. Investigate Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. What were his theories
6. Read an account, such as The Nemesis Affair by David Raup, of about evolution? What were his contributions?
the development of the hypothesis that an asteroid was responsible 12. Who is Sir Charles Lyell? What were his contributions to the
for the extinction of the dinosaurs. What role did the chemistry of science of evolution?
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A
Human Anatomy
Science Through the Day Waking Up
hink about your body as you woke up this morning. you engaged in all of the essential activities of life (with
T You stretched your muscles, and noticed the first
sensations from nerves in your eyes, ears, and skin. As you
the probable exception of reproduction).
From a strictly biological standpoint, there is no reason
lay in bed, summoning the energy to get up you may have to single out Homo sapiens for special attention. Neverthe-
noticed your heart beating. You took a few deep breaths, less, as members of this species, we have an understandable
swung your legs to the ground, and headed to the and justifiable interest in how our own bodies work. In what
shower. After you dressed, enjoyed a hearty breakfast, and follows, we give a brief description of the organ systems in
made a final trip to the bathroom, you were ready to our body.
begin the day. In that short hour before leaving home
S KELETO-M USCULAR SYSTEM •

As in all vertebrates, the weight of the human body is supported by an internal skeleto-
muscular system (Figure A-1). The rigid structure consists of bone, and movement is
produced by the action of muscles that are attached to the bone by tendons, as shown.
Muscles are made of long cells that can contract when they are stimulated. When you
move your arm or leg, the simultaneous contraction of many of these cells produces the
movement.
Bones are held together at joints by tough tissues called ligaments. Unlike muscles,
ligaments are fairly inelastic and, once torn or injured, can take a long time to heal.
Padding between bones is provided by cartilage, which you may know as the “gristle” in
the joints of your Thanksgiving turkey.
Two kinds of muscle in the human body have names derived from the way they look
under a microscope. The muscles that are under your control (such as the ones in your
arms and legs) are called striated muscles; muscles that perform their function automat-
ically (such as those that open and close the iris in your eye) are called smooth muscles.
The muscles in the heart are similar to the striated muscles that move the skeleton, but
they have a different metabolism that allows them to pump continuously and cannot be
controlled voluntarily.
R ESPIRATORY AND C IRCULATORY SYSTEMS •

Oxygen, essential for the operation of the chemical reactions that produce energy in our
bodies, is distributed by the respiratory and circulatory systems. When you breathe
in, air is pulled into your lungs and, ultimately, into tiny thin-walled sacs called alveoli
(Figure A-1). Blood vessels are in close contact with the walls of the alveoli, so that oxy-
gen from the air diffuses across the thin membranes into the blood. At the same time,
carbon dioxide, the result of the burning of energy-rich molecules in the cells, diffuses
back from the blood into the lungs. When you breathe out, you exhale the carbon-
dioxide-rich air. On the next breath, the whole process starts again.
A1
A2 | AP P E N D I X A | Human Anatomy
• Figure A-1 The organ systems of the human body.

Human Anatomy | A3
The blood with its load of oxygen goes back

(Arteries)
to the heart (Figure A-2). Like the heart of birds,
the mammalian heart has four chambers, each of
(Aorta)
which carries out a separate function. Oxygenated (Superior vena cava)
blood from the lungs enters the left upper cham- (Right pulmonary) (Trunk of
pulmonary
ber, called the left atrium, from which it is pumped artery) artery)
into the left lower chamber (left ventricle) and (Right (Left
pulmonary
then out into the body through a series of smaller veins) pulmonary
and smaller arteries. Eventually, it enters a network veins)
of thin-walled tubes called capillaries, where the Right atrium Left atrium
oxygen diffuses out into cells and carbon dioxide
diffuses back in. The deoxygenated blood is then
returned to the right upper chamber of the heart
Left ventricle
through a series of larger and larger veins. It is
then pumped into the right lower chamber and Right ventricle
out to the lungs, where the entire process starts Septum
again.
Paralleling the blood system is the lymphatic (Inferior vena cava)
system, which also moves fluids through the body.
The lymphatic system, consisting of an extensive (Apex of heart)
network of capillaries and veins linked to about
500 lymph nodes in the human body, removes • Figure A-2 The human heart.
material that fails to be reabsorbed into the capillaries. It also transports fat from the Blood is sent by the heart to the
intestines to the bloodstream and supplies the blood with lymphocytes, which are a lungs to remove carbon dioxide
kind of white blood cell important in the working of the immune system. and take on oxygen, returned to
the heart, and then pumped out
to the rest of the body.
D IGESTIVE SYSTEM •
Like all other animals, human beings must derive their energy from ingested food, and
hence must have systems that break down food so that its stored energy can be used by
cells. In humans, this job is the function of the digestive system (Figure A-1).
After being broken up by chewing, food enters the stomach, where strong acids
and other chemicals break it down into molecules that can be used by individual
cells—a process that is begun by saliva in the mouth. In the small intestine, this process
continues as the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas secrete specialized substances that
break down the starches, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the food to small mole-
cules. These molecules then pass through the walls of the intestine and enter the
bloodstream. They are carried to the cells, where their energy is released in chemical
reactions analogous to burning. Muscles along the intestinal wall propel the undi-
gested food into the large intestine, where water is removed and feces are formed and,
ultimately, voided.
Waste products from the metabolism of the cells are carried by the blood to the kid-
neys. In a complex series of chemical reactions, the blood is filtered and then materials
are selectively reabsorbed. Whatever isn’t reabsorbed becomes part of the urine, which,
after being collected in the urinary bladder, is voided.
The kidneys also maintain the balance of salt and water in the human body. Their
structure is such that they cannot produce urine with a salt concentration of more than
2%. If the waste has a higher concentration of salt, then the kidneys have to take water
from elsewhere in the body to dilute it. This limitation explains why drinking sea water
(which is roughly 3% salt) always increases your thirst.
S ENSING AND C ONTROL SYSTEMS •

Human beings become aware of their environment through the action of five senses—
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. The eye, arguably our most important sense
organ, was discussed in Chapter 6. The ear (Figure A-3) contains a membrane that
Ear flap
(pinna)
Semicircular canals of
the vestibular apparatus
Hammer
Anvil
Auditory
nerve
Tympanic Cochlea
membrane Stirrup
(eardrum) in oval Cochlea
window
Hair cells
Round
window
Tectorial/Basilar
Sound membrane
vibration
Fluid-filled
canals of cochlea
Stirrup
Round
window Tectorial
membrane Hair
cells
Basilar
membrane
• Figure A-3 The human ear and

its inner structures.
senses the arrival of sound waves and vibrates. This vibration, in turn, is transmitted
through three small bones to the inner ear, where it is converted into signals on the
auditory nerve.
Smell and taste both involve specialized chemical receptors. Molecules of the mate-
rial being sensed come into physical contact with the receptors, which then change
their shape and generate a nerve signal. Touch is a sense generated by specialized cells
in the skin that respond to pressure, and the skin also has specialized sensors for tem-
perature and pain.
Our response to the environment is mediated through the two control systems in
our body. The more familiar of these is the nervous system, whose main component, the
nerve cell, was discussed in Chapter 5. Chains of nerve cells run throughout the human
body. Some of these comprise the autonomic nervous system, which controls actions
such as the beating of the heart and contractions of the gut. We aren’t aware of the
effects of the autonomic nervous system—we don’t have to think about every breath or
heartbeat, for example. The contractions of muscles that are part of ordinary volitional
motion are controlled by nerves in the somatic nervous system.
The central organ of the human nervous system is the brain, which receives signals
from sense organs as well as signals that keep it apprised of the status of internal organs.
The brain constantly sends out signals to the body to keep it functioning, and serves as
Human Anatomy | A5
the seat for all higher functions such as Frontal lobe

speech and thought. Scientific study (planning, monitoring
of the brain is still in its infancy; we emotional behavior, Parietal lobe
know relatively little about the brain organizing sensory (body sensations)
information) Touch
and its functions. Nevertheless, we can
make a few general remarks about this Motor control area
Broca's area
remarkable organ. (speech
The brain is composed of inter- formation)
connected nerve cells, and cells that Occipital lobe
serve to support and nourish them. It Visual association
can be split roughly into three parts: Sight
hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain or
Temporal lobe
cerebrum, as shown in Figure A-4. The
Wernicke's area
hindbrain, which is located at the top (language) Cerebellum
of the spinal cord, controls basic body (movement
functions such as breathing, balance, coordination)
and blood pressure. The midbrain con-
trols eye movements (in lower animals Spinal cord
it is also the place where visual informa- • Figure A-4 The human brain.
tion is processed) and processes auditory signals. The midbrain and hindbrain, respectively,
are often referred to as the brain stem.
The lowest part of the forebrain controls basic body metabolism and, through the
pituitary gland, the body’s system of hormones. The part of the brain that you usually see
in illustrations—the wrinkled “gray matter”—is the outer layer of the cerebral cortex. All
of the activities we normally associate with the higher human faculties—speech, rational
thought, and memory, for example—are carried out here. The cerebral cortex also acts as
the seat for processing of sensory information and conscious movement.
In addition to the nervous system, the human body has a second control mecha-
nism in the endocrine system. The body’s several glands secrete specific molecules,
called hormones, that travel through the bloodstream. When they encounter cells that
have a specialized receptor that fits their particular shape, they are taken into that cell
and produce specific chemical effects. The adrenals located on top of the kidneys, for
example, secrete substances that raise blood pressure and heart rate and send blood to
the skeletal muscles. This surge of adrenalin prepares the body for “fight or flight.” The
pituitary gland secretes growth hormones that are crucial in human development—
if they are not present in sufficient amounts, the individual will not reach full height.
Human growth hormone is one substance that can now be produced by genetic engi-
neering. Other hormones control basic metabolism, the maintenance of secondary
sexual characteristics, the development of sexual organs in fetuses, and a wide variety of
other human bodily functions.
R EPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM •
The human species, like all other higher animals, reproduces sexually. Sexual reproduc-
tion requires the joining of two sex cells, or gametes, each with 23 single chromosomes.
The female’s ova, or egg, and the male’s sperm combine following intercourse to form a
fertilized egg with 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Male and female reproductive systems are illustrated in Figure A-1. Sperm are
formed in vast numbers in the male’s testes. Each sperm, less than a thousandth of a cen-
timeter long, has a rounded head that contains chromosomes and the enzymes required
to interact with and ultimately penetrate the egg, and a tail that enables it to swim
toward the egg. During intercourse, hundreds of millions of sperm are released, though
only one can fertilize an egg.
Eggs are produced in the female’s ovaries. By the time a girl baby is born, all of her
potential egg cells, a total of several hundred thousand, have been formed and are stored
in the ovaries. Each month between the ages of about 12 and 45, one of these cells
matures and is released into the fallopian tubes, where it may be fertilized.
(a) (b) (c)

• Figure A-5 Stages in the development of the human embryo and fetus. (a) At 4 weeks
(length 0.7cm), structures that will become the heart, eyes, and legs are evident. (b) At 2.5
months (3 cm), the fetus, floating in the amniotic cavity, is connected to the mother by an
umbilical cord. All the major organs are defined. (c) At 5.5 months (30 cm), the fetus is
identifiably human, with all organs in their permanent positions.
Shortly after fertilization, the egg begins to divide over and over again to form the
embryo, which is the beginning of a new individual. Approximately one week after fertil-
ization, the egg becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus, where the mother provides
all necessary nutrients and disposes of wastes as the embryo grows (see Figure A-5).
Pregnancy lasts about nine months, during which time the embryo lies in the fluid-filled
amniotic sac. This sac ruptures during labor, which precedes childbirth.
B
Units and Numbers
Science Through the Day The Hardware Store
alk into any hardware store in the United States and But no matter what the material, there is a unit to
W immediately you will notice that the things for sale
are measured in many different ways. You buy paint by the
measure how much is being sold. In the same way, all areas
of science have systems of units to measure how much of a
gallon, grass seed by the pound, and insulation in terms of given quantity there is. We’ve encountered some of these
how many BTUs will leak through it. In some cases, the units units in the text—the newton as a measure of force, for
are strange indeed—nails, for example, are ranked by “penny” example, and the degree as a measure of temperature. Every
(abbreviated “d”). A 16d nail is a fairly substantial object, quantity used in the sciences has an appropriate unit asso-
perfect for holding the framework of a house together, ciated with it.
whereas a 6d nail might find use tacking up a wall shelf.
SYSTEMS OF U NITS AND STANDARDS •

We customarily use certain kinds of units together, in what is called a system of units. In
a given system, units are assigned to fundamental quantities such as mass, length, time,
and temperature. Someone measuring with that system will use only those units and
ignore the units associated with other systems. Once units of mass, length, and time
have been specified, a whole series of derived units (for force, for example, or energy)
follow from them.
Two systems of units are in common use in the United States. The one encountered
most often in everyday life is the English system. This traditional system of units has
roots that go back into the Middle Ages. The basic unit of length is the foot (which was
defined in terms of the average length of the shoes of men outside a certain church on a
certain day), and the basic unit of weight is the pound.
Throughout this book, and throughout most of the world outside the United States,
the preferred system of units is the metric system, or, more correctly, the International
System (or Systéme Internationale, SI). In this system, the unit of length is the meter
(originally defined as a certain fraction of the distance around Earth at the longitude of
Paris), and the unit of mass is the kilogram. In both the SI and English systems, the
basic unit of time is the second.
Systems of units are one case where governments become intimately involved with
science, because the maintenance of standards has traditionally been the task of gov-
ernments. In the Magna Carta, a document signed in England in 1215 and generally
considered to be one of the founding instruments of modern democracy, King John
agreed that “There shall be a standard measure of wine, corn, and ale throughout the
kingdom,” and to establish measures of length (for cloth merchants) and weights.
Since that time, governments have maintained standards for use in industry and com-
merce. When you buy a pound of meat in a supermarket, for example, you know that
you are getting full weight for your money because the scale is certified by a state
agency, which ultimately relies on international standards of weight maintained by a
treaty between all nations.
Originally, the standards were kept in sealed vaults at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures near Paris, with secondary copies at places such as the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly National Bureau of Standards) in
A7
A8 | AP P E N D I X B | Units and Numbers
the United States. The meter, for example, was defined as the distance between
two marks on a particular bar of metal; the kilogram as the mass of a particular
block of iridium-platinum alloy; the second as a certain fraction of the length of
the day.
Today, however, only the kilogram is still defined in this way. Since 1967, the sec-
ond has been defined as the time it takes for 9,192,631,770 crests of the light emit-
ted by a certain quantum jump in a cesium atom to pass by a given point. In 1960,
the meter was defined as the length of 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the radiation
from a particular quantum jump in the krypton atom. In 1983, the meter was rede-
fined to be the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. In all these cases,
the old standards have been replaced by numbers relating to atoms—standards that
any reasonably equipped laboratory can maintain for itself. Atomic standards have the
additional advantage of being truly universal—every cesium or krypton atom in the
universe is equivalent to any other. Only mass is still defined in the old way, in rela-
tion to a specific block of material kept in a vault, and scientists are working hard to
replace that standard by one based on the mass of individual atoms.
THE I NTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF U NITS •

Within the SI system, units are based on multiples of 10. Thus the centimeter is one-
hundredth the length of a meter, the millimeter one-thousandth, and so on. In the same
way, a kilometer is 1000 meters, a kilogram is 1000 grams, and so on. This organization
differs from that of the English system, in which a foot equals 12 inches, and 3 feet make
a yard. A list of metric prefixes follows.
Metric Prefixes
If the prefix is: Multiply the basic unit by:
giga- billion (thousand million)
mega- million
kilo- thousand
hecto- hundred
deka- ten
If the prefix is: Divide the basic unit by:

deci- ten
centi- hundred
milli- thousand
micro- million
nano- billion
U NITS OF LENGTH, MASS, AND TEMPERATURE •

Next we give the conversion factors between SI and English units of length and mass.
Length and Mass Conversion from SI to English Units

To get: Multiply: By:
inches meters 39.4
feet meters 3.281
miles kilometers 1.609
pounds newtons 0.2248*
*Recall that the weight of a 1-kilogram mass is 9.806 newtons.

Units and Numbers | A9
Thus, for example, a distance of 5 miles can be converted to kilometers by multiplying

by the factor 1.609:
5 miles ⫻ 1.609 ⫽ 8.05 kilometers
Length and Mass Conversion from English to SI Units

meters inches 0.0254
meters feet 0.3048
kilometers miles 0.6214
newtons pounds 4.448
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit degrees, use the following formula:

T1in °F2 ⫽ 1.8 ⫻ T1in °C2 ⫹ 32
To find temperatures in the Kelvin scale, simply add 273.15 to the temperature on the
Celsius scale.
U NITS OF F ORCE, E NERGY, AND P OWER •

Once the basic units of mass, length, time, and temperature have been defined, the units
of other quantities such as force and energy follow. Recall the energy units that we have
defined in the text:
joule: a force of 1 newton acting through 1 meter
foot-pound: a force of 1 pound acting through 1 foot
calorie: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree
Celsius
British Thermal Unit, or BTU: energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound
of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit
kilowatt-hour: 1000 joules per second for 1 hour
Power units are:
watt: 1 joule per second
horsepower: 550 foot-pounds per second
Conversion factors between SI and English units for energy and power follow.
Energy and Power Conversion from SI to English Units

BTUs joules 0.00095
calories joules 0.2390
kilowatt-hours joules 2.78 ⫻10-7
foot-pounds joules 0.7375
horsepower watts 0.00134
Energy and Power Conversion from English to SI Units

joules BTUs 1055
joules calories 4.184
joules kilowatt-hours 3.6 million
joules foot-pounds 1.356
watts horsepower 745.7
A10 | AP P E N D I X B | Units and Numbers
P OWERS OF 10 •
Powers of ten notation allows us to write very large or very small numbers conveniently,
in a compact way. Any number can be written by the following three rules:
1. Every number is written as a number between 1 and 10 followed by 10 raised to a
power, or an exponent.
2. If the power of 10 is positive, it means “move the decimal point this many places
to the right.”
3. If the power of 10 is negative, it means “move the decimal point this many places
to the left.”
Thus, using this notation, five trillion is written 5⫻1012, instead of
5,000,000,000,000. Similarly, five-trillionths is written 5⫻10-12, instead of
0.000000000005.
Multiplying or dividing numbers with powers of 10 requires special care. If you are
multiplying two numbers, such as 2.5⫻103 and 4.3⫻105, you multiply 2.5 and 4.3, but
you add the two exponents:
12.5 ⫻ 103 2 ⫻ 14.3 ⫻ 105 2 ⫽ 12.5 ⫻ 4.32 ⫻ 103⫹5

⫽ 10.75 ⫻ 108
⫽ 1.075 ⫻ 109
When dividing two numbers, such as 4.3⫻105 divided by 2.5⫻103, you divide 4.3
by 2.5, but you subtract the denominator exponent from the numerator exponent:
4.3 ⫻ 105 4.3

3 ⫽ ⫻ 105⫺3
2.5 ⫻ 10 2.5
⫽ 1.72 ⫻ 102
⫽ 172
C ONVERSION TO M ETRIC U NITS •

The reasons that the United States still uses English units long after most of the rest of
the world has converted to SI have to do with nonscientific factors such as the geo-
graphical isolation of the country, the size of our economy (the world’s largest), and,
perhaps most importantly, the expense of making the conversion. Think, for example, of
what it would cost to change all of the road signs on the Interstate Highway System so
that the distances read in kilometers instead of miles.
To understand the debate over conversion, you have to realize one important point
about units. There is no such thing as a “right” or “scientific” system of units. Units can
only be convenient or inconvenient. Thus U.S. manufacturers who sell significant quan-
tities of goods in foreign markets long ago converted to metric standards to make those
sales easier. Builders, on the other hand, whose market is largely restricted to the United
States, have not.
By the same token, very few scientists use SI units exclusively in their work. United
States engineers use English units almost exclusively—indeed, when the federal govern-
ment was considering a tax on energy use in 1993, it was referred to as a “BTU tax,” not
as a “joule tax.” Hospital and medical professionals routinely use the so-called “cgs” sys-
tem, in which the unit of length is the centimeter and the unit of mass is the gram. Next
time you have blood drawn, take a look at the needle. It will be calibrated in “cc”—cubic
centimeters. Even scientists doing basic research sometimes choose non-SI units for con-
venience. Astronomers, for example, talk about light-years, or parsecs instead of meters.
Nuclear physicists measure distances in “fermis”—roughly the distance across a proton.
Stop and Think! Given this wide range of units actually in use, how much
emphasis should the U.S. government give to metric conversion? How
much money should the government be willing to spend on the conversion
process: how many new signs as opposed to how many repaired potholes
on the road?
C
The Geological Time Scale
Science Through the Day In Time
s you drive through the countryside, you may come of a mountain, and finally eroded to the level at which the
A across an abandoned farmhouse, its windows boarded
up, its roof open to the elements, its only inhabitants ani-
farmhouse was built. All things change over time.
All things also affect others as they change. In the fol-
mals and insects. The surrounding fields, once cultivated, lowing pages, we show you the geological time scale, a
may have been overtaken by the prairie grasses that were chronological arrangement of geological time units as
there long before the farmhouse was built. Within a very approved in 2002 by the International Commission on
short time span, perhaps as short as 25 years, that farm- Stratigraphy (these numbers thus differ slightly from those
house may be razed and a subdivision built on the same used in earlier geologic time scales). In addition, we show you
site. Over a longer time span, the same site may have been the major steps in evolution that were made possible, in part,
at the bottom of a prehistoric ocean, then lifted to the top by the conditions that existed at every step of that time scale.
A11
A12 | AP P E N D I X C | The Geological Time Scale
PERIOD EPOCH PLANT EVOLUTION
Holocene
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Cenozoic Era
Phanerozoic
Mesozoic Era 1.8
Eon
Paleozoic Era Pliocene Decline of forests,
spread of grasslands
Miocene
Proterozoic
Eon
Tertiary Oligocene
Eocene
Explosive radiation of
flowering plants
Paleocene
65
Cretaceous First flowering plants
Cenozoic Era 142

Phanerozoic
Mesozoic Era Forests of gymnosperms
Eon Jurassic
Paleozoic Era and ferns over most
of Earth
Proterozoic 205
Eon
Triassic Gymnosperms dominant
250
Widespread extinction
Decline of nonseed plants
Permian
Conifers diversify
292
Carboniferous Gymnosperms diversify
Cenozoic Era Pennsylvanian
Phanerozoic Widespread forests of giant club
Mesozoic Era
Eon moss trees, horsetails, and tree
Paleozoic Era Mississippian fern—create vast coal deposits
354
First seed plants
Proterozoic Devonian Development of vascular
Eon plants: club mosses and ferns
417
Silurian First vascular plants
440
Ordovician First mosses
495
Cambrian Algae dominant
545
Millions of
years ago
The Geological Time Scale | A13
ANIMAL EVOLUTION MAJOR GEOLOGICAL EVENTS
Appearance of Homo sapiens

First use of fire
Worldwide glaciations
Appearance of Homo erectus Linking of North America and South America
Appearance of hominids Opening of Red Sea

Appearance of first apes Formation of Himalayan Mountains
All modern genera of

mammals present
Collision of India with Asia
In seas, bony fish abound
Rise of mammals Separation of Australia and Antarctica
First placental mammals Opening of Norwegian Sea and Baffin Bay

Dinosaurs extinct Formation of Alps
Formation of Rocky Mountains
Modern birds
First birds
Age of dinosaurs
Explosive radiation of dinosaurs

First dinosaurs
First mammals
Complex arthropods dominant in seas
First beetles Opening of Atlantic Ocean
Widespread extinction
Appearance of mammal-like reptiles
Increase of reptiles and insects Final assembly of Pangaea
Decline of amphibians
Early reptiles
First winged insects
Increase of amphibians Formation of coal deposits
Amphibians diversify into many forms
First land vertebrates—amphibians
Golden Age of fishes
First land invertebrates—land scorpions
First vertebrates—fishes
Increase of marine invertebrates

Trilobites dominant
Explosive evolution of marine life

A14 | AP P E N D I X C | The Geological Time Scale
EVOLUTION OF LIFE MAJOR GEOLOGICAL EVENTS
Earliest known
multicellular animals
1,000
Algal groups diversify Formation of early super-
continent
1,500
Time Eon* 2,000

Earliest known
Proterozoic algal-like fossils
2,500
Precambrian Archean
Hadean 3,000
Earliest single-celled
* No further subdivisions fossil organisms
into eras or periods 3,500
are in common use. Trace organics of
possible biological origin
Oldest Earth rocks
4,000
Oldest Moon rocks
Heavy meteorite bombardment
4,500
Formation of Earth
4,600
Millions of
years ago
D
Selected Physical Constants
and Astronomical Data
Avogadro’s number Astronomical unit
6.022⫻1023/mol AU⫽1.4959789⫻1011 meters
Charge on electron Hubble’s constant
1.602⫻10−19 C H∼20km/s/Mly
Electron mass Light-year
me ⫽9.10939 ⫻10−31 kg ly ⫽ 9.46053 ⫻1015 meters
Gravitational constant ⫽ 6.324⫻104 AU
G⫽6.674⫻10−11 N . m2/kg2 Mass of Sun
Planck’s constant Msun⫽1.989⫻ 1030 kg
h⫽6.62608 ⫻10−34 J . s Radius of Sun
Proton mass Rsun⫽6.96⫻105 km
mv ⫽1.6726⫻10−27 kg Mass of Moon
⫽1836.1 me Mmoon⫽7.348⫻ 1022 kg
Speed of light in a vacuum Radius of Moon
c⫽2.9979⫻108 m/s Rmoon⫽1.738⫻103 km
A15
E
Properties of the Planets
Distance Length
from Sun of Year Average Radius Mass
Length (millions (Earth Radius (Earth (Earth
Planet of Day of km) Year) (km) radii) Mass (kg) masses)
Mercury 58.65 days 57.9 0.24 2,439 0.38 3.30 ⫻ 1023 0.0562
Venus 243.01 days (retrograde) 108.2 0.615 6,052 0.95 4.87 ⫻ 1024 0.815
24
Earth 23 h 56 min 4.1 s 149.6 1.000 6,378 1.00 5.974⫻ 10 1.000
Mars 24 h 37 min 22.6 s 227.9 1.881 3,397 0.53 6.42 ⫻1023 0.1074
27
Jupiter 9 h 50.5 min 778.4 11.86 71,492 11.19 1.899⫻ 10 317.9
Saturn 10 h 14 min 1424 29.46 60,268 9.45 5.68⫻ 1026 95.1
Uranus 17 h 14 min (retrograde) 2872 84.01 25,559 4.01 8.66 ⫻ 10 26
14.56
Neptune 16 h 3 min 4499 164.8 25,269 3.96 1.03⫻ 1026 17.24
a 22
Pluto 6.39 days (retrograde) 5943 248.6 1,140 0.18 1.1⫻ 10 0.0018
a
As discussed in Ch 16, Pluto is now considered to be the first of the Plutoids rather than a traditional planet. Its properties are included
here for completeness.
A16
F
The Chemical Elements
Table of Atomic Weights

Elements by Name/Symbol, Atomic Number, and Atomic Weight
(Atomic weights are given to four significant figures for elements below atomic number 104.)
Atomic Atomic
Name Symbol Number Weight Name Symbol Number Weight
Actinium Ac 89 227.0 Gallium Ga 31 69.72
Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Germanium Ge 32 72.59
Americium Am 95 243.1 Gold Au 79 197.0
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Hafnium Hf 72 178.5
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Hassium Hs 108 (269)
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Helium He 2 4.003
Astatine At 85 210.0 Holmium Ho 67 164.9
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Hydrogen H 1 1.008
Berkelium Bk 97 247.1 Indium In 49 114.8
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Iodine I 53 126.9
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Iridium Ir 77 192.2
Bohrium Bh 107 (264) Iron Fe 26 55.85
Boron B 5 10.81 Krypton Kr 36 83.80
Bromine Br 35 79.90 Lanthanum La 57 138.9
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Lawrencium Lr 103 260.1
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Lead Pb 82 207.2
Californium Cf 98 252.1 Lithium Li 3 6.941
Carbon C 6 12.01 Lutetium Lu 71 175.0
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Magnesium Mg 12 24.30
Cesium Cs 55 132.9 Manganese Mn 25 54.94
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Meitnerium Mt 109 (268)
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Mendelevium Md 101 256.1
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Mercury Hg 80 200.6
Copper Cu 29 63.55 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Curium Cm 96 247.1 Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
Darmstadtium Ds 110 281 Neon Ne 10 20.18
Dubnium Db 105 (262) Neptunium Np 93 237.0
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Einsteinium Es 99 252.1 Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Nitrogen N 7 14.01
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Nobelium No 102 259.1
Fermium Fm 100 257.1 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Flourine F 9 19.00 Oxygen O 8 16.00
Francium Fr 87 223.0 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.2 Phosphorus P 15 30.97
(table continues)
A17
A18 | AP P E N D I X F | The Chemical Elements
Table of Atomic Weights (Continued)

Atomic Atomic
Name Symbol Number Weight Name Symbol Number Weight
Platinum Pt 78 195.1 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Plutonium Pu 94 239.1 Sulfur S 16 32.07
Polonium Po 84 210.0 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Potassium K 19 39.10 Technetium Tc 43 98.91
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Promethium Pm 61 144.9 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Protactinium Pa 91 231.0 Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Radium Ra 88 226.0 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Radon Rn 86 222.0 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Rhenium Re 75 186.2 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Rhodium Rh 45 102.9 Titanium Ti 22 47.88
Roentgenium Rg 111 (272) Tungsten W 74 183.8
Rubidium Rb 37 85.47 Ununbiuma Uub 112 (285)
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1 Ununquadiuma Uuq 114 (289)
a
Rutherfordium Rf 104 (261) Ununtrium Unt 113 284
Samarium Sm 62 150.4 Uranium U 92 238.0
Scandium Sc 21 44.96 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Seaborgium Sg 106 (266) Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Selenium Se 34 78.96 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Silicon Si 14 28.09 Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Silver Ag 47 107.9 Zinc Zn 30 65.39
Sodium Na 11 22.99 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
a
Names of elements 112–114 are temporary; official names and symbols must be approved by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
bglos.qxd 9/10/09 2:23 PM Page A19
Glossary
AAAS (pronounced “triple-A S”) See American Association algae Single-celled organisms (or simple multicelled ones)
for the Advancement of Science. that carry out between 50 and 90% of Earth’s photosyn-
abiotic Nonliving. (Ch. 19) thesis. (Ch. 20)
absolute magnitude The brightness a star appears to have alkali metals Elements that are highly reactive, such as
when it is viewed from a standard distance. (Ch. 14) lithium, sodium, and potassium; listed in the far lefthand
absolute zero The temperature, zero kelvins, at which no column of the periodic table of elements. These elements
energy can be extracted from atoms; the coldest attain- possess one valence electron. (Ch. 8)
able temperature, which is equal to –273.16ºC or alkaline earth metals Elements that combine with oxygen
–459.67ºF. (Ch. 4) in a one-to-one ratio and form colorless solid compounds
absorption One of three possible responses of an electro- with high melting temperatures. Listed in the second
magnetic wave encountering matter, in which light energy column in the periodic table of elements: beryllium,
is converted into some other form, usually heat energy. magnesium, calcium, and others. These elements possess
See also transmission and scattering. (Ch. 6) two valence electrons. (Ch. 8)
absorption line A dark line in an absorption spectrum that alkane A family of molecules based on the methane molecule,
corresponds to the absorbed wavelength of light. (Ch. 8) which burn readily and are used as fuels. (Ch. 10)
absorption spectrum The characteristic set of dark lines used alloy The combination of two or more chemical elements in
to identify a chemical element or molecule from the photons the metallic state; for example, brass (a mixture of copper
absorbed by the material’s atoms or molecules. (Ch. 8) and zinc) or bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). (Ch. 10)
AC See alternating current. alpha decay The loss by an atom’s nucleus of a large and mas-
acceleration The amount of change in velocity divided by the sive particle composed of two protons and two neutrons.
time it takes the change to occur. Acceleration can involve (Ch. 12)
changes of speed, changes in direction, or both. (Ch. 2) alpha particle A subatomic radioactive particle, made of
acid Any material that when put into water produces posi- two protons and two neutrons, used by Ernest Rutherford
tively charged hydrogen ions (i.e., protons) in the solution; in a well-known experiment in which the nucleus was
for example, lemon juice and hydrochloric acid. (Ch. 10) discovered. (Ch. 8)
acid rain A phenomenon that occurs when nitrogen and sul- alternating current (AC) A type of electrical current, com-
fur compounds in the air interact with water to form tiny monly used in household appliances and cars, in which
droplets of nitric and sulfuric acid, which makes raindrops charges alternate their direction of motion. (Ch. 5)
more acidic than normal. (Ch. 19) AM See amplitude modulation.
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) A disease American Association for the Advancement of Science
caused by a virus known as the human immunodeficiency (AAAS) One of the largest scientific societies, representing
virus (HIV), which is transmitted by exchange of bodily all branches of the physical, biological, and social sciences.
fluids, most commonly in sexual contacts and the sharing AAAS is a strong force in establishing science policy and
of needles among drug abusers. (Ch. 24) promoting science education. (Ch. 1)
adaptation A structure, process, or behavior that helps an amino acid The building block of protein, incorporating a
organism survive and pass its genes on to the next genera- carboxyl group (COOH) at one end, an amino group
tion. (Ch. 25) (NH2) at the other end, and a side group (which varies
addition polymerization The formation of a polymer in from one amino acid to the next). (Ch. 21)
which the basic building blocks are simply joined end to amino group A group of atoms of nitrogen and hydrogen
end; for example, polyethylene. (Ch. 10) (NH2) that forms one end of an amino acid. See carboxyl
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) An energy-carrying mole- group. (Ch. 22)
cule, found in a cell, that contains three phosphate groups, amp See ampere.
the sugar ribose, and the base adenine. (Ch. 21) ampere A unit of measurement for the amount of electrical
aerobic A process that requires the presence of oxygen; for current (number of charges) flowing in a wire or elsewhere
example, respiration. (Ch. 21) per unit of time. (Ch. 5)
AIDS See acquired immune deficiency syndrome. amphibians The first vertebrates adapted to live part of their
air pollution A serious environmental problem, with imme- lives on land; modern descendants include frogs, toads,
diate consequences for urban residents, from the emission and salamanders. (Ch. 20)
of NOx compounds, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons into amplifier A device that takes a small current and converts it
the atmosphere. (Ch. 19) into a large one to do work. (Ch. 11)
A19
A20 | Glossary
amplitude modulation (AM) A process by which informa- atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus,
tion is transmitted by varying the amplitude of a radio which determines the nuclear charge, and therefore the
wave signal being transmitted. After transmission, the chemical identity of the atom. (Ch. 12)
signal is converted to sound by the radio receiver. (Ch. 6) atomism The hypothesis that for each chemical element
amplitude The height of a wave crest above the undisturbed there is a corresponding species of indivisible objects
level of the medium. (Ch. 6) called atoms. (Ch. 8)
anaerobic A process that can occur in the absence of oxygen; ATP See adenosine triphosphate.
for example, fermentation. (Ch. 21) Australopithecus The first hominid, a primate closer to
angiosperm The class of vascular plants that flower. (Ch. 20) humans than any other; lived approximately 4.5 to
animals Multicelled organisms that get their energy by eat- 1.5 million years ago, walked erect, and had a brain
ing other organisms; one of five kingdoms in the modern about the size of that of a modern chimpanzee. (Ch. 25)
Linnaean classification. (Ch. 20) autotroph A complex organism that is able to manufacture
annihilation A process that occurs when a particle collides the essential building blocks of life from simple molecules.
with its antiparticle, completely converting both masses to (Ch. 20)
energy. (Ch. 13) axon The longest filament connecting one nerve cell to
antibiotic A medicine capable of destroying foreign bacteria another, along which nerve signals move. (Ch. 5)
in an organism. (Ch. 20)
antimatter Particles that have the same mass as their matter basalt A dense, dark, even-textured volcanic rock forming the
twins, but with an opposite charge, magnetic characteris- oceanic plates; rich in oxides of silicon, magnesium, iron,
tics, and other properties. (Ch. 13) calcium, and aluminum. (Ch. 17)
apparent magnitude The brightness a star appears to have base A class of corrosive materials that when put into water
when it is viewed from Earth. (Ch. 14) produce negatively charged hydroxide ions; usually tastes
applied research The type of research performed by scientists bitter and feels slippery. (Ch. 10)
with specific and practical goals in mind. This research is base load The steady day-to-day demand in the mass market
often translated into practical systems by large-scale of electricity. (Ch. 3)
research and development projects. (Ch. 1) base pair One of four possible bonding combinations of the
aquifer An underground body of stored water, often a bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine on the DNA
layer of water-saturated rock bounded by impermeable molecule: AT, TA, GC, and CG. (Ch. 23)
materials. (Ch. 18) basic research The type of research performed by scientists
arthropods All invertebrate animals with segmented bodies who are interested simply in finding out how the world
and jointed limbs. The most successful phylum in the works, in knowledge for its own sake. (Ch. 1)
animal kingdom in terms of numbers of species and total battery A device that converts stored chemical energy into
mass; includes insects, spiders, and crustacea. (Ch. 20) kinetic energy of charged particles (usually electrons) run-
artificial intelligence A field of research based on the idea ning through an outside wire. (Ch. 5)
that computers eventually will be able to perform all beta decay A kind of radioactive decay in which a particle
functions of thought that we normally think of as being such as the neutron spontaneously transforms into a collec-
distinctly human. (Ch. 11) tion of particles that includes an electron. (Ch. 12)
artificial selection The process of conscious breeding for big bang theory The idea that the universe began at a spe-
specific characteristics in plants and animals. (Ch. 25) cific point in time and has been cooling and expanding
asteroid belt A collection of small rocky planetesimals, ever since. (Ch. 15)
located in a circular orbit between Mars and Jupiter, debris binomial nomenclature The two-part scientific name
of material that never managed to collect into a single assigned to every organism that begins with the genus
planet. (Ch. 16) name and ends with the species name. (Ch. 20)
asteroids Small rocky objects, concentrated mostly in an bioinformatics revolution The increased use of computers
asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, that circle the Sun in biological experiments and scientific study. A term
like miniature planets. (Ch. 16) often used in reference to the Human Genome Project.
astrobiology The scientific search for the origin and distribu- (Ch. 23)
tion of life in the universe. (Ch. 25) biology The branch of science devoted to the study of living
astronomy The study of objects in the heavens. (Ch. 14) systems. (Ch. 20)
atmospheric cycle The circulation of gases near Earth’s biodiversity The number of different species that coexist at a
surface, which includes the short-term variations of given place. (Ch. 1)
weather and the long-term variations of climate. (Ch. 18) biotic Living. (Ch. 19)
atom Fundamental building blocks for all matter; the bird Modern descendant of reptiles with an anatomical adap-
smallest representative sample of an element. It consists tation to flight and feathers evolved from scales. (Ch. 20)
of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively bit Binary digit: a unit of measurement for information equal
charged electrons. (Ch. 8) to “yes-no” or “on-off.” (Ch. 11)
Glossary | A21
black hole Formed at the death of a very large star, an carbohydrate A class of modular molecules made from car-
object so dense, with a mass so concentrated, that bon, hydrogen, and oxygen that form the solid structure of
nothing—not even light—can escape from its surface. living things and play a central role in how living things
(Ch. 14) acquire oxygen. (Ch. 22)
blue-green algae Also known as cyanobacteria. Single-celled carbon cycle The cycle a carbon molecule may undergo in an
organisms that are classified as monera, even though they ecosystem. For example, it may start in the atmosphere, be
carry on photosynthesis. (Ch. 20) taken in by a producer, then a eaten by a consumer. When
blueshift The result of the Doppler effect on light waves, the consumer dies, it is broken down by a decomposer, at
when the source of light moves toward the observer: which point the carbon molecule is released back into the
light-wave crests bunch up and have a higher frequency. atmosphere. (Ch. 19)
(Ch. 6) carboxyl group A group of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and
Bohr atom A model of the atom, developed by Niels Bohr oxygen (COOH) that forms one end of an amino acid
in 1913, in which electrons exist only in allowed energy string. See amino group. (Ch. 22)
levels. In these energy levels, the electrons maintain fixed carnivore Animals that get their energy by eating organisms
energy for long periods of time, without giving off radi- in the second trophic level. (Ch. 3)
ation. (Ch. 8) CAT See computerized axial tomography.
boiling A change of state from liquid to gas caused by an cell A complex chemical system with the ability to duplicate
increase in temperature or decrease in pressure of the liquid, itself; the fundamental unit of life. (Ch. 21)
which speeds up the vibration of individual molecules of the cell membrane A structure, formed from bilayers of lipids,
liquid, allowing them to break free and form a gas. (Ch. 10) that separates the inside of a cell from the outside, or sepa-
bony fish A class of vertebrates that includes salmon, perch, rates one part of a cell from another. (Ch. 21)
and other fish with bone skeletons. (Ch. 20) cell theory The theory that holds that all living things are
brain The central organ of the human nervous system, made up of cells, the cell is the fundamental unit of life,
which receives signals from sense organs, as well as signals and all cells arise from previous cells. (Ch. 21)
that keep it apprised of the status of internal organs. It cell wall A solid framework made from cellulose molecules
sends out signals to keep the body functioning, and serves and other strong polymers, by which plant cells are sepa-
as the seat for all higher functions, such as thought and rated from one another. (Ch. 21)
speech. (App. A) cellulose A long, stringy polymer that is the main structural
Brownian motion A phenomenon that describes the rapid, element in plants but cannot be digested by humans.
random movements caused by atomic collisions of very (Ch. 22)
small objects suspended in a liquid. (Ch. 8) Celsius scale A temperature scale that measures 0 and 100
bryophyte The phylum of primitive terrestrial plants, includ- degrees as the freezing and boiling points of water, respec-
ing mosses, that can use photosynthesis, are anchored to tively. (Ch. 4)
the ground by rhizoids, and absorb water directly through Cenozoic Era The fourth era, which began 65 million years
aboveground structures. (Ch. 20) ago and continues to the present day, also known as “new
byte In a computer, a group of eight switches storing eight life.” The time when mammals proliferated and began to
bits of information; the basic information unit of most dominate Earth. (Ch. 25)
modern computers. (Ch. 11) central processing unit (CPU) The part of a computer in
which transistors store and manipulate relatively small
c The speed of light and other electromagnetic radiation; a amounts of information at any one time. (Ch. 11)
constant whose value is 300,000 kilometers per second Cepheid variable A type of star with a regular behavior of
(about 186,000 miles per second), equal to the product steady brightening and dimming, which is related to the
of the wavelength and frequency of an electromagnetic star’s luminosity. Cepheid variables are used to calculate
wave. (Ch. 6) distances to many millions of light-years. (Ch. 14)
calorie A common unit of energy defined as the amount of ceramics A broad class of hard, durable solids, ranging from
heat required to raise 1 gram of room-temperature water rocks and minerals to bones. (Ch. 10)
1 degree Celsius in temperature. (Ch. 4) CFCs See chlorofluorocarbons.
Cambrian explosion The sudden change in life on Earth, chain reaction The process in a nuclear reactor in which
well-documented in the fossil record, when hard-bodied nuclei undergoing fission produce neutrons that will cause
organisms first appeared about 545 million years ago. more splitting, resulting in the release of large amounts of
(Ch. 25) energy. (Ch. 12)
Cambrian period The geological period, beginning about change of state Transition between the solid, liquid, and gas
545 million years ago, during which animals first began to states caused by changes in temperature and pressure. The
develop shells and skeletons. (Ch. 25) processes involved are freezing and melting (for solids and
cancer A type of disease characterized by the uncontrolled liquids), boiling and condensation (for liquids and gases),
growth of cells in the body. (Ch. 24) and sublimation (for solids and gases). (Ch. 10)
A22 | Glossary
chaos A field of study modeling systems in nature that can climate The average weather conditions of a place or area
be described in Newtonian terms but whose futures are, over a period of years. (Ch. 18)
for all practical purposes, unpredictable; for example, the cloning The process of engineering a new individual
turbulent flow of water or the beating of a human heart. entirely from the genetic material in a cell from another
(Ch. 2) individual. A clone is genetically identical to the cell
chemical bond The attraction that results from the redistrib- donor. (Ch. 24)
ution of electrons between two or more atoms, leading to closed ecosystem An ecosystem through which energy will
a more stable configuration—particularly by filling the flow but material will cycle. (Ch. 19)
outer electron shells—and that holds the two atoms closed system A type of system in which matter and energy
together. The principal kinds of chemical bonds are ionic, are not freely exchanged with the surroundings; an isolated
covalent, and metallic. (Ch. 10) system. (Ch. 3)
chemical evolution An area of research concerned with the closed universe A universe in which the expansion will
process by which simple chemical compounds present in someday reverse because the universe holds enough matter
Earth’s early atmosphere became an organized, reproducing to exert a strong enough gravitational force to reverse the
cell. (Ch. 25) motion of receding galaxies. (Ch. 15)
chemical potential energy The type of energy that is stored cloud A concentration of tiny water droplets or ice crystals,
in the chemical bonds between atoms, such as the energy which form when the air becomes saturated with water.
in flashlight batteries. (Ch. 3) (Ch. 18)
chemical reaction The process by which atoms or smaller cloudiness A weather variable caused by the formation of
molecules come together to form large molecules, or by clouds as air masses rise and fall and the air is saturated
which larger molecules are broken down into smaller with water. (Ch. 18)
ones; involves the rearrangement of atoms in elements and cluster A collection of galaxies. (Ch. 15)
compounds, as well as the rearrangement of electrons to COBE See Cosmic Background Explorer.
form chemical bonds. (Ch. 10) codon The set of three bases on mRNA that determines
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A class of stable and generally which of the possible tRNA molecules will attach at that
nonreactive chemicals widely used in refrigerators and air- point, and which amino acid will appear in a protein.
conditioners until the late 1980s. See ozone hole. (Ch. 19) (Ch. 23)
chlorophyll A molecule, found in the chloroplasts of plant cold-blooded Animals, such as amphibians and reptiles, that
cells, that absorbs energy from sunlight and uses the must absorb heat from their environment to maintain body
energy to transform atmospheric carbon dioxide and water temperature. (Ch. 20)
into energy-rich sugar molecules such as glucose and oxy- combustion A rapid combination with oxygen, producing
gen (as a byproduct). (Ch. 21) heat and flame. (Ch. 10)
chloroplasts The main energy transformation organelles in comet An object, usually found outside the orbit of Pluto,
plant cells; places where the molecules of chlorophyll are composed of chunks of materials such as water ice and
found and photosynthesis occurs. (Ch. 21) methane ice embedded with dirt. A comet may fall
cholesterol An essential component of the cell membrane syn- toward the Sun, if its distant orbit is disturbed, and create
thesized by the body from saturated fats in the diet; in high a spectacular display in the night sky. (Ch. 16)
levels, can cause fatty deposits that clog arteries. (Ch. 22) compass A needle-shaped magnet designed to point at the
chordate A phylum of animals with a thickened set of nerves poles of Earth’s magnetic field. (Ch. 5)
down their backs; includes the subphylum vertebrates. complexity A new branch of science that studies systems in
(Ch. 20) which many agents act on, and are affected by, other
chromosomes A long strand of the DNA double helix, with agents. Ecosystems, stock markets, and the human brain
the strand wrapped around a series of protein cores. (Ch. 21) are examples of complex systems. (Ch. 20)
chromosphere One of the Sun’s outer layers, visible for a few composite material A combination of two or more sub-
minutes as a spectacular halo during a total eclipse of the stances in which the strength of one of the constituents
Sun. (Ch. 14) is used to offset the weakness of another, resulting in a
circulatory system The system that distributes blood new material whose strengths are greater than any of
through the body; includes the blood vessels and the heart. its components; for example, plywood and reinforced
(App. A) concrete. (Ch. 11)
class The third broadest classification in the Linnaean classifica- compressional wave One of two principal types of seismic
tion system; humans are in the class of mammals. (Ch. 20) waves, in which the molecules in rock move back and forth in
classical genetics The laws developed from the observations the same direction as the wave; a longitudinal wave. (Ch. 17)
of Gregor Mendel: (1) traits are passed from parent to compressive strength A material’s ability to withstand crushing.
offspring by genes, (2) each parent contributes one gene (Ch. 11)
for each trait, and (3) genes are either dominant or recessive. computer A machine that stores and manipulates information.
(Ch. 23) (Ch. 11)
Glossary | A23
computer-assisted drug design An approach to developing convergent plate boundary A place where two tectonic
new drugs that relies on computers to predict the shapes, plates are coming together. (Ch. 17)
and therefore the behavior, of molecules. (Ch. 24) core (a) In geology, the heaviest elements of Earth’s mass,
computerized axial tomography (CAT) A scan that uses primarily iron and nickel, concentrated at the center with a
high-energy photons to produce a three-dimensional radius of about 3400 km (2000 mi). (b) In astronomy, a
picture of the interior of the body and that uses a computer small region in the center of a star where hydrogen burn-
to quantify the density of each point of the body where ing is generally confined. (Ch. 16, Ch. 17)
the photons make contact. (Ch. 9) corona One of the Sun’s outer layers, visible for a few min-
community Organisms that interact to sustain life, including utes as a spectacular halo during a total eclipse of the Sun.
producers, consumers, and decomposers. (Ch. 19) (Ch. 14)
condensation A change of state from gas to liquid caused by Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) An orbiting
a decrease in temperature or pressure of the gas, which observatory that measures the presence of microwave
slows down the vibration of individual molecules of the radiation present as background noise in every direction
gas, allowing them to form a liquid. (Ch. 10) of the sky. (Ch. 14)
condensation polymerization A chemical reaction often used cosmic microwave background radiation Microwave radi-
to manufacture plastics and other polymers, and which, in ation, characteristic of a body at about 3 K, falling to
the body, occurs during the formation of a peptide bond. Earth from all directions. This radiation is evidence for
(Ch. 10) the big bang. (Ch. 15)
condensation reaction The formation of a polymer in which cosmic rays Particles (mostly protons) that rain down con-
each new polymer bond releases a water molecule as the tinuously on Earth’s atmosphere after being emitted by
ends of the original polymer molecules link up. (Ch. 10) stars in our galaxy and in others. (Ch. 13)
conduction The movement of heat by collisions between cosmology The branch of science that is devoted to the
vibrating atoms or molecules; one of three mechanisms by study of the structure and history of the entire universe.
which heat moves. (Ch. 4) (Ch. 15)
conduction electron An electron in a material that is able to coulomb (pronounced “koo-loam”) The unit for measuring
move in an electrical field. (Ch. 11) the magnitude of an electrical charge. (Ch. 5)
conductor A material capable of carrying an electrical cur- Coulomb’s law An empirically derived rule that states that
rent; any material through which electrons can flow freely. the magnitude of the electrostatic force between any two
(Ch. 11) objects is proportional to the charges of the two objects,
cone A light-absorbing cell in the eye, which is sensitive to and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
red, blue, or green light, enabling color vision. Compare between them. (Ch. 5)
to rod. (Ch. 6) covalent bond A chemical bond in which neighboring
conservation law Any statement that says that a quantity in molecules share electrons in a strongly bonded group of
nature does not change. (Ch. 3) at least two atoms. (Ch. 10)
constructive interference A situation in which two waves act CPU See central processing unit.
together to reinforce or maximize the wave height at the critical mass The minimum number of uranium-235 atoms
point of intersection. (Ch. 6) needed to sustain a nuclear chain reaction to the point
consumers Organisms, such as animals, that sustain life where large amounts of energy can be released. (Ch. 12)
from the carbon-based molecules created by producer crust A thin layer at Earth’s surface formed from the light-
organisms in an ecosystem. (Ch. 19) est elements, ranging in thickness from 10 km (6 mi) in
continental drift A theory that states that Earth’s continents parts of the ocean to 70 km (45 mi) beneath parts of the
are in motion and are, therefore, not fixed. Continental continents. (Ch. 16)
drift is part of the modern theory of plate tectonics. (Ch. 17) crystal A group of atoms that occur in a regularly repeating
convection The transfer of heat by the physical motion of masses sequence. Crystal structure is described by first determin-
of fluid. Dense, cooler fluids (liquids and gases) descend in ing the size and shape of the repeating boxlike group of
bulk and displace rising warmer fluids, which are less dense. atoms and then recording the exact type and position of
One of three mechanisms by which heat moves. (Ch. 4) every atom that appears in the box. (Ch. 10)
convection cell A region in a fluid in which heat is continu- current A river of moving water on an ocean’s surface,
ously being transferred by a bulk motion of heated fluid found in each of the ocean basins. (Ch. 18)
from a heat source to the surface of the fluid, where heat is cyclone A great rotational pattern in the atmosphere, hun-
released. The cooled fluid then sinks and the cycle repeats. dreds of kilometers in diameter, that can draw energy from
(Ch. 4) warm oceanic waters and create low-pressure tropical
convection zone The outer region of the Sun, comprising storms. (Ch. 18)
the upper 200,000 km (about 125,000 mi) where the cyclotron The first of the particle accelerators, for which
dominant energy transfer mechanism changes from colli- Ernest Lawrence won the 1939 Nobel prize in physics.
sion to convection. (Ch. 14) (Ch. 13)
A24 | Glossary
cytoplasm The fluid that takes up the spaces between the dipole field The magnetic field that arises from the two poles
organelles of a cell. (Ch. 21) of a magnet. (Ch. 5)
cytoskeleton A series of protein filaments that extend direct current (DC) A type of electrical current in which the
throughout the cell, giving the cell a shape and, in some electrons flow in one direction only; for example, in the
cases, allowing it to move. (Ch. 21) chemical reaction of a battery. (Ch. 5)
distillation A process by which engineers separate the com-
dark matter Material that exists in forms that do not interact plex mixture of petroleum’s organic chemicals into much
with electromagnetic radiation and that may constitute purer fractions. (Ch. 10)
90% of the matter of the universe. (Ch. 15) divergent plate boundary A spreading zone of crustal for-
DC See direct current. mation; a place where neighboring plates move away
decay chain A series of decays, or radioactive events, ending from each other. (Ch. 17)
with a stable isotope. (Ch. 12) Divine Calculator An eighteenth-century idea, proposed by
decomposers Organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that Pierre Simon Laplace, which stated that if the position
renew the raw materials of life in an ecosystem. (Ch. 19) and velocity of every atom in the universe is known, with
deep-ocean trench A surface feature associated with conver- infinite computational power, the future position and
gent plate boundaries in which no continents are on the velocity of every atom in the universe could be predicted.
leading edge of either of the two converging plates and (Ch. 2)
one plate penetrates deep into Earth. (Ch. 17) DNA See deoxyribonucleic acid.
dendrite One of a thousand projections on each nerve cell in DNA fingerprinting A procedure by which DNA in human
the brain through which nerve signals move; each is con- tissue is used to match the tissue to an individual. This
nected to different neighboring nerve cells in the brain. technique is becoming increasingly important in the
(Ch. 5) judicial system in the United States. (Ch. 24)
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A strand of nucleotides with DNA mapping The process of finding the location of genes
alternating phosphate and sugar molecules in a long chain, on chromosomes. (Ch. 23)
and with base molecules adenine, guanine, cytosine, and DNA sequencing The process of determining, base pair by
thymine at the side. The nucleotide strand bonds with a base pair, the exact order of bases along a specific stretch
second nucleotide strand to make a molecule with a of a DNA molecule. (Ch. 23)
ladder-like double helix shape. DNA stores the genetic domain Region in magnetic material where neighboring
information in a cell. (Ch. 23) atoms line up with each other to give a strong magnetic
deoxyribose The five-carbon sugar lacking one oxygen atom field. (Ch. 11)
in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). (Ch. 23) dominant A genetic characteristic that always appears, or is
depolymerization The breakdown of a polymer into short expressed. (Ch. 23)
segments. (Ch. 10) doping The addition of a minor impurity to a semiconductor.
destructive interference A situation in which two waves (Ch. 11)
intersect in a way that decreases or cancels out the wave Doppler effect The change in frequency or wavelength of a
height at the point of intersection. (Ch. 6) wave detected by an observer because the source of the
diatomic The simplest molecules, containing two atoms of wave is moving. (Ch. 6)
the same element, such as the diatomic gases hydrogen double-blind clinical trial A procedure for testing the
(H2), nitrogen (N2), and oxygen (O2). (Ch. 10) effectiveness of new medical treatments. A group of
differentiation The process by which heavy, dense materials patients is separated into two sections; half the people will
(such as iron and nickel) sank under the force of gravity be given the new treatment while the other half will be
toward the molten center of the planet, while lighter, less given a placebo. (Ch. 24)
dense materials floated to the top, resulting in the layered double bond The type of covalent bond formed when two
structure of the present-day Earth. (Ch. 16) electrons are shared by two atoms. (Ch. 10)
diffuse scattering A process by which light waves are double helix The twisted double strand of nucleotides
absorbed and reemitted in all directions by a medium such that forms the structure of the DNA molecule.
as clouds or snow. (Ch. 6) (Ch. 23)
diffusion The transfer of molecules from regions of high
concentration by ordinary random thermal motion. ear A sense organ that includes a membrane that vibrates at
(Ch. 21) the arrival of sound waves. (App. A)
digestive system The parts of the body that are responsible earthquake Disturbance caused when stressed rock on Earth
for breaking down food so that its stored energy can be suddenly snaps, converting potential energy into released
used by cells; includes the stomach, small intestine, liver, kinetic energy. (Ch. 17)
pancreas, and gall bladder. (App. A) ecological niche The habitat, functional role(s), require-
diode An electronic device that allows electrical current to ments for environmental resources, and tolerance ranges
flow in only one direction. (Ch. 11) within an ecosystem. (Ch. 19)
Glossary | A25
ecology The branch of science that studies interactions electromagnet A device that produces a magnetic field from a
among organisms as well as the interactions of organisms moving electrical charge. (Ch. 5)
and their environment. (Ch. 19) electromagnetic force A term used to refer to the unified
ecosystem Interdependent collections of living things; nature of electricity and magnetism. (Ch. 5)
includes the plants and animals that live in a given area electromagnetic induction A process by which a changing
together with their physical surroundings. (See open ecosystem magnetic field produces an electrical current in a con-
and closed ecosystem.) (Ch. 19) ductor, even though there is no other source of power
efficiency The amount of work you get from an engine, available. (Ch. 5)
divided by the amount of energy you put in; a quantifica- electromagnetic radiation See electromagnetic wave.
tion of the loss of useful energy. (Ch. 4) electromagnetic spectrum The entire array of waves, varying
El Niño A weather cycle in the Pacific basin that recurs every in frequency and wavelength, but all resulting from an
four to seven years and can cause severe storms and flood- accelerating electrical charge; includes radio waves,
ing all along the western coast of the Americas, as well as microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays,
drought from Australia to India. (Ch. 18) gamma rays, and others. (Ch. 6)
elastic limit The point at which a material stops resisting electromagnetic wave A form of radiant energy that reacts
external forces and begins to deform permanently. (Ch. 11) with matter by being transmitted, absorbed, or scattered. A
elastic potential energy The type of energy that is stored in a self-propagating wave made up of electric and magnetic
flexed muscle, a coiled spring, and a stretched rubber fields fluctuating together. A wave created when electrical
band. (Ch. 3) charges accelerate, but requiring no medium for transfer.
electric circuit An unbroken path of material that carries Electromagnetic radiation. (Ch. 6)
electricity and consists of three parts: a source of energy, a electron Tiny, negatively charged particles that surround a
closed path, and a device to use the energy. (Ch. 5) positively charged nucleus of an atom. (Ch. 5)
electric field The force that would be exerted on a positive electron microscope An instrument, introduced in the
charge at a position near a charged object. Every charged 1930s, that was a major new advance in microscopes
object is surrounded by an electric field. (Ch. 5) because it used electrons instead of light to illuminate
electric generator A source of energy producing an alter- objects and had resolving power up to 100,000 times that
nating current in an electric circuit through the use of of the optical microscope. (Ch. 21)
electromagnetic induction. (Ch. 5) electron shell A specific energy level in an atom that can be
electric motor A device that operates by supplying current to filled with a predetermined number of electrons. (Ch. 8)
an electromagnet to make the magnet move and generate electrostatic The type of electrical charge that doesn’t move
mechanical power. Many motors employ permanent once it has been placed on an object, and the forces
magnets and rotating loops of wire inside the poles of this exerted by such a charge. (Ch. 5)
magnet. (Ch. 5) electroweak force The force resulting from the unification of
electrical charge An excess or deficit of electrons on an the electromagnetic and weak force. (Ch. 13)
object. (Ch. 5) element A material made from a single type of atom, which
electrical conductivity The ease with which a material allows cannot be broken down any further. (Ch. 8)
electrons to flow. The inverse of electrical resistance. (Ch. 11) elementary-particle physics The study of particles that
electrical conductor Any material capable of carrying electrical comprise the basic building blocks of the universe; for
current. (Ch. 11) example, the particles that make up the nucleus, and parti-
electrical current A flow of charged particles, measured in cles such as electrons. Also known as high-energy physics.
amperes. (Ch. 5) (Ch. 13)
electrical insulator Material that will not conduct electricity. elementary particles Particles that make up the nucleus,
(Ch. 11) together with particles such as the electron; the basic
electrical potential energy The type of energy that is found building blocks of the universe. (Ch. 13)
in a battery or between two wires at different voltages; ELF radiation Extremely low-frequency waves associated
energy associated with the position of a charge in an with the movement of electrons to produce the alternating
electric field. (Ch. 3) current in household wires. (Ch. 6)
electrical resistance The quantity, measured in ohms, that embryonic stem cell A cell that is totipotent and able to
represents how hard it is to push electrons through a develop into any of the specialized cells that will later
material. High-resistance wires are used when electron appear in the adult organism. (Ch. 24)
energy is to be converted into heat energy. Low-resistance emission spectrum The characteristic set of lines used to
wires are used when energy is to be transmitted from one identify a chemical element or molecule from the total
place to another with minimum loss. (Ch. 5) collection of photons emitted during quantum leaps.
electricity A force, more powerful than gravity, that moves (Ch. 8)
objects both toward and away from each other, depending emitter The region in a transistor that first receives an
upon the charge. (Ch. 5) electrical current. (Ch. 11)
A26 | Glossary
endocrine system A group of glands that secrete hormones family A grouping of similar genera in the Linnaean classi-
that are taken by the bloodstream to produce specific fication system; humans are in the family of hominids.
chemical effects; part of the body’s control system. See (Ch. 20)
nervous system. (App. A) fat-soluble vitamin A vitamin that can be stored in the body,
endoplasmic reticulum One of the cellular organelles that including vitamins A, D, E, and K. (Ch. 22)
contribute to protein and lipid synthesis. (Ch. 21) fault A fracture in a rock along which movement occurs.
endothermic A chemical reaction in which the final energy (Ch. 17)
of the electrons in the reaction is greater than the initial fermentation An anaerobic cellular process in which pyruvic
energy; energy must be supplied to make the reaction acids are broken down and the energy is used by the cell to
proceed. (Ch. 10) keep glycolysis going. (Ch. 21)
energy The ability to do work; the capacity to exert a force fern Primitive vascular plants that reproduce by producing
over a distance. A system’s energy can be measured in sperm that must swim through water to fertilize eggs and
joules or foot-pounds. (Ch. 3) generate spores. (Ch. 20)
entropy The thermodynamic quantity that describes the ferromagnetism The property of a few materials in nature,
degree of randomness of a system. The greater the disorder such as iron, cobalt, and nickel metals, in which the
or randomness, the higher the statistical probability of the individual atomic magnets are arranged in a nonrandom
state, and the higher the entropy. (Ch. 4) manner, lined up with each other into small magnetic
environment The nonliving chemical and physical parts of domains to produce a small magnetic field. (Ch. 11)
an ecosystem, including the water, soil, and atmosphere. field The force—magnetic, gravitational, or electrical—that
(Ch. 19) would be felt at a particular point. For example, forces
enzyme A molecule that facilitates reactions between two exerted by one object that would be felt by another object
other molecules, but which is not itself altered or taken up in the same region. (Ch. 5)
in the overall reaction. (Ch. 22) field researcher A scientist who works in natural settings to
essential amino acid One of the 8 amino acids that cannot be observe nature. (Ch. 1)
synthesized by the body and have to be consumed. (Ch. 22) first law of thermodynamics The law of the conservation of
eukaryote An advanced single-celled organism and all multi- energy. In an isolated system, the total amount of energy,
celled organisms that are made from cells containing a including heat energy, is conserved. (Ch. 3)
nucleus. (Ch. 21) first trophic level All plants that produce energy from
evolution An ongoing process of change. There are various photosynthesis. (Ch. 3)
theories of biological evolution that differ in regard to how fission A reaction that produces energy when heavy
fast it proceeds and by what mechanisms. (Ch. 25) radioactive nuclei split apart into fragments that together
excited state All energy levels of an atom above the ground have less mass than the original isotopes. (Ch. 12)
state. (Ch. 8) flat universe A model of the future of the universe in which
exothermic A chemical reaction in which the final energy of the expansion slows and comes to a halt after infinite time
the electrons is less than the initial energy, and therefore has passed. (Ch. 15)
energy is given off in some form. (Ch. 10) fluorescence A phenomenon in which energy contained in
experiment The manipulation of some aspect of nature to ultraviolet wavelengths (or “black light”) is absorbed by
observe the outcome. (Ch. 1) the atoms in some materials and partly emitted as visible
experimentalist A scientist who manipulates nature with con- light. (Ch. 6)
trolled experiments. (Ch. 1) FM See frequency modulation.
extinct Species that have lived on Earth and have died out. food chain, or food web A complete set of pathways by
Scientists estimate that for every species on the planet which animals in an ecosystem obtain their energy and raw
today, 999 species have become extinct. (Ch. 25) materials. (Ch. 3)
extinction The disappearance of a species on Earth. (Ch. 25) foot-pound The amount of work done by a force of one
extrasolar planet Any planet that exists outside of Earth’s pound acting through one foot; the unit of energy in the
solar system. (Ch. 16) English system. (Ch. 3)
extrusive rock See volcanic rock. force A push or pull that, acting alone, causes a change in
eye The most important of the five sense organs through which acceleration of the object on which it acts. (Ch. 2)
human beings become aware of their environment. (Ch. 6) fossil Evidence of past life preserved in rocks; notably when
atoms in the hard parts of the buried organism are replaced
Fahrenheit scale A temperature scale that measures 32 and by minerals in the water flowing through the surrounding
212 degrees as the freezing and boiling points of water, area. (Ch. 25)
respectively. (Ch. 4) fossil fuel Carbon-rich deposits of ancient life that burn
falsifiability A property of the scientific method that states with a hot flame and have been the most important
that every theory and law of nature is subject to change, energy source for 150 years. Examples include coal, oil,
based on new observations. (Ch. 1) and natural gas. (Ch. 3)
Glossary | A27
fossil record A term that refers to all of the fossils that gas Any collection of atoms or molecules that expands to take
have been found, catalogued, and studied since human that shape and fill the volume available in its container.
beings first began to study them in a systematic way. (Ch. 10)
(Ch. 25) gauge particles Particles whose exchange produces the fun-
frames of reference The physical surroundings from which a damental forces that hold everything together; corre-
person observes and measures the world. (Ch. 7) sponds to every force between two particles. (Ch. 13)
freezing A change of state from liquid to solid caused by GCM See global circulation models.
a decrease in temperature or change in pressure of the gene A unit of biological inheritance, or a section of a long
liquid, which slows the vibration of individual molecules molecule of DNA. One gene carries the information
and forms the solid structure. (Ch. 10) needed to assemble one protein. (Ch. 23)
frequency The number of wave crests that go by a given gene therapy A promising future technology that involves
point every second. A wave completing one cycle (sending replacing a defective gene with a healthy one. (Ch. 24)
one crest by a point every second) has a frequency of one general relativity The second and more complex of two parts
hertz, 1 Hz. (Ch. 6) of Einstein’s theory of relativity, which applies to any refer-
frequency modulation (FM) A process by which informa- ence frames whether or not those frames are accelerating
tion is transmitted by varying the frequency of a signal. relative to each other. (Ch. 7)
After being transmitted, the signal may be converted to genetic code The correspondence between base-pair
sound by circuits in a receiver. (Ch. 6) sequences and amino acids. The connection, in all living
fungi One of the five kingdoms in the Linnaean classifica- things, between the codons and the amino acid for which
tion, organisms that obtain energy by absorbing materials they code. (Ch. 23)
through filaments and reproduce by production of genetic disease A hereditary mutation that can cause sickness
spores. May be single-celled (e.g., yeasts) or multicellular or death; for example, hemophilia. (Ch. 23)
(e.g, mushrooms). (Ch. 20) genetic engineering A technology in which foreign genes are
fusion A process in which two nuclei come together to form a inserted into an organism, or existing genes altered, to
third, larger nucleus. When this reaction combines light ele- modify the function of living things. (Ch. 24)
ments to make heavier ones, the mass of the final nucleus may genetics The study of ways in which biological information is
be less than the mass of its constituent parts. The “missing” passed from one generation to the next. (Ch. 23)
nuclear mass can be converted into energy. (Ch. 12) genome The sum of all information contained in the DNA
for any living thing; the sequence of all the bases in all the
g A constant numerical value for the specific acceleration that chromosomes. (Ch. 23)
all objects experience at Earth’s surface, determined by genus A grouping of similar species in the Linnaean classifica-
measuring the actual fall rate of objects in a laboratory. It tion system; humans are in the genus Homo. (Ch. 20)
is equal to 9.8 m/s2, or 32 feet/s2. (Ch. 2) glacier A large body of ice that slowly flows down a slope or
G See gravitational constant. valley under the influence of gravity; found primarily in
galaxy A large assembly of stars (between millions and Greenland and Antarctica. (Ch. 18)
hundreds of billions), together with gas, dust, and other glass A solid with predictable local environments for most
materials, that is held together by the forces of mutual atoms, but no long-range order to the atomic structure.
gravitational attraction. (Ch. 15) Compared to crystal, glass lacks the repeating unit of
gametes Sex cells that are formed when a single cell splits atoms. (Ch. 10)
into four daughter cells during the process of cell division global circulation models (GCM) Complex computer
called meiosis, each gamete processing half the number of models of the atmosphere that are the best attempts to
chromosomes that normal cells have. (Ch. 21) date to predict long-term climate and to discuss various
gamma radiation A kind of radioactivity involving the types of ecological changes such as global warming.
emission of energetic electromagnetic radiation from the (Ch. 18)
nucleus of an atom, with no change to the number of global warming A change in average global temperature and
protons or neutrons in the atom. (Ch. 12) in the temperature gradient between equator and poles
gamma ray The highest-energy wave of the electromagnetic that could result from the temperature increase owing to
spectrum with wavelengths less than the size of an atom, the greenhouse effect (Ch. 19)
less than one-trillionth of a meter; normally emitted in glucose An important sugar (C6H12O6) in the energy cycle of
very high-energy nuclear particle reactions. (Ch. 6) living things, figuring prominently in the energy metabo-
Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) An orbiting observatory lism of every living cell. (Ch. 22)
that detects the highest-energy end of the electromagnetic gluon A massless particle, confined to the interior of particles,
spectrum, gamma rays. It was one of the first permanent that mediates the force holding quarks together. (Ch. 13)
orbiting observatories launched by NASA’s Great Obser- glycogen A glucose polymer that is formed in animals and
vatories Program for monitoring in all parts of the electro- stored in the liver and muscle tissues. Also called animal
magnetic spectrum. (Ch. 14) starch. (Ch. 22)
A28 | Glossary
glycolysis The first step in the extraction of energy from half-life The rate of radioactive decay measured by the time it
glucose, which takes place in ten separate steps, each of takes for half of a collection of isotopes to decay into
which is governed by a specific enzyme, and which splits another element. (Ch. 12)
each glucose molecule into two smaller molecules called heat (thermal energy) A measure of the quantity of atomic
pyruvic acids. (Ch. 21) kinetic energy contained in every object. (Ch. 3)
gneiss The metamorphic rock formed from slate under heat conductor An object that allows heat to flow through it,
extreme temperature and pressure. (Ch. 18) such as metal. (Ch. 4)
Golgi apparatus One of the cellular organelles that takes part heat insulator An object that impedes the flow of heat, such
in the synthesis of molecules. (Ch. 21) as wood. (Ch. 4)
gradualism A hypothesis that holds that most evolutionary heat transfer The process by which heat moves from one
change occurs as a result of the accumulation of small place to another, through three different mechanisms:
adaptations. (Ch. 25) conduction, convection, or radiation. (Ch. 4)
granite A rock that is lower in density than the mantle helium burning The final energy-producing stage of a
rock it caps, and which foms much of the continents. sun-like star in which the temperature in the interior
(Ch. 17) becomes so hot that the helium begins to undergo nuclear
gravitational constant (G) A universal constant that fusion reactions to make carbon. The net reaction is:
expresses the exact numerical relation between the 4
He ⫹ 4He ⫹ 4He → 12C. (Ch. 14)
masses of two objects and their separation, on the one herbivore Animals that get their energy by eating plants of
hand, and the force between them on the other; equal the first trophic level. (Ch. 3)
to 6.67 ⫻ 10⫺11 N-m2/kg2. (Ch. 2) hertz (Hz) The unit of measurement for the frequency of
gravitational escape One way that a planet’s atmosphere waves; one wave cycle per second. (Ch. 6)
can evolve and change. Molecules in the atmosphere Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram A simple graphical
heated by the Sun may move sufficiently fast so that appre- technique widely used in astronomy to plot a star’s
ciable fractions of them can actually escape the gravita- temperature (determined by its spectrum) versus the star’s
tional pull of their planet. (Ch. 16) energy output (measured by its energy and brightness).
gravitational potential energy Energy associated with the (Ch. 14)
position of a mass in a gravitational field. The gravitational heterotrophs Organisms that must consume the essential
potential energy of an object on Earth’s surface equals its building blocks of life from the surrounding environment
weight (the force of gravity exerted by the object) times its to survive. (Ch. 20)
height above the ground. (Ch. 3) hierarchy A system that organizes all species based on
graviton The gauge particle of gravity. (Ch. 13) shared and differing qualities into categories within a
gravity An attractive force that acts on every object in the larger framework. (Ch. 20)
universe. (Ch. 2) high-energy physics See elementary-particle physics.
great bombardment An event following the initial period of high-grade energy Sources of energy that can be used to
planetary formation in which meteorites showered down produce very high-temperature reservoirs; for example,
on planets, adding matter and heat energy. (Ch. 16) petroleum and coal. (Ch. 4)
greenhouse effect A global temperature increase caused by high-level nuclear waste The radioactive materials with
the fact that Earth’s atmospheric gases trap some of the long half-lives that remain in the nuclear reactor when
Sun’s infrared (heat) energy before it radiates out into uranium-235 has been used to generate energy. (Ch. 12)
space. (Ch. 19) high-quality protein Foods that supply amino acids in
GRO See Gamma Ray Observatory. roughly the same proportion as those in human proteins,
ground state. The lowest energy level of an atom. (Ch. 8) such as meat and dairy products. (Ch. 22)
groundwater Fresh water from the surface, which typically high-temperature reservoir Any hot object from which
percolates into the ground and fills the tiny spaces energy is extracted to do work. Within the cylinder of a
between grains of sandstone and other porous rock layers. gasoline engine is a high-temperature reservoir. (Ch. 4)
(Ch. 18) HIV See human immunodeficiency virus.
gymnosperm The class of vascular plants that produce seeds hole The absence of an electron; in a silicon crystal, for
without flowers, such as fir trees. (Ch. 20) example, a hole is left behind after the conduction electron
gyre A circulation of water at the surface of the ocean, transis shaken loose. (Ch. 11)
porting warm water from the equator toward the cooler homeostasis A balance among the populations of an ecosys-
poles, and cold water from the poles back to the equator to tem, resulting from the fact that matter and energy are
be heated and cycled again. (Ch. 18) limited resources that must be shared among all individu-
als of an ecosystem. (Ch. 19)
hadron Particles, including the proton and neutron, that are hominid The family of the order primate whose members
made from quarks and are subject to the strong force. walk erect; includes humans, which are the only hominids
(Ch. 13) that are not extinct. (Ch. 20)
Glossary | A29
Homo erectus (“man the erect”) The species of modern hydrologic cycle The combination of processes by which
human’s genus who first walked erect and learned to use water moves from repository to repository near Earth’s
fire; disappeared about 500,000 years ago. (Ch. 25) surface. (Ch. 18)
Homo habilus (“man the toolmaker”) The first member of the hydrophilic Attracted to water. (Ch. 22)
genus of modern humans who appeared about 2 million hydrophobic Repelled by water. (Ch. 22)
years ago in East Africa; distinguished by a larger brain and hypothesis A tentative guess about how the world works, based
stone tools. (Ch. 25) on a summary of experimental or observational results and
Homo sapiens The single species that includes all branches of phrased so that it can be tested by experimentation. (Ch. 1)
the human race; recognized in fossils as old as 200,000 Hz See hertz.
years. (Ch. 20)
horsepower Unit of power equal to 550 foot-pounds per ice age A period of several million years during which glaciers
second in the English system of measurement; com- have repeatedly advanced and retreated, causing radical
monly used to assess the power of engines and motors. changes in climate and influencing human evolution.
(Ch. 3) (Ch. 18)
hot spot A dramatic type of volcanism indirectly associated ice cap Layers of ice that form at the north and south polar
with plate tectonics. Large isolated chimney-like columns regions of Earth. (Ch. 18)
of hot rock, or mantle plumes, rising to Earth’s surface; for igneous rock The first rock to form on a cooling planet,
example, Yellowstone National Park, Iceland, and Hawaii. solidified from hot, molten material; intrusive or extrusive
(Ch. 17) (volcanic). (Ch. 18)
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) An Earth-orbiting reflect- immune system The system that defends an organism against
ing telescope, launched in 1990, with a 2.4-meter mirror harmful microorganisms by recognizing the geometric
designed to give unparalleled resolution in the visible and shape of molecules of foreign invaders and destroying
ultraviolet wavelengths. Manufacturing flaws in the main them without harming the body’s cells. (Ch. 23)
mirror were corrected by astronauts in late 1993. (Ch. 14) in vitro gene therapy A process where the gene is injected
Hubble’s law The law relating the distance to a galaxy, d, into cells outside of the body and then these cells are
and the rate at which it recedes from Earth, V, as mea- introduced into the body. (Ch. 24)
sured by the redshift: V⫽Hd, where H is the Hubble con- in vivo gene therapy A process where genes are injected into
stant. (Ch. 15) cells inside the body. (Ch. 24)
Human Genome Project A large-scale scientific project that inertia The tendency of a body to remain in uniform motion;
will result in a complete knowledge of the entire human the resistance to change. (Ch. 2)
genome, which includes 46 chromosomes and 3 billion inflation A short period of rapid expansion of the universe,
base pairs. (Ch. 23) which, according to the grand unified theories, accompa-
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A virus that causes nied the “freezing” at 10⫺35 seconds. (Ch. 15)
the disease AIDS and is transmitted through the exchange inflationary theories Those cosmological theories that incor-
of bodily fluids. (Ch. 24) porate the phenomenon of universal inflation. (Ch. 15)
humidity A measure of the atmosphere’s variable water Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) An orbiting obser-
content. (Ch. 18) vatory launched in 1983 by the United States, United
hurricane Tropical storms having winds in excess of 120 km/h Kingdom, and Netherlands to view infrared radiation in
(75 mi/h) that begin in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the universe. IRAS is no longer functioning. (Ch. 14)
Africa and affect North America. (Ch. 18) infrared energy A form of electromagnetic radiation that
hybrid An individual whose parents possess different genetic travels from a source to an object, where it can be absorbed
traits. (Ch. 23) and converted into the kinetic energy of molecules.
hydrocarbon A chain-like molecule from a chemical com- (Ch. 4)
pound of carbon and hydrogen, which provides the most infrared radiation Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
efficient fuels for combustion, with only carbon dioxide that extend from a millimeter to a micron; felt as heat
and water as products. (Ch. 10) radiation. (Ch. 6)
hydrogen bond A bond that may form when polarized insulator A material that will not conduct electricity. (Ch. 11)
hydrogen atoms link to other atoms by a covalent or ionic integrated circuit A microchip made of hundreds or
bond. (Ch. 10) thousands of transistors specially designed to perform a
hydrogen burning A three-step process, generally confined specific function. (Ch. 11)
to a small region in the center of a star, in which four interference When waves from two different sources come
protons are converted into a 4He nucleus, two protons, together at a single point, they interfere with each other.
and a photon. (Ch. 14) The observed wave amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes
hydrogenation The addition of hydrogen atoms into the of the interfering waves. (Ch. 6)
carbon chains of polyunsaturated products; a process that interglacial period A period that occurs between two major
eliminates the carbon–carbon double bonds. (Ch. 22) glacier advances during an ice age. (Ch. 18)
A30 | Glossary
intrusive rock Igneous rock that cools and hardens under- laser An instrument that uses a collection of atoms, energy,
ground. (Ch. 18) and mirrors to emit photons that have wave crests in exact
inversely proportional The relationship between two vari- alignment. The instrument name is the acronym for light
ables such that if the value of one variable increases, the amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. (Ch. 8)
other variable decreases, and vice versa, by a constant lava Molten rock that flows from the surface of a volcano.
proportion. (Ch. 2) (Ch. 17)
invertebrates Organisms without backbones. (Ch. 20) law of conservation of linear momentum A law that states
ion An atom that has an electrical charge, from either the loss that the quantity of an object’s momentum will not
or gain of an electron. (Ch. 8) change unless an outside force is applied to the object.
ionic bond A chemical bond in which the electrostatic force Therefore, the object’s present momentum will be con-
between two oppositely charged ions holds the atoms in served. (Ch. 2)
place, often formed as one atom gives up an electron while law of nature An overarching statement of how the universe
another receives it, lowering chemical potential energy works, following repeated and rigorous observation and
when atom shells are filled. (Ch. 10) testing of a theory or group of related theories. (Ch. 1)
ionization Stripping away one or more of an atom’s electrons law of unintended consequences A phenomenon demonstrat-
to produce an ion. (Ch. 12) ing the interdependent nature of ecosystems: it is virtually
IRAS See Infrared Astronomical Satellite. impossible to change one aspect of an ecosystem without
isolated system A type of system in which matter and energy affecting something else, often inadvertently. (Ch. 19)
are not exchanged with the surroundings; a closed system. length contraction The phenomenon in relativity in which
(Ch. 3) moving objects appear to be shorter than stationary ones in
isomer A molecule that contains the same atoms as another the direction of motion. (Ch. 7)
molecule, but has a different structural arrangement. (Ch. 10) lepton A particle (such as the electron, muon, and neutrino)
isotopes Atoms whose nuclei have the same number of pro- that participates in the weak and electromagnetic, but not
tons but a different number of neutrons. (Ch. 12) the strong, interaction. (Ch. 13)
lichen (pronounced “lie-kin”) A combination of a fungus and
jet stream A high-altitude stream of fast-moving winds a single-celled organism that can use the Sun’s energy
that marks the boundary between the northern polar through photosynthesis; important to the processes of
cold air mass and the warmer air of the temperate zone. weathering rock and creating soil. (Ch. 20)
(Ch. 18) light A form of electromagnetic wave to which the human
joule The amount of work done when you exert a force of eye is sensitive. Light travels at a constant speed and needs
one newton through a distance of one meter. (Ch. 3) no medium for transfer. (Ch. 6)
Jovian planets Huge worlds also known as “gas giants” light-year The distance light travels in one year, 10 trillion
located in the outer solar system and made up primarily of kilometers (about 6.2 trillion miles). (Ch. 14)
frozen liquids and gases such as hydrogen, helium, limestone A sedimentary rock formed from the calcium
ammonia, and water, with atmospheres of nitrogen, carbonate (CaCO3) skeletons of sea animals, shells, and
methane, and other compounds: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, coral. (Ch. 18)
Neptune. (Ch. 16) linear accelerator A device for making high-velocity particles,
which relies on a long, straight vacuum tube into which
kilowatt A commonly used measurement of electrical power particles are injected to ride an electromagnetic wave down
equal to 1000 watts and corresponding to the expenditure the tube. (Ch. 13)
of 1000 joules per second. (Ch. 3) linear momentum The product of an object’s mass times its
kinetic energy The type of energy associated with moving velocity. (Ch. 2)
objects; the energy of motion. Kinetic energy is equal to Linnaean classification A systematic attempt by Swedish nat-
the mass of the moving object times the square of that uralist Carolus Linnaeus to catalogue the diversity of all liv-
1
object’s velocity, multiplied by –2 . (Ch. 3) ing things according to their shared characteristics so that
kingdom The broadest classification in the Linnaean classifi- each organism is as close as possible to those things it
cation system, corresponding to the coarsest division of resembles, and as far apart as possible from those it does
living things. (Ch. 20) not. (Ch. 20)
Krebs cycle A complex series of chemical cellular reactions in lipid An organic molecule that is insoluble in water. At the
which the products of glycolysis are broken down com- molecular level, lipids form the cell membranes that sepa-
pletely into carbon dioxide and water, releasing some rate living material from its environment. Lipids are also
energy to the ATP molecules and storing some in other an extremely efficient storage medium for energy; for
energy-carrying molecules. (Ch. 21) example, fat in foods, wax in candles, and grease for
Kuiper Belt A region close to our solar system that contains lubrication. (Ch. 22)
comets that orbit the Sun; a reservoir of new comets. liquid Any collection of atoms or molecules that has no fixed
(Ch. 16) shape but maintains a fixed volume. (Ch. 10)
Glossary | A31
liquid crystal A recently synthesized substance, used in digi- mantle The thick layer rich in oxygen, silicon, magnesium,
tal displays, which is formed from very long molecules that and iron that contains most of Earth’s mass; it overlies
may adopt a very ordered arrangement even in the liquid Earth’s metal core. (Ch. 16)
form. (Ch. 10) mantle convection A force deep within Earth, driven by
load The location in an electric circuit where the useful work internal heat energy, that moves continents and the plates
is done, such as the filament in a light-bulb or the heating of which they are a part. (Ch. 17)
element of a dryer. (Ch. 5) marble A metamorphic rock that begins as limestone that is
longitudinal wave A kind of wave in which the motion of the subjected to intense pressure and high temperatures.
medium is in the same direction as the wave movement; mass The amount of matter contained in an object, indepen-
pressure wave or sound wave. (Ch. 6) Also, one of two dent of where that object is found. (Ch. 2)
principal types of seismic waves in which molecules in the mass extinctions Rare and catastrophic events in the past that
rock move back and forth in the same direction as the have caused large numbers of species to become extinct
wave; a compressional wave. (Ch. 17) suddenly. (Ch. 25)
Lorentz factor A number, equal to the square root of mass number The number of neutrons plus the number of
[1⫺(v/c)2], that appears in relativistic calculations and protons, which determines the mass of an isotope. (Ch. 12)
is an indication of the magnitude of change in time and Maxwell’s equations Four fundamental laws of electricity
scale. (Ch. 7) and magnetism: (1) Coulomb’s law: like charges repel and
low-quality protein Foods, such as that from plants, that unlike charges attract; (2) magnetic monopoles do not
lack one or more of the amino acids found in human pro- exist in nature; (3) magnetic phenomena can be produced
teins. (Ch. 22) by electrical effects; and (4) electrical phenomena can be
low-temperature reservoir The ambient atmosphere into produced by magnetic effects. (Ch. 5)
which the waste heat generated by an engine is dumped; mechanics The branch of science that deals with the motions
for example, from a cylinder in a gasoline engine to the of material objects and the forces that act on them; for
atmosphere. (Ch. 4) example, a rolling rock or a thrown ball. (Ch. 2)
Lucy The name given to a nearly complete skeleton of a female meiosis The division process that produces cells with one-half
Australopithecus, found in Ethiopia in 1974. (Ch. 25) the number of chromosomes in each somatic cell. Each
luminosity The total energy produced by a star. (Ch. 14) resulting daughter cell has half the normal complement of
lymphatic system An extensive network of capillaries and DNA. See mitosis. (Ch. 21)
veins, parallel to the blood system and linked to about 500 meltdown The most serious accident that can occur at a
lymph nodes in the human body. (App. A) nuclear reactor, in which the flow of water to the fuel
lysosome One of the cellular organelles that has digestion rods is interrupted and the enormous heat stored in the
and breakdown of wastes as its primary function. (Ch. 21) central part of the reactor causes the fuel rods to melt.
(Ch. 12)
magma Subsurface molten rock, concentrated in the upper melting A change of state from solid to liquid caused by an
mantle or lower crust, which can breach the surface and increase in temperature or change in pressure of the solid,
harden into new rock. (Ch. 17) which increases the vibration of individual molecules and
magnet Materials that exert a magnetic field on other objects. breaks down the structure of the solid. (Ch. 10)
Magnetite or “lodestone” is a common natural magnet. Mesozoic Era The third era, from 250 to 65 million years
(Ch. 5) ago, known as “middle life,” when the dinosaurs existed.
magnetic field A collection of lines that map out the direc- (Ch. 25)
tion that compass needles would point in the vicinity of a messenger RNA (mRNA) The single-stranded molecule
magnet. (Ch. 5) that copies the sequence for one gene and carries that
magnetic force The force exerted by magnets on each other. DNA information to the region of the cell where proteins
(Ch. 5) are made. (Ch. 23)
magnetic monopole A hypothetical single isolated north or metabolism The process by which a cell derives energy from
south magnetic pole, existing in theory but not yet located its surroundings. (Ch. 21)
through experimentation. (Ch. 5) metal An element or combination of elements in which the
magnetic potential energy The type of energy stored in a sharing of a few electrons among all atoms results in more
magnetic field. (Ch. 3) stable electron arrangement; characterized by a shiny luster
magnetism A fundamental force in the universe. (Ch. 5) and ability to conduct electricity. (Ch. 10)
main-sequence star A star that derives energy from the fusion metallic bond A chemical bond in which electrons are
reactions of hydrogen burning; found on the Hertzsprung- redistributed so that they are shared by all the atoms as a
Russell (H-R) diagram within a band-like pattern. (Ch. 14) whole. (Ch. 10)
mammal One of a group of vertebrates made up of individu- metamorphic rock Igneous or sedimentary rock that is
als that are warm-blooded, have hair, and whose females buried and transformed by Earth’s intense internal temper-
nurse their young. Human beings are mammals. (Ch. 20) ature and pressure. (Ch. 18)
A32 | Glossary
meteor A piece of interplanetary debris that hits Earth’s mudstone A sedimentary rock formed from sediments that
atmosphere and forms a bright streak of light from friction are much finer-grained than sand. (Ch. 18)
with atmospheric particles: a “shooting star.” (Ch. 16) mutation A change in the genetic material of a parent that is
meteor showers A set of spectacular, regularly occurring inherited by the offspring. (Ch. 23)
events in the night sky, caused by the collision of Earth
with clouds of small debris that travel around the orbits of N See newton.
comets. (Ch. 16) n-type semiconductor A type of electrical conductor formed
meteorite The fragment of a meteor that hits Earth. (Ch. 16) from doping, that has a slight excess of mobile negatively
microchip A complex array of p- and n-type semiconductors, charged electrons. (Ch. 11)
which may incorporate hundreds or thousands of transis- nanotechnology A new field of engineering that concentrates
tors in one integrated circuit. (Ch. 11) on extreme miniaturization and often creates new objects,
microwave Electromagnetic waves, with wavelengths ranging atom by atom. (Ch. 11)
from approximately 1 meter to 1 millimeter, which are National Academy of Sciences A nationally recognized
used extensively for line-of-sight communications and association of scientists, elected to membership by their
cooking. (Ch. 6) peers to provide professional advice for the government
Mid-Atlantic Ridge The longest mountain range on on policy issues ranging from environmental risks and nat-
Earth, which is located in the middle of the Atlantic ural resource management, to education and funding for
Ocean. (Ch. 17) science research. (Ch. 1)
Milankovitch cycles Slow cyclical changes in Earth’s climate National Institutes of Health A federal agency that provides
due primarily to orbital effects. (Ch. 18) funding for basic and applied research in medicine and
Milky Way A collection of hundreds of billions stars that biology. (Ch. 1)
forms the galaxy of which the Sun is a part. (Ch. 15) National Science Foundation A federal agency that funds
Miller-Urey experiment A demonstration of chemical evolu- American scientific research and education in all areas of
tion, performed in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, science. (Ch. 1)
which showed that a combination of gases, believed to be natural selection The mechanism by which nature can
present in the early atmosphere, and a series of electrical introduce wide-ranging changes in living things over long
sparks, simulating the lightning on the early Earth, will pro- periods of time by modifying the gene pool of a species.
duce amino acids, a basic building block of life. (Ch. 25) (Ch. 25)
mineral In a nutritional context, all chemical elements in Neanderthal man A type of human with a large brain who
food other than carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. lived until 35,000 years ago in groups with a complex social
(Ch. 22) structure; either a separate species of the genus Homo or a
mitochondria Sausage-shaped organelles that are places subspecies of Homo sapiens. (Ch. 25)
where molecules derived from glucose react with oxygen nebulae Dust and gas clouds, common throughout the
to produce the cell’s energy. (Ch. 21) Milky Way galaxy, rich in hydrogen and helium.
mitosis The process of cell division producing daughter cells (Ch. 15)
with exactly the same number of chromosomes as in the nebular hypothesis A model that explains the formation of
mother cell. See meiosis. (Ch. 21) the solar system from a large cloud of gas and dust floating
molecular genetics The study of how the mechanism that in space 4.5 billion years ago. This cloud collapsed upon
passes genetic information from parents to offspring func- itself under the influence of gravity and began to spin faster
tions on the basis of molecular chemistry. (Ch. 23) and faster, eventually forming the planets and the rest of
molecule A cluster of atoms that bond together; the basic the solar system along a flattened disk of matter surround-
constituent of many different kinds of material. (Ch. 8) ing a central star. (Ch. 16)
monera Single-celled organisms without cell nuclei; the most negative charge An excess of electrons on an object. (Ch. 5)
primitive living things in the Linnaean classification of nervous system One of two control systems in the body
kingdoms. (Ch. 20) that mediate responses to the environment. See endocrine
monosaccharide An individual sugar molecule. (Ch. 22) system. (App. A)
monounsaturated A type of lipid that forms when one neurotransmitter A group of molecules, produced in nerve
kinked “double bond” forms between two carbon atoms in cells, that transfer a nerve signal from one nerve cell to
a molecule. See unsaturated. (Ch. 22) another. (Ch. 5)
monsoon Any wind system on a continental scale that season- neutrino A subatomic particle, emitted in the decay of the
ally reverses its direction because of seasonal variations in neutron, that has no electrical charge, travels at the speed
relative temperatures over land and sea. (Ch. 18) of light, and has no rest mass. (Ch. 11)
Moon Earth’s only satellite, which may have formed neutron A type of subatomic particle, located in the nucleus
when a planet-sized body hit Earth early in its history. of the atom that carries no electrical charge but has approx-
(Ch. 16) imately the same mass as the proton; one of two primary
mRNA See messenger RNA. building blocks of the nucleus. See proton. (Ch. 12)
Glossary | A33
neutron star A very dense, very small star, usually with a high omnivore Animals that gain energy from plants and from
rate of rotation and a strong magnetic field; the core organisms in other trophic levels. (Ch. 3)
remains of a supernova, held up by the degeneracy pressure Oort cloud A region beyond the orbit of Pluto that contains
of neutrons. (Ch. 14) billions of comets circling the Sun; the reservoir for new
newton (N) A unit of force defined as the force needed to comets. (Ch. 16)
accelerate a mass of 1 kg by 1 m/s2, or 1 kilogram-meter-per- open ecosystem An ecosystem in which materials are free to
second-squared. (Ch. 2) move in and out. (Ch. 19)
Newton’s law of universal gravitation Between any two open system A type of system within which an object can
objects in the universe there is an attractive force (gravity) exchange matter and energy with its surroundings.
that is proportional to the masses of the objects and (Ch. 3)
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between open universe A model of the future of the universe in which
them. In other words, the more massive two objects are, the expansion will continue forever because the universe
the greater the force between them will be, and the farther lacks enough matter to exert a gravitational force to slow
apart they are, the less the force will be. (Ch. 2) receding galaxies. (Ch. 15)
Newton’s laws of motion Three basic principles, expressed optical microscope An instrument that uses visible light to
as laws, that govern the motion of everything in the uni- present a magnified image from a sample through a lens to
verse, from stars and planets to cannonballs and muscles. an eyepiece. (Ch. 21)
The first law states that a moving object will continue order The fourth broadest classification in the Linnaean
moving in a straight line at a constant speed, and a sta- classification system; humans are in the order of primates.
tionary object will remain at rest, unless acted on by an (Ch. 20)
unbalanced force. The second law states that the accelera- organelle Any specialized structure in the cell, including the
tion produced on a body by a force is proportional to the nucleus. (Ch. 21)
magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to the organic chemistry The branch of science devoted to the
mass of the object. The third law states that for every study of carbon-based molecules and their reactions.
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. (Ch. 2) (Ch. 10)
noble gases Elements listed in the far righthand column of the organic molecules Carbon-based molecules that may or may
periodic table of elements, including helium, argon, and not be part of a living system. (Ch. 22)
neon, which are odorless, colorless, and slow to react. (Ch. 8) osmosis A special case of molecular movement in which
nonrenewable energy Sources of energy that, once used, are materials such as water are transferred across a membrane
not quickly replaced; for example, petroleum and coal. while at the same time molecules dissolved in the water are
(Ch. 4) blocked. (Ch. 21)
nonrenewable resources Resources such as coal and petro- outgassing Release of gases from nongaseous materials;
leum, which are forming at a much slower rate than they extrusion of gases from the body of a planet after its
are being consumed. (Ch. 3) formation. (Ch. 16)
nuclear reactor A device that controls fission reactions to oxidation A chemical reaction in which an atom such as
produce energy when heavy radioactive nuclei split apart. oxygen accepts electrons while combining with other ele-
(Ch. 12) ments; for example, rusting of iron metal into iron oxide,
nucleic acid Molecule originally found in the nucleus of cells or animal respiration. (Ch. 10)
that carries and interprets the genetic code; includes DNA oxides Chemical compounds that contain oxygen, such as
and RNA (Ch. 23) most common minerals and ceramics. (Ch. 11)
nucleotide Molecule that is the basic element from which all ozone A molecule made up of three oxygen atoms, instead of
DNA and RNA are built; formed from a sugar, a phosphate the usual two, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation. (Ch. 19)
group, and one of four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, ozone hole A volume of atmosphere above Antarctica dur-
and thymine or uracil). (Ch. 23) ing September through November in which the concen-
nucleus (1) The very small, compact object at the center of tration of the trace gas ozone has declined significantly.
an atom; made up primarily of protons and neutrons. (2) A (Ch. 19)
prominent structure in the interior of a cell that contains ozone layer A region of enhanced ozone (O3) 20 to 30 miles
the cell’s genetic material—the DNA—and controls the above Earth’s surface where most of the absorption of the
cell’s chemistry. (Ch. 8, Ch. 21) Sun’s ultraviolet radiation occurs. (Ch. 19)
observation The act of observing nature without manipulating p-type semiconductor A type of electrical conductor, formed
it. (Ch. 1) from doping, that has a slight deficiency of electrons,
ohm A unit of measurement for the electrical resistance of a resulting in mobile positively charged holes. (Ch. 11)
wire. (Ch. 5) paleomagnetism The field devoted to the study of remnant
oil shale A form of fossil fuel in which petroleum is dispersed magnetism in ancient rock, recording the direction of the
through solid rock. (Ch. 3) magnetic poles at some time in the past. (Ch. 17)
A34 | Glossary
Paleozoic Era The second era, lasting from 545 to 250 mil- photoelectric effect A phenomenon that occurs when pho-
lion years ago, during which time fish, amphibians, land tons strike one side of a material and cause electrons of that
plants and animals, and rudimentary reptiles developed; material to be emitted from the opposite side. This effect is
term meaning “old life.” (Ch. 25) observed in modern cameras, CAT scans, and fiber optics.
Pangaea A giant continent consisting of North America, (Ch. 9)
South America, Eurasia, and Africa, which existed 200 mil- photon A particle-like unit of light, emitted or absorbed by
lion years ago. (Ch. 17) an atom when an electrically charged electron changes
parallel circuit A circuit in which different loads are situated state. The form of a single packet of electromagnetic
on different wire loops. (Ch. 5) radiation. (Ch. 8)
parsec A unit of measurement equal to about 3.3 light-years, photosphere The gaseous layers of the Sun’s outer part,
which roughly corresponds to the average distance which emit most of the light we see. (Ch. 14)
between nearest-neighbor stars in our galaxy. (Ch. 14) photosynthesis The mechanism by which plants convert the
particle accelerator A machine such as a synchrotron or energy of sunlight into energy stored in carbohydrates, the
linear accelerator that produces particles at near light chemical energy of virtually all life on Earth: energy ⫹
speeds for use in the study of the fundamental structure CO2 ⫹H2O → carbohydrate ⫹ oxygen. (Ch. 21)
of matter. (Ch. 13) photovoltaic cell A semiconductor diode that uses sunlight
Pauli exclusion principle A statement that says no two elec- to produce electrical current. They are also used in hand
trons can occupy the same state at the same time. (Ch. 8) calculators and in some cameras for power. (Ch. 11)
PCR See polymerase chain reaction. phylum The second broadest classification in the Linnaean
peak load The especially high demand in the mass market classification system; humans are in the phylum chordata,
of electricity due to special circumstances, such as a heat subphylum vertebrata. (Ch. 20)
wave. (Ch. 3) Planck’s constant (h) A constant named after German physicist
peer review A system by which the editor of a scientific jour- Max Planck that is the central constant of quantum physics,
nal submits manuscripts considered for publication to a equal to 6.63⫻10⫺34 joule-seconds in SI units. (Ch. 9)
panel of knowledgeable scientists who, in confidence, planetesimal Small objects, which range in size from boul-
evaluate the manuscript for mistakes, misstatements, or ders to several miles across, formed from the accretion of
shoddy procedures. Following the review, if the manu- solid material during the formation of the planets. (Ch. 16)
script is to be published, it is returned to the author with a plants Multicelled organisms that get their energy directly
list of modifications and corrections to be completed. from the Sun through photosynthesis. One of five kingdoms
(Ch. 1) in the Linnaean classification. (Ch. 20)
pencillin A substance that kills bacteria; the best-known mod- plasma A state of matter existing under extremely high tem-
ern antibiotic. (Ch. 20) peratures in which electrons are stripped from their atoms
Penicillium A common mold that secretes the substance during high-energy collisions, forming an electron sea sur-
penicillin, an antibiotic. (Ch. 20) rounding positive nuclei. (Ch. 10)
peptide bond A connection between two atoms that plasmid A loop of DNA in which genes are linked; it can be
remains after hydrogen (H) at one end of an amino acid introduced into a cell for DNA replication. (Ch. 24)
and the hydroxyl (OH) from the end of another amino plastic Synthetic polymers that are formed primarily from
acid combine, releasing a water molecule (H2O). The petroleum. They consist of intertwined polymer strands,
process is identical to the condensation polymerization much like the strands of fiberglass insulation. When
reaction. (Ch. 22) heated, these strands slide across each other to adopt new
periodic table of the elements An organizational system, shapes. When cooled, the plastic fiber mass solidifies into
first developed by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, now listing whatever shape is available. (Ch. 10)
more than 110 elements by atomic weight (in rows) and plate A rigid moving sheet of rock up to 100 km (60 mi)
chemical properties (in columns). The pattern of elements thick, composed of the crust and part of the upper mantle.
in the periodic table reflects the arrangement of electrons See plate tectonics. (Ch. 17)
in their orbits. (Ch. 8) plate tectonics The model of the dynamic Earth that has
petroleum Thick black liquid found deep underground, emerged from studies of paleomagnetism, rock dating, and
derived from many kinds of transformed molecules of for- much other data. A theory that explains how a few thin, rigid
mer life forms. (Ch. 10) tectonic plates of crustal and upper mantle materials are
phosphate group One phosphorus atom surrounded by four moved across Earth’s surface by mantle convection. (Ch. 17)
oxygen atoms. (Ch. 22) Pluto A rocky planetoid that is located beyond the Jovian
phospholipid The class of molecules that form membranes in planets and is the smallest of all planets in the solar system.
cells. Lipids have a long, thin structure with a carbon back- (Ch. 16)
bone, and a phosphate group at one end of the molecule. polar molecule Atom clusters with a positive and negative
One end of these molecules is hydrophilic, one hydrophobic. end; exerts electrical force on neighboring atoms. Water is
(Ch. 22) a polar molecule. (Ch. 10)
Glossary | A35
polarization The subtle electron shift from negative to posi- primary structure The simplest of the four stages of the
tive that takes place when the electrons of an atom or a organization of amino acids in a protein molecule. The
molecule are brought near a polar molecule such as water, exact order of amino acids along the protein string.
resulting in a bond caused by the electrical attraction (Ch. 22)
between the negative end of the polar molecule and the primates An order of mammals that have grasping fingers and
positive side of the other molecule. (Ch. 10) toes, eyes at the front of their heads, large brains, and fin-
poles The two opposite ends of a magnet, named north and gernails instead of claws; includes monkeys, apes, and
south, that repel a like magnetic pole and attract an unlike humans. (Ch. 20)
magnetic pole. (Ch. 5) primordial soup A rich broth of amino acids and other mol-
polymer Extremely long and large molecules that are formed ecules thought to have been produced in the early oceans
from numerous smaller molecules, like links in a chain, over a period of several hundred million years, recreated by
with predictable repeating sequences of atoms along the the Miller-Urey process. (Ch. 25)
chain. (Ch. 10) probability The likelihood that an event will occur or that an
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A process of copying object will be in one state or another; how nature is
select strands of DNA so that as much can be created as is described in the subatomic world. (Ch. 9)
needed for research. (Ch. 24) producers Organisms, such as plants, that obtain atoms and
polymerization A reaction that includes all chemical reac- energy from physical surroundings to produce carbon-based
tions that form long strands of polymer fibers by linking molecules of life in an ecosystem. (Ch. 19)
small molecules. (Ch. 10) prokaryote A type of primitive cell in which the DNA is coiled
polypeptide A bonded chain of amino acids. See peptide bond. together, but not separated in the nucleus. Prokaryotes
(Ch. 22) constitute the kingdom monera, including all cells that do
polysaccharide A molecule that is the result of many sugar not have a nucleus. (Ch. 21)
molecules strung together in a chain; for example, starch protease inhibitor A molecule that is designed using new
and cellulose. (Ch. 22) computer visualization techniques to combat HIV as a
polyunsaturated A type of lipid that forms when two or result of long study of the HIV virus structure and
more kinked “double bonds” between carbon atoms are in processes. (Ch. 24)
the molecule. See unsaturated. (Ch. 22) protein An extremely complex molecule, which can consist of
positive charge A deficiency of electrons on an object. (Ch. 5) thousands of amino acids and millions of atoms formed in
positron The positively charged antiparticle of the electron. a chain structure. Proteins function as enzymes and direct
(Ch. 13) the cell’s chemistry. (Ch. 22)
potential energy The energy a system possesses if it is capable of Proterozoic Era The era lasting from the beginning of
doing work, but is not doing work now. Types of potential Earth’s existence to 545 million years ago; a term meaning
energy include magnetic, elastic, electrical, and chemical. Any “before life.” (Ch. 25)
type of energy waiting to be released; stored energy. (Ch. 3) protista Single-celled organisms with nuclei, and a few multi-
power The rate at which work is done or energy is expended. celled organisms that have a particularly simple structure.
The amount of work done, divided by the time it takes to One of five kingdoms in the Linnaean classification. (Ch. 20)
do it. Power is measured in watts in the metric system, proton One of two primary building blocks of the nucleus;
horsepower in the English. (Ch. 3) with a positive electrical charge of ⫹1 and a mass
power stroke The downward motion of a piston in a gasoline 1.672643 ⫻10⫺24g approximately equal to that of the
engine, in which the actual work is done and the energy neutron. (Ch. 12)
released by combustion is translated into the motion of the pseudoscience A kind of inquiry falling in the realm of belief
car. (Ch. 4) or dogma, which includes subjects that cannot be proved
precession The circular motion of the spinning axis of Earth or disproved with a reproducible test. The subjects include
in space, which causes the tilt of the Northern Hemisphere creationism, extrasensory perception (ESP), unidentified
to change on a 26,000-year cycle. (Ch. 18) flying objects, astrology, crystal power, and reincarnation.
precipitation A chemical reaction that is the reverse of a solu- (Ch. 1)
tion reaction, producing a solid that separates from very publication A peer-reviewed paper written by a scientist or a
concentrated solutions. (Ch. 10) group of scientists to communicate the results of their
prediction A guess about how a particular system will behave, research to a larger audience. A publication will include the
followed by observations to see if the system did behave as technical details of the methodology, so that the research
expected within a specified range of situations. (Ch. 1) can be reproduced, and a concise statement of the results
pressure A force on a surface divided by the area of the sur- and conclusions. (Ch. 1)
face. (Ch. 18) pulsar A neutron star in which fast-moving particles speed
prevailing westerly Wind in the temperate zones that blows out along the intense magnetic field lines of the rotating
primarily from west to east, causing weather patterns to star, giving off electromagnetic radiation that we detect as
move in the same direction. (Ch. 18) a series of pulses of radio waves. (Ch. 14)
A36 | Glossary
pumice Frothy volcanic rock rich in silicon from magmas that radiometric dating A technique based on the radioactive
mix with a significant amount of water or other volatile half-lives of carbon-14 and other isotopes that is used to
substance. (Ch. 18) determine the age of materials. (Ch. 12)
pumping The process in a laser that adds energy to the sys- radon A colorless, odorless inert gas that can cause an indoor
tem from the outside to return atoms continuously to their pollution problem when it undergoes radioactive decay.
excited states so that coherent photons can be produced. (Ch. 12)
(Ch. 8) receptor A large structure found in the cell membrane and
punctuated equilibrium A hypothesis that holds that evolu- made of proteins folded into a geometrical shape that
tionary changes usually occur in short bursts separated by will bond chemically only to a specific type of molecule.
long periods of stability. (Ch. 25) (Ch. 21)
purebred Bred from members of a single strain. (Ch. 23) recessive A characteristic that will appear only if no dominant
pyruvic acid Molecules with three carbon atoms that form gene is present. (Ch. 23)
by glycolysis, the splitting of a glucose molecule in two. recessive gene A gene that is present in offspring and can be
(Ch. 21) passed along to subsequent generations, but may not
determine the offspring’s physical characteristics. (Ch. 23)
quantized Whenever energy or another property of a system red giant An extremely large star that emits a lot of energy
can have only certain definite values, and nothing in but whose surface is very cool and therefore appears
between those values, it is said to be quantized. (Ch. 9) somewhat reddish in the sky; found in the upper right-
quantum jump See quantum leap. hand corner of the H-R diagram. (Ch. 14)
quantum leap A process by which an electron changes its redshift An increase in the wavelength of radiation received
energy state without ever possessing an energy intermedi- from a receding celestial body as a consequence of the
ate between the original and the final energy state; also Doppler effect. A shift toward the long-wavelength (red)
known as a quantum jump. (Ch. 8) end of the spectrum. (Ch. 14)
quantum mechanics The branch of science that is devoted to redshifted The result of the Doppler effect on light waves,
the study of the motion of objects that come in small bundles, when the source of light moves away from the observer:
or quanta, which applies to the subatomic world. (Ch. 9) light-wave crests are farther apart and have a lower frequency.
quarks (pronounced “quorks”) The truly fundamental (Ch. 6)
building blocks of the hadrons. Particles that have frac- reduction A chemical reaction in which electrons are trans-
tional electrical charge and cannot exist alone in nature. ferred from an atom to other elements, resulting in a gain
(Ch. 13) in electrons for the material being reduced; for example,
quartzite A durable rock in which the original sand grains of smelting of metal ores, and photosynthesis. (Ch. 10)
sandstone, under high temperature and pressure, recrystal- reductionism The quest for the ultimate building blocks of
lize and fuse into a solid mass. (Ch. 18) the universe. An attempt to reduce the seeming complexity
quasar Quasi-stellar radio source. Objects in the universe, where of nature by first looking for an underlying simplicity and
as-yet unknown processes pour vast amounts of energy into then trying to understand how that simplicity gives rise to
space each second from an active center no larger than the the observed complexity. (Ch. 13)
solar system; the most distant objects known. (Ch. 15) reflection A process by which light waves are scattered at
quaternary structure The joining of separate protein chains, the same angle as the original wave; for example, from the
each with its own secondary and tertiary structures. (Ch. 22) surface of a mirror. (Ch. 6)
refraction A response of an electromagnetic wave to matter,
R&D See research and development. in which the wave slows down and alters direction. See also
radiation The transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation. absorption and transmission. (Ch. 6)
The only one of the three mechanisms of heat transfer that relativity An idea that the laws of nature are the same in all
does not require atoms or molecules to facilitate the trans- frames of reference, and that every observer must experi-
fer process. (Ch. 4) Also, the particles emitted during the ence the same natural laws. (Ch. 7)
spontaneous decay of nuclei. (Ch. 12) reproducible A criterion for the results of an experiment. In
radio wave Part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the scientific method, observations and experiments must
ranges from the longest waves—wavelengths longer than be reported in such a way that anyone with the proper
Earth’s diameter—to waves a few meters long. (Ch. 6) equipment can verify the results. (Ch. 1)
radioactive See radioactivity. reproductive cloning An application of cloning technology
radioactive decay The process of spontaneous change of that produces a new living being. See cloning. (Ch. 24)
unstable isotopes. (Ch. 12) reptiles The first animals fully adapted to life on land;
radioactivity The spontaneous release of energy by certain includes lizards, turtles, and snakes. (Ch. 20)
atoms, such as uranium, as these atoms disintegrate. The research and development (R&D) A kind of research aimed
emission of one or more kinds of radiation from an isotope at specific problems, usually performed in government and
with unstable nuclei. (Ch. 12) industry laboratories. (Ch. 1)
Glossary | A37
reservoirs Locations where a substance is to be found. scientific method A continuous process used to collect
Earth’s water, for example, is found in oceans, rivers, ice observations, form and test hypotheses, make predictions,
caps, and several other reservoirs. (Ch. 18) and identify patterns in the physical world. (Ch. 1)
residence time The average length of time that any given second law of thermodynamics Any one of three equivalent
atom will stay in ocean water before it is removed by some statements: (1) heat will not flow spontaneously from a colder
chemical reaction. (Ch. 18) to a hotter body; (2) it is impossible to construct a machine
respiration The process by which animals retrieve energy that does nothing but convert heat into useful work; and
stored in glucose, in a complex series of cellular chemical (3) the entropy of an isolated system always increases. (Ch. 4)
reactions, which include breathing in oxygen produced by second trophic level All herbivores, including cows, rabbits,
plants, burning carbohydrates ingested for food, and and many different kinds of insects, that get their energy by
breathing out carbon dioxide. (Ch. 21) eating plants. (Ch. 3)
respiratory system The system that takes oxygen from the air secondary structure Shapes taken by the string of amino
and transfers it to the circulatory system; includes the lungs acids that makes up the primary structure of a protein.
and the alveoli. (App. A) sedimentary rock A type of rock that is formed from layers of
restriction enzyme Proteins that have the ability to cut a sediment produced by the weathering of other rock or by
DNA molecule so that the DNA has several unattached chemical precipitation. (Ch. 18)
bases at the cut end. (Ch. 24) seismic tomography A branch of Earth science that enables
ribonucleic acid (RNA) A molecule that consists of one string geophysicists to obtain three-dimensional pictures of
of nucleotides put together around the sugar ribose, and Earth’s interior. (Ch. 17)
with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. RNA seismic wave The form through which an earthquake’s
plays a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins in the cell. energy is transmitted, causing Earth’s surface to rise and
(Ch. 23) fall like the surface of the ocean. (Ch. 17)
ribose The standard sugar containing five-carbon atoms in seismology The study and measurement of vibrations within
ribonucleic acid (RNA). (Ch. 23) Earth’s interior, dedicated to deducing our planet’s inner
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) A constituent of ribosomes; structure. (Ch. 17)
involved in the synthesis of protein. (Ch. 23) semiconductor Materials that conduct electricity but do not
ribosome One of the cellular organelles that is the site of pro- conduct it very well. Neither a good conductor nor a per-
tein synthesis. (Ch. 21) fect insulator; for example, silicon. (Ch. 11)
RNA See ribonucleic acid. series circuit An electric circuit in which two or more loads
rock cycle An ongoing cycle of internal and external Earth are linked along a single loop of wire. (Ch. 5)
processes by which rock is created, destroyed, and altered. shale A sedimentary rock formed from sediments that are
(Ch. 18) much finer grained than sand. (Ch. 18)
rock formations Bodies of rock that form as a continuous unit, shear strength A material’s ability to withstand twisting. (Ch. 11)
possibly combining many different types of rock. (Ch. 18) shear wave One of two principal types of seismic waves, in
rod One type of light-absorbing cell in the eye providing night which molecules move perpendicular to the direction of
vision; sensitive to light and dark. Compare to cone. (Ch. 6) the wave motion. A transverse wave. (Ch. 17)
Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT) An X-ray satellite launched in single bond The type of covalent bond formed when only
1990 by the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany one electron is shared. (Ch. 10)
as the latest in a series of satellites equipped to detect skeleto-muscular system An internal structure that supports
X-rays. (Ch. 14) the weight and produces movement of the human body.
ROSAT See Roentgen Satellite. (App. A)
rRNA See ribosomal RNA. slate A brittle and hard metamorphic rock, formed from shale
or mudstone. (Ch. 18)
sandstone A sedimentary rock formed mostly from sand- smog The brownish stuff of modern urban air pollution that
sized grains of quartz (silicon dioxide) and other hard min- you often see over major cities during the summer, caused
eral and rock fragments. (Ch. 18) by a photochemical reaction. (Ch. 19)
saturated A fully bonded carbon atom in a lipid. In a straight solar system The Sun, the planets and their moons, and all
lipid chain, every carbon atom bonds to two adjacent carbon other objects gravitationally bound to the Sun. (Ch. 16)
atoms along the chain and two hydrogen atoms on the solar wind A stream of charged particles—mainly ions of
sides. (Ch. 22) hydrogen and electrons—emitted constantly by the Sun
scattering A process by which electromagnetic waves may be into the space around it. (Ch. 14)
absorbed and rapidly re-emitted; can be diffuse scattering solid Any material that possesses a fixed shape and volume,
or reflection. (Ch. 6) with chemical bonds that are both sufficiently strong and
schist Metamorphic rock formed from slate under extreme directional to preserve a large-scale external form. (Ch. 10)
temperature and pressure. (Ch. 18) solution reaction A chemical reaction in which a solid such
as salt or sugar is dissolved in a liquid. (Ch. 10)
A38 | Glossary
somatic stem cell A cell in an adult organism that may be steady-state universe A model, no longer believed to be
made to develop into other specialized cells. (Ch. 24) valid, that describes a universe that is constantly expand-
sound wave A longitudinal wave created by a vibrating ing and forming new galaxies, but with no trace of a
object and transmitted only through the motion of molecules beginning. (Ch. 15)
in a solid, gas, or liquid. The energy of the sound wave strength The ability of a solid to resist changes in shape;
is associated with the kinetic energy of those molecules. directly related to chemical bonding. (Ch. 11)
(Ch. 3) strong force The force responsible for holding the nucleus
special relativity The first of two parts of Einstein’s theory together; one of the four fundamental forces in nature.
of relativity that deals with reference frames that do not This force operates over extremely short distances and
accelerate. (Ch. 7) between quarks to hold elementary particles together.
species The basic unit of the Linnaean classification; an inter- (Ch. 12)
breeding population of individual organisms. (Ch. 20) subduction zone The regions of Earth’s deep interior where
specific heat capacity A measure of the ability of a material to plates converge and old crust returns to the mantle. (Ch. 17)
absorb heat energy, defined as the quantity of heat sublimation The direct transformation of a solid to a gaseous
required to raise the temperature of one gram of that mate- state, without passing through the liquid state. (Ch. 10)
rial by 1ºC. Water displays the largest heat capacity of any sugar The simplest of the carbohydrates. Common sugars
common substance. (Ch. 4) contain five, six, or seven carbon atoms arranged in a ring-
spectroscopy The study of emission and absorption spectra like structure. (Ch. 22)
of materials in order to discover the chemical makeup of a superclusters Large collections of clusters and groups of
material; a standard tool used in almost every branch of thousands of galaxies. (Ch. 15)
science. (Ch. 8) superconductivity The ability of some materials to exhibit the
spectrum The characteristic signal from the total collection complete absence of any electrical resistance, usually when
of photons emitted by a given atom that can be used to cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero. (Ch. 11)
identify the chemical elements in a material; the atomic supernova A stupendous explosion of a star, which increases
fingerprint. (Ch. 8) its brightness hundreds of millions of times in a few days;
speed The distance an object travels divided by the time it results from the implosion of the core of a massive star at
takes to travel that distance. (Ch. 2) the end of its life. (Ch. 14)
speed of light (c) The velocity at which all electromagnetic synchrotron A particle accelerator in which magnetic fields
waves travel, regardless of their wavelength or frequency; are increased as particles become more energetic, keeping
equal to 300,000 kilometers per second (about 186,000 them moving on the same track. (Ch. 13)
miles per second). (Ch. 6) system A part of the universe under study and separated from
spindle fibers A series of fibers that develop after chromo- its surroundings by a real or imaginary boundary. (Ch. 3)
somes have duplicated and the nuclear membrane has
dissolved. (Ch. 21) taxonomy The science of cataloging living things, describing
spreading The widening of the seafloor, as magma comes them, and giving them names. (Ch. 20)
from deep within Earth and erupts through fissures on the technology The application of the results of science to spe-
seafloor. (Ch. 17) cific commercial or industrial goals. (Ch. 1)
standard model Theories, supported by experimental evi- tectonic plate One of a dozen sheets of moving rock in vari-
dence, that predict the unification of the strong force with ous sizes forming Earth’s surface. (Ch. 17)
the electroweak force. (Ch. 22) telescope A device that focuses and concentrates radiation
Staphylococcus A common infectious bacteria that can be from distant objects; used by astronomers to collect and
killed by penicillin and other antibiotics. (Ch. 20) analyze radio waves, microwaves, light, and other radia-
star Objects such as our Sun that form from giant clouds of tion. (Ch. 14)
interstellar dust and generate energy by nuclear fusion temperature A quantity that reflects how vigorously atoms
reactions. (Ch. 14) are moving and colliding in a material. (Ch. 4)
starch A polysaccharide, with glucose constituents linked temperature scales Standard scales that can be used to mea-
together at certain points along the ring. A large family of sure and compare the temperatures of two different
molecules found in many plants, such as potatoes and corn. objects. (Ch. 4)
(Ch. 22) tensile strength A material’s ability to withstand pulling
states of matter Different modes of organization of atoms apart. (Ch. 11)
or molecules, which result in properties of gases, plasmas, terminal electron transport The final stage of respiration in
liquids, or solids. (Ch. 10) which energy is used to produce more ATP molecules.
static electricity A phenomenon caused by the transfer of (Ch. 21)
electrical charge between objects. Often observed as light- terminal velocity The point at which a dropped object stops
ning or as sparks produced when walking across a wool rug accelerating and continues to fall at a constant velocity.
on a dry, cold day. (Ch. 5) (Ch. 2)
Glossary | A39
terrane A mass of rock as much as several hundred kilometers trade wind Surface winds near the equator of the Atlantic
across, found in most of the western part of the United Ocean that blow east to west. (Ch. 18)
States, which was once a large island in the Pacific Ocean transcription A process by which a cell transfers information
and carried toward the North American continent by plate in DNA to molecules of mRNA. (Ch. 23)
activity. (Ch. 17) transfer RNA (tRNA) The molecule with special configura-
terrestrial planets The relatively small, rocky, high-density tion that attracts amino acids at one end, and, at the other
planets located in the inner solar system nearest the end, attaches to a specific codon of mRNA. (Ch. 23)
Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Earth’s Moon, and Mars. transform plate boundary The type of boundary between
(Ch. 16) plates that occurs when one plate scrapes past the other,
tertiary structure The complex folding of a protein, caused with no new plate material being produced; for example,
by the cross-linking of chemical bonds from side groups in California’s San Andreas Fault. (Ch. 17)
the amino acid chain. (Ch. 22) transistor A device that sandwiches p- and n-type semicon-
theories of everything A term that scientists use to refer to ductors in an arrangement that can amplify or redirect an
theories that unify all of the four forces. (Ch. 13) electrical current running through it; a device that played
theorist A scientist who uses mathematical models and logical an essential role in the development of modern electronics.
inference to make statements about the universe in order (Ch. 11)
to explain its processes and organisms. (Ch. 1) transmission One of three responses of an electromagnetic
theory A description of the world that covers a relatively large wave encountering matter, in which light energy passes
number of phenomena and has met many observational through the matter unaffected. See also absorption and
and experimental tests. A conclusion based upon observa- scattering. (Ch. 6)
tions of nature. (Ch. 1) transverse wave A kind of wave in which the motion of the
theory of relativity The idea that the laws of nature are the wave is perpendicular to the motion of the medium on
same in all frames of reference. Einstein divided his theory which the wave moves. (Ch. 6)
into two parts—special relativity and general relativity. triangulation A geometrical method used to measure the
(Ch. 7) distances to the nearest stars up to a few hundred light-
therapeutic cloning An application of cloning technology years away. The angle of sight to the star is measured at
that uses cloning in medical procedure to improve human opposite ends of Earth’s orbit and the distances are calcu-
health. See cloning. (Ch. 24) lated. (Ch. 14)
thermal conductivity The ability of a material to transfer tRNA See transfer RNA.
heat energy from one molecule to the next by conduction. trophic level All organisms that get their energy from the
When thermal conductivity is low, as in wood or fiberglass same source. (Ch. 3)
insulation, the transfer of heat is slowed down. (Ch. 4) tropical storm A severe storm that starts as a low-pressure
thermal energy The kinetic energy of atoms and molecules; area over warm ocean water and, while drawing energy
what we normally call heat. (Ch. 3) from the warm water, grows and rotates in great cyclonic
thermodynamics The study of the movement of heat; the patterns hundreds of kilometers in diameter. (Ch. 18)
science of heat, energy, and work. (Ch. 3) tsunami A great wave, which can devastate low-lying coastal
thermometer A device that measures temperature using a areas, occurring when the energy of an earthquake under
temperature scale and a material that expands and contracts or near a large body of water is transferred through the
with temperature change, such as mercury. (Ch. 4) water. (Ch. 17)
time dilation A phenomenon in special relativity in which typhoon A tropical storm that begins in the North Pacific
moving clocks appear to tick more slowly than stationary Ocean (Ch. 18)
ones. (Ch. 7)
tornado The most violent weather phenomenon known. A ultraviolet radiation High-frequency wavelengths, shorter
rotating air funnel some tens to hundreds of meters across, than visible light, ranging from 400 nanometers to
descending from storm clouds to the ground, causing 100 nanometers. (Ch. 6)
intense damage along the path where the funnel touches uncertainty principle The idea quantified by Werner Heisen-
the ground. (Ch. 18) berg in 1927 that at a quantum scale, the location and
totipotent A state that occurs in an early stage of embryonic velocity of an object can never be known at the same time,
cell division where each cell retains the ability to express all because quantum-scale measurement affects the object
of its genes; the cell is not yet specialized. (Ch. 24) being measured. Specifically, “the error or uncertainty in
trace element A chemical, such as iodine in the thyroid gland the measurement of an object’s position, times the error or
and iron in the blood, that is needed in minor amounts by uncertainty in that object’s velocity, must be greater than a
the body. (Ch. 22) constant, h, divided by the object’s mass.” (Ch. 9)
trace gas A gas that constitutes less than one molecule in a unified field theory The general name for any theory in
million in Earth’s atmosphere; for example, ozone. which fundamental forces are seen as different aspects of
(Ch. 19) the same force. (Ch. 13)
A40 | Glossary
uniform motion The motion of an object if it travels in a w particle A massive particle that, along with the z particle,
straight line at a constant speed. All other motions involve mediates the weak interaction. (Ch. 13)
acceleration. (Ch. 2) warm blooded Animals, such as birds and mammals, that
unsaturated In a lipid chain, a carbon atom bonded with two have a four-chambered heart and can maintain a constant
carbon atoms and one hydrogen atom, and with one body temperature in any environment. (Ch. 20)
kinked “double bond” with one of the adjacent carbon water-soluble vitamin A vitamin that can dissolve in water
atoms. See saturated. (Ch. 22) and is not retained by the body, including vitamins B
and C. (Ch. 22)
vacuole In plants, a cellular organelle that is responsible for watt A unit of measurement that is the expenditure of 1 joule
waste storage. (Ch. 21) of energy in 1 second. (Ch. 3)
valence electron An outer electron of an atom that can be wave A traveling disturbance that carries energy from one
exchanged or shared during chemical bonding. (Ch. 10) place to another without requiring matter to travel across
valence The combining power of a given atom, determined the intervening distance. (Ch. 6)
by the number of electrons in an atom’s outermost orbit. wave energy The kinetic energy associated with different
(Ch. 10) kinds of waves, such as kinetic energy possessed by large
vascular plant The phylum of plants that have internal amounts of water in rapid motion, and electromagnetic
“plumbing” capable of carrying fluids from one part of the radiation stored in changing electrical and magnetic fields.
plant to another. (Ch. 20) (Ch. 3)
vector A quantity that measures rate and direction. Velocity wave mechanics Another term for quantum mechanics, indi-
and acceleration are examples of vectors. (Ch. 2) cating the dual (wave and particle) nature of quantum
velocity The distance an object travels divided by the time objects. (Ch. 9)
it takes to travel that distance, including the direction wavelength The distance between adjacent wave crests, the
of travel. The velocity of a falling object is proportional highest points of adjacent waves. (Ch. 6)
to the length of time that it has been falling. (Ch. 2) weather Daily changes in rainfall, temperature, amount of
vertebrate A subphylum of chordates in which the nerves sunshine, and other variables resulting partly from the gen-
along the back are encased in bone. (Ch. 20) eral circulation in the atmosphere, and partly from local
vesicle The vehicle by which a particle moves around inside a disturbances and variations. (Ch. 18)
cell; a tiny container formed from the cell membrane, and a weathering A process in which rock wears away, for example
particle with its receptor. (Ch. 21) by washing away particles, dissolving rock, or freezing in
vestigial organ A bodily feature that serves no useful func- rock cracks. (Ch. 18)
tion at present and is compelling evidence for evolution. weight The force of gravity on an object. (Ch. 2)
(Ch. 25) white dwarf A star that has a very low emission of energy but
virus A short length of RNA or DNA wrapped in a protein very high surface temperature; plots on the lower lefthand
coating that fits cell receptors and replicates itself using the corner of the H-R diagram. (Ch. 14)
cell’s machinery. (Ch. 23) wind A weather variable that is caused by atmospheric con-
visible light Electromagnetic waves with a wavelength that vection—a process that redistributes heat. (Ch 18)
can be interpreted by nerve receptors in the brain; wave- wind shear Violent air turbulence created from sudden
lengths range from 700 nanometers for red light to downdrafts, which can cause an extremely dangerous con-
400 nanometers for violet light. (Ch. 6) dition near airports. (Ch. 18)
vitamin One of a host of complex organic molecules that, in work The force that is exerted times the distance over which
small quantities, play an essential role in good health; for it is exerted; measured in joules in the metric system, in
example, by mediating the body’s chemical reactions. May foot-pounds in the English. (Ch. 3)
be fat soluble and stored, or water soluble and not retained
by the body. (Ch. 22) X-rays High-frequency and high-energy electromagnetic
volcanic rock Extrusive igneous rock that solidifies on waves that range in wavelength from 100 nanometers to
Earth’s surface. (Ch. 18) 0.1 nanometer, used in medicine and industry. (Ch. 6)
volcano Places where subsurface molten rock breaks through
to Earth’s surface to form dramatic short-term changes in z particle A massive particle that, along with the w particle,
the landscape. (Ch. 17) mediates the weak interaction. (Ch. 13)
voltage The pressure produced by the energy source in an
electric circuit, measured in volts. (Ch. 5)
bindex.qxd 9/16/09 8:49 PM Page I1
Index
A Amyloplasts, 456 Atoms, 56, 74, 96. See also Chemical

Absolute brightness of stars, 297 Anderson, Carl, 278–279 bonds
Absolute zero, 75 Andromeda galaxy, 314 appearance of, 177
Absorption lines, 171 Angiosperms, 438 as beginning of the universe, 319
Absorption of electromagnetic Angular momentum, 41 Bohr, 167–168
radiation, 129–130 Animal electricity, 101, 102 chemical elements and, 164
Acceleration Animal insulation, 79–80 elements of, 162
components of, 37 Animal sound waves, 122–123 evidence of, 162–163
defined, 32 Animal starch, 477 Greek, 161–162
experiments on, 34–36, 38 Animal strategies for living, 431, helium and, 172
extreme, 36 438–443 in human body, 469
mass in, 38 invertebrates, 439–441 laser and, 173–174
vs. velocity, 33 vertebrates, 433, 441–443 nucleus of, 166
Accelerators, 275–277 Annihilation, 278 photons and, 168–179
Accumulated accident school, 89 Antacids, chemical reactions of, 217 quantum mechanics and, 170
Acid-base reactions, 216 Anthrax, 513 Rutherford, 166–167
Acid rain, 412–413 Antigravity, 154 spectroscopy and, 170–172
Adaptation, 542 Antimatter, 278–279, 321 terms related to, 165
Addition polymerization, 217 Apollo lunar missions, 337 theories of, 161–162
Adenosine deaminase, 522 Apparent brightness of stars, 297 Aurora borealis, 99–100
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Applied research, 17 Australopithecus afarensis, 550
457–458 Archaea, 431, 455 Australopithecus ramidus, 550
Advanced Photon Source (APS), 136 Aristotle, 4, 428 Autotrophs, 434
Aging process, 87, 89–90 Armstrong, Neil, 349 Axon, 107
AIDS Arthropods, 439–440
DNA/RNA and, 500 Artificial selection, 541
protease inhibitors and, 520 Asteroid belt, 331, 345 B
virus responsible for, 501–502 Asteroids, 345 Bacon, Francis, 358–360
Air masses, 387 Astrology, 13–14 Bacteria, 455
Alkali metals, 174 Astronauts, ancient, 26 Bardeen, John, 238
Alkaline earth metals, 175 Astronomical distance scale, 297–298 Base of a transistor, 238
Allowed orbits, 167 Astronomy Bases, 216
Alloy, 201 defined, 15, 289 Basic research, 16
Alpha decay, 257–258 historical background of, 28–29 Basilosaurus, 547
Alpha particle, 257 observations in, 28–29 Batteries, 102–103
Alpha particles, 166 Atlantic Ocean, age of, 361 Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 255–256
Alternating current (AC), 111 Atmosphere Bernoulli, Daniel, 163
Aluminum, 164 evolution of, 339 Beta decay, 258–259
Alvin, 537 ocean breezes and, 377 Big bang theory, 315–319
Ambulocetus, 547 radio window in, 131 analogies of, 316–317
Amino acids, 471–472, 473, 475 Atmospheric cycle, 386–392 cosmic microwave background
Amino group (NH2), 471 air masses and, 387 radiation and, 317–318
Ampere, Andre-Marie, 103 circulation of, 388–389 defined, 315
Ampere or amp, 103, 106 climate, 390–391 evidence for, 317–319
Amphibians, 441–442 Doppler radar and, 391–392 vs. Greek or medieval theory,
Amplifier, 238 storms and weather patterns, 315–316
Amplitude modulation (AM) 389–390 light elements and, abundance of,
transmission, 132 weather and, 387–388 318–319
Amplitude of waves, 119 Atomic numbers, 174, 252–253 universal expansion and, 317
AM (amplitude modulation) Atomic-scale microscopy, 163 Binary digit (bit), 190, 241
transmission, 132 Atomism, 162 Biochemical evidence for evolution, 464
I1
bindex.qxd 9/16/09 10:38 AM Page I2
I2 | Index
Bioconcentration, 405 nature and variety of, 448–449 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 415–416
Biodiversity, 8–10 nucleus, 453–455 Chloroplasts, 456
Bioinformatics revolution, 505 observing, under a microscope, Cholera, 27–28
Biological magnification, 405 449–451 Cholesterol, 479–480
Biology, 15 organelles and their function, Chordates, 433
Bioterrorism, 513 456–457 Chromosomes, 450, 461
Birds, 442 photosynthesis of, 458–459 Chromosphere, 293
Bit, 190, 241 receptors, 452 Churynumov-Gerasimeno comet, 346
Black holes, 303 respiration and, 459–461 Climate, 390–391
Black light effects, 135 terms related to, 455 Climate change, global, 417–420
Black smokers, 537 theory of, 449 Cloning, 516–519
Blastocyst, 516 Cellulose, 477 of Dolly, the sheep, 517–519
Blood circulation, 11–12 Cell wall, 453 ethics of, 518–519
Blue-green algae, 436 Celsius scale, 75 reproductive, 518
Bohr atom, 167–170, 189–190 Cenozoic, 545 therapeutic, 518
Bohr, Niels, 167 Centers for Disease Control, 340–341 Closed systems, 62
Boiling, 210 Cepheid variable, 297–298 Closed universe, 323
Bony fish, 441 Ceramics, 206 Clotting of blood, 222
Brahe, Tycho, 29 Chain, Ernst, 436 Cloud chamber, 279
Brain, A4–A5 Chandrasekar, Subramanian, 292 Cloudiness, 388
Brattain, Walter, 238 Chandra X-Ray Observatory, 292 Coal, 64
Brown dwarf stars, 300 Changes of states, 210–211 Codon, 496
Brownian motion, 163 Chaos, 45 Cold-blooded animals, 442
Bubble babies, 522 Chaotic systems, 45 Collector of a transistor, 238
Burnell, Jocelyn Bell, 302 Chemical bonds, 198–205 Combustion, 214
Bush, George W., 518 covalent bonds, 202–203 Comets, 331, 345–346
Butane, 219 double, 203 Composite materials, 230–231
Byte, 242 electron shells and, 197–198 Compressional waves, 370
formation of (See Chemical reactions) Computer-assisted drug design
hydrogen bond, 204–205 (CADD), 519–520
C ionic bonds, 199–200 Computerized axial tomography
Calories, 63–64 metallic bonds, 201–202 (CAT), 256
Cambrian explosion, 545 polarization and, 202–204 Computer models of solar system,
Cancer, 520–522 single, 203 332–333
Carbohydrates, 458, 476–478 states of matter and (See States Condensation, 210, 217
Carbon, 164 of matter) Condensation polymerization, 471
Carbon cycle, 406 Chemical elements, A17–A18 Conduction electrons, 232
Carbon twelve, 253 Chemical elements, atoms and, 164 Conduction of heat, 77–78, 91
Carboxylic acid group (COOH), 471 Chemical equations, balancing, 212 Conductors, electrical, 231
Carothers, Wallace, 210 Chemical evolution, 536 Cones, eye, 134–135
Cassini spacecraft, 342, 343 Chemical potential energy, 55 Conservation law, 61–62
Cause and effect, 24 Chemical reactions, 211–219 Conservation of energy, law of, 61–64
Cell division, 538–539 acid-base, 216 Constant of proportionality, 42
Cell membranes, 452–453 of antacids, 217 Constructive interference, 124
Cell nucleus, 430–431 clotting of blood, 222 Contact force, 39
Cells defined, 211 Continental drift, 358–361
cytoskeleton and, 457 depolymerization, 217–218 Contour space probe, 346
discovery of, 449 endothermic, 213 Convection cell, 78–79
DNA repair and, 523–525 energy and, 212–213 Convection of heat, 78–79
energy currency of, 457–458 exothermic, 213 Convection zone, 292
evolution and, 538–541, 543–545 hydrocarbons and, 219–221 Convergent plate boundaries, 365, 369
fermentation and, 460 oxidation, 214 Conversion factors, A8–A9
function of, overview of, 451–452 polymerization, 217 Conversions of temperature, 75–76
glycolysis and, 459–460 precipitation-solution, 215 Copernican system, 29, 30, 31
meiosis and, 462–463 reduction, 215 Copernicus, Nicolas, 29
membranes of, 452–453 refining petroleum, 221–222 Copper, 164
mitosis, 461–462 Chemistry, 15 Coral reefs, 395
Index | I3
Core, Earth’s, 336 of vitamins, 483 Dwarf galaxies, 310

Corona, 293 Differentiation, 335–336, 516 Dynamo, 111
Correns, Karl, 492 Diffuse scattering, 129–130
Cosmic microwave background Digestive system, A3
radiation, 317–318 Dimensional analysis, 32 E
Cosmic rays, 274–275 Diodes, 237–238 Earth. See also Plate tectonics
Cosmology, 310, 325. See also Galaxies; Dipole field, 99, 100 age of, 294
Universe Direct current (DC), 111 beach erosion and, 398–399
Coulomb (C), 96 Disease, spread of, 26–28 changes in surface of, 354–355
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 96–97 Distillation, 221 continental drift on, 358–361
Coulomb’s law, 96–97 Divergent plate boundaries, 364–365, core of, 336
Covalent bonds, 202–203 369 crust of, 336
Crab Nebula, 303 Divine Calculator, Laplace’s, 44, cycles of (See Earth’s cycles)
Creationists, 89 192–193 differentiation and, 335–336
Crystals, 206 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). See also earthquakes on, 357–358
Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 256 Genetics formation of, 334
Curie, Pierre, 256 cell repair, 523–525 great bombardment of, 334, 338
Cyclotron, 275 chromosomes in, 461 growth of, 335
Cytochrome C molecules, 535 discovery of, 426 high pressures on, 336–337
Cytoplasm, 450 ethics of, 505 living things on, effect of, 339
Cytoskeleton, 456, 457 evolution and, 534–535 magnetic reversals on, 359–360
fingerprinting, 514–515 mantle of, 336
gene expression, reasons for, mountains on, erosion of, 354–356
D 499–500 ocean floors on, 359
Daily routines, 49 Human Genome Project and, as terrestrial planets, 330
Dalton, John, 162, 163 502–505 volcanic rock on, 360
Dark energy, 154, 323–324 Linnaean classification and, 433–434 volcanoes on, 356–357
Dark matter, 321–323 mapping, 502 Earthquakes, 118
Darwin, Charles, 541–543 of mitochondria, 525–526 overview of, 357–358
Davy, Sir Humphry, 57, 112 mutations and DNA repair, 499 plate tectonics and, 370–372
Day-Glo colors, 170 nucleotides and, 492–493 prediction, 372
Decay, 256–259 nucleus and, 453 resistant buildings, designing, 372
Decay chains, 262 protein system, 537–538 seismology and, 370–371
Deceleration, 32 replication of, 494–495 Earth’s cycles, 378–398. See also
Dedifferentiation, 519 sequencing, 502–503 individual cycles
Deep-field images of galaxies, 310, 311 structure of, 493 atmospheric cycle, 386–392
Deep Impact mission, 346 synthesis of proteins and, 495–499 hydrologic cycle, 379–386
Deep ocean trench, 365 transcription of, 495 interdependence of, 397–398
Deep time, 397 viral epidemics and, 501–502 rock cycle, 392–397
Democritus, 161, 162 viruses and, 500–501 E. coli, 511, 513
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). See DNA polymerase, 513 Ecological niche, 406
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) PCR process in, 513–514 Ecology, defined, 403. See also
Department of Agriculture, 512 Doctrine of intelligent design, 552 Ecosystems
Department of Defense, 18 Dolly, the cloned sheep, 517–519 Ecosystems. See also Ecosystems,
Department of Energy, 18 Domains of life, 431 threats to
Department of Homeland Security, 513 Dominant genes, 489–499 changing nature of, 406–407
Depolymerization, 217–218 Doped semiconductors, 236–237 characteristics of, 404–407
De Silva, Ashanti, 522–523 Doppler, Christian Johann, 127–128 ecological niches in, 406
Destructive interference, 124 Doppler effect, 127–128 energy flowing through, 405
De Vries, Hugo, 492 Doppler radar, 391–392 global climate change, debates about,
Dialogue Concerning Two World Double-blind clinical trial, 521–522 417–419
Systems, A (Galilei), 31 Double chemical bonds, 203 homeostasis in, 406
Diamond anvil cell, 336 Double-slit test, 187–188 law of unintended consequences and,
Diamond manufacturing, 336–337 Drug design, computer-assisted, 407–409
Dietary fads, 483 519–520 living and non living parts of, 404–405
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Drugs, molecules and, 476 matter recycled by, 405
of minerals, 482 DuPont, 210 overview of, 403–404
I4 | Index
Ecosystems, threats to, 409–417 Electromagnetic spectrum, 130–137 names of, 252–253
acid rain, 412–413 extremely low-frequency (ELF) periodic table of, 174–177
greenhouse effect, 416–417 radiation in, 137 Elliptical galaxies, 310
ozone problem, 413–416 gamma-rays in, 136–137 El Niño, 390
pollution, 412–413 infrared radiation in, 133 Embryonic stem cells, 516, 526–527
urban landfills, 409–410 microwaves in, 132–133 Emitter of a transistor, 238
Efficiency, 83, 85–86 overview of, 130 Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), 432–433
Einstein, Albert, 143–144, 145, radio waves in, 130–132 Endocrine system, A5
150–157, 163. See also Theory satellites used to observe, 291 Endoplasmic reticulum, 456
of relativity ultraviolet radiation in, 135 Endothermic chemical reaction, 213
Elastic limit, 229 visible light in, 133–135 Energy, 50, 51
Elastic potential energy, 56 visible spectrum in, 294 calories and, 63–64
Electrical conductors, 103 X-rays in, 135–136 of cells, currency of, 457–458
Electrical current, 102–103, 106 Electromagnetic waves, 124–130. See chain of, 49
Electrical field, 98 also Electromagnetic spectrum chemical potential, 55
Electrical potential energy, 56 absorption of, 129–130 chemical reactions and, 212–213
Electrical properties of materials, anatomy of, 126 dark, 154
231–234 Doppler effect and, 127–128 defined, 51
conductors, 231 energy of, 126–127 in ecosystems, 405
insulators, 231–232 ether and, 125 elastic potential, 56
semiconductors, 232–233 light and, 126 electrical potential, 56
superconductors, 233–234 overview of, 124–125 fossil fuels, 49, 64–65, 68
Electrical resistance, 103, 231 reflection and, 130 gravitational potential, 55
Electrical superconductors, 233–234 refraction and, 129–130 horsepower, 52–53
Electric cars, 67 scattering of, 129–130 how living things use, 61
Electric circuits. See also transmission of, 129–130 interchangeability of, 58–59
Electromagnetic force; Magnetism Electromagnetism, 94, 112–113 kinetic, 53–54
AC vs. DC, 111 Electromagnets, 108–109 for life and trophic levels, 60–61
batteries and, 102–103 Electron, 278 magnetic potential, 56
defined, 103 Electron energy levels, 167 mass and, 152, 251–252
Galvani’s experiments and, 101–102 Electrons order of the universe and, 63
load in, 105 discovery of, 165 potential, 53, 55–56
magnetic effects from, 108 movement of, 96 power and, 51–52
nerve signals and, 107 and protons, compared, 97–98 renewable sources of, 65–67
Ohm’s law and, 103–105 Electron shells, 167, 175–177 thermal (heat), 56–57
parallel, 107–108 chemical bonds and, 197–198 thermodynamics, first law of, 61–64
series, 107–108 Electroweak force, 284 transferred by waves, 118–119
terms related to, 106 Elementary-particle physics, 274 in transportation, 67–68
Electric generator, 111 Elementary particles, 274–281 in United States, 64–67
Electric motors, 109–110 accelerators, 275–277 wave, 57
Electrolysis, 164 antimatter, 278–279 work and, 50–51
Electromagnetic force. See also cosmic rays, 274–275 Entropy, 87, 89–90
Magnetism detecting, 275 Environment. See also Ecosystems
Coulomb’s law and, 96–97 gauge particle, 282 defined, 405
in daily routine, 94 hadrons, 278 recycling and, 378, 410–411
electrical field and, 98 leptons, 278 Environmental Protection Agency, 18
electrons and, movement of, 96 positron emission tomography Enzymes, 473–475, 537–538
electrons and protons, compared, and, 279–280 Equilibrium hypothesis, 408
97–98 quarks, 280–281 Essential amino acids, 475
Franklin and, 95–96 summary of, 278 Ether, 125
Maxwell’s equations and, 112 Elements Ethics
Newton’s first law of motion and, 94 of atoms, 162 of cloning, 518–519
static electricity and, 95 chemical, A17–A18 of stem cells, 526–527
Electromagnetic induction, 111 chemical, atoms and, 164 Eucaryea, 431, 455
Electromagnetic radiation. See generated by stars, 304 Eukaryotes, 455, 544
Electromagnetic waves light, big bang theory and, 318–319 Europa, 342–343
Index | I5
European Center for Nuclear Research Ferns, 438 dwarf, 310

(CERN), 276, 284 Ferromagnetism, 235 elliptical, 310
European Space Agency, 292, 346 Feynman, Richard, 190, 283 Hubble’s law, 311–314
Everglades Restoration Plan, 407 Fibrin, 222 irregular, 310
Evolution Field researchers, 15 kinds of, 310–311
biochemical evidence of, 464, 51 Pegasi, 348 Local Group of, 314
534–535 Fingerprinting, DNA, 514–515 Milky Way, 314
black smokers and, 537 First genetic hit, 521 nebula debate and, 309–310
cells and, 538–541, 543–545 Flat universe, 323 quasars in, 310
defined, 532 Fleming, Alexander (Sir Alexander), 436 Sloan Digital Sky Survey
DNA and, 534–535, 537–538 Florey, Howard, 436 and, 314, 315
fossil record and, 532–534 Fluorescence, 135 spiral, 310
geological time and, 545–546 FM (frequency modulation) superclusters of, 314
human beings and, 549–551 transmission, 132 Galilean thermometer, 76
intelligent design and, 551–552 Food and Drug Administration, 512 Galilei, Galileo
Mars and, 539–540 Food chain, 405 falling-ball apparatus, 33
mass extinctions and, 547–549 Foot-pound (ft-lb), 50 falling object experiments, 33–34
natural selection and, 541–543 Force, energy, and power units, A9 heresy trial of, 31
RNA enzymes and, 537–538 Forces, 282–284 history of, 31
second law of thermodynamics as an exchange, 282–283 Galileo spacecraft, 342, 343
and, 89 defined, 37 Galvani, Luigi, 101–102
vestigial organs and, 535–537 electroweak, 284 Gametes, 462
of whales, 546–547 Standard Model and, 284 Gamma radiation, 259
window of opportunity for, 538 unified field theories and, 283–284 Gamma rays, 136–137, 292
Excited state, 168 Fossil fuels “Garden of Proserpine, The”
Exons, 498 burning of, 65 (Swinburne), 88
Exothermic chemical reaction, 213 characteristics of, 64–65 Gas, behavior of, 163
Expanding balloon analogy, 316–317 defined, 64 Gases, 205
Expanding universe, 319–321 as nonrenewable resources, 68 Gasoline, 222
Experimentalists, 15 Fossil record, 532–534 Gauge particle, 282
Experiments, 4 Fossils, 533–534 Geller, Margaret, 314
Extinct, 534 Frames of reference Gene expression, reasons for, 499–500
Extrasolar planets, 347–349 defined, 142 General Electric, 336
Extremely low-frequency (ELF) descriptions in, 142–143 General relativity, 144
radiation, 137 speed of light in, 144 defined, 144
Extrusive rocks, 392–393 Franklin, Benjamin, 95–97, 105 Global Positioning System and, 156
Eyes as light creating organ, 134–135 Freezing, 210 nature of forces and, 153–155
Freezings, of universe, 319, 320 predictions of, 155–156
Frequency understanding, 156–157
F radio, 131–132 Genetically modified organisms
Facts, 6 of waves, 119–120 (GMOs), 512
FADH, 458 Frequency modulation (FM) Genetic code, 496
Fahrenheit scale, 75 transmission, 132 Genetic engineering, 510–514
Falling object experiments, 33–36 Frostbite, 82 Genetics. See also DNA
Faraday, Michael, 111, 112 Fuel cell cars, 67–68 (deoxyribonucleic acid); RNA
Fat-soluble vitamins, 482 Full parking lot, 176, 301 (ribonucleic acid)
Fault, 357 Fungi, 431, 434–436 cancer and, 520–522
Federal Bureau of Investigations Fusion, 265–266 cloning and, 516–519
(FBI), 515 computer-assisted drug design and,
Federal Communications Commission 519–520
(FCC), 131 G DNA fingerprinting and, 514–515
Fermentation, 460 Galaxies. See also Big bang theory; gene therapy and, 522–523
Fermi, Enrico, 292 Universe genetic engineering and, 510–514
Fermi Gamma Ray Telescope, 292 Andromeda, 314 regenerative medicine, 516–517
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory deep-field images of, 310, 311 stem cells and, 516–517, 526–527
(Fermilab), 276 discovery of, Hubble’s, 309–31 in vitro, 522–523
I6 | Index
Genetics, classical Great Red Spot, 333 Hindenberg, 211

dominant genes and, 489–499 Greek atom, 161–162 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
hybrids and, 488, 490 Greenhouse effect, 416–417 DNA/RNA and, 500
Mendel’s research in, 491–492 Ground state, 168 protease inhibitors and, 520
overview of, 488–490 Groundwater, 380 Hole, 232
purebreds and, 488 Gymnosperms, 438 Home insulation, 79
qualitative vs. quantitative, 490–491 Homeostasis, 406
recessive genes and, 489–499 Homo erectus, 550
rules of, 490 H Homo habilus, 550
viral epidemics and, 501–502 Hadrons, 278 Homo sapiens, 433, 549–551
viruses and, 500–501 Half-life, 260–261 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, 550
Genetics, molecular. See also DNA Halley, Edmond, 44 Hooke, Robert, 449
(deoxyribonucleic acid); RNA Halley’s Comet, 44 Horsepower, 52–53
(ribonucleic acid) Hardin, Garrett, 408 Hot big bang, 319. See also Big bang
birth of, DNA and, 492 Harvey, William, 11–12 theory
ethics of, 505 Haywood, Alan, 546 Hot Jupiters, 348–349
Human Genome Project, 502–505 Hazen, Robert, 260 Hot spots, 369
Genome, 503 Heat. See also Second law of Hubble constant, 291
Geological time, 545–546 thermodynamics Hubble, Edwin, 309–314
Geological time scale, A11–A14 animal insulation, 79–80 Hubble’s law, 311–314
Geology, 15 home insulation, 79 Hubble Space Telescope (HST),
Giant Magellan Telescope, 291 nature of, 74 291, 349
Glaciers, 379 specific heat capacity, 76–77 Huchra, John, 314
Glasses, 206–207 temperature and (See Temperature) Human anatomy, A1–A6
Global circulation models (GCMs), 391 transfer (See Heat transfer) organ systems of, A2
Global Positioning System (GPS), 156 Heat conductor, 77 Human beings, classifying, 433–434
Global warming, 420 Heat death, 88 Human Genome Project, 502–505
Glucose, 476 Heat (thermal) energy, 56–57 Humidity, 388
Gluons, 283 Heat insulator, 77–78 Hurricane Andrew, 372
Glycogen, 477 Heat island, 79 Hurricanes, 389
Glycolysis, 459–460 Heat transfer Hutton, James, 397
Gold, 164 conduction, 77–78, 91 Huygens space probe, 343
Golgi apparatus, 456 convection, 78–79 Hybrids, 67, 488, 490
Gore, Al, 417–418 defined, 77 Hydrocarbons, 214, 219–221, 412
Gradualism hypothesis, 549 radiation, 81 Hydrogen, 294–295
Granite, 361, 393 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Hydrogenation, 480
Gravitational acceleration (g), 43–44 183–185 Hydrogen bonds, 204–205
Gravitational bending of light, 155 Heisenberg, Werner, 183–184 Hydrogen burning, 294–295
Gravitational constant (G), 42–43 Helios, 172 Hydrologic cycle, 379–386
Gravitational escape, 339 Helium, 164, 172 chemical cycles in the ocean,
Gravitational potential energy, 55 Helium burning, 300 382–384
Gravitational redshift, 128, 155 Hero’s turbine experiment, rendition ice ages in, 384
Gravitons, 283 of, 21 Milankovitch cycle in, 385–386
Gravity, 42–44 Hertz (Hz), 119 water reservoirs on, 379–382
antigravity, 154 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf, 130 Hypothesis, 5, 6
bones and, 333–334 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 298
Earth’s gravitational acceleration (g), Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram,
43–44 298–299 I
gravitational constant (G), 42–43 Heterotrophs, 434 Ice ages, 384
gravitational potential energy, 55 Hierarchy, 429 Ice caps, 379
Newton’s law of universal Higgs particle, 283 IceCube neutrino detector, 296
gravitation, 42 Higgs, Peter, 284 Igneous rock, 392–393
weight and, 43, 44 High-energy physics, 274 Indoor radon, 262–263
working against, 51 High-level nuclear waste, 267 Inert gases, 198
Gravity Probe B, 155–156 High-quality proteins, 475 Inertia, 37–38
Great bombardment, 334, 338 High temperature reservoir, 84–85 Inertial confinement, 266
Index | I7
Inertial guidance systems, 41 Kuiper, Gerard, 343 gravitational bending of, 155
Inflation of universe, 320–321 Kyoto Protocol, 418 speed of, 126
Infrared radiation, 81, 133 visible, in electromagnetic spectrum,
Inner solar system, 340–341 133–135
Institute for Regenerative L Lightning, 96
Medicine, 518 Lake Victoria disaster, 407–408 Light-years, 297
Insulators, electrical, 231–232 Laplace, Pierre Simon, 44, 299 Limestone, 394
Insulin, 522 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 276, Linear accelerator, 277
Interference from waves, 123–124 277, 284, 285 Linear momentum, 40, 41
Interglacial period, 384 Large Magellanic Cloud, 302 Linnaean classification, 428–429,
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Laser, 173–174 433–434
Change (IPCC), 417 Law, 6–7 Linnaeus, Carolus, 428, 429
International Bureau of Weights and Law of conservation of linear Lipids, 210, 452
Measures, A7 momentum, 41 cell membranes and, 480–481
International system (Systéme Law of definite proportions, 163 overview of, 478
Internationale, SI), A8 Law of unintended consequences, saturated and unsaturated
Interstate Highway System, A10 407–409 fats and, 478–480
Introns, 498 island biogeography and, 408–409 Liquid crystals, 209–210
Invertebrates, 439–441 Lake Victoria disaster and, 407–408 Liquids, 206
In vitro gene therapy, 522–523 Law of universal gravitation, Local Group of galaxies, 314
Io, 342 Newton’s, 42 Local superclusters, 314
Ionic bonds, 199–200 Laws of motion, Newton’s, 37–40 Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 172
Ionization, 259 first law, 37–38, 94 Longitudinal waves, 120–121, 370
Ions, 166 second law, 38–39 Lorentz factor, 148, 150
Irregular galaxies, 310 third law, 39, 46 Lowell Observatory, 344
Isolated systems at work, 39–40 Lowell, Percival, 341, 344
defined, 62 Leakey, Richard, 367 Low-quality proteins, 475
disordered, 86–87 Leavitt, Henrietta, 297 Low temperature reservoir, 84–85
entropy of, 87, 89–90 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 449 Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis
Isomers, 220 Length contraction, 150 skeleton), 550
Isooctane, 222 Length, mass, and temperature Lymphatic system, A3
Isotopes, 253, 254 units, A8–A9 Lysosomes, 456
ITER, 266 Leptons, 278, 281
Library, composition of, 272–273
Lichens, 435 M
J Life MacAyael, Douglas, 391
Jet stream, 387–388 animal strategies and, 438–443 Magma, 357
Jones, John E., 552 Archaea, 431 Magnetic field, 99
Joule, James Prescott, 50, 57 cataloging, 428–431 Magnetic monopole, 101, 110
Joules, 50 characteristics of, 426–427 Magnetic potential energy, 56
Jovian planets, 330–331, 333, 345 classifying human beings, 433–434 Magnetic properties of materials,
Jupiter, 330, 333, 341–342, 348 defined, 426 234–235
diversity of, 424 Magnetic resonance, 110
encyclopedia of, 432–433 Magnetic resonance image (MRI), 110
K fungi, 434–436 Magnetic reversals on Earth, 359–360
Keck Telescope, 291 organization of, 424–426 Magnetism, 98–101. See also Electric
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 64 phyla, 443 circuits; Electromagnetic force
Kepler, Johannes, 29 plant growth and, measuring, aurora borealis and, 99–100
Kepler satellite, 349 427–428 dipole field and, 99, 100
Kilowatt, 52 plant strategies and, 436–438 electrical effects from, 110–111
Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 52 species of, 432 from electricity, 108
Kinetic energy, 53–54 Life-cycle costing, 222–223 magnetic field lines and, 99–100
Kingdom of living things, 430–431 Light magnetic navigation and, 100–101
Koch, Robert, 28 black light effects, 135 magnetic poles and, 99, 101
Krebs cycle, 460 electromagnetic waves and, 126 study of, 99
Kuiper belt, 343–344 eyes as light creating organ, 134–135 Main-sequence stars, 299–302
I8 | Index
Mammals, 442–443 Mendeleev, Dimitri, 10–11 Moons

Mantle, 336 Mendel, Gregor, 488–489, Europa, 342–343
Mantle convection, 362–363 491–492 Io, 342
Mantle plumes, 369 Mercury, 330, 331 Titan, 343
Mapping, DNA, 502 Mesozoic, 545 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 503–504
Marianas Trench, 365 Messenger RNA (mRNA), 495 Morley, Edward W., 125
Mars, 330, 333, 340, 341, 539–540 Metabolism, 457 Motors, electric, 109–110
Mars Global Surveyor, 340 Metalic bonds, 201–202 Mountains, erosion of, 354–356
Mask, 240 Metals, 201 Mount Pinatubo eruption, 372
Mass Metamorphic rocks, 395–396 Mudstone, 394
in acceleration, 38 Meteorite ALH84001, 540 Music, sound waves and, 121–122
energy and, 57–58, 152, 251–252 Meteorites, 346–347 Mutations and DNA repair, 499
relativity and, 152 Meteoroids, 346–347
solar system, distribution of, Meteors, 346–347
330–331 Meteor showers, 347 N
Mass extinction, 547–549 Methane, 214, 221 NADH, 458, 459
Mass number, 253 Metric prefixes, A8 Nanotechnology, 243–244
Materials Michelson, Albert A., 125 NASA (National Aeronautic and Space
electrical properties of, 231–234 Microbes, 455 Administration), 18, 291,
magnetic properties of, 234–235 Microchips, 239–245 340–341, 346, 540
microchips and, 239–245 in computers, 243–245 National Institute of Standards and
overview of, 227–228 overview of, 239–240 Technology, A7–A8
strengths of, 228–231 storage use of, 241–243 National Institutes of Health, 18, 522
Mathematics Microscopes for observing cells, National Science Foundation, 18
measurement in, 5–6 449–451 Natural gas, 64, 214
order/disorder and, 86–87 Microwave ovens, 133 Natural selection, 541–543
work defined by, 50 Microwaves, 132–133 Neanderthal man, 550–551
Matter Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 359, 360 Nebula debate, 309–310
building blocks of, 273–274 Milankovitch cycle, 385–386 Nebulae, 299, 309, 332
composition of the universe, Milankovitch, Milutin, 386 Nebular hypothesis, 299, 331, 332–333
272–274 Milky Way, 299, 302, 309–310 Neptune, 330
forces in, 282–284 Miller, Stanley, 536 Nerve cells, 107
library and, composition of, 272–273 Miller-Urey experiment, 536 Nerve signals, 107
quantum gravity and, 285 Minerals, 481, 482 Nervous system, A4
recycled by ecosystems, 405 Mitochondria, 456 Neurotransmitters, 107
reductionism and, 273 Mitochondria of DNA (mtDNA), Neutrino, 278
string theories and, 285 525–526 Neutrino problem, 295–296
Maxwell, James Clerk, 112, 124–125 Mitosis, 461–462 Neutron, 166
Maxwell’s equations, 112 Moderator, 264 Neutron stars, 302–303
Measurement Molecules, 56, 162, 202 New England Journal of Medicine, 483
of falling objects, 5 carbohydrates and, 476–480 New Horizons space probe, 344
in mathematics, 5–6 chemical representation of, 470 New System of Chemical Philosophy
of photons from space, 290 drugs and, 476 (Dalton), 162
of plant growth, 427–428 lipids and, 478–481 Newton, Isaac, 6, 15, 157, 449
quantitative, 5 minerals and, 481, 482 law of motion, 94
in quantum mechanics, 183 organic, 468–469 law of universal gravitation, 42
Mechanics proteins and, 471–475 laws of motion, 37–40, 46
acceleration and, 32–33 synthesis of urea and, 470 Newtons, 38, 50
defined, 31 vitamins and, 481–483 Night sky, 24–25
Galileo and, 31 Momentum, 40–41 Nitrogen oxides, 412
quantum, 170 Monera, 430, 455 NOAA (National Oceanic and
speed and, 31–32 Monosaccharides, 476 Atmospheric Administration ), 414
velocity and, 31–32 Monounsaturated fat, 479 Noble gases, 175, 198
Medicine, accelerators in, 277 Moon Nonrenewable energy sources. See
Meiosis, 462–463 density of, 337 Fossil fuels
Meltdown, 265 formation of, 337 North America, geological history
Melting, 210 as terrestrial planets, 330 of, 367–368
Index | I9
NOx compounds, 412 P Plant strategies for living, 431,

Nuclear fission, 264–265 Paleomagnetism, 359 436–438
Nuclear fusion process, 294–295 Paleozoic era, 545 phylum, 436–437
Nuclear reactor, 264 Pangaea, 361 vascular plants, 437–438
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 166 Parallel circuits, 107–108 Plasma, 206
Nuclear waste, 267 Particle accelerators, 275–277 Plasmid, 511
Nucleic acids, 492–493 Particles. See Elementary particles Plasmodesmata, 456
Nucleoli, 456 Pathfinder mission, 340 Plastics, 208–209
Nucleotides, 492–493 Pauli exclusion principle, 176, 301, recycling, 209
Nucleus. See also Radioactivity 302 Plate boundaries, 364–367
atomic numbers and, 252–253 Peer review, 19 convergent, 365, 369
defined, 166 Penicillin, 436 divergent, 364–365, 369
DNA and, 453 Peptide bond, 471 transform, 365–367
element names and, 252–253 Periodic table of the elements, volcanism and, 369–370
energy from, 263–266 174–177 Plate tectonics, 361–372
fusion, 265–266 discovery of, 10–11 convecting mantle and, 362–363
isotopes and, 253, 254 electron shells and, 175–177 earthquakes and, 370–372
mass number and, 253 period chemical properties in, mantle convection, 362–363
nuclear fission, 264–265 174–175 North America and, geological
overview of, 250–251 Perrin, Jean Baptiste, 163 history of, 367–368
strong force of, 254–255 Petroleum overview of, 361–362
structure of, 453–455, 456 refining, 221–222 plate boundaries (See Plate
Nylon, 210 Petroleum (oil), 49, 64 boundaries)
Phoenix Mars Lander, 340, 341 reactions to, 363–364
Phospholipids, 478 reaction to, 363
O Photoelectric device, 182 upright walking and, 367
Observation, 4 Photoelectric effect, 188–189 Plato, 4
Ocean floors, 359 Photons, 168–179 Plug-in hybrid, 67
Ockham’s razor, 26 Photosphere, 292 Pluto, 331, 343–344
Octane ratings, 222 Photosynthesis, 49, 293, 431, 458–459 Plutoids, 331, 343
Odyssey mission, 340 Photovoltaic cell, 237–238 Point defect, 524
Ohm, 104, 106 Phylum, 436–437, 443 Polarization, 202–204
Ohm, Georg, 104 Physical constants and astronomical Polar molecules, 204
Ohm’s law, 103–105 data, A15 Polar stratospheric clouds, 415
Oil (petroleum), 49, 64 Physics, 15 Poles, magnetic, 99, 101, 110
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), Pioneer oceanic exploration ship, Pollution, 412–413
541, 542–543 359–360 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
On the Revolutions of the Spheres Pioneers space probes, 345 513–514
(Copernicus), 29 Pixels, 242 Polymerization, 217
Oort cloud, 345, 346 Planck Observatory, 292 Polymers, 208
Open universe, 323 Planck’s constant, 184 Polysaccharids, 477
Opportunity rover, 340 Planck time, 321 Polyunsaturated fat, 479
Optical microscope, 450 Planetary orbits, 155 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 217
Orbiting observatories, 291–292 Planetesimals, 332 Positron, 278
Ordered universe, 45 Planets Positron emission tomography (PET),
Order of the universe, atmospheres, evolution of, 339 279–280
energy and, 63 characteristics of, 331 Potassium-argon dating, 261
Organelles, 456–457 extrasolar, 347–349 Potential energy, 53, 55–56
Organic chemistry, 203, 469 gas giant, 333 Power
Organic molecules, 468–469 idiosyncrasies of, 338 electrical, 105–106
Orion nebula, 334 inner, 333 energy and, 51–52
Outer solar system, 341–342 Jovian, 330–331, 333, 345 Powers of 10, A10
Outgassing, 339 moons and rings of, 342–343, 345 Power stroke, 84
Oxidation, 214 Pluto and the Kuiper belt, 343–344 Precession, 385
Ozone hole, 414–415 terrestrial, 333, 345–346 Precipitation reactions, 215
Ozone layer, 414–416 Planned obsolescence theory, 89 Predictability, 45
Ozone problem, 413–416 Plant growth, measuring, 427–428 Prediction, 7–8, 24–25
I10 | Index
Prevailing westerlies, 389 photoelectric effect and, 188–189 Reflection, 130

Primates, 433 probabilities and, 186–187 Refraction, 129–130
Primer, 513 quantum entanglement, 191–192 Regenerative medicine, 518
Primordial soup, 536 uncertainty and, 192–193 Renewable energy sources, 65–67
Prism, 134 understanding, 190 problems with, 67
Probabilities, quantum mechanics wave particle duality and the Bohr solar energy, 65–67
and, 186–187 atom, 189–190 wind energy, 65
Prokaryotes, 455 Quantum teleportation, 191–192 Reproducible science results, 8
Protease inhibitor, 520 Quarks, 280–281 Reproductive system, A5–A6
Proteins, 471–475 confinement of, 281 Reptiles, 442
amino acids and, 471–472, 473 defined, 280–281 Republic, The (Plato), 4
defined, 471 leptons and, 281 Research and development (R&D), 17
diet and, 475 Quasars Research laboratories, 17
as enzymes, 473–475 defined, 310 Reservoirs, water, 379–382
function of, 471 gravitational bending of light and, 155 Residence time, 382
high/low-quality, 475 Qubit, 190 Resistance, electrical, 103, 106
primary structure of, 472 Resorption, 333
quaternary structure of, 473 Respiration, cell generation and,
secondary structure of, 472 R 459–461
synthesis of, 495–499 Radiation fermentation and, 460
tertiary structure of, 472 cosmic microwave background final stages of, 460–461
Proterozoic era, 545 radiation, 317–318 glycolysis and, 459–460
Prothrombin, 222 overview of, 81 Respiratory and circulatory systems,
Protista, 431, 455 Radioactive decay, 256–259 A1, A3
Protons, 97–98, 166, 294–295 alpha decay, 257–258 Restriction enzymes, 510
Protoplasm, 450 beta decay, 258–259 Ribosomes, 456, 458
Pseudoscience, 12–13 gamma radiation, 259 Richter, Charles, 357–358
Ptolemaic system, 29–30 Radioactivity Richter scale, 357–358
Ptolemy, Claudius, 28–29 decay, 256–259 Rings, 343
P-type semiconductor, 236–237 decay chains, 262 RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Pulsars, 302–303 half-life and, 260–261 enzymes, 537–538
Pumice, 393 health and, 259–260 messenger RNA, 495
Pumping, 173 indoor radon, 262–263 ribosomes and, 458, 497
Punctuated equilibrium, 549 in nucleus, 255–256 structure of, 493
Purebred, 488 radiometric dating, 261–262 synthesis of proteins and, 495–499
Pyruvic acids, 459 Radioactivity of atoms, 163 transfer RNA, 495–496
Radiometric dating, 261–262 viral epidemics and, 501–502
Radio waves, 130–132 viruses and, 500–501
Q Radio window, 131 Rock cycle, 392–397
Qualitative genetics, vs. quantitative, Raelians, 517 coral reefs and, 395
490–491 Raisin-bread dough analogy, 316 deep time and, 397
Quantitative genetics, vs. qualitative, Receptors, 452 igneous rock and, 392–393
490–491 Recessive genes, 489–499 metamorphic rocks and, 395–396
Quantitative measurement, 5 Recommended Dietary Allowances sedimentary rock and, 393–395
Quantum computer, 190–191 (RDA) Rodhocetus, 547
Quantum entanglement, 191–192 of minerals, 482 Rods, eye, 134–135
Quantum gravity, 285 of vitamins, 483 Rosetta space probe, 346
Quantum jump, 169 Recycling, environmental, 378, Roundup Ready plants, 511–512
Quantum leap, 169 410–411 Russell, Henry N., 298
Quantum mechanics Recycling plastic, 209 Rutherford atom, 166–167
double-slit test and, 187–188 Red giant stars, 298 Rutherford, Ernest, 166
Heisenberg uncertainty principle Redshift, gravitational, 128, 155
and, 183–185 Reduction, 215
measurement in, 183 Reductionism, 273 S
observation in, 183 Reference frames. See Frames Salts, 174
overview of, 182 of reference San Andreas Fault, 366–367
Index | I11
Sand, windblown, 354 transistors, 238–239 mass and, 151–152

Satellites, 291–292 Sensing and control systems, A4–A6 space travel and aging, 149–150
Saturated fats, 478–480 Sequencing, DNA, 502–503 time dilation and (See Time dilation)
Saturn, 330, 333, 342, 343 Series circuits, 107–108 velocity and the speed of light
Scanning tunneling microscope, 163 SETI @ home project, 17–18 and, 150
Scattering of electromagnetic radiation, Severe combined immunodeficiency Species of life, 432
129–130 (SCID), 522–523 Specific heat capacity, 76–77
Science Shale, 394 Spectroscopy, 170–172
applied research, 16–17 Shear waves, 370 Spectrum
basic research, 16 Shells, electron, 167, 175–177 atomic, 171
branches of, 15–16 Shepherd satellites, 334 visible, 294
divisions of, 14–15 Shockley, William, 238 Speed, 31–32
funding for, 18, 19 Shoemaker-Levy comet, 291, 341–342 Speed of light (c)
organization of, 14–15 Shooting stars, 346–347 defined, 126
reasons to study, 3–2 Short tandem repeats (STR), 515 relativity and, 144–145
research and development, 17 Simberloff, Daniel, 408 velocity and, 150
role of, 2–3 Single chemical bonds, 203 Spindle fibers, 462
technology and, 17–18 Skeletomuscular system, A1 Spiral arms, 310
using to make choices, 2 Slate, 396 Spiral galaxies, 310
web of knowledge and, 16 Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 314, 315 Spirit rover, 340
Scientific method, 4–8 Snow, John, 27–28 Standard Model, 284
facts and, 6 Solar energy, 65–67 Standing wave, 189
hypotheses and, 5, 6 cost of, 66 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, 284
illustrated, 8 solar photovoltaic method, 65 Staphylococcus, 436
law and theories and, 6–7 thermal, 65–66 Stapp, John, 36
mathematics and, 5–6 Solar neutrino problem, 295–296 Starches, 477
observation, 4 Solar photovoltaic method, 65 Stardust space probe, 346
in operation, 8 Solar system Starry Messenger, The (Galilei), 31
patterns and regularities, 5–6 asteroids in, 345 Stars
prediction and, 7–8, 24–25 comets in, 345–346 anatomy of, 292–298
testing and, 7–8 computer models of, 332–333 astronomical distance scale and,
Scientists defined, 329 297–298
communication among, 19 features of, 330 birth of, 299
defined, 2 inner, 340–341 black holes and, 303
kinds of, 15 mass, distribution of, 330–331 brightness of, 297
Seafloor spreading, 360 meteoroids, meteors, and meteorites brown dwarf, 300
Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence in, 346–347 core of, 295
(SETI), 17–18 nebular hypothesis and, 331, defined, 289
Second law of thermodynamics, 82–89 332–333 elements generated by, 304
See also Heat; Universe origin of, 329–331 51 Pegasi, 348
consequences of, 88–89 outer, 341–342 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and,
disordered systems and, 86–87 scrap pile in, 333 298–299
energy restrictions and, 83–85 Solar wind, 293 large, 301–302
evolution and, 89 Solids, 206–208 life cycles of, 299–303
heat flow and, 82–83 Solution reactions, 215 luminosity of, 297
overview of, 82 Somatic stem cells, 516 main-sequence, 299–302
theoretical efficiency and, 85–86 Sound waves, 57 mass of, vs. Sun, 299–301
Sedimentary rock, 393–395 Space nature of, 289–292
Seismic tomography, 371 dimensions of, 88 neutron stars, 302–303
Seismic waves, 57, 370–371 exploration, human, 349 pulsars and, 302–303
Seismology, 370 travel and aging, 149–150 red giants, 298
Semiconductors, electrical, 232–233, Space Shuttle, 291 satellites used to measure, 291–292
235–239. See also Microchips Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 122–123 shooting, 346–347
diodes, 237–238 Special relativity, 144 supernovas, 302
doped semiconductors, 236–237 defined, 144 telescopes used to measure, 290–291
p-type, 236–237 distance and, 150 white dwarfs, 298
I12 | Index
States of matter, 205–211 T Trade winds, 389

changes of, 210–211 Tanning, 135 Transcription of DNA, 495
defined, 205 Taxonomy, 428 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 495–496
gases, 205 Technology, 16–17 Transform plate boundaries, 365–367
liquid crystals, 209–210 Tectonic plates, 361–372. See also Plate Transistor, 190
liquids, 206 boundaries; Plate tectonics Transmission of electromagnetic
nylon and, 210 Telescopes, 290–291 radiation, 129–130
plasma, 206 Tempel 1 comet, 346 Transportation, energy used in, 67–68
recycling plastic, 209 Temperature, 75–76 electric cars, 67
solids, 206–208 conversions, 75–76 fuel cell cars, 67–68
Static electricity, 95 defined, 75 hybrids, 67
Steam engine, 52 heat and, 75 Transverse waves, 120–121, 370–371
Stem cell line, 516 regulation, 81–82 Triangulation, 297
Stem cells reservoirs, high/low, 84–85 Trophic levels, energy for, 60–61
embryonic, 516, 526–527 scales, 75 Tschermak, Erich von, 492
ethics of, 526–527 thermometers and, 76 Tsunamis, 357
overview of, 516–517 weather, 387 Turing, Alan, 245
somatic, 516 Terranes, 368 Turing test, 245
Stimulated emission, 173 Terrestrial planets, 333, 345–346 Typhoons, 389
Stonehenge, 25–26, 27 Testing, 7–8
Storms and weather patterns, 389–390 Thales, 273
Stratosphere, 414 Theorists, 15 U
Strengths of materials, 228–231 Theory, 6–7 Ultraviolet radiation, 135
of composite materials, 230–231 Theory of Everything (TOE), 285 Uncertainty and human beings,
defined, 228 Theory of relativity 192–193
kinds of, 229–230 central assumption of, 144 Uncertainty principle, 184–185
String theories, 285 general relativity and (See General Unified field theories, 283–284
Strong force, 254–255 relativity) Uniform motion, 33, 37
Subduction zone, 365 importance of, 149 United States
Sugars, 476–477 principle of, 143–144 commercial electrical generation
Sulfur compounds, 412 special relativity and (See Special in, 65
Sun relativity) future of energy in, 64–65
energy source of, 294–295 speed of light and, 144–145 renewable energy sources in, 65–67
IceCube neutrino detector and, 296 Thermal conductivity, 77–78 Unit of measurement, 5
solar neutrino problem and, Thermal (heat) energy, 56–57 Units and standards, A7–A10
295–296 Thermal solar energy, 65–66 conversion to Metric, A10
structure of, 292–293 Thermodynamics force, energy, and power, A9
ultraviolet radiation and, 135 first law of, 61–64 international system of, A8
visible light and human eyes, 134 second law of (See Second law of length, mass, and temperature,
visible spectrum and, 294 thermodynamics) A8–A9
Sunrise, 2 Thermometers, 76 powers of 10 and, A10
Sunshine, 289 Thompson, Benjamin, 56–57 systems of, A7–A8
Superconductors, electrical, 233–234 Thomson, Joseph John, 165 Universal expansion, 317
Supernovas, 302 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 64 Universe. See also Galaxies; Matter
Surface tension, 206 Thorium, 257 big bang theory (See Big bang
Surfactants, 411 Three Mile Island, 265 theory)
Sweating, 81 Tidal waves, 357 closed, 323
Swinburne, Algernon, 88 Tilman, David, 9 composition of, 272–274, 321–324
Synchrotron, 276 Time dilation dark energy and, 323–324
Synthesis of proteins, 495–499 defined, 145–146 dark matter and, 321–323
Synthesis of urea, 470 size of, 146–149 dimensions of, 88
Systems space travel and aging, 149–150 elimination of antimatter and, 321
closed, 62 symbols for deriving, 147 expanding, characteristics
defined, 62 Titan, 343 of, 319–321
disordered, 86–87 Tombaugh, Clyde, 344 flat, 323
isolated (See Isolated systems) Tornadoes, 389–390 freezings of, 319, 320
Systems of units and standards, A7–A8 Torque, 41 heat death of, 88
Index | I13
history of, 325 Voids in universe, 314–315 sound, 121–123

inflation of, 320–321 Volcanic rock, 360, 392–393 standing, 189
limitations of, built-in, 88–89 Volcanoes transversal, 120–121
open, 323 overview of, 356–357 Weather, 387–388
structure of, large-scale, 314–315 plate boundaries and, 369–370 air masses and, 387
voids in, 314–315 plate tectonics and, 369–370 Doppler radar, 391–392
Unsaturated fats, 478–480 Volta, Alessandro, 101–102, 103 patterns, 389–390
Upright walking, 367 Voltage, 103–104, 106 storms and, 389–390
Uranus, 330 Volts (V), 103–104, 106 temperature, 387
Urban landfills, 409–410 Voyager 1 and 2, 345 Weathering, process of, 393
Urey, Harold, 536 Web of science knowledge, 16
Wegener, Alfred, 358–359
W Weight, gravity and, 43, 44
V Wallace, Alfred Russell, 543 Weinberg, Laureate Steven, 285
Vacuoles, 456 Warm-blooded animals, 442 White dwarf stars, 298
Valence, 198 Water reservoirs, 379–382 William of Ockham, 26
Valence electron, 198 Water-soluble vitamins, 482 Wilmut, Ian, 517
Van Helmont, Jan Baptiste, 428 Watt, 106 Wilson, Edward O., 408
Variable number tandem repeat Watt, James, 52 Wind belt, 65
(VNTR), 515 Watts, 52 Wind energy, 65
Vascular plants, 437–438 Wave energy, 57 Wind shear, 391
Vectors, 31 Wave equation, 124 Woese, Carl, 431, 455
Velocity Wavelength, 119–120 Wöhler, Friedrich, 470
energy, 31–32 Wave mechanics, 187 Wolszczan, Alexander, 348
speed of light and, 150 Wave particle duality Work, 50
of waves, 119–120 Bohr atom and, 189–190 W particles, 283
Venter, J. Craig, 504–505 defined, 187
Venus, 330, 331 double-slit test and, 187
Venus of Willendorf, 192 Waves X
Vertebrates, 433, 441–443 amplitude of, 119 X-ray crystallography, 163
Vesicles, 453, 456 animal sounds and, 122–123 X-rays, 135–136, 292
Vestigial organs, 535–537 electromagnetic (See Electromagnetic
Vibrio cholerae, 28 waves)
Viral epidemics, genetics energy transfer by, 118–119 Y
and, 501–502 interference from, 123–124 Young-Earth creationism, 551–552
Viruses, genetics and, 500–501 longitudinal, 120–121
Visible light, 133–135 properties of, 119
Visible spectrum, 294 relationship among wavelength, Z
Vitalism, 101 velocity and frequency, 119–120 Zeilinger, Anton, 192
Vitamins, 481–483 seismic, 370–371 Z particles, 283

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