PHYSICS–XII

TAKE A QUICK LOOK!

APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

BASIC CONCEPTS
AND FORMULAE
1. The study of nature and propagation of light is called optics. Ray optics deals with particle nature of light
whereas wave optics considers light as a wave.
2. (a) Reflection:
When a light ray incident on a smooth surface bounces back to the same medium, it is called
reflection of light.
(b) Laws of regular Reflection:
Normal
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. N
i.e., i =r
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the A B
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. Inc
i de
These laws hold for any reflecting surface whether plane or nt
ray i r
curved.
(c) Spherical Mirror: A spherical mirror is simply a part cut off O
from the surface of a hollow sphere which has been made smooth and silver polished on one side.
Spherical mirrors are of two types:
(i) Concave mirror: If outer side or bulging side of the spherical surface is silver polished, it is
called a concave mirror.
(ii) Convex mirror: If inner side of a spherical surface is silver polished, it is called a convex
mirror.
(d) Relation between focal length and radius of curvature: The distance between centre (C) of spherical
surface and its pole (P) is called the radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.
M1 M1

R
P
C P C

M2 M2
(i) Concave mirror (ii) Convex mirror

The rays parallel to the principal axis (CP) after striking the mirror meet at a point (F) (in concave
mirror) or appear to be meeting at a point F (in convex mirror). This point is called the principal focus
(F) of mirror. The distance of focus (F) from pole (P) of a mirror is called the focal length of the
mirror. It is denoted by f. The focal length f is half of the radius of curvature.
R
i.e., f =
2

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 M1
(e) Mirror formula : The mirror formula is
1 1 1
= +
f v u
C
where u = distance of object from mirror; F
P
v = distance of image from mirror;
and f = focal length of mirror.
M2
f
R
(i) Concave mirror

(f) Magnification produced by mirror : The ratio of the size of M1

image to the size of object is called linear magnification
produced by the mirror.
æ Iö v f
Magnification M ç= ÷ = - = -
è Oø u u-f P F C

M2
f
R

3. Refraction of Light (ii) Convex mirror

When a ray of light enters from one transparent medium into another, there is a change in speed and
direction of the ray in the second medium. This phenomenon is called refraction of light.
Laws of refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface separating the two media, all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) Snell’s Law : For two media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a beam of particular wavelength, i. e.,
sin i n
= constant = 2 = 1 n 2 ...(i)
sin r n1
where n1 and n 2 are absolute refractive indices of I and II media respectively and 1 n 2 is a refractive
index of second (II) medium with respect to first (I) medium.
Due to princple of reversibility of light,
sin r
= 2 n1 …(ii)
sin i
Multiplying (i) by (ii), we get
1
1 = 2 n1 ´ 1n2 or 2 n1 = …(iii)
1 n2
The frequency of light remains unchanged while passing from one medium to the other.
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in a medium.
Speed of light in vacuum c
i. e., n= =
Speed of light in medium v
n l air l air
= = …(iv)
n l medium l medium
l air and l medium being wavelengths of light in air and medium respectively.

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 sin i n 2 æ c / v 2 ö v1 l1
\ = çç = ÷÷ = = ...(v)
sin r n1 è c / v1 ø v 2 l 2
N
Formation of image due to refraction: According to Snell’s law, if Q
n 2 > n1 , i > r . That is, if a ray of light enters from rarer medium to a
denser medium, it is deviated towards the normal and if n 2 < n1 , i < r M
that is, if the ray of light enters from denser to a rarer medium it is P
deviated away from the normal.
Accordingly, if the ray of light starting from object O, in the given I t
diagram in a denser medium travels along OP, it is deviated away from x
the normal along PQ. The ray PQ appears to come from I. Thus I is the
virtual image of O. It can be shown that O
Real depth (OM ) t
n= = …(vi)
Apparent depth ( MI ) t - x
where x is the apparent shift.
æ 1 ö
\ The apparent shift, x = ç 1 - ÷ t …(vii)
è n ø
N1
Refraction through a number of media: Let us consider the A
refraction of light ray through a series of media as shown in fig. The i
B I air
ray AB is incident on air-water interface at an angle i. The ray is N2
r1 II water
deviated in water along BC towards the normal. Then it falls on r1 tw
water-glass interface and is again deviated towards normal along CD.
If the last medium is again air, the ray emerges parallel to the C
III glass
incident ray. Let r1 and r 2 be angles of refraction in water and glass r2
r2 tg
respectively, then from Snell’s law, D
sin i n w I air
= = a nw …(i) i
sin r1 n a E
sin r1 n g
= = w ng …(ii)
sin r 2 n w
sin r 2 n a
= = g na …(iii)
sin i ng
é n a = refractive index of air = 1 ù
ê n = refractive index of water ú
ê w ú
ë n g = refractive index of glass û
Multiplying (i), (ii) and (iii), we get a n w ´ w n g ´ g na =1
1 a ng
w ng = = …(viii)
a nw ´ g na a nw

4. Critical Angle
When a ray of light is incident on the interface from denser medium to rarer medium, it is deviated away
from the normal. When angle of incidence is increased, angle of refraction also increases and at a stage it
becomes 90°.
The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90° is called
the critical angle (C) for the pair of media.
If n r and n d are refractive indices for rarer and denser media, then
sin i n 2
\ = gives
sin r n1
sin C n
= r = d nr
sin 90° n d

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 1 1
\ sin C = d n r = =
n
r d n
where r n d = n is the refractive index of a denser medium with respect to a rarer medium.
5. Total Internal Reflection
When angle of incidence in the denser mediam is greater than the critical r
angle, the incident ray does not refract into a rarer medium but is reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal h
reflection. The conditions for total internal reflection are q
(i) The ray must travel from a denser into a rarer medium.
O
(ii) The angle of incidence i > critical angle C.
The critical angle for water-air, glass-air and diamond-air interfaces are 49°, 42° and 24° respectively.
6. Spherical Lenses:
There are two types of spherical lenses.
(i) Convex lens
(ii) Concave lens
Rules of Image Formation in Lenses
(i) The ray incident on lens parallel to the principal axis, after refraction through the lens, passes through
the second focus (in convex lens) or appear to come from second focus in concave lens.
(ii) The ray incident on lens through optical centre C, after refraction, pass straight without any deviation.
A 1

2 1
Object
F2 I
O F1 C 2
Image
3

3 B
(iii) A ray directed towards the first focus incident on the lens, after refraction becomes parallel to the
principal axis.

1
A 1
3 3
2
O F2 C F1
2

7. Thin Lens Formula

If u and v are object and image distances from a lens of focal length f, then thin lens formula is
1 1 1
= -
f v u
This equation holds for convex and concave lenses both, but proper signs of u, v and f are to be used
according to sign convention of coordinate geometry.
Magnification produced by a lens
I v f
m= = =
O u u+f
where I is size of image and O is size of object.

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 8. Lens Maker’s Formula
If R1 and R 2 are the radii of curvature of first and second refracting surfaces of a thin lens of focal length f ,
then lens makers formula is
1 æ 1 1 ö n1 n1
= ( 1 n 2 - 1) çç - ÷÷ n2
f è R1 R 2 ø
æ 1 1 ö O 1 P2 I
= ( n - 1) çç - ÷÷
è R1 R 2 ø
u v

where 1 n 2 = n is refractive index of material of lens with respect to

n1 n1
surrounding medium.
9. Power of a Lens
O n2 I
The power of a lens is its ability to deviate the rays towards its principal
axis. It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length in metres.
1 100
Power of a lens, P = diopters = diopters
f ( in metres) f ( in cm)
10. Lens Immersed in a Liquid
If a lens of refractive index n g is immersed in a liquid of refractive index n l , then its focal length ( f l ) in
liquid, is given by
1 æ 1 1 ö
= ( l n g - 1) çç - ÷÷
fl è R1 R 2 ø
ng
where l ng = ×
nl
ng -1
If f a is the focal length of lens in air, then f l = ´ fa
ng
-1
nl
Three cases arise:
(i) If n g > n l then f l and f a are of same sign but f l > f a .
That is, the nature of lens remains unchanged, but its focal length increases and hence the power of
lens decreases. In other words the convergent lens becomes less convergent and divergent lens
becomes less divergent.
(ii) If n g = n l , then f l = ¥. That is, the lens behaves as a glass plate.
(iii) If n g < n l , then f l and f a have opposite signs.
That is, the nature of lens changes. A convergent lens becomes divergent and vice versa.
11. Thin Lenses in Contact
If two or more lenses of focal lengths f 1 , f 2 ¼ are placed in contact, then their equivalent focal length F is
given by
1 1 1 1
= + + ¼= S ×
F f1 f 2 f
The power of combination
P = p1 + p 2 + ¼= S p.
12. Combination of a Lens and a Mirror
Consider a coaxial arrangement of a lens and a mirror. Let an object be placed in front of the lens. The
incident rays, from the object, first undergo refraction at lens and are then incident on the mirror. To obtain
the position of the image due to the combination, we can proceed as follows:
(i) Using refraction formula, we can calculate where the image would have been formed, had there been
only the lens. We then consider this image as an object for the mirror.

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 (ii) Using the mirror formula, we can then locate the position of its final image formed by the mirror. This
final position, would be the position of the image due to the combined effect of refraction at the lens
and reflection at the mirror.
13. Refraction Through a Prism
A prism is a transparent medium enclosed by two plane refracting surfaces. Let EF be the monochromatic
ray incident on the face PQ of prism PQR of refracting angle A at angle of incidence i1 . This ray is refracted
along FG, r1 being angle of refraction. The ray FG is incident on the face PR at angle of incidence r 2 and
is refracted in air along GH. Thus GH is the emergent ray and i 2 is the angle of emergence. The angle
between incident ray EF and emergent ray GH is called angle of deviation d.
For a prism if A is the refracting angle of prism, then
r1 + r 2 = A …(i)
and i1 + i 2 = A + d …(ii)
Clearly, deviation d = i1 + i 2 - A, i1 and i 2 may be inter-changed, therefore, there are two values of angles of
incidence for same deviation d.
If n is the refractive index of material of prism, then from Snell’s law
sin i1 sin i 2
n= = × …(iii)
sin r1 sin r 2
Y
P

(r1–r2) (i1– i2) D

d
N1 N2
dm
i1 i2
r1 r2 D
F q G

E N H

X
i1 i i2
Q R i

If angle of incidence is changed, the angle of deviation d changes as shown in fig. For a particular angle of
incidence the deviation is minimum. This is called angle of minimum deviation d m .
Minimum deviation: At minimum deviation the refracted ray within a prism is parallel to the base.
Therefore,
i1 = i 2 = i ( say)
r1 = r 2 = r ( say)
Then from equations (i) and (ii),
r + r = A or r = A / 2 …[iv (a)]
A + dm
i + i = A + dm or i = …[iv (b)]
2
\ The refractive index of material of prism
æ A + dm ö
sin ç ÷
sin i è 2 ø
n= = …(v)
sin r sin ( A / 2)
For a thin prism, viz. A £ 10° ,
d m = ( n - 1) A.

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14. Dispersion of Light
The splitting of white light into its constituent seven colours is called the dispersion of light. When white
light falls on a prism, it is broken into constituent colours within the prism. So the emergent light has a
number of coloured beams, the violet being deviated most and red the least.
Thus the prism causes deviation as well as dispersion. If d v , d r and d y are the deviations caused by prism
in violet, red and mean yellow rays, then for small angled prism.
Angular dispersion = dv - d r = ( nv - n r ) A q P

Dispersive power, A

Angular dispersion dv - d r d R dY d V
w= =
Mean deviation dy ite
Wh t
( nv - n r ) A ( nv - n r ) lig h
= = Red
( n y - 1) A n y -1 Yellow
Violet
Rainbow: The rainbow is an example of dispersion of Q R
white light caused, by water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. The order of colours in a primary
rainbow is red outside and violet inside; and order of colours in a secondary rainbow is reversed i.e., violet
outside and red inside.
15. Scattering of Light
The light is scattered by air molecules. According to Lord Rayleigh the intensity of scattered light
1 1
I µ Þ Iµ
4
(wavelength) l4
As l blue < l red , accordingly blue colour is scattered the most and red the least, so sky appears blue.
At the time of sunrise and sunset, blue colour is scattered the most and red colour enters our eyes, so
sunrise and sunset appear red.
16. Optical Instruments (Microscopes and Telescopes)
A microscope is an optical instrument to see very small objects.
(i) Simple Microscope: It consists of a convex lens of small focal length f .
If b = angle subtended by an image on eye
a = angle subtended by an object on eye, when object is at a distance of distinct vision (D)
Magnifying power,
b Dæ v ö
M= = çç 1 + ÷÷
a v è f ø
D
If the final image is at ¥, v = ¥ then M = ×
f
D
If the final image is at a distance of distinct vision, v = D, M = 1 + ×
f
(ii) Compound Microscope: A compound microscope essentially consists of two co-axial convex lenses
of small focal lengths. The lens facing the object is called an objective lens while that towards eye is
called the eye lens. (eyepiece)

\ Magnifying power of microscope,

b v Dæ v ö
M= (= mo ´ me ) = o çç 1 + e ÷÷
a uo ve è fe ø

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 u0 v0 ue

F0
Fe¢ Fe

ve

Separation between lenses, d = v o + u e

Special cases: (a) When final image is formed at a distance of distinct vision, v e = D
vo æ D ö
\ M =- çç 1 + ÷÷ and d = v 0 + u e
uo è f e ø

The distance between second focal point of objective and first focal point of eye lens is called the tube
length denoted by L,then
v0 L
=
u0 f 0
L æ D ö
So, M =- çç 1 + ÷
fo è f e ÷ø
(b) When final image is formed at infinity, v e = ¥, then
v D
M =- o ´
uo f e
L D
=- × and d = v o + f e
fo fe
Telescope : It is an optical instrument to see distant objects.
(iii) Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Telescope): It is used to see magnified images of distant
objects. An astronomical telescope essentially consists of two co-axial convex lenses. The lens
facing the object has a large focal length and a large aperture and is called objective, while the lens
towards eye has a small focal length and small aperture and is called eye lens.
[f o = focal length of objective, f e = focal length of eye lens]

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 B Objective F0 ue

Distant object
Eyepiece

F
a A" F'e A'0
A C1 C2 Fe
B'

L2

ve
B"

The magnifying power of telescope is

Angle subtended by final image at eye b
M= =
Angle subtended by an object on eye a
fo æ f ö
= (mo ´ me ) = - çç 1 + e ÷÷
fe è ve ø
and Length of telescope L = f o + u e
where v e = distance of final image from eye lens
u e = distance of real image A¢ B¢ from eye lens
Special cases (a) When final image is formed at a distance of distinct vision, then v e = D
f æ f ö
\ M = - o ç 1 + e ÷ and L = f o + u e
fe è D ø
(b) When final image is formed at infinity, then v e = ¥
f
\ M = - o and L = f o + f e
fe
Reflecting Telescope: In this telescope, a concave mirror is used as an objective in place of a convex lens.
It is free from chromatic aberration and it has larger resolving power than refracting telescope.
17. Magnifying Power of Optical Instruments
The size of an object depends on the angle subtended by the object on eye. This angle is called visual angle.
Greater the visual angle, greater the size of object. Stars are bigger than sun; but appear smaller because
stars are much farther away than sun and they subtend smaller angles on eye.
The angle subtended on eye may be increased by using telescopes and microscopes. The telescopes and
microscopes form the image of an object. The image subtends larger angle on eye; hence the object
appears big. The magnification produced by optical instrument (telescope/microscope) is defined as the
ratio of angle (b) subtended by image on eye and the angle ( a) subtended by object on eye.
b
i. e., Angular magnification M =
a
18. Wave Nature of Light : Huygen’s Theory
There are some phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation which could not be explained by
Newton’s corpuscular theory. These were explained by wave theory first proposed by Huygen.
The assumptions of Huygen’s wave theory are: (i) A source sends waves in all possible directions. The
locus of particles of a medium vibrating in the same phase is called a wavefront. For a point source, the
wavefront is spherical; while for a line source the wavefront is cylindrical. A distant wavefront is plane.
(ii) Each point of a wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The envelope of all wavelets at a
given instant gives the position of a new wavefront.

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19. Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the locus of all the particles which are vibrating in the same phase. The
perpendicular line drawn at any point on the wavefront represents the direction of propagation of the wave
at that point and is called the ‘ray‘.
Types of Wavefronts: The wavefronts can be of different shapes. In general, we experience two types of
wavefronts.
(i) Spherical Wavefront: If the waves in a medium are originating from a point source, then they
propagate in all directions. If we draw a spherical surface centred at point-source, then all the particles of
the medium lying on that spherical surface will be in the same phase, because the disturbance starting
from the source will reach all these points simultaneously. Hence in this case the wavefront will be
spherical and the rays will be the radial lines [Fig (a)].

Spherical wavefront ¥
Plane wavefront

Cylindrical wavefront
(a) (b) (c)

(ii) Cylindrical Wavefront : If the waves in a medium are originating from a line source, then they too
propagate in all directions. In this case the locus of particles vibrating in the same phase will be a
cylindrical surface. Hence in this case the wavefront will be cylindrical. (Fig. (b))
(iii) Plane Wavefront : At large distance from the source, the radii of spherical or cylindrical wavefront
will be too large and a small part of the wavefront will appear to be plane. At infinite distance from the
source, the wavefronts are always plane and the rays are parallel straight lines.
æ t x ö
The equation y = a sin 2p ç - ÷
è T l ø
represents the plane wave propagating along positive direction of X-axis.
20. Coherent and Incoherent Sources of Light
The sources of light emitting waves of same frequency having zero or constant initial phase difference are
called coherent sources.
The sources of light emitting waves with a random phase difference are called incoherent sources. For
interference phenomenon, the sources must be coherent.
Methods of Producing Coherent Sources: Two independent sources can never be coherent sources. There are
two broad ways of producing coherent sources for the same source.
(i) By division of wavefront : In this method the wavefront (which is the locus of points of same phase)
is divided into two parts. The examples are Young’s double slit and Fresnel’s biprism.
(ii) By division of amplitude : In this method the amplitude of a wave is divided into two parts by
successive reflections e.g. Lloyd's single mirror method.
21. Interference of Light
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two light waves of same frequency and constant phase
different travelling in same direction. The positions of maximum intensity are called maxima, while those
of minimum intensity are called minima.
Conditions of maxima and minima: If a1 and a 2 are amplitudes of interfering waves and f is the phase
difference at a point under consideration, then

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Resultant intensity at a point in the region of superposition
I = a12 + a 22 + 2a1 a 2 cos f
= I 1 + I 2 + 2 I 1 I 2 cos f
where I 1 = a12 = intensity of one wave
I 2 = a 22 = intensity of other wave
Condition of maxima:
Phase difference, f = 2np
or Path difference, D = nl, n being integer
Maximum amplitude, A max = a1 + a 2
2
Maximum intensity, I max = A max = ( a1 + a 2 ) 2
= a12 + a 22 + 2a1 a 2
= I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2
Condition of minima: Phase difference, f = ( 2n - 1) p
l
Path difference, D = ( 2n - 1) , n =1, 2, 3, K
2
Minimum amplitude, A min = ( a1 - a 2 )
Minimum intensity, I min = ( a1 - a 2 ) 2 = a12 + a 22 - 2a1 a 2

= I1 + I 2 - 2 I1I 2
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Let S1 and S 2 be coherent sources at separation d and D be the distance of screen from sources, then path
difference between waves reaching at P can be shown as
y d
D= n
D
For maxima D = nl
nDl
\ Position of nth maxima y n =
d
æ 1 ö Dl
\ Position of nth minima y n = ç n - ÷
è 2ø d
Fringe width: Fringe width is defined as the separation between two consecutive maxima or minima.
Dl
b = yn + 1 - yn =
d
b l
Angular fringe width, b q = = ×
D d
Use of white light: When white light is used to illuminate the slit, we P
obtain an interference pattern consisting of a central white fringe
having few coloured fringes our two sides and then uniform S1 y
illumination.
Remark: If waves are of same intensity, d

I 1 = I 2 = I 0 (say) then I
S2
= 2I 0 + 2I 0 cos f D
= 2I 0 (1 + cos f)
f
= 4I 0 cos 2
2

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22. Diffraction of Light
The bending of light from the corner of small obstacles or apertures is called diffraction of light.
Diffraction due to a Single Slit
When a parallel beam of light is incident normally on a single slit, the beam is diffracted from the slit and
the diffraction pattern consists of a very intense central maximum, and secondary maxima and minima on
either side alternately.
It a is width of slit and q the angle of diffraction, then the directions of maxima are given by
æ 1ö
a sin q = ç n + ÷ l n =1, 2, 3, ....
è 2ø
The position of nth minima are given by
a sin q = nl ,
where n = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, K for various maxima on either side of principal maxima.
Width of Central Maximum
The width of central maximum is the separation between the first minima on either side.
The condition of minima is
a sin q = ± nl ( n =1, 2, 3, ...).
The angular position of the first minimum ( n =1) on either side of central maximum is given by
a sin q = ± l
æ l ö
Þ q = ± sin - 1 ç ÷
è a ø
\ Half-width of central maximum
æ l ö
q = sin - 1 ç ÷
è a ø
\ Total width of central maximum,
æ l ö
2q = 2 sin - 1 ç ÷
è a ø
I0

–4l –3l –2l –l l 2l 3l 4l

a a a a a a a a
Diffraction due to a single slit by a monochromatic light

Linear Width: If D is the distance of screen from slit and y is the distance of nth minima from the centre of
the principal maxima, then
y
sin q = tan q =
D
æyö nlD
a ç ÷ = nl Þ
èDø a

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 Linear half-width of central maximum
lD
y=
a
Total linear width of central maximum,
2 lD
2y =
a
23. Resolving Power
The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to form distinct images of two neighbouring
objects. It is measured by the smallest angular separation between the two neighbouring objects whose
images are just seen distinctly formed by the optical instrument. This smallest distance is called the limit of
resolution.
Smaller the limit of resolution, greater is the resolving power.
æ 1 ö°
The angular limit of resolution of eye is 1¢ or ç ÷ . It means that if two objects are so close that angle
è 60 ø
æ 1 ö°
subtended by them on eye is less than 1¢ or ç ÷ , they will not be seen as separate.
è 60 ø
The best criterion of limit of resolution was given by Lord Rayleigh. He thought that each object forms its
diffraction pattern. For just resolution, the central maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other
(Fig. (a)). When the central maxima of two objects are closer, then these objects appear overlapped and are
not resolved [Fig. (b)]; but if the separation between them is more than this, they are said to be well
resolved.
I II I II I II

(a) (b) (c)

Just resolved Not resolved Well resolved

Telescope: If a is the aperture of telescope and l the wavelength, then resolving

l
limit of telescope dq µ
a
1× 22 l
For spherical aperture, dq =
a q

Microscope: In the case of a microscope, q is the well resolved semi-angle of cone

l
of light rays entering the telescope, then limit of resolution =
2n sin q
where n sin q is called numerical aperture.
24. Polarisation
The phenomenon of restriction of vibrations of a wave to just one direction is called polarisation. It takes
place only for transverse waves.
Unpolarised Light: The light having vibrations of electric field vector in all possible directions
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation is called the ordinary (or unpolarised) light.

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Plane (or Linearly) Polarised Light: The light having vibrations of electric field vector in only one
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light is called plane (or linearly) polarised light.
The unpolarised and polarised light is represented as
(a) Unpolarised light
(b) Polarised light
(c) Partially polarised light
Polarisation by Reflection: Brewster’s Law: If unpolarised light falls on a transparent surface of
refractive index n at a certain angle i B , called polarising angle, then reflected light is plane polarised.
Brewster’s law: The polarising angle (i B ) is given by n = tan i B
This is called Brewster’s law.

Unpolarised
light ip r'
Polarised light

n r Partially polarised light

Under this condition, the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular, i. e.,
i B + r = 90°
where r is angle of refraction into the plane.
Malus Law: It states that if completely plane polarised light is passed through an analyser, the intensity
of light transmitted µ cos 2 q, where q is angle between planes of transmission of polariser and analyser
i. e.,
I = I 0 cos 2 q (Malus Law)
I0
If incident light is unpolarised, then I = ,
2
since (cos 2 q) average for all directions =1 / 2.
Polaroid: Polaroid is a device to produce and detect plane polarised light.
Some Uses of Polaroid are:
(i) Sun glasses filled with polaroid sheets protect our eyes from glare.
(ii) Polaroids reduce head light glare of motor car being driven at night.
(iii) Polaroids are used in three-dimensional pictures i.e., in holography.
Analysis of a given light beam: For this, given light beam is made incident on a polaroid (or Nicol)
and the polaroid/Nicol is gradually rotated :
(i) If light beam shows no variation in intensity, then the given beam is unpolarised.
(ii) If light beam shows variation in intensity but the minimum intensity is non-zero, then the given beam
is partially polarised.
(iii) If light beam shows variation in intensity and intensity becomes zero twice in a rotation, then the given
beam of light is plane polarised.

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [14]

 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

BASIC CONCEPTS
AND FORMULAE

1. Communication
The process of transfer of information from one point to another is called communication. Some of the
common communication systems used in our everyday life include radio communication, telephones,
television, FAX, internet and GPS etc.
2. Analog and Digital Signals
(i) An analog message signal is in the form of a continuous nature in which variations take place like in a
sine wave as shown below.
(ii) A digital message signal is discrete and in the form of a pulse coded by 0 and 1.
Amplitude
Amplitude 1 1 1

t 0 0 0 t
y y

(a) Analog signal (b) Digital signal

3. Elements of Communication System

The three elements of communication system are (i) Transmitter, (ii) Communication channel or
transmission medium, and (iii) Receiver.
4. Band width of Signals (Speech, TV and Digital Data)
The term bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which the frequencies in a signal vary.
In a communication system the information may be in the form of voice, music, picture or digital data.
Each of these signals has different frequency ranges.
(i) Speech Signals: The audible frequency range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For speech signals the adequate
frequency range is 300 Hz to 3100 Hz. Therefore, speech signals have a band width of (3100 – 300 =
2800 Hz). This is the appropriate band width used in telephonic communication.
For music signals the band width of 20 kHz is required because musical instruments produce sounds
of high frequencies.
(ii) TV Signals: The video signals for transmission of pictures require a bandwidth of about 4.2 MHz.
A TV signal contains both audio (speech and music) and video (pictures) signals and requires a
bandwidth of about 6 MHz.
(iii) Digital Data: There are two types of signals: Analog and Digital. Analog signals are usually in the
form of sine waves, while digital signals are in the form of rectangular pulses.
For faithful transmission of data signal, the band width must be widest as far as possible. The band
width for digital data transmission is of the order GHz.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union) has allotted different bands of frequencies to different
nations.

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5. Bandwidth of Transmission Medium
Transmission medium or channel refers to the path over which the signal is transmitted.
The transmission channels are of three types:
(i) Two wires line communication: The widely used wire medium is a twisted pair or co-axial cable.
The bandwidth of co-axial cables is about 750 MHz. Such cables are usually operated below 18 GHz.
(ii) Free Space: The free space transmission medium communicates radiowaves over a wide range of
frequencies : from a few hundred kHz to a few GHz. This frequency range is further subdivided for
allocation of various services as given in the following table.

Nature of Broadcast Frequency Band Comments

Standard AM Broadcast 540–1600 kHz
FM broadcast 88–108 MHz
Television 54-72 MHz VHF (very high frequencies)
76-88 MHz TV
174-216 MHz UHF (ultra high frequencies)
420-890 MHz TV
Cellular Mobile Radio 896-901 MHZ Mobile to base station
840–935 MHz Base station to mobile
Satellite Communication 5 × 925–6 × 425 GHz Uplink
3 × 7–4 × 2 GHz Downlink

(iii) Optical Fibre: It uses a light beam in carrying information through optical fibre. An optical fibre has
frequency range 1 THz to 1000 THz (microwaves and ultraviolet). It offers a transmission band width
of more than 100 GHz. (1 THz = 1012 Hz)
6. Propagation of Electromagnetic waves through Free space : Space Communication
Space Communication:
Communication through free space uses radio waves and takes over a wide range of frequencies.
The electromagnetic waves can be transmitted through three different processes,
(i) ground wave propagation (ii) space wave propagation (iii) sky wave propagation
(i) Ground Waves: These are the waves radiated by antenna that travel parallel or at lower angles with
respect to earth's surface. As ground wave passes over the surface of earth, its energy is absorbed by
earth's atmosphere; therefore, they die out after travelling a short distance. Further high frequency
waves are absorbed strongly. Hence, ground wave propagation can be sustained only at low
frequencies 500 Hz – 1500 kHz.
(ii) Space Wave Propagation: The space waves are limited to troposphere region of atmosphere and
have two components.
dM
dT dR

hT hR

Space wave communication

(a) Direct waves: These waves travel directly from transmitting to receiving antenna.
(b) Reflected waves: These waves travel from transmitting antenna to earth and then reflected to
receiving antenna.
Space waves propagation is used in (1) line of sight communication and (2) satellite
communication.

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [16]

 (iii) Sky Waves: These are waves radiated by antenna at large angles, travel upward, then reach the
receiving antenna after suffering reflection from ionosphere or satellite. The frequency range for sky
wave propagation by ionospheric reflection of radiowaves is from about 3 MHz upto 30 MHz.

Ionospheric
layers

Sky wave communication

Satellite Communication: A communication
satellite is a spacecraft placed in an orbit Communication
around the earth, which carries on board Satellite
microwaves receiving and transmitting
Up-link Down-link
equipment. It is essentially a microwave link
repeater. It receives signals beamed up by
(35800 km)
the earth stations, amplifies and returns to
earth at a different frequency by a device
known as transponder fitted on the satellite.
A satellite which is at rest with respect to the Transmitting Receiving
Antenna Antenna
earth is known as geo-stationary satellite.
The orbit in which the geo-stationary Earth
satellite moves around the earth is known as
geo-synchronous orbit and hence the
geo-stationary satellite is also known as
geo-synchronous satellite.
Satellite Communication
Advantages of satellite communication
(i) A single relay station can cover a very large part of the earth through satellite communication.
(ii) The cost of the communication is independent of the distance between any two points on the earth.
The cost of a call across the ocean will be same as that of a call across few kilometers.
(iii) The transmitted information can be checked whether satellite has transmitted it correctly or not.
Disadvantages
(i) Since the information transmitted through satellite can be heard/caught by every body, so satellite
communication is not good in respect of security and privacy.
(ii) Being subjected to extreme environmental stress the satellite system is difficult to repair.
7. Modulation and Demodulation
In order to carry the audio signal message to large distances, it is superimposed on a high frequency carrier
wave. The process is called modulation. At the receiving station, the audio signal is separated from the
carrier wave. The processes is called demodulation or detection.
8. Need for Modulation
The sound waves of frequency 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz get attenuated in atmosphere and cannot travel long
distances. The higher frequency waves, (the order of megahertz) can travel long distances and are called

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [17]

 carrier waves. To send farther the message signal (or information) is superposed on carrier wave. The
superposed wave is called the modulated wave.
The modulation is needed due to
(i) transmission of audio frequency, electrical signals need long impracticable size antenna.
(ii) the power radiated at audio frequency is quite small, and transmission results in large losses.
(iii) the various information signals transmitted at low frequency get mixed and hence cannot be
distinguished.
9. Types of Modulation
In general, modulation is of two types depending on nature of carrier wave:
(a) For continuous sinusoidal carrier wave of the type
e = e 0 sin ( wct + f), the modulation is of three types
(i) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(ii) Frequency modulation (FM)
(iii) Angular or Phase modulation.
(b) For pulsed carrier wave, the types of modulation are:
(i) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse time modulation (PTM)
It is further subdivided into classes: (1) pulse position modulation (PPM) and (2) pulse width
modulation (PWM) or pulse duration modulation (PDM)
(iii) Pulse code modulation (PCM).
Pulse modulation is preferred for digital communication.
10. Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of modulated (carrier) wave varies in accordance with amplitude of
information (signal) wave. When amplitude of information increases, the amplitude of modulated wave
increases and vice versa. In this case the amplitude of modulated wave is not constant, as show below:

AC

(a) Carrier wave

Am

(b) Modulating wave

Envelope

Am

Ec

(c) Modulated wave

Modulation Index: The modulation index of an amplitude modulated wave is defined as the ratio of the
amplitude of modulating signal ( E m ) to the amplitude of carrier wave ( E c ), i.e.,
amplitude modulation index,
A
ma = m
Ac
For modulated wave,

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [18]

 A max - A min
ma =
A max + A min
11. Frequency Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of modulated (carrier) wave changes in accordance with the
frequency of signal wave. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remains constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly.
The amplitude modulation has a larger coverage, while the frequency modulation gives better quality
transmission.
Phase increased
B
C E
A
D
(a) Carrier wave (b) Modulating signal (c) Modulated wave
Advantages of FM over AM
(i) Noise can be minimised in FM reception.
(ii) FM transmission is highly efficient because all the transmitted power is useful.
(iii) FM transmission can be used for stereo sound transmission because it has a large number of sidebands.
(iv) The operating range is quite large.
Disadvantages of FM over AM
(i) In FM transmission, much wider frequency channel is required.
(ii) The area of reception for FM is much smaller than for AM.
(iii) FM transmitting and receiving equipments are complex as compared to AM instruments.
12. Basic Ideas About Internet
Internet is a global network of computers which provides facility to exchange all kinds of information
amongst users connected to this network.

Laptop

Internet
Router Wifi router

Tablet
Hub switch

Mobile phone

Server 1 Client Client Laptop Printer

Local Area Networking (LAN)

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [19]

 Networking of computers within a building, an office or a school premises is called Local Area Networking
(LAN). Every such local networking has a main computer called a server. These servers are then used to
connect a particular LAN to other networks through telephone lines or satellites. This results in creating a
bigger network called Wide Area Network (WAN). Different inter connected WAN together constitute an
internet. The exchange of information through internet is extremely fast because electronic signals are
communicated through electromagnetic waves.
The information is made available in the form of text, video or images through webpages. One webpage is
linked to another webpage through hyper linking. This method of accessing information through
interlinking of webpages is known as World Wide Web (WWW). Making a couple of webpages containing
specific information is called a website. Any organisation/individual can design its own website.
Common Applications of Internet
The list of uses of internet is very long. Some of the common applications include electronic mails also
known as e-mail, internet surfing, e-shopping, e-banking, e-booking (also known as e-ticketing) and social
networking.
E-mail
Electronic mail is a way of sending text, image or videos written or stored on computer through internet.
This is the fastest and cheapest mode of sending messages. For using this facility, one needs to create a
personal email account. Presently, it happens to be an extremely popular communication tool.
E-shopping
This is also popularly known as e-commerce. One can easily view different products available on virtual
shops through internet and place orders for purchase. There are websites on which one can also upload
photographs of products which are to be sold. Such a method of trading of goods through internet is called
e-commerce.
E-banking
It is an electronic system for making financial transactions by registering with an institution/bank for this
service. Through one’s unique identification number, one can avail the facility of credit card, debit card,
checking online bank balance status or making payments.
E-booking
It is also known as e-ticketing. It helps consumers to book hotel-tickets, railway tickets or flight tickets
using an internet facility.
Social Networking
This service provides a platform to the users to build a social network such as Facebook, Twitter, Google+,
etc. The web-based service allows individuals to create their profiles and list of others with whom they are
interested to connect.
13. Basic Ideas About Mobile Telephony
A mobile phone is a device which can send and receive radio frequency (about 800–950 MHz) signals
without using any wire connections. Alongwith making and receiving phone calls, one can also perform a
variety of other operations in latest mobile phones.
The mobile phone operation uses a cellular radio network technology. Under this network, a given physical
area is divided into smaller parts called cells or cell zones, usually of a hexagonal design. In every such
cell, a radio antenna is installed to receive and send radio signals to all the mobile phones present inside
that cell. Handling of all outgoing and incoming calls is managed through a central control called Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO). The working range of the cell antenna varies from a minimum of 1.5
to 2 km to about 50 to 60 km.

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 MTSO
Electromagnetic
waves Electromagnetic
Waves
Antenna

Cell
Cell Caller
Cell
Antenna

Antenna Cell

Antenna Antenna Antenna

Antenna

Cell
Electromagnetic Antenna
Cell

waves Cell

Cell
Antenna

Cell

Antenna Antenna

Electromagnetic Antenna Antenna

Waves Cell Process of mobile phone call

from dialer to caller through
electromagnetic waves
Dialer

Mobile Telephony

Scientific Principle of Functioning of a Mobile Phone

When one dials any mobile number, the frequency generator inside the mobile phone generates a particular
electromagnetic frequency which is transmitted through the antenna of the mobile to the antenna of cell in
which the mobile is located. The cell antenna transfers this signal to Mobile Telephone Switching Office
which, in turn, locates the mobile phone number to be contacted. Exactly the same process takes place
when the person on the other side switches on the mobile on receiving the call. The whole process
completes within few seconds since the signals are transferred through electromagnetic waves.
In order to identify any mobile phone, a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card is inserted in the mobile. It
is a small integrated circuit chip with a unique SIM number and a mobile phone number. In India, any
mobile number has ten digits having a prefix 9, 8 or 7.
The efficiency of mobile networks is mentioned by its ‘Generation’ abbreviated as G. Thus, 1G, 2G, 3G or
4G etc., mobiles refer to efficiency and speed of data transfer.
14. Basic Ideas of Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global Positioning System is a method of locating position of any person or place on earth by using
electromagnetic radio waves and a satellite system. It uses a set of 24 satellites which are continuously
orbiting and mapping the Earth’s surface. The orbits of these satellites, revolving around the Earth twice a
day, are so adjusted that at least four of these always keep looking any place on the surface of Earth.
Principle of GPS: A GPS device is fitted in the system to locate its exact position on Earth. It transmits
and receives the electromagnetic waves and gets linked up with the satellites. The longitude coordinates of
the GPS device is determined by measuring its distance from at least three satellites. This distance
information is used further to identify the unique location of the GPS device.
Some of the common applications of GPS include:
· map designing of a location.
· keeping standard time world over.
· help in navigation on land, water or air.
· assistance in airplane traffic movement.
· measurement of speed of moving objects
· tracking of animals and birds and studying their movement.
Global Positioning System is a free service available to anyone in the world.

© Xam idea® Retrospection (Physics–XII) [21]